1 EFFECT OF HORTICULTURAL PRACTICES ON

Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):1-9 (February 2008)

EFFECT OF HORTICULTURAL PRACTICES ON INCIDENCE OF ANTHRACNOSE ON YIELD AND QUALITY OF MANGO M.N.A. CHOWDHURY1, M.A. RAHIM2, K.M. KHALEQUZZAMAN3, M. J. ALAM4 AND M.R. HUMAUAN3 1

Senior Scientific Officer, Spices Research Center, BARI, Shibganj, Bogra, 2Professor, Department of Horticulture, BAU, Mymensingh, Senior Scientific Officer, Plant Pathology Division, Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Ishurdi, Pabna, 4Scientific Officer, Pulses Research Centre, BARI, Ishurdi, Pabna, Bangladesh

3

Accepted for publication: October 09, 2007 ABSTRACT Chowdhury M.N.A., Rahim M.A., Khalequzzaman K.M., Alam M. J. and Humauan M.R. 2008. Effect of Horticultural Practices on Incidence of Anthracnose on Yield and Quality of Mango. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):1-9 An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of different horticultural practices for controlling mango antharcnose with achieving higher yield and quality of mango cv. Amrapali at the Germplasm Centre of the Fruit Tree Improvement Project (GPC-FTIP), Department of Horticulture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the period from July 2000–July2002. It was found that application of different horticultural practices effectively reduced the mango anthracnose. P+W+S produced the highest (47.34) number of healthy fruits per plant and the lowest (27.17) was obtained from control plant. The highest (10.26 t/ha) yield was obtained from P+W+S treated plant and the lowest (4.97 t/ha) was found from control plant. Second year x P+W+S treated plant resulted the highest (11.04 t/ha) yield and the lowest (5.40 t/ha) was found from 2nd year x control treated plant.

Key words: Horticultural practices, anthracnose, quality and yield of Mango

INTRODUCTION Mango (Mangifera indica L) is delicious fruit. It belongs to the family Anacardiaceae, originated in South Asia or Malayan archipelago. In Bangladesh in terms of total area and production of fruit crops, mango ranks first in area and third in production. It occupies 50990 hectares of land and total production is 242605 tons per annum with an average yield of 4.75 tons per hectare (BBS, 2005). But the yield is very low compared to that of India, Pakistan and many other mango growing countries in the world (Hossain and Ahmed, 1994). Anthracnose is the most common diseases of mango. Chemical control of anthracnose of mango is very expensive. However, it is also a difficult task for the common farmers to determine the precise dose of the chemical for its application to the field. In addition to this, harmful effect of the fungicide is responsible for air, soil and water pollution (Alam, 1987) and causes serious health hazards. More over indiscriminate use of chemicals disrupt the natural ecological balance by killing the beneficial and antagonistic soil microbes. Chemicals in controlling plant pathogens are being discouraging all over the world. Weeds and other undergrowth beneath the trees encourage the growth of fungus. Controlling of weeds and other undergrowth beneath the trees reduce humidity, increases ventilation, and discourages the growth of the fungus (Anonymous, 1994). Cultural practices are the best choice, but very little efforts have been made to see the usefulness of cultural practices in controlling mango anthracnose at farmers’ field in Bangladesh (Rahman and Hossain, 1988). So, the effectiveness of cultural practices is required to be explored. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to investigate the effectiveness of some cultural practices and their integration on the prevention of mango anthracnose. MATERIALS AND METHODS The investigation was carried out in two years from July 2000 - July 2001 at Germplasm Centre (GPC), FTIP, Department of Horticulture, BAU, Mymensingh. The single-factor experiment was conducted in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 3 replications. The treatments were pruning; weeding; spading; pruning + weeding (P+W); pruning + spading (P+S); weeding + spading (W+S); pruning + weeding + spading (P+W+S)and control. Infested twig, leaves, flowers, and fruits were removed after fruit harvest, before flowering and after fruit sets. Pruning, weeding and spading was done after fruit harvest, before flowering and after fruit sets. The plants were irrigated, weeded and fertilized regularly (as recommended in fertilizer recommendation guide, BARC, 1997) as and when necessary following a uniform and recommended dose. The recorded parameters were fruit retention per inflorescence and per plant (%); total number of healthy fruits per inflorescence and per plant (%); total number of diseased fruits per inflorescence and per plant (%); total number of diseased fruits per inflorescence and per plant (%); disease incidence (%); % surface area infected per fruit; fruit weight (g) fruit size (cm), yield/plant; yield (t/ha) and total soluble solids (TSS). The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) analysis was calculated. Recorded data were analyzed statistically according to Gomez and Gomez (1994). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fruit set per inflorescence was found significant effect due to different year (Table 1). The highest (14.67) fruit set was observed in 2nd year and the lowest (9.52) was recorded from 1st year. Fruit retention per inflorescence differed significantly due to the different year except 40, 50, and 60 days after fruit set (DAFS). The highest © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

1

Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2) (February 2008)

M.N.A. Chowdhury et al

(3.33) fruit retention was observed in 2nd year at 30 DAFS and the lowest (2.49) was recorded from 1st year at same DAFS. The variation in fruit retention per plant was significant due to effect of different year (Table 1) except 20 and 30 DAFS. The highest (15.06%) fruit retention per plant was observed 1st year. The lowest (12.29%) was recorded from 2nd year at 60 DAFS. Different year showed significant variation in respect of number of healthy fruits per inflorescence 40 DAFS. In 2nd year gave higher (1.53) number of healthy fruits per inflorescence while 1st year gave the lowest (1.28) number of healthy fruits per inflorescence at 60 DAFS (Table 2). Number of healthy fruits per plant was insignificantly influenced by different year. Different year influenced in respect of number of diseased fruits per inflorescence. The lowest (0.22) number of diseased fruits per inflorescence were obtained from 1st year and the highest (0.25) was obtained from 2nd year at 60 DAFS. Number of diseased fruits per plant was insignificantly influenced by different year. Highly significant difference was observed due to different year in relation to the total number of fruits per plant (Table 3). The highest (45.13) number of fruits was found in 2nd year while, the lowest (36.60) fruits per plant was obtained from 1st year. Variation on the weight of individual fruit due to influence of years to be significant (Table 3). It was higher (183.13 g) in 2nd year than that of 1st year (171.08 g). Statistically significant variation was found in total number of healthy fruits per plant due to different year. The highest (38.75) number of healthy fruits was recorded from 2nd year and the lowest (31.79) was found from 1st year. Variation on the percentage of healthy fruits per plant due to the influence of different year was found to be insignificant. The highest percentage (87.09) of healthy fruits per plant was observed from 1st year and the lowest (86.07%) was recorded from 2nd year. This might be due to the age of the plant and environmental factor, which led to the highest fruit retention and the highest fresh fruit per inflorescence and per plant. In 2nd year increased the number of fruits per plant, number of healthy fruits per plant, and yield per plant and per hectare compared to 1st year. The results indicated that in 2nd year given higher fruit set and fruit retention which led to the more healthy fruits per plant. Highly significant variation was found among the different year in respect of total number of disease fruits per plant (Table 3). The highest number of diseased (6.13) fruits per plant was observed from 2nd year and the lowest (4.79) was recorded from 1st year. There was significant difference in percentage of diseased fruits per plant. The highest percentage (13.93) of diseased fruits per plant was obtained from 2nd year and the lowest (12.87%) was recorded from 1st year. Healthy fruits yield per plant was found statistically insignificant due different year (Table 3). Insignificant variation was found in total soluble solids (TSS) of fruits due to year. After harvest ten healthy fruits were selected randomly from each treatment. Disease incidence was calculated at 6, 8 and 10 days after harvest (DAH). Disease incidence at different DAH showed significant variation due to different year (Table 4). The highest disease incidence (45.42%) was found in both years. Different year had a significant effect on disease severity (Table 25). In 2nd year showed higher (1.00%) fruit area diseased (FAD) than 1st year (1.08) at 10 DAH. Different horticultural practices had significant effect on fruit set per inflorescence (Table 1). The highest (14.93) fruit set per inflorescence was obtained from P+W+S and the lowest (10.40) was found in control. Fruit retention per inflorescence was recorded at different DAFS. It was observed that effect of horticultural practices were highly significant in this respect (Table 1). At 60 DAFS, the highest (2.40) fruit retention per inflorescence was obtained from treatment P+W+S followed by pruning (2.13), P+W (1.70) and W+S (1.60). The lowest (0.94) was observed incase of control plants at same DAFS. Fruit retention per plant was highly significant at different DAFS due to the different horticultural practices. Fruit retention per plant was found in same trend as that of fruit retention per inflorescence (Table 1). P+W+S gave the highest (16.83%) fruit retention followed by pruning (15.90%) and P+W (14%) and the lowest (9.50%) from control. The variations in respect of number of healthy fruits per inflorescence among the different treatments were found highly significant (Table 2). It was observed that the highest number of healthy fruits per inflorescence was produced from P+W+S (2.11) and Pruning (1.84) treated plant and the lowest (0.79) from control plant at 60 DAFS. Different horticultural practices showed significant variation in respect of number of healthy fruits per plant. Number of healthy fruits per plant at various DAFS was found the highest in P+W+S treated plant than control at 60 DAFS. P+W+S treated plant gave the highest (87.09%) number of healthy fruits per plant and the lowest (84.00%) from control. These results indicated that the combined application of P + W + S was effective to reduce anthracnose intensity which led to more fruit set, fruit retention and healthy fruits per inflorescence and per plant. There are few literatures are available on the effect of horticultural practices like pruning, weeding and spading on anthracnose disease. However, this result was closely supported by the reports of Ann et al. (1998), Singh (1996) and Anonymous (1994). They stated that soil surface mulching, sanitation pruning and weeding ensure a positive

2


Effect of Horticultural Practices on Incidence of Anthracnose on Yield and Quality of Mango

approach in the management of mango anthracnose. Control weeds and other undergrowth beneath the tree so as to reduce humidity, increase ventilation and discourage the growth of the fungus. There was highly significant difference incase of number of diseased fruits per plant among the treatments (Table 2). Number of diseased fruits per plant in most of the cases was higher in control treated plant at different DAFS. The highest (16%) number of diseased fruits per plant was recorded from control and the lowest (12.92%) was found in P+W+S treated plant at 60 DAFS. The variations due to different treatments were highly significant in respect of number of diseased fruits per inflorescence (Table 2). The application of pruning produced the maximum (0.29) number of diseased fruits per inflorescence and the minimum (0.15) from control treated plant at 60 DAFS. There was significant difference in respect of total number of fruits per plant among different treatments (Table 3). It was found that P+W+S gave the maximum (54.00) number of fruits per plant followed by pruning (45.84), P+W (45.17) and P+S (40.50) and the lowest (32.67) was found incase of control. Total number of healthy fruits per plant was found significant by different in different horticultural practices. P+W+S produced the highest (47.34) number of healthy fruits per plant followed by pruning (40.17) and P+W (39.17) treated plant and the lowest (27.17) was obtained from control plant. These results might be due to plants ensured the highest fruit retention and less fruit infection, which possibly led to the highest yield per plant. There was highly significant variation in respect of weight of individual fruit as influenced by different treatments (Table 3). It was observed that control plant produced the highest (184.67 g) weight of individual fruit while P+W+S gave the lowest (167.17 g) in this regard. Weight of individual fruit was higher in control than Pruning + Weeding + Spading due to the higher yield per plant in this treatment than control which led to the lower individual fruit weight. Percentage of healthy fruits per plant was significant in respect of different horticultural practices. The highest percentage (88.67) of healthy fruits per plant was recorded from P+W+S followed by pruning (88.17%) treated plant. The lowest (83.41%) was recorded from control plant (Table 3). This result might be due to reduction of inocula (conidia) production and fruit infection in this treatment. Therefore, number and percentage of healthy fruits were higher and percentage of diseased fruits was less than control. Field sanitation like pruning, weeding and spacing discouraged the growth of the fungus as reported by Anonymous (1994). Different horticultural practices had insignificant effect on total number of diseased fruits per plant. The highest (6.17) number of diseased fruits per plant was recorded from P+W+S treated plant and the lowest (4.67) from spading and weeding. Percentage of diseased fruits per plant varied significantly due to different horticultural practices. The highest percentage (16.09) of diseased fruits per plant was found in control plant and the lowest (11.34%) was recorded from P+W+S treated plant (Table 3). There was significant difference in healthy fruits yield per plant (Table 3). The highest (6.42 kg) healthy fruits yield per plant was obtained from P+W+S treated plant followed by P+W (5.36 kg), pruning (5.20 kg) and W+S (4.74 kg). The lowest (3.12 kg) yield per plant was obtained from control plant. Insignificant variation in respect of healthy fruits yield was observed among the different year. Highly significant variations in respect of per hectare yield were observed among the different horticultural practices (Table 3). The highest (10.26 t/ha) yield was obtained from P+W+S treated plant followed by P+W (8.57 t/ha), pruning (8.32 t/ha) and W+S (7.59 t/ha) and the lowest (4.97 t/ha) from control plant. In respect of healthy fruits yield per plant and per hectare, it was also found that P + W + S gave the highest healthy fruits per plant and per hectare than control because of this treatment produced the highest number of healthy fruits per plant which led to the highest yield per plant and per hectare. Among the horticultural practices there was insignificant difference in respect of total soluble solids (Table 3). Disease incidence of anthracnose showed significant variation among the horticultural practices (Table 4). The highest (65%) incidence was found in control treated fruits and the lowest (25%) was recorded from P+W+S treated fruits at 10 DAH. Fruit area diseased at different DAH as influenced by different horticultural practices is shown in Table 4. The maximum (3.17%) fruit area diseased was found in control plant at 10 DAH. Minimum (0.50%) fruit area diseased was found in P+W+S treated plant at same DAH. In respect of disease incidence and severity (FAD %), it was revealed that the lowest disease incidence and severity was observed in P + W + S and the highest was recorded from control. P + W + S reduced the inoculum level of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and resulted the less chance of fruits infection. There was highly significant variation in respect of fruit set per inflorescence as influenced by different year and horticultural practices (Table 5). It was observed that P+W+S produced the highest (17.13) fruit set per inflorescence in 2nd year while control gave the lowest (13.33) in this regard. Fruit retention per inflorescence was recorded at different DAFS. It was found that the combined effect year and horticultural practices were highly significant in this regard (Table 18). At 60 DAFS, the highest (2.40) fruit retention per inflorescence was

3



obtained from the treatment of 2nd year x P+W+S followed by 1st year x pruning (2.33), 2nd year x pruning weeding (1.93) and 2nd year x weeding (1.90). The lowest (0.87) was observed in control plants at same DAFS. The combined effect of different year and treatments in terms of fruit retention per plant was highly significant at different DAFS. Fruit retention per plant was in same trend to that of fruit retention per inflorescence (Table 5). The treatment 1st year x P+W+S gave the highest (19.33%) retention followed by 1st year x pruning (18%). In 2nd year with P+W+S gave the highest fruit set and retention per inflorescence (Table 5). This results probably due to the influence of age of the plant and environment, which increased the fruit set and retention. The total number of fruits per plant was higher in 2nd year along with P+W+S than 1st year x control. The variations in terms of number of healthy fruits per inflorescence among the different year x treatments were found to be highly significant (Table 6). It was observed that the highest (2.12) number of healthy fruits per inflorescence was found in 2nd year x P+W+S followed by 1st year x pruning (2.01) treated plant and the lowest (0.73) was obtained from control plant at 60 DAFS. Year and different horticultural practices showed insignificant variation in case of number of healthy fruits per plant (Table 6) except 40 DAFS. At 40 DAFS 2nd year x P+W+S treated plant gave the highest (88.68%) number of healthy fruits per plant and the lowest (84.26%) from 1st year x control. The variations due to different year and treatments were highly significant in respect of number of diseased fruits per inflorescence (Table 6). In 2nd year x weeding produced the maximum (0.29) number of diseased fruits per inflorescence and the lowest (0.14) from 1st year x control treated plant at 60 DAFS. There was highly significant difference in respect of number of diseased fruits per plant among the treatments. Number of diseased fruits per plant in most of the cases was higher in control plant at different DAFS. The highest (16%) number of diseased fruits per plant was recorded from 1st year x control plant followed by 2nd year x P + S (15.63%) and the lowest (12.50%) from 2nd year x P+W+S treated plant at 60 DAFS. There were significant combined effect was found in respect of total number of fruits per plant among different treatments (Table 7). From Table 7, it can be observed that 2nd year x P+W+S gave the highest (60.00) number of fruits per plant followed by 2nd year x P+W (55.00), and 2nd year x P+W+S (50) and the lowest (32.33) was found in 1st year x control. There was highly significant variation in respect of weight of individual fruit as influenced by different year and treatments. It was observed that 2nd year x control plant produced the highest (191 g) weight of individual fruit while 1st year x P+W+S gave the lowest (164.33 g) in this regard (Table 7). Total number of healthy fruits per plant was found significant variation due to the different year and horticultural practices. In 2nd year x P+W+S produced the highest (52.00) number of healthy fruits per plant followed by 2nd year x P+W (48.00) and 2nd year x pruning (44.00) treated plants and the lowest (27.00) from 2nd year x control plant. Percentage of healthy fruits per plant was significantly influenced by different year x horticultural practices. The highest percentage of (89) of healthy fruits per plant was recorded from 1st year x P+W+S treated plant followed by 2nd year x P+W+S (88.33%). The lowest (81.82%) was recorded from 2nd year x control plant (Table 7). Among the different year and horticultural practices, in 2nd year x P+W+S treated plant gave the highest (7.00 out of 60 fruits) number of diseased fruits per plant and the lowest (4.33 out of 34 fruits) number of diseased fruits per plant was found in 1st year x spading treated plant. Percentage of diseased fruits per plant varied significantly due to different year x horticultural practices. The highest percentage (18.18) of diseased fruits per plant was found in 2nd year x control treated plant followed by 2nd year x weeding (15.15 %), 2nd year x P+S (14.58%), and 2nd year x W+S (14.29%) and the lowest (11%) from 1st year x P+W+S treated plant (Table 7). There was significant combined effect was found on healthy fruits yield per plant (Table 7). The highest (6.90 kg) fresh fruit yield per plant was obtained from 2nd year x P+W+S treated plant followed by 2nd year x P+W (6.00 kg), 1st year x P+W+S (5.93 kg) and 2nd year x pruning (5.30 kg). The lowest (2.83 kg) yield per plant was obtained from 1st year x control treated plant. Highly significant variations in respect of per hectare yield were observed between the different year and horticultural practices (Table 7). The highest (11.04 t/ha) yield was obtained from 2nd year x P+W+S treated plant followed by 2nd year x P+W (9.60 t/ha), 1st year x P+W+S (9.48 t/ha) and 2nd year x pruning (8.48 t/ha) and the lowest (5.40 t/ha) from 2nd year x control treated plant. There was insignificant difference in respect of total soluble solids between the year and horticultural practices (Table 7). The highest (2.37) BCR was obtained from P+W+S treated plants and the lowest (1.43) BCR was obtained from control plant. The treatments which gave fewer yields naturally resulted lower net return and BCR. Disease incidence of anthracnose showed significant variation between the different year and horticultural practices (Table 8). The highest (63.33%) incidence was found in 2nd year x control treatment and the lowest (23.33%) from 2nd year x P+W+S treatment at 10 days after harvest. Fruit area diseased at different DAH as influenced by different year and horticultural practices was shown in Table 8. The maximum (4.33%) fruit area

4



diseased was found in 2nd year x control plant at 10 DAH and minimum (0.33) fruit area diseased was observed in 1st year x P+W+S treated plant at same DAH. Table 1. Single effect of horticultural practices on fruit set and fruit retention of mango Treatments

FS/I

1st year 2nd year LSD 5% 1% Level of Significance Pruning Weeding Spading P+W P+S W+S P+W+S Control LSD 5% 1% Level of Significance

9.52 14.67 2.20 3.64

Fruit retention/inflorescence at different DAFS 10 20 30 40 50 60 6.08 3.67 2.49 2.06 1.66 1.49 8.43 5.09 3.33 2.43 1.89 1.80 1.34 0.39 0.33 0.69 0.28 0.38 2.22 0.64 0.54 1.15 0.47 0.62

Fruit retention/plant (%) at different DAFS 10 61.71 57.92 3.59 5.95

20 37.75 35.12 1.68 2.78

30 25.96 22.79 2.01 3.33

40 50 22.17 16.67 16.50 12.92 1.74 1.81 2.89 3.01

60 15.06 12.29 0.91 1.51

**

**

**

**

NS

NS

NS

*

NS

NS

**

**

**

13.80 10.90 10.83 11.73 11.50 12.64 14.93 10.40 1.62 2.18

8.40 6.87 5.70 8.04 7.20 6.50 10.00 5.30 0.75 1.01

4.70 3.67 3.54 5.14 4.00 4.50 6.37 3.14 0.60 0.82

3.24 2.64 2.30 3.07 2.64 2.90 4.27 2.27 0.50 0.68

2.50 2.00 1.87 2.44 1.97 2.17 3.40 1.60 0.44 0.59

2.17 1.62 1.60 1.78 1.60 1.67 2.62 1.14 0.31 0.42

2.13 1.49 1.43 1.70 1.47 1.60 2.40 0.94 0.17 0.23

61.84 63.84 55.17 65.50 60.67 52.84 67.50 51.17 2.27 3.06

34.33 32.50 36.00 41.17 36.00 36.83 43.84 30.84 2.12 2.86

23.50 24.50 23.17 25.33 23.84 23.00 29.00 22.67 2.26 3.04

18.17 19.67 19.50 20.17 18.33 17.83 23.33 17.67 1.67 2.25

16.00 15.67 13.84 15.00 14.83 13.17 18.17 11.67 1.65 2.22

15.90 14.00 13.00 14.00 13.33 12.83 16.83 9.50 1.12 1.51

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

Table 2. Single effect of horticultural practices on disease incidence of mango anthracnose Treatments 1st year 2nd year LSD 5% 1% Level of Significance Pruning Weeding Spading P+W P+S W+S P+W+S Control LSD 5% 1% Level of Significance

No. of healthy fruits/Inflorescence at different DAFS 40 50 60 1.78 1.43 1.28 2.09 1.64 1.53 0.32 0.19 0.20 0.53 0.31 0.34

No. of healthy fruits/plant (%) different DAFS 40 86.05 86.02 2.24 3.71

50 85.74 85.85 2.65 4.40

60 85.16 85.33 1.69 2.79

No. of diseased fruits/Inflorescence at different DAFS 40 50 60 0.28 0.23 0.22 0.33 0.26 0.25 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.01

No. of diseased fruits/plant (%) at different DAFS 40 13.94 13.98 0.41 0.67

50 14.28 14.13 0.52 0.31

60 14.84 14.67 2.03 3.36

NS

*

*

NS

NS

NS

*

**

**

NS

NS

NS

2.22 1.71 1.62 2.07 1.67 1.86 2.99 1.36 0.20 0.28

1.90 1.42 1.39 1.53 1.36 1.43 2.28 0.96 0.20 0.27

1.84 1.27 1.19 1.44 1.24 1.36 2.11 0.79 0.14 0.19

88.42 85.52 86.62 84.98 84.73 85.72 87.68 84.63 2.30 3.11

87.54 85.11 86.42 85.00 84.81 85.86 87.11 84.53 3.21 4.20

86.67 85.16 85.00 84.41 84.67 84.99 87.09 84.00 3.47 4.68

0.29 0.29 0.25 0.37 0.30 0.31 0.42 0.25 0.04 0.05

0.27 0.24 0.22 0.27 0.24 0.24 0.34 0.18 0.04 0.05

0.29 0.23 0.21 0.27 0.23 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.04 0.05

11.59 14.48 13.38 15.03 15.27 14.29 12.32 15.36 1.93 2.60

12.47 14.89 13.59 15.00 15.19 14.15 12.94 15.39 2.15 2.90

13.34 14.85 15.00 15.59 15.34 15.01 12.92 16.00 1.67 2.26

**

**

**

**

NS

NS

**

**

**

**

**

**

FS/I = Fruit set/Inflorescence at the initial stage DAFS = Days after fruit set NS = Not significant

** = Significant at 1% level * = Significant at 5 % level

5



Table 3. Single effect of horticultural practices on yield and quality of mango Healthy fruits yield/ plant (kg)

Healthy fruits yield/ (t/ha)

TSS

% 12.87 13.93 0.68 1.12

4.42 4.99 0.76 1.26

7.08 7.97 1.17 1.94

25.13 24.12 3.98 6.60

**

*

NS

NS

NS

88.17 86.26 87.09 86.64 85.71 86.69 88.67 83.41 1.76 2.38

5.67 4.67 4.67 6.00 5.84 5.17 6.17 5.50 1.04 1.40

12.17 13.74 12.91 13.37 14.29 13.31 11.34 16.09 1.89 2.55

5.20 3.83 4.46 5.36 4.52 4.74 6.42 3.12 0.63 0.85

8.32 6.13 7.14 8.57 7.23 7.58 10.21 4.99 1.34 2.02

24.71 24.77 24.85 24.52 24.38 24.52 24.80 24.49 1.97 2.65

**

**

**

**

**

NS

Treatments

TNF/ plant

Wt. of individual fruit (g)

1st year 2nd year LSD 5% 1% Level of Significance Pruning Weeding Spading P+W P+S W+S P+W+S Control LSD 5% 1% Level of Significance

36.60 45.13 4.52 7.49

171.08 183.13 7.55 12.49

No. 31.79 38.75 1.02 1.69

% 87.09 86.07 3.55 5.89

No. 4.79 6.13 0.48 0.80

**

*

**

NS

45.84 34.22 36.50 45.17 40.50 38.00 54.00 32.67 2.33 3.14

174.67 181.50 178.17 173.67 177.67 179.34 167.17 184.67 9.81 13.23

40.17 29.00 31.84 39.17 34.67 32.84 47.34 27.17 2.55 3.44

**

**

**

TNHF/plant

TNDF/plant

Table 4. Single effect of horticultural practices on disease incidence and severity of mango Treatments 1st year 2nd year LSD 5% 1% Level of Significance Pruning Weeding Spading P+W P+S W+S P+W+S Control LSD 5% 1% Level of Significance

6 22.92 19.58 2.18 3.61 * 20.00 23.34 33.33 15.00 16.67 20.00 10.00 31.67 2.65 3.57 **

Incidence (%) at DAH 8 33.75 34.13 5.11 8.47 NS 25.00 43.33 53.34 19.84 28.34 31.67 16.67 53.33 1.10 1.48 **

TNF = Total no. of fruits TNHF = Total no. of healthy fruits TNDF = Total no. of diseased fruits TSS = Total Soluble Solids BCR= Gross return / Total cost of production DAP = Days after harvest

10 45.42 45.42 3.38 5.60 NS 46.67 53.33 61.67 33.33 36.67 41.67 25.00 65.00 2.99 4.04 **

6 0.50 0.58 0.07 0.11 * 0.33 0.67 1.00 0.17 0.67 0.33 0.00 1.17 0.10 0.13 **

Severity/ FAD (%) at DAH 8 10 1.08 1.08 0.96 1.88 0.18 0.23 0.29 0.39 NS ** 0.67 1.17 1.00 1.50 1.50 2.00 0.67 0.84 1.00 1.34 1.17 1.33 0.33 0.50 1.83 3.17 0.13 0.17 0.18 0.23 ** **

* = Significant at 5% level ** = Significant at 1% level NS = Not significant Spacing = 2.5m X 2.5m Note= Price of mango was considered to be TK 20/kg

6



Table 5. Combined effect of year and horticultural practices on fruit set and fruit retention of mango Treatments

FS/I

1st year Pruning Weeding Spading P+W P+S W+S P+W+S Control 2nd year Pruning Weeding Spading P+W P+S W+S P+W+S Control LSD 5% 1% Level of significance

Fruit retention/inflorescence at different DAFS 10 20 30 40 50 60

Fruit retention/plant (%) at different DAFS 10

20

30

40

50

60

13.27 7.60 6.73 9.33 8.73 10.27 12.73 7.47

7.60 4.93 4.20 7.27 6.00 5.80 9.00 3.80

4.07 2.13 2.47 5.07 3.00 4.20 5.93 2.47

3.07 1.87 1.87 2.73 2.27 2.40 3.80 1.93

2.60 1.60 1.73 2.27 1.93 1.93 3.00 1.40

2.40 1.33 1.20 1.60 1.60 1.33 2.73 1.07

2.33 1.07 1.00 1.60 1.33 1.33 2.40 0.87

57.00 65.67 62.00 68.67 61.67 57.00 70.67 51.00

30.33 28.33 40.00 45.00 36.67 41.33 47.67 32.67

23.00 25.00 28.00 26.33 26.00 23.00 30.33 26.00

19.67 22.33 25.67 21.67 22.33 19.33 24.33 22.00

18.33 18.00 14.00 15.67 18.33 13.00 21.67 14.33

18.00 14.67 14.00 15.00 15.33 12.67 19.33 11.33

14.33 14.20 14.93 14.13 14.27 15.00 17.13 13.33 2.29 3.08

9.20 8.80 7.20 8.80 8.40 7.20 11.00 6.80 1.05 1.42

5.33 5.20 4.60 5.20 5.00 4.80 6.80 3.80 0.85 1.15

3.40 3.40 2.73 3.40 3.00 3.40 4.73 2.60 0.71 0.96

2.40 2.40 2.00 2.60 2.00 2.40 3.80 1.80 0.62 0.84

1.93 1.90 2.00 2.00 1.60 2.00 2.50 1.20 0.44 0.60

1.93 1.90 1.80 1.80 1.60 1.87 2.40 1.00 0.24 0.32

65.67 62.00 48.33 62.33 59.67 48.67 64.33 51.33 3.25 4.38

38.33 36.67 32.00 37.33 35.33 32.33 40.00 29.00 3.00 4.04

24.00 24.00 18.33 24.33 21.67 23.00 27.67 19.33 3.19 4.30

16.67 17.00 13.33 18.67 14.33 16.33 22.33 13.33 2.36 3.18

13.67 13.33 13.67 14.33 11.33 13.33 14.67 9.00 2.33 3.14

13.67 13.33 12.00 13.00 11.33 13.00 14.33 7.67 1.58 2.13

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

Table 6. Combined effect of year and horticultural practices on disease incidence of mango anthracnose Treatments


No. of healthy fruits/Inflorescence at different DAFS 40 50 60

No. of healthy fruits/plant (%) different DAFS 40

50

60

2.33 1.37 1.50 1.94 1.63 1.66 2.60 1.18

2.10 1.13 1.03 1.36 1.37 1.14 2.36 0.91

2.01 0.91 0.85 1.35 1.13 1.13 2.10 0.73

89.33 85.62 86.74 85.33 84.46 86.01 86.68 84.26

87.50 84.96 85.83 85.00 85.62 85.71 86.22 85.05

2.10 2.05 1.73 2.20 1.70 2.05 3.37 1.53 0.29 0.39 **

1.69 1.71 1.74 1.70 1.35 1.71 2.20 1.01 0.28 0.38 **

1.68 1.62 1.52 1.52 1.35 1.59 2.12 0.84 0.21 0.28 **

87.50 85.42 86.50 84.62 85.00 85.42 88.68 85.00 3.26 4.40 **

87.57 85.26 87.00 85.00 84.00 86.00 88.00 84.00 4.41 5.94 NS

FS/I = Fruit set/Inflorescence at the initial stage DAFS = Days after fruit set

No. of diseased fruits/Inflorescence at different DAFS 40 50 60

No. of diseased fruits/plant (%) at different DAFS 40

50

60

86.27 85.05 85.00 84.37 84.96 84.96 86.67 84.00

0.27 0.23 0.23 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.40 0.22

0.30 0.20 0.17 0.24 0.23 0.19 0.37 0.16

0.32 0.16 0.15 0.25 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.14

10.67 14.38 13.26 14.67 15.54 13.99 13.32 15.71

12.50 15.04 14.17 15.00 14.38 14.29 13.88 14.95

13.73 14.95 15.00 15.63 15.04 15.04 13.33 16.00

87.05 85.26 85.00 84.45 84.37 85.03 87.50 84.00 4.91 6.62 NS

0.30 0.35 0.27 0.40 0.30 0.35 0.43 0.27 0.05 0.07 **

0.24 0.28 0.26 0.30 0.25 0.29 0.30 0.19 0.01 0.02 **

0.25 0.29 0.27 0.28 0.25 0.29 0.20 0.16 0.17 0.02 **

12.50 14.58 13.50 15.38 15.00 14.58 11.32 15.00 2.72 3.67 **

12.43 14.74 13.00 15.00 16.00 14.00 12.00 15.83 3.04 4.10 NS

12.95 14.74 15.00 15.55 15.63 14.97 12.50 16.00 2.36 3.19 **

** = Significant at 1% level * = Significant at 5 % level

7

NS = Not significant



Table 7. Combined effect of year and horticultural practices on yield and quality of mango Treatments


TNF/ plant

Wt. of individu al fruit (g)

TNHF/plant No. %

TNDF/plant No. %

41.67 34.33 34.00 35.33 33.00 34.00 48.00 32.33

168.33 173.00 169.33 171.33 173.33 170.67 164.33 178.33

36.33 30.00 29.67 30.33 28.33 29.67 42.67 27.33

87.67 87.67 87.00 86.00 86.00 87.67 89.00 85.00

5.33 4.33 4.33 5.00 4.67 4.33 5.33 5.00

50.00 34.00 39.00 55.00 48.00 42.00 60.00 33.00 3.30 4.45

181.00 190.00 187.00 176.00 182.00 188.00 170.00 191.00 13.87 18.72

44.00 28.00 34.00 48.00 41.00 36.00 52.00 27.00 4.86 3.60

88.00 84.85 87.18 87.27 85.42 85.71 88.33 81.82 2.49 3.36

6.00 5.00 5.00 7.00 7.00 6.00 7.00 6.00 1.47 1.98

**

**

**

**

Healthy fruits yield/ plant (kg)

Healthy fruits yield/ plant (kg

Healthy fruits yield/ (t/ha)

TSS

BCR

12.33 12.33 13.00 14.00 14.00 12.33 11.00 14.00

5.09 3.86 4.32 4.71 4.03 4.60 5.93 2.83

25.30 25.26 25.27 25.15 24.79 24.82 25.19 25.26

8.15 6.18 6.92 7.54 6.44 7.36 9.48 4.53

25.30 25.26 25.27 25.15 24.79 24.82 25.19 25.26

2.19 1.72 1.93 2.03 1.62 1.88 2.37 1.43

12.00 15.15 12.82 12.73 14.58 14.29 11.67 18.18 3.61 2.68

5.30 3.80 4.60 6.00 5.00 4.88 6.90 3.40 0.89 1.20

24.11 24.27 24.42 23.89 23.97 24.21 24.40 23.72 2.78 3.75

8.48 6.08 7.36 9.60 8.00 7.81 11.04 5.40

24.11 24.27 24.42 23.89 23.97 24.21 24.40 23.72 2.78 3.75

2.22 2.19 1.99 2.57 1.97 1.92 2.70 1.70 -

**

**

NS

NS

-

Table 8. Combined effect of year and horticultural practices on disease incidence and severity of mango Treatments 1st year Pruning Weeding Spading P+W P+S W+S P+W+S Control 2nd year Pruning Weeding Spading P+W P+S W+S P+W+S Control LSD 5% 1% Level of significance

6

Incidence (%) at DAH 8

10

6

23.33 26.67 43.33 13.33 16.67 20.00 10.00 30.00

23.33 43.33 56.67 16.67 30.00 33.33 13.33 53.33

43.33 53.33 63.33 33.33 36.67 40.00 26.67 66.67

0.33 0.67 1.00 0.00 0.67 0.33 0.00 1.00

0.67 1.00 1.67 0.67 1.00 1.33 0.33 2.00

0.67 1.00 1.67 0.67 1.00 1.33 0.33 2.00

16.67 20.00 23.33 16.67 16.67 20.00 10.0 33.33 3.74 5.05 **

26.67 43.33 50.00 23.00 26.67 30.00 20.00 53.33 1.55 2.10 **

50.00 53.33 60.00 33.33 36.67 43.33 23.33 63.33 4.23 5.71 **

0.33 0.67 1.00 0.33 0.67 0.33 0.00 1.33 0.14 0.19 **

0.67 1.00 1.33 0.67 1.00 1.00 0.33 1.67 0.19 0.26 **

1.67 2.00 2.33 1.00 1.67 1.33 0.67 4.33 0.24 0.33 **

TNF = Total no. of fruits TNHF = Total no. of healthy fruits TNDF = Total no. of diseased fruits TSS = Total Soluble Solids

* = Significant at 5% level ** = Significant at 1% level NS = Not significant Spacing = 2.5m X 2.5m

8

Severity/ FAD (%) at DAH 8 10

BCR= Gross return / Total cost of production DAP = Days after harvest Note= Price of mango was considered to be TK 20/kg



REFERENCES Alam, M. M. 1987, Pollution free control of plant parasitic nematodes by soil amendments with plant wastes. Biological Wastes. 22 (1): 75-79 Ann, P. J., L. S. Lu, T. Y. Chuang and C. W. Kao. 1998. Effect of fruit bagging and mulching on control of mango fruit anthracnose disease. Plant Path. Bull., 7(1): 19-26 Anonymous, 1994. The mango- A Handbook. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. New Delhi. pp. 87-180 BARC. 1997. Fertilizer Recommendation Guide. Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council, Farmgate, Dhaka. pp. 195 BBS. 2005. Monthly Statistical Bulletin, Bangladesh (July, 2002). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning. Government of The Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh Gomez, K.A and Gonez, A.A. 1984. Statistical procedures for Agricultural Research, Int. Rice Res. Inst. John Willy and Sons, New York, Chickester, Brisbane, Torento, Singapore, 643 Hossain, A. K. M. A. and A. Ahmed. 1994. A monograph on mango varieties in Bangladesh. HRC-BARI and FAO/UNDP Mango Improvement Project Rahman, M. A and S. Hossain. 1988. Annual Report for 1987-88. Plant Pathology Division, BARI, Joydebpur Singh, N. D. 1996. Study on the effect of agrochemicals on vegetative growth, chemical composition and control of malformation in commercial mango variety. Dashehari. Adv. Hort. Forestry, 5:1-9

9



CONTROL OF LATE BLIGHT DISEASE OF POTATO BY USING NEW FUNGICIDES M. M. RAHMAN1, T. K. DEY2, M. A. ALI3, K. M. KHALEQUZZAMAN4 AND M. A. HUSSAIN5 1 Senior Scientific Officer, Tuber Crop Research Sub-centre, BARI, Bogra, 2Principal Scientific Officer, Tuber Crop Research Sub-centre, BARI, Debiganj, 3Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, BAU, Mymensingh, 4Senior Scientific Officer, Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Ishurdi, Pabna, 5Principal Scientific Officer, Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Hathazari, Chittagong, Bangladesh

Accepted for publication: November 20, 2007 ABSTRACT Rahman M. M., Dey T. K., Ali M. A., Khalequzzaman K. M. and Hussain M. A. 2008. Control of Late Blight Disease of Potato by Using New Fungicides. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):10-15 An investigation was carried at Tuber Crops Research Sub-Centre (TCRSC), Bogra during 2002 and 2003 crop season to find out suitable fungicide(s) to combat the late blight disease of potato. Altogether 13 fungicides viz. Amcozeb, Coromil Mz-72, Dithane M-45, Filthane M-45, Mancozeb, Metaril, Melody Duo, Oxivit, Ridomil gold, Secure, Unilax, Vitamyl Mz-72 and Zhemetalax were tested against the disease in two consecutive seasons. All the fungicides significantly reduced the late blight incidence of potato over control. Among the fungicides, Filthane M-45, Secure, Melody Duo, Ridomil gold and Metaril are highly effective to minimize late blight and to increase yield of potato.

Key words: Late blight, fungicide. Potato

INTRODUCTION Potato is the third important food crop in Bangladesh. It is truly a global crop. Bangladesh is an agro-based country. We are nearly at the door of self-sufficiency in cereals but deficient in minor crops in general, fruits and vegetables in particular. Millions of people are suffering from malnutrition. Potato can play an important role in supplying vegetable throughout the year and can solve the nutritional problems to a great extent for the lower income group. The area under this crop is increasing rapidly and the farmers are gradually adopting it as a cash crop. According to Bureau of Statistics (BBS, 2000) during 1999-2000, the production of potato was 2.93 million metric tons from 0.243 million hectare of land in Bangladesh. Tuber yield is only 12.06 t/ha in the country which is lower as compared to other potato growing countries of the world. In the Ukraine and the Netherlands potato yield is 44.0 and 41.3 t/ha respectively, (Chadha, 1995; Swaminathan, 2000). The major constraints in potato production have been the incidence of wide range of pests and diseases, difficulties in the production and distribution of disease free seeds, inadequacies of cold storage facilities resulting in rotting and sprouting and violent price fluctuations. Of them diseases play an important role for such low yield in the country. So far in Bangladesh a total of 54 diseases (both biotic and abiotic) of potato have been recorded (Dey and Ali, 1994). Among the diseases, late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans is serious one. Indiscriminate use of systemic fungicides especially metalaxyl (Ridomil) provides chance to develop resistant strain of the fungus has been reported from home and abroad (Ali and Dey, 1999; Gupta et al., 1999; Singh, 2000). Comprehensive studies on late blight of potato are limited in Bangladesh (Ali and Dey 1999; Islam et al., 2002). Some of the important findings showed that about 25.5 to 57.25% yield loss occurs due to late blight depending on degree of susceptibility of the cultivar, time of appearance and age of plant infection. Epidemiological studies indicated that the disease is devastating at 12-250C with relative humidity more than 85%. At present no resistant source of the potato is available in the country. Metalaxyl resistant strain of P. infestans has also been reported in the country (Dey and Ali, 1994). Moreover, new fungicides are introducing in the country every year against late blight whose efficacy needs to be ascertained. As no resistant cultivars is available at this moment so chemical control is indispensable for alternative approach to manage the disease. So, the present study was undertaken to find out suitable fungicide(s) to combat the disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiment was conducted at Tuber Crops Research Sub-Centre (TCRSC), BARI, Bogra during 2002 and 2003 cropping seasons. The experimental site of Bogra was high land and the soil was sandy loam in texture. The PH value of the soil was within the range of 5.5 to 6.2. The experimental plot was well ploughed. Recommended doses of fertilizers and manure suggested by TCRC (Tuber Crops Research Centre), BARI, Gazipur were used. Cowdung was incorporated in the soil during land opering at the rate of 10 t/ha. Urea, Triple super phosphate (TSP), Muriate of potash (MP), Gypsum, Zinc sulphate and Boric acid were used respectively, at the rate of 325, 220, 250, 120 14 and 6 kg per hectare. Urea TSP, MP, Gypsum, Zinc sulphate and boric acid were the sources of N, P, K, Ca, Zn and B, respectively. In both the seasons seeds of potato variety, Diamant were used. Seed tubers were collected from Breeders Seed Production Centre (BSPC), BARI, Debigonj, Panchagarh. The experiments were laid out in a Randomized complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The unit plot size was 3.0 × 3.0 m. Spacing of row to row (within plot) and tuber to tuber (within © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

10


M. M. Rahman, et al row) was 60 cm and 25 cm, respectively. Each plot had five rows and in each row 12 seed tubers were sown. Two times weeding was done at an interval of 30 days. Earthing up was executed two times throughout the entire growing period, one at 30 days and another one at 60 days after planting. Irrigation was scheduled two times just after earthing up. Proper control measures were taken to control insect pest (cut worm and aphid). Dursban (0.5%) and Metasystox (0.1%) was applied respectively, to control cut worm and aphid. Thirteen fungicides were included to determine their effectiveness against late blight. There were 12 treatments in both the crop seasons consisting of 11 fungicides and one control. In 2002, the treatments were: Amcozeb, Coromil Mz-72 WP, Dithane M-45, Filthane M-45, Mancozeb, Metaril, Melody Duo, Oxivit, Unilax, Vitamyl Mz-72, Zhemetalax and control. All the fungicides were used at 0.2% that means 2g of fungicides per 1000 ml of water. In 2003 crop season the treatments were: Amcozeb, Filthate M-45, Mancozeb, Metaril, Melody Duo, Oxivit 50 WP, Ridomil Gold, Secure, Unilax, Vitamyl Mz-72, Zhemetalax and control. All the fungicides except Secure were used at 0.2% while 0.1% used in case of Secure. In control treatment, equal amount of plain water was sprayed. Except Dithane M-45, all the fungicides were new ones, had been introduced in the country for registration. Fungicidal solutions were prepared by dissolving definite amount of the chemicals in definite quantity of plain water. Spray was initiated just after the detection of late blight symptoms in the experimental area and repeated thrice at an interval of 10 days. Care was taken during spray both the upper and lower surface of leaves as well as stems was well covered by fungicidal solution. Spray tank was thoroughly washed before filling fungicidal solution materials. Data were taken on foliage infection, disease severity (1-9 scale), PDI (Percent Disease Index) and yield. After harvesting tuber yield per hectare was computed based on total tuber yield per plot. Disease severity (1-9 scale) was as follows. Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

% foliage affected 0 3 10 25 50 75 90 97 100

Description None or very few lesions on the leaflets. More than 0% but less than 10%. More than 10% but less than 25%. More than 25% but less than 50%. Half of the foliage destroyed. More than 50% but less than 75%. More than 75% but less than 90%. Only very few green areas leaf (much less 10%) Foliage completely destroyed.

PDI was estimated as follows by selecting 25 plants randomly from each plot: Class frequency PDI = No. plants assessed x Highest score of scalex 100 The crops were harvested March 6, 2002 and February 25, 2003 for 2002 and 2003 crop season, respectively. Whenever necessary data were transformed following Arcsine transformation method. Means were compared following Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) according to Gomez and Gomez, 1984. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During 2002 season, all the fungicides significantly reduced the foliage infection, PDI and tuber infection and increased the yield over control. The foliage infection due to application of different treatment ranged from 1.59 to 97.48 where the lowest and the highest foliage infection were recorded from Filthane M-45 and control (where no fungicide was applied). Although Filthane gave the minimum foliage infection numerically among the treated fungicides but it showed statistically similar to Coromil, Dithane M-45, Mancozeb, Melody Due and Unilax (Table 1). Dithane M-45 (1.71%) ranked next to Filthane M-45 in reducing foliage infection due to P. infestans which was followed by Melody Duo (1.82%), Unilax (2.20%), Coromil (2.23%), Mancozeb (2.28%), Zhemetalax (2.48%), Vitamyl (2.73%), Amcozeb (2.97%), Metaril (2.97%) and Oxivit (4.40%). The effectiveness of Amcozeb, Coromil, Mancozeb, Metaril, Vitamyl and Zhemetalax on reducing foliage infection due to late blight was statistically insignificant. Among the fungicides, although Oxivit appeared the lower one compared to other used fungicides but it reduced foliage infection more than 85.0% over control. Regarding PDI, all the fungicides significantly reduced PDI of late blight over control. In ascending order reduced PDI value the fungicides may be arranged as Filthane M-45, Dithane M-45, Melody Duo, Unilax, Mancozeb, Coromil, Zhemetalax, Vitamyl, Amcozeb, Metaril and Oxivit. The PDI value ranged under the trial from 17.03 to 89.92%. PDI decreased over control of 61.0, 63.5, 65.48, 65.95, 63.82, 60.97, 65.02, 58.59, 63.95, 61.87 and 11


Control of Late Blight Disease of Potato by Using New Fungicides

62.60% were estimated respectively by Amcozeb, Coromil, Dithane M-45, Filthane, Mancozeb, Metaril, Melody Duo, Oxivit, Unilax, Vitamyl and Zhemetalax. About 5.0% infected tuber was recorded in control which was significantly higher compared to rest treatments. Among the fungicides; Metaril and Unilax completely controlled late blight infection of tuber and they differed significantly with rest fungicides. Significant increase of yield was obtained with all the used fungicides over control. Significantly higher yield was recorded by Filthane (29.92 t/ha) which was statistically similar with rest fungicides over control except Zhemetalax. Melody Duo gave the second highest yield followed by Unilax, Oxivit, Mancozeb, Coromil, Amcozeb, Vitamyl, Dithane M-45, Metaril, Zhemetalax and control (22.33 t/ha). About 28.86, 28.21, 26.73, 33.99, 28.84, 25.03, 32.51, 30.85, 31.03, 27.72 and 14.24% yield per hectare increased over control respectively, by using Amcozeb, Coromil, Dithane M-45, Filthane, Mancozeb, Metaril, Melody Duo, Oxivit, Unilax, Vitamyl and Zhemetalax. Results obtained from 2003 season, indicate that all the tested fungicides significantly reduced the foliage infection, PDI value and tuber infection against late blight disease and increased yield over control (Table 2). The foliage infection due to disease ranged 3.23-97.76% where the minimum and the maximum was recorded respectively, on Ridomil gold and control treatment. In order of ascending the effectiveness of fungicides may be arranged as: Ridomil gold, Secure, Unilax, Mancozeb, Filthane, Melody Duo, Metaril, Vitamyl, Zhemetalax, Amcozeb and Oxivit. The fungicides Ridomil gold, Secure and Unilax were equally effective in minimizing foliage infection and they were statistically similar and differed significantly with rest fungicides. In respect of PDI, the lowest PDI value was assessed on Ridomil gold (22.07%) followed by Secure (22.66%), Unilax (22.81%), Mancozeb (28.14%), Metaril (29.48%), Melody Duo (33.03%), Filthane (34.51%), Vitamyl (36.14%), Zhemetalax (39.55%), Amcozeb (41.77%), Oxivit (42.52%) and Control (90.37%). Statistical analysis revealed that there were no significant difference in maximum minimizing the PDI value by Ridomil gold, Secure and Unilax (Table 2) and they differed significantly with rest fungicides. The effectiveness between Mancozeb and Metaril was statistically insignificant in reducing PDI value. The fungicides Filthane, Melody Duo and Vitamyl were very close in reducing PDI value and they showed insignificant effect among them. Significantly the highest PDI value was estimated in control treatments, where no fungicide was applied about 44.06, 50.01, 55.47, 54.30, 51.23, 43.43, 61.07, 60.48, 60.35, 48.63 and 45.82% PDI decreased over control, respectively, by using Amcozeb, Filthane, Mancozeb, Metaril, Melody Duo, Oxivit, Ridomil gold, Secure, Unilax, Vitamyl and Zhemetalax. Tuber infection by P. infestans varied from 0.0 to 6.0% among the treatments. The three fungicides namely, Metaril, Melody Duo and Secure performed better to inhibit the P. infestans infection in tuber and they differed significantly with rest fungicides. About 0.5% tuber infection was recorded in Amcozeb treated crops and it differed significantly with rest fungicides and control. The performance of Filthane, Oxivit and Unilax were statistically identical in reducing tuber infection. Regarding yield, significantly higher yield was harvested in Mancozeb (21.26 t/ha) and it showed statistically similar to Amcozeb, Filthane, Metaril, Melody Duo, Oxivit, Ridomil gold, Unilax and Vitamyl. The lowest yield was obtained in control (15.29 t/ha) but it showed statistically insignificant with only Zhemetalax. Percentages of yield increased due to fungicidal application over control in order of descending were: Mancozeb (39.04%), Filthane (34.46%), Vitamyl (30.80%), Ridomil gold (28.84%), Melody Duo (26.42%), Unilax (25.96%), Metaril (24.72%), Oxivit (24.19%), Secure (19.35%) and Zhemetalax (6.54%). Results on the investigation of effectiveness of fungicides to minimize the disease incidence of late blight under two years field trial 2002 and 2003 indicated that all the fungicides significantly reduced the disease incidence and increased yield over control. More or less both the systemic and contact fungicides were equally effective against late blight. Among the used contact fungicides Mancozeb and Filthane M-45 showed better performance reducing disease parameters and increasing yield compared to other contact fungicides. This was in very close agreement with Khanna (1989), Singh et al. (1994), and Singh and Shekhawat (1999). For commercial production of potato, Kankwatsa et al. (2002) suggested that integration of host resistance and Mancozeb application reduced the late blight severity by more than 50% and resulted in yield gains of more than 30% which clearly supports the present investigation. De and Mohasin (1999) stated that Mancozeb gave the lowest disease incidence, highest yield and greatest net benefit against late blight. As preventive spray Mancozeb is the best late blight that has been reported by Viswanathappa et al. (1988). Although Oxivit (copprfuricide) showed good performance in reducing disease incidence but less effective compared to Mancozeb and Filthane M-45. The effectiveness of copper fungicides in controlling late blight of potato has been documented by Bhattacharyya et al. (1987). All the test systemic fungicides (Coromil, Metaril, Melody Duo, Unilax, Vitamyl, Secure, Ridomil Gold and Zhemetalax) significantly reduced the late blight incidence over control under the present investigation. Of them Coromil, Metaril, Unilax, Vitamyl, Ridomil gold and Zhemetalax contain 12


M. M. Rahman, et al metalaxyl and mancozeb belong to Phenylamides; Melody Duo belongs to propineb and Secure belongs to Imidazolinones. The performance of metalaxyl in controlling late blight under present investigation has been supported by many researchers throughout the world (Singh and Shekhawat, 1999; Singh et al., 2001; Islam et al., 2002; Tsakiris et al., 2002). According to Bradshaw (1992) metalaxyl + Mancozeb delayed disease progress more efficiently than mancozeb alone. Thind et al. (1989) claimed that only Ridomil controlled P. infestans when applied after infection. Indiscriminate use of Ridomil induce the development of P. infestans resistant strain of late blight throughout the world. In Bangladesh the resistant strain of P. infestans has also been identified (Dey and Ali, 1994). So, Ridomil Mz-72 has been with drawn from the country and new formulation of metalaxyl like Ridomil gold, Metaril, Coromil, Vitamyl, Unilax and Zhemetalax are under process for introductions in the country whose resistant strain of P. infestans not yet developed in abroad. For overcoming this alarming situation mixture or alternate use of metalaxyl and mancozeb has been suggested in many countries (Gerasimova et al., 1994; Singh et al., 1994). Under the study Melody Duo (Propined) was effective in reducing late blight incidence and increased yield. This is in accordance with Samoucha and Cohen (1986). Apaydin et al. (1999) suggested to use of propineb to control late blight of potato effectively by reducing disease incidence and increased yield. Secure proved to be highly effective in managing the late blight disease and increased yield. It may be concluded that among the new fungicides, Filthane M-45, Secure, Melody Duo, Ridomil gold and Metaril are highly effective to minimize late blight and to increase yield of potato. So, these may be recommended to control late blight disease of potato in the country. Table 1. Effectiveness of some fungicides in controlling late blight of potato during 2002 Treatments Amcozeb Coromil MZ-72wp Dithane M-45 Filthane M-45 Mancozeb Metaril Melody Duo Oxivit 50 WP Unilax Vitamyl MZ-72 Zhemetalax Control Sx-

Foliage infection (%) 2.97 c (9.92 ) 2.23 cdef (8.60) 1.71 f (7.52) 1.59 f (7.24) 2.28 cdef (8.68) 2.97 c (9.92) 1.82 ef (7.74) 4.4 b (12.10) 2.20 def (8.35) 2.73 cd (9.49) 2.48 cde (9.06) 97.48 a (81.01) 0.442

PDI 21.92 c (27.91) 19.40 def (26.13) 17.47 f (24.71) 17.03 f (24.37) 19.55 def (25.90) 21.92 c (27.94) 17.92 ef (25.04) 24.44 b (29.64) 18.96 def (25.80) 21.03 cd (27.29) 20.29 cde (26.77) 89.92 a (71.58) 0.557

Tuber infection (%) 1.0 e (5.74) 1.33 d (6.65) 2.5 b (9.10) 2.0 c (8.13) 2.5 b (9.10) 0.0 f (0.0) 1.0 e (5.74) 2.0 c (8.13) 0.0 f (0.0) 1.0 e (5.74) 1.0 e (5.74) 5.0 a (12.92) 0.246

Yield (t/ha) 28.33 a 28.63 a 28.22 a 29.92 a 28.77 a 27.92 a 29.59 a 29.22 a 29.26 a 28.52 a 25.51 b 22.33 c 0.803

Means followed by the same letter within same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of DMRT Figures in parenthesis indicate transformed values

Table 2. Effectiveness of some fungicides in controlling late blight of potato during 2003 Fungicides Amcozeb Filthane M-45 Mancozeb Metaril Melody Duo Oxivit-50 WP Ridomil gold Secure Unilax Vitamyl MZ-72 Zhemetalax Control S x-

Foliage infection (%) 21.4 b (27.52) 7.64 ef (15.96) 5.89 f (14.03) 14.96 cd (20.26) 9.92 de (18.35) 22.67 b (28.37) 3.23 g (10.26) 3.39 g (10.55) 3.37 g (10.57) 14.01 c (21.82) 18.35 b (25.35) 97.76 a (81.41) 0.9942

PDI 41.77 b (40.24) 34.51 c (35.96) 28.14 d (32.03) 29.48 d (32.87) 33.03 c (35.08) 42.52 b (40.69) 22.07 e (28.0) 22.66 e (28.43) 22.81 e (28.52) 36.14 c (36.95) 39.55 b (38.97) 90.37 a (71.93) 0.6235

Tuber infection (%) 0.5 e (4.05) 1.0 d (5.74) 1.5 c (7.04) 0.0 g (0.0) 0.0 g (0.0) 1.0 d (5.74) 0.2 f (2.56) 0.0 g (0.0) 1.0 d (5.74) 2.0 b (8.13) 1.0 d (5.74) 6.0 a (14.18) 0.2131

Yield (t/ha) 18.66 abc 20.56 ab 21.26 a 19.07 ab 19.33 ab 18.99 ab 19.70 ab 18.25 bc 19.26 ab 20.00 ab 16.29 cd 15.29 de 0.8089

- Means followed by the same letter within same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of DMRT - Figures in parenthesis indicate transformed values

13


Control of Late Blight Disease of Potato by Using New Fungicides

REFERENCES Ali, M.S. and T.K. Dey. 1999. Management of late blight in Bangladesh. In: Late blight: A threat to global food security Vol. 1. In: Proc. of Global initiative on Late Blight Conf. March 16-19, 1999. Quito, Equador Apaydin, A.; N. Kaplan; H. Kar; C. Ozdemir and F. Yamak. 1999. Effect of tomato late blight (Phytophthora infestans Mont. de Bary) on tomato yield in the Black-Sea Region of Turkey. Ondokuzmayis-Universities Ziraat-Fakultesi-Dergisi. 14(3):127-143 Bangladesh Bureau of statistics (BBS). 2000. Statistical year book of Bangladesh 1998. Ministry of planning, Government of Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. Pp 680 Bhattacharyya, S.K; B.P. Singh; P.H. Singh and S. Ram. 1987. Retardation of potato late blight by fungicides with eradicant and protestant properties. Indian Journal of Plant Pathology. 5(2):169-177 Bradshaw, N.J. 1992. The use of fungicides for control of potato late blight (Phytophthora infestans). Aspects of Applied Biology. 33:101-106 Chadha, K.L. 1995. Inagural Address. In: Integrated management of bacterial wilt (Eds. hardly, B and E.R. French). CIP, Lima, Peru De, B.K. and M. Mohasin. 1999. Evaluation of fungicides against late blight disease of potato. Journal of Mycopathological Research. 31(1):13-18 Dey, T.K. and M.S. Ali. 1994. Pathological research on tuber crops in Bangladesh. In: Proc. of Workshop on Transf. of Tech. of CDP crops under Res. Extu. Linkage Progm., held on Oct. 22-27, BARI, Gazipur, Bangladesh. pp 159-165 Gerasimova, A.V.; M.V. Patrikeeva and R.G. Krasnoshtein. 1994. Details of using fungicides for control of late blight of potato in Leningrad Region. Nauchnye Oshvy Khimicheskoi Zashchity Sci. ‘Skokhozyaistvennykh Kul' tur of boleznei; sbornik nauchnykh trudov ledited by petrova, L.L; Gut Erres, pp 073-02295 Gomez, K.A and Gomez, A.A. 1984. Statistical procedures for Agricultural Research, Intl. Rice Res. Inst. John Willy and Sons, New York, Chickester, Brisbane, Torento, Singapore, pp 643 Gupta, H.; B.P. Singh; J. Mohan; V.C. Sharma; B. Prasad; K.K. Sharma and P.H. Singh. 1999. Metalaxyl resistance in Indian population of Phytophthora infestans. In: Abstracts, Global Conf. on Potato, December 611, 1999, New Delhi, India. pp 38 Islam, M.R.; T.K. Dey; M.M. Rahman; M.A. Hossain and M.S. Ali. 2002. Efficacy of some fungicides in controlling late blight of potato. Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 27(2): 257-261 Kankwatsa, P; E. Adipala; J.J. Hakiza; M. Olanya and H.M. Kidanemariam. 2002. Effect of integrating planting time, fungicide application and host resistant on potato late blight development in South-Western Uganda. Journal of Phytopathology. 150 (4-5):248-257 Khanna, R.N. 1989. Disease management through cultural and chemical methods. In: SAARC Training Course on Late Blight of Potato, held at CPRI, Shimla, H.P., India from 17-31 July, 1989. pp 96-106 Samoucha, Y and Y. Cohen. 1986. Efficacy of systemic and contact fungicide mixtures in controlling late blihgt in potatoes. Phytopathology. 76(9):855-859 Singh, B.P. 2000. Status of late blight in sub-tropics. In: Potato Global research and development (Eds. Khurana, S.M.P; G.S. Shekhawat; B.P. Singh and S.k. Pandey) Indian Potato Assoc., CPRI, Shimla, H.P., India. pp 525-533

14


M. M. Rahman, et al Singh, B.P. and G.S. Shekhawat. 1999. Potato late blight in India. Tech. Bull. No. 27 (revised), CPRI, Shimla, H.P., India. pp 85 Singh, B.P.; P.H. Singh; Jhililmil-Gupta; Lokendra-Singh; J. Gupta and L. Singh. 2001. Integrated management of late blight under Shimla hills. National Symposium on Sustainability of Potato Revolution in India, Shimla. Journal of the Indian Potato Association 28(1):84-85 Singh, B.P.; S.Roy; S.k. Bhattacharyya and G.S. Shekhawat. 1994. Scheduling of Metalaxyl based fungicides and development of fungicide resistant strains in Phytophthora infestans. In: Potato: Present and Future (Eds. G.S. Shekhawat et al.,) Indian Potato Assoc., CPRI, Shimla, India Swaminathan, M.S. 2000. Potato for global security. In: Potato Global Research and Development (Eds. Khurana, S.M.P; G.S> Shekhawat; Singh and S.K. Pandey). Indian Potato Assoc., CPRI, Shimla, H.P., India. pp 8-12 Thind. T.S.; Chander-Mohan; J.S. Bedi; R.K. Grewal and S.S. Sokhi. 1989. Role of application time of fungicides in the control of late blight of potato. Plant Disease Research 4(2):113-117 Tsakiris, E; D.I. Karafyllidis; J. Mansfield; G. Paraussi; D. Voyiatazis and E. Paronssis. 2002. Management of potato late blight by fungicides. Proceedings of the Second Balkan Symposium on Vegetables and Potatoes, Thessaloniki, Greece. Acta Horticulturae 579:567-570 Viswanathappa, K.R.; B.S. Nandihalli; P.C. Hiremath and S.M. Kulkarni. 1988. Chemical Control of Phytophthora infestans a causal agent of late blight of potato. Plant Pathology Newsletter. 6(1-2):29-30

15



EFFECT OF FRYING CONDITIONS ON MOISTURE AND FAT OF PAPADS M. M. RAHMAN1 AND M. B. UDDIN2 1

MS student, 2Professor, Department of Food Technology and Rural Industries, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh.

Accepted for publication: November 25, 2007 ABSTRACT Rahman M. M. and Uddin M. B. 2008. Effect of Frying Conditions on Moisture and Fat of Papads. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2): 1621 The study was conducted in the Laboratories of the Department of Food Technology and Rural Industries, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh to determine the relations in moisture content, fat content and frying conditions. Papads were prepared from Mungbean, Grasspea (Khasari dal), Black gram (Mashkolai dal) incorporating soya flour. All the ingredients were collected from the local market. Five different types of papads were prepared using 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% soya flour with pulses and other ingredients. The products were analyzed for proximate composition, studied the effects of processing time and temperature on the quality of soya papads. The moisture and fat content in the dried papads samples were found in the range of 10.10 to 10.33% and 1.06 to 5.35% respectively. A sharp increase in fat content was observed with the increase of soya flour in the papads. The fried soya papads contained 2-3% moisture, 0.40.6% ash, 26-36% fat, 28-30% protein and 33.4-42.9% total carbohydrate. The result showed that minimum frying time for dried papads required to reach desired final moisture content of 2-2.5% was 22 sec. at 1700C, 18 sec. at 1800C and 11 sec. at 1900C. The oil content of papads were found to be 23% at 1700C, 20% at 1800C and 16% at 1900C when the moisture content of papads varied from 2-2.5%..

Key ward: Frying conditions, moisture and fat content, papads

INTRODUCTION Soybeans(s) (US) or soy bean (UK) a legume, the botanical name of which is Glycine max (L.) Merrill. It is a summer annual varying in height from less than a foot to more than 6 feet with a growth habit from stiffly erect to prostrate; cultivated varieties (cultivar) may reach a height of 3 feet or more; the seeds (soybeans) are borne in hairy-pods that grow in clusters of three to five with each pod usually containing 2 or 3 or more seeds. Soybean (Glycine max L.) a self-pollinated crop is one of the most important oil and protein crops of the world. Oil and protein rich soybean has now been recognized all over the world: as a potential supplementary source of edible oil and nutrition (Kaul and Das, 1986). This can play a vital role in balancing the protein-calorie malnutrition in Bangladesh diet. The soybean is an excellent source of major nutrients including a good source of vitamins and minerals. Besides producing oil, the seeds of soybean are also used for producing many of the food dishes, confectioneries, baby foods and soybean milk. Soybean seeds contain 43.2% protein, 19.5% fat, 20.9% carbohydrate and a good amount of other nutrients like calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamins (Gopalan et al., 1971). Soybean is used mainly for edible oil. Because of its protein content soybean is used in China in different foods and beverage. In terms of protein production per hectare, soybean has the highest yield (800 kg) at the lowest price and compared with all other vegetable proteins, its amino acid composition is one of the best. Soybean have a content of approximately 40-45% high valued protein and 20-22% high valued oil and can be considered to be a concentrated protein food. Soybean has 3% lecithin which is helpful for brain development. It is also enriched in Ca, P, Vit A, B, C and D (Rahman, 1982). If the beans are cleaned and dried to a moisture content of less than 12%, then these can be stored for a year without any significant loss in quality. The oil of soybean contains 85% unsaturated fatty acid and is cholesterol free. In oil and protein bearing crops, oil and protein content has got negative relationship (Lat et al., 1973). The protein of soybean is called a complete protein as because it supplies sufficient amount of various kinds of amino acids required for body building and repairing the body tissues. Its food value in heart disease and diabetes is well known. Soybean oil contains a large amount of lecithin and a fair amount of fat soluble vitamins. Lecithin is an important constituent of all organs in human body and especially of the nervous tissue, the heart and lever. That is why soybean is a very good food (Krishnamurthy and Shivashankar, 1975). The present study illustrated the effect of frying conditions on moisture and fat of papads with a view to determine the relations in moisture content, fat content and frying conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted in the Laboratories of the Department of Food Technology and Rural Industries, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh. The soybean used in the study was collected from Bangladesh Seed Foundation, Mymensingh.

© 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

16


Rahman and Uddin

Soya flour Soya flour was processed from the straw yellow varieties of soyabeans, free from immature, field damage and black soybeans. Using grain cleaners, the foreign materials were removed. Heavy aspiration removed loose hulls, weed seeds and other light foreign matter. The clean and fresh soybean seeds were then soaked in water [water contained 0.25-0.5% sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)] for several (12-16) hours and heated at 70°C for 10 minutes. The main purpose of using NaHCO3 was to remove the bitterness and anti-nutritional factors. The hulls were then removed and dried the dehulled soybean and grinded in a huller mill. The soya flour was packed in a high-density polythene bags, sealed and stored. Black gram flour (Mashkoli dhal) Black gram flour was processed which free from immature and field damage. Using grain cleaner, the foreign materials were removed. The clean and fresh black gram grinded in a huller mill. The black gram flour was packed in a high-density polythene bags, sealed and stored. Mung flour (Mungbean dhal) Mungflour (10.1% moisture and 24.5% protein) used in the study was commercial mung flour (Norani Flour Ltd, 277 Tejgaon Industrial Area, Dhaka). Grasspea flour (Khasari dhal) Khasari flour was processed from BARI khasari-1 varieties, free from immature and field damage. Using grain cleaner, the foreign materials were removed. The clean and fresh grasspea flour grinded in a huller mill. The grasspea flour was packed in a high-density polythene bags, sealed and stored. Chemicals, solvents and ingredients Chemicals and solvents used in the study were of analytical reagent grade and water was glass-distilled unless specified otherwise. Black cumin, cumin, mungbean, grasspea, baking powder, salt and other ingredients were procured from the local market. High-density polythene was used for package and storage of samples. Other ingredients were used from laboratory stocks. Basic formulation of papads Five different types of papads were prepared according to the composition given in Table 1. Table 1. Formulas of papads Ingredients Grasspea dhal (Khasari dhal) Mungbean dhal Black gram dhal (Mashkolai dhal) Soya flour Black cumin Cumin Black pepper Baking powder Mustard oil Common salt Water

S1 (control) 50 g 25 g 25 g 0g 0.5 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 1.2 g 12.5 g 0.6 g 50 g

S2 50 g 25 g 20 g 5g 0.5 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 1.2 g 12.5 g 0.6 g 50 g

Samples S3 50 g 20 g 20 g 10 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 1.2 g 12.5 g 0.6 g 50 g

S4 40 g 30 g 25 g 15 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 1.2 g 12.5 g 0.6 g 50 g

S5 45 g 20 g 15 g 20 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 0.5 g 1.2 g 12.5 g 0.6 g 50 g

Preparation of papads from soya flour Papad is an important snack food item prepared from the flour. The preparation involves gelatinisation of the soy flour with minimum quantity of water. The soya flour was mixed with requisite quantity of other ingredients as shown in Table 1. All the ingredients were mixed in a mixture to make a dough. After 30 min. resting the dough was divided into balls of about 2-3 cm dia weighing 5-6 gm. These are rolled into thin circular discs of about 1 mm thickness using rolling pin. The papads were dried in drier at 500C. The dried papads at this stage contained about 14-15% of moisture. The dried papads were then packed in polythene bags. These dried papads are consumed by deep frying in oil. The final products usually undergo 2-3 times expansion on frying. It is crisp and can be consumed as a side dish. The preparation of soya papads is presented in the following flow chart.

17


Effect of Frying Conditions on Moisture and Fat of Papads

Mixing (All the ingredients) ↓ Doughing ↓ Making small round shape dough ↓ Rolling ↓ Drying in the drier (500C-1 hr) ↓ Packaging ↓ Frying Flow chart for production of soya papads RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Processing of fried papad Determination of the ratio of papads to oil Soya papads were fried at oil temperature of 1700C, 1800C and 1900C. The preliminary study showed that the satisfactory frying was obtained by frying at 1700C to 1800C. To maintain these desired temperatures papad to oil ratio was chosen to give an initial temperature drop of 100C. Papads were placed in hot oil when the temperature was 50C higher than the set temperature. For determination papads to oil ratio by trial and error method, different ratio of papads to oil such as 1:10, 1:15, 1:20, 1:25, 1:30 were chosen. Papads to oil ratio of 1:20 gave the lowest and desired temperature drop i.e. 100C. During potato chips frying also gave the potato to oil ratio was found to be 1:25 (Ali, 1997). In all cases (i.e. 1700C, 1800C, 1900C) same initial temperature drop was observed. It was however, observed that in the case of higher temperature, temperature quickly returned to original temperature than for the cases of relatively lower temperature. This is understandable since higher temperature give higher sensible heat content than lower temperature for a constant mass of oil and material as predicted by sensible heat gain equation i.e. mass × specific heat × temperature gain. Finally the most acceptable papads to oil ratio and temperature drop were 1:20 and 100C respectively. Similar observation was found at potato chips processing Ali (1997). Moisture content of fried soya papads Moisture content of samples undergoing frying was determined at different time interval for various frying oil temperatures such as 1700C, 1800C and 1900C. Moisture content of papads during frying at different temperature is shown in Figure 1. The moisture content (Figure 1) follows a linear relation with time for the greater part of the frying period for all cases of frying temperature. An analysis of the data showed that rate of water removal depends on temperature and the higher the temperature, the higher the rate of water removal. However, the rate of moisture removal from papads at the initial period was the highest. For longer shelf-life, the moisture contents should be minimum. There was no finding regarding moisture content of fried soya papads. In case of fried soya papads of the present study 2-3% moisture content was taken as minimum. The results also show that to achieve 2-3% moisture content in papads frying time should be 22 second at 1700C, 18 second at 1800C and 10 second at 1900C.

18


Moisture content (%)

Rahman and Uddin

25

170°C

180°C

190°C

20 15 10 5 0 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Frying time (sec.) Figure 1. Effect of frying temperature on the moisture content of soy papads (basic formulation)

Table 2. Influence of time and temperature of frying on moisture content and oil content of fried soya papads (basic formulation) Frying temperature (0C)

170

180

190

Frying time (Second) 22.0 20.0 18.0 15.0 13.0 18.0 16.0 15.0 13.0 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0

Moisture content (%) 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.5 4.0 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.5 2.0 2.3 3.0 2.5 3.0

Oil content (%) 23 21 19 16 15 20 18 16 15 13 16 14 13 12 10

Oil content of fried soya papads From the economic point of view, oil content of papads should be as low as possible. So determination of oil content of papads is essential. An experiment was conducted to show the time dependence of oil content of soya papads at different frying temperatures such as 1700C, 1800C and 1900C. The results are depicted in Figure 2. It can be seen from Figure 2 that oil content of soya papads increased with increasing frying time for all frying temperature. However, the rate of oil uptake, at the initial period was highest for the highest temperature and lowest for the lowest frying temperature indicating that rate of oil uptake is dependent on temperature. Frying of soya papads can be considered as a two way diffusion process in which water is removed due to evaporation by heat transferred from hot oil, while the hot fat is diffused into the papads filling the space emptied by water (Ali, 1997). It was well known that diffusion process is strongly dependent on temperature Arrhenius type of relationship.

19


Effect of Frying Conditions on Moisture and Fat of Papads

170°C

180°C

190°C

Oil content (%)

25 20 15 10 5 0 0

5

10

15

20

25

Frying time (sec.) Figure 2. Effect of frying temperarure on the oil content of the soy papads (basic formulation)

Oil content (%)

Relationship between oil content and moisture content of soya papads during frying As indicated in the previous section that frying of soya papads is a two way diffusion process. The experimental results of frying the papads at constant temperature and determining both moisture content and fat content of frying papads at definite time interval (as shown in the Table 2). The results of the analysis are shown in Figure 3. It is clearly seen that decrease in moisture content gives increased oil uptake indicating that water in cassava papads is replaced by frying fat. However, the rate of uptake of fat is far less than the rate of moisture removal. This is understandable since the water molecules are much smaller than the fat molecules and thus diffusion coefficient for water removal is much higher than that of fat uptake at a constant temperature. Similar analysis was given by Ali (1997) for potato chip processing. From Figure 3 it is also seen that at the moisture content of about 2-3% oil content in the papads varies between 16-30% for all frying temperatures such as 1700C, 1800C and 1900C. It is also observed that the higher the moisture contents the lower the oil content III all cases. The oil uptake rate is slightly higher at the higher temperature.

26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

170°C

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

180°C

14

16

190°C

18

20

22

24

Moisture content (%) Figure 3. Relation between oil content and moisture content of fried soy papads (basic formulation) at various frying temperature

CONCLUSION The oil content of papads was found to be 33% at 1700C, 30% at 1800C and 26% at 1900C when the moisture content of papads was 2-3%. Frying of soya papads can be considered as a two way diffusion process in which water is removed due to evaporation by heat transferred from hot oil, while the hot fat is diffused into the papads filling the space emptied by water.

20


Rahman and Uddin

The findings of this study revealed that moisture content decrease with frying time increase and oil content increase with frying time increase. On the other hand, oil content decrease when frying time and moisture content decrease. REFERENCES Ali, M.H. 1997. Processing and storage studies of potato chips. M.S. Thesis, Department of Food Technology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. Gopalan, C., Sastri, R.B.V. and Balasubramanian, S.C. 1971. Nutritive value of Indian Foods. I.C.M.R., Hydrabad, India, reterred by smith, R.G., Home Economist, MCC. Kaul, A.K. and Das, M.L. 1986. Oil seed in Bangladesh. Ministry of Agriculture, Dhaka. Krishnamurthy, K. and Shivashankar, K. 1975. Soybean Production in Karnataka USA, Tech. Series No. 12, Bangalore, University of Agricultural Sciences. Lat, M.S., Mehta, S.K., Deodhar, A.D. and Shanama, Y.K. 1973. Protein and oil content, their correlation and phonetypic environments in Madhya Pradesh. Indian J. Agril. Sci., 43(1): 14-17 Rahman, L. 1982. Cultivation of soybean and its uses. Printed by The City Press, Dhaka and Published by Dr. Lutfur Rahman, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council, Bangladesh. pp. 5-7

21


Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):22-26(February 2008)

IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF AFRICARE1 IN KABIIRA VILLAGE, KABALE, UGANDA M. H. RAHMAN1, K. CALATHARAN2, H. EINARSDOTTIR2, K. J. KIGGUNDU2 AND T. LUND2 Researcher, Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, 2Student, MSc Management of Natural Resources and Sustainable Agriculture, Norwegian University of Life Science, P.O. 284, Ås 1432, Norway 1

Accepted for publication: December 22, 2007 ABSTRACT Rahman M. H., Calatharan K., Einarsdottir H., Kiggundu K. J. and Lund T. 2008. Impact assessment of AfriCare1 in Kabiira village, Kabale, Uganda. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):22-26 The study was conducted in Kabale, Uganda to assess the impact of Africare project in Kabiira village. To gather the information a qualitative research was conducted through semi-structured interviews. The sampled was 15 households that were selected using stratified random sampling. Inductive and comparative analyse was employed to examine and discuss the data. Agriculture is the most important source of income in the community. Most of the respondents mentioned that they experienced high yields after Africare interventions because they got trainings about farming practices and soil conservation, and some inputs. They used the yield for household consumption and the surplus was sold in the market. On the other hand, some people explained that the ones that got more benefits from Africare activities were the ones with better living conditions. The groups supported by Africare was no longer functioning in the way that it was intended but Africare’s work allows others NGO’s to start working in Kabiira village.

Key words: Household, agriculture, africare project

INTRODUCTION AfriCare AfriCare is a non-profit, private charitable organization based in the United States established with the mission of improving the living conditions of Africans. It was founded in 1971. AfriCare extended its assistance to families and communities almost all over Africa for two and a half decades. AfriCare’s areas of intervention include agriculture, water, environment, literacy, micro enterprises, health and emergency humanitarian aid. AfriCare also supports programs in private sector development and governance (AfriCare 1998). Due to high food insecurity prevalence in the Kabale District, AfriCare through securing funds from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) had started a five-year project under Uganda Food Security Initiative (UFSI) from 1997 to 2001. It had targeted 71,000 beneficiaries in 106 villages in Kabale (Nyeko et al.2006). AfriCare followed different project strategies in Kabale such as Integrated approach to food security (mutual reinforcement of intervention), synergy effect with partnership, community approach (village action plan, community resource map, etc), partnership approach (target group or farmers), dissemination of technology through drama shows, training the community, farm field day, farmer to farmer visit, and farmer field school. The components of AfriCare projects were: agricultural production and post harvest operation, agricultural marketing, community road construction/rehabilitation, natural resource management, and community nutrition and sanitation. The activities of AfriCare to realize those components include capacity building of farmers in areas of modern agronomic practices, marketing and management of small scale farm business, provision of improved seeds, soil and water conservation, improving road infrastructure/rehabilitation, pig multiplication and rabbit breeding (AfriCare Kabale Office Briefings 2006). Various efforts have been exerted by different national and international organizations for the improvement of livelihood of small-scale farmers in marginalized conditions. Projects have been executed as instruments to realize developmental visions. However, most NGOs fail to fulfill their commitments of benefiting the poor being in trap of high administrative costs and corruptions. Even those NGOs which are believed to be successful, in finger counts, rarely made impact assessments once their projects phased-out and pulled out from the area. Hence, it demands to conduct impact assessments to enhance outreach in a wider geographic area with quality benefits in future activities. Agriculture sector in Kabale, Uganda Kabale (located in south-western Uganda) was for decades a key food-producing region in Uganda. In Kabale, the agricultural system was based on annual crops, with land holdings ranging 1-3 hectare. Farm size in Kabale District ranges from 0.3 to 2.4 hectare with 28.3% of house holdings having less than 1 hectare ( Nyeko et al., 2006).The most important crops are Irish potatoes, field peas, beans, sorghum, wheat, maize and vegetables. Perennial crops include bananas, cassava, and fruit trees. Temperate high value crops such as apples and grapes are being introduced. Dairy farming is also important. The high population pressure has pushed people to cultivate on very steep fragile 1

AfriCare is a non-profit, private charitable organization based in the United States established with the mission of improving the living conditions of Africans. © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

22


M. H. Rahman et al

hillsides, destroying contour bands, and to practice continuous cultivation with very short fallow periods (Nyeko et al., 2006). Due to high population density estimated at 370 persons per square kilometre, intensive land cultivation and land fragmentation, soil degradation has continued to threaten food security in the district (The most of the farmers (96%) have observed decrease in crop yields over past 5 years (Alacho et al. 2000) . In Kabale, according to Alacho et al., 2000, 88% of the population was subsistence farmers with an average of 7.4 children per household. A high number of people feed at the household, yet only 34% owned or controlled less than 0.21ha and 87% claimed to be utilizing all the available land indicating absence of any form of crop rotation. 25% rented land to supplement what they owned. 97% of the households did not use chemical fertilizers and the majority (63%) relied on animal manure. A further indication of the chronic food insecurity in Kabale was shown by the persistent poor nutrition indices. Overall stunting rate of 47% while those who were underweight were 16.5%, malnutrition and food shortage (84%) were major household problems (Alacho et al. 2000). AfriCare had done nothing with regard to impact assessment in Kabale on its previous interventions once it had pulled-out. This study strongly believed that conducting an assessment of the AfriCare’s projects impact on the community will have a paramount value to AfriCare and other stakeholders to their future developmental activities. Study Objectives The aim of the study or field visit was to assess the impact of Africare’s activities in the Kabiira village. The objectives of the study are i) to assess the household and farm characteristics and ii) to evaluate the impact of Africare intervention in Kabiira village. METHODOLOGY Study area Kabiira is a small village situated on one of the hills surrounding Lake Bunyonyi not far from Kabale in SouthWestern Uganda. The village consists of about 200 households and the main income source is farming. Even tough not everyone is a full-time farmers, everyone has a garden where they grow crops for own consumption. Steep slopes and fragmented land characterize the area. Obviously there was a problem with soil erosion during rainfall and since the water-source was far away there were problems with drought in the dry-season. Sampling design and proceedure The sample size was 30 households with 5 non-members (did not get direct benefit from AfriCare). Of the respondents seven were women and the rest men. Convenience sampling strategy was used to select the respondents who were available at that meeting. However, responders were picked from different segments of the population, defined by the stratifying criteria; women, men, members and non-members, therefore sampling technique could be considered as stratified random sampling. The names of the people correspondent to each stratum were named and picked the respondents randomly from there. Data collection method A questionnaire survey was conducted to obtain quantitative and qualitative information. Structured interview was carried out to gather social demographic data. The aim was to ask the same questions to all the respondents so that we would be able to compare them with each other. Semi-structured interview was done for the rest of the interview. This method made it possible to vary the sequence of the questions and add additional questions making the interview more as a normal floating conversation. The questions used were bigger and more general in their frame of reference than in a structured interview, which opens for the respondent to elaborate on the topics that were presented (Bryman 2001). Analytical Tools Descriptive statistics were utilized for the social demographic data using the Microsoft Excel software. Comparative analysis was made to see how the farmers sustained themselves before the intervention by AfriCare and after. Comparative method also used to estimate the difference in livelihood between members of the Kabiira production group and non-members. In development studies it is common to use both the inductive and deductive analysis. When there is little knowledge about the issue that is to be addressed it can be useful to employ an explorative analysis of empirical data. In this study data was got from having a number of interviews with the different stakeholders. In that sense this study employed the inductive analysis. But on the other hand some pre-determent expectations before started writing the questionnaires because of the briefing with AfriCare beforehand. This might implicate that also used a deductive analysis to the issue (Mikkelsen 2005).

23


Impact assessment of AfriCare1 in Kabiira village, Kabale, Uganda

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Assessing the household and farm characteristics in Kabiira The total number of respondents interviewed was 15 with a composition of 7 women and 8 men. Out of these, 10 (66.67%) were members of the AfriCare production group of which 6 were female. The rest were non-members of which only one was female. All the respondents were above 22 years of age with the mean age being 45.13 years. The oldest was 75 years old (Figure 1). Age class of the respondents (Years)

20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79

Figure 1: Age class of respondents All the respondents interviewed were married and were in monogamous families. The average household size was 6.93 people with the smallest family being 4 and the biggest being 10 (Figure 2) Household population size (in per sons) 4

Frequency

3

2

1

0

4

5

6

7 Hous e hold Size

8

9

10

Figure 2: Household population sizes of the respondents The average household land size was 3.03 acres. Of the 15 respondents, 4 were totally illiterate. Seven respondents had attended school up to primary level although only 2 of them had not gotten beyond primary four. Only one respondent had attended secondary education up to class 4 and none was learned beyond this. Thirteen of the respondents (86.67%) reported agriculture as the main source of income for their households with the other two still regarded is as the alternative source of income. Households of 5 respondents (33.3%) had no alternative source of income in addition to agriculture. Petty trading in household merchandise was the main alternative source of income (20%) followed by tailoring and farming (each 13.3%) and lastly building construction, local brewing and charcoal burning (each 6.67%). 24


M. H. Rahman et al

All respondents claimed to have available market for their agricultural produce although they reported fluctuation of prices, transportation difficulties and competition as the main market related problems. Inaccessibility to water for household use was reported as the biggest communal problem as by all the respondents. There was generally a poor reinvestment into the agricultural activities. Eleven of the respondents (73.3%) were members of a credit and savings scheme with two of them being in a formal one and the rest in informal ones. All respondents cited the problem of high interest rates and lack of assured income among other problems which have led to many of them avoid credit schemes and loans. Evaluation of the Impact of AfriCare’s Intervention in Kabiira Accessibility AfriCare has made an impact on many things in Kabiira but one of the things that everyone interviewed mentioned was road construction. AfriCare assisted the local governments with machines and other equipment for road constructions. Respondents revealed that now the road reached to places it did not reach before and it helped them reaching the market in Kabale. Increased yields Most of the respondents reported about increased yields after AfriCares intervention, the non-members said that they had learned about new farming practices from the members. The members also claimed that if they saw somebody farming in an inefficient way they would tell them a better way to do it. Only the members would get benefits like equipment and improved seeds from AfriCare. Many of the respondents were subsistence farmers before, but now they get a surplus that they can sell and therefore they can have their kids longer in school. Before many could only afford to have their kids in primary school but now many had them in secondary and even university. Some respondents said that in case of farming the members were today better of than the non members. On a general income level they didn’t feel that the members were better off in the village because others might have had other sources of income that have made them better off. Benefits Many of the respondents explained that the people that got the biggest benefits form AfriCare was the ones that were best of in the village before AfriCare came. One of the richest men in the village was elected to be the chairman and the ones who had a lot of land would also get most of the equipment, pesticides and improved seeds. When AfriCare would give out for instance rabbits all of them would go to one person. One of the respondents told us that sometimes they would cultivate a lot of their land for AfriCare purposes but when the time for getting the seeds came, they would just get seeds for half the land size. Some respondents didn’t have money to build the storages that AfriCare promoted. Field visit observed that there were big differences the living standard among the different farmers we visited. It seemed that the chairmen of the groups were better of in general than the normal members. After AfriCares intervention the hierarchy in the village stayed the same, and there was maybe an underlining of the structures that already existed. One person mentioned that being a member of AfriCare had given him more respect in the village. Improvements The biggest improvement has been skills about new farming practices and soil conservation techniques; crop rotation, trench digging, terracing, planting in rows, Calliandra trees and Elephant grass to prevent soil erosion and use as fodder, post-harvest handling, fertilizing skills and how to use organic fertilizer, pesticides and equipments such as watering cans, pesticides, spraying cans for pesticides and improved seeds, marketing skills, providing of livestock such as poultry, pigs and rabbits. Some of the farmers went on farmers exchange to other villages and learned about other crops and cultivations practices such as cassava growing. Calliandra calothyrsus is fast growing nitrogen – fixing multipurpose tree species native to Central America and Mexico. It has been introduced by Africare in Kabiira where it is an important component of agro forestry systems. Calliandra provides variety of products and services including fodder, fuel wood, and stakes for climbing beans, techniques for soil erosion control and soil fertility improvement (Nyeko et al. 2006). According to some of the members, AfriCare also created awareness about nutrition and this had been very beneficial for many of them. They also mentioned that they had been provided a health-centre where they would bring their children for weighing. It did not seem that this practice was continued after AfriCare left. One woman stated that they could not keep weighing their children when they didn’t know why they were weighing them. AfriCare had a positive impact on the village in the way that other NGO’s has joined later picking up where they left. However we noticed some confusion among the farmers. Several people thought that NAADS (National Agricultural Advisor Services) and NAROV, two NGO’s that has come after AfriCare, were sub-divisions of 25


Impact assessment of AfriCare1 in Kabiira village, Kabale, Uganda

AfriCare. Some even thought that AfriCare was still active in the region. They couldn’t separate which benefits they got from whom. Challenges According to the respondents the biggest problem in the village is water shortage; most people live far away form the water source. AfriCare has created protected wells and also taught people how to build their own water tanks. But still lack of water sources is a big problem. Drought is also a big problem and most people don’t have any strategies to handle this problem, they say it’s beyond their control; they just have to wait until the rain comes. However some people mentioned that knowledge of how to time the planting is helping them reduce the problems with drought. Few respondents had problems with pests after AfriCare redrew from the village. When AfriCare was still around they would provide pesticides for the members and when they left some of them didn’t have resources to keep on using pesticides on their land. This study also encountered some other challenges for the farmers in Kabiira. In the rainy season, soil-erosion is a problem. AfriCare had trained people in trench digging to stop the water to run of with the soil so people report that this was not that a big problem anymore. Overgrazing was a big problem because of the land fragmentation. One respondent stated that “Our land might be so far away so we could not control other people letting their cattle graze on our plots. A future problem might be land scarcity because you can see that the plots were getting smaller and smaller and more scattered”. Many people did not want to sell their land because they would like to give it to their kids or pay for dowry. Many of the respondents were members of informal credit schemes. However, only a few of the respondents claimed to have used this credit for further investments in agricultural tools and land. None of the respondents had borrowed money from the bank because they were afraid of not being able to pay back the money, and maybe loosing their land or house. CONCLUSION Most of the households were characterized by subsistence farming with small landholdings. Lack of access to credit facilities, marketing challenges, lack of alternative sources of income and lack of safe drinking water were among the problems. AfriCare did an impressive job in capacity building of farmers. The provision of improved varieties of seeds, construction of roads, storage facilities, nutrition and child care, poultry farming, Caliandra trees, and soil and water conservation were among the interventions. All in all AfriCare had accomplished their objectives but this study didn’t find all of their interventions sustainable. It became obvious that the production group was no longer functioning the way it was intended. They had internal conflicts and it didn’t seem to be a priority to recruit new members. Many of the members joined (extension) NAADS when AfriCare redrew and some said that they just transferred to NAADS. Some claimed that after having benefited the most from AfriCare they either would gain more farming individually or joining the NAADS program. REFERENCES Africare. 1998. News flyer about Africare. Alacho, F., Ngombi, B., Persell,P., Mohamed, M., and Hakiza,J. 2000. “The contribution of the community seed potato production and storage scheme to food security in Kabale district: a case of Africare/ Uganda.” African potato association conference proceedings, vol.5 pp 05-108. African Potato Association. Bryman, A. 2001. Social research methods”, second edition, Oxford University Press, United States Mikkelsen, B. 2005. Methods for development work and research, 2nd ed., Sage Publications Inc., California Nyeko, P., Stewart, J., Franzel, S., and Barklund, P. 2006. Farmers’ experiences in the management and utilization of Calliandra calothyrsus a fodder shrub, in Uganda. Accessed on the http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20043157121

26



SURVEY AND IDENTIFICATION OF MAJOR INSECT PEST AND PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF BRINJAL DURING WINTER AT CHITTAGONG DISTRICT M.H. RASHID1, M. MOHIUDDIN2 AND M. A. MANNAN3 1&2

3

Scientific Officer, Senior Scientific Officer, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Hathazari, Chittagong, Bangladesh

Acceptance for publication: December 27, 2007 ABSTRACT Rashid M.H., Mohiuddin M. and Mannan M. A. 2008. Survey and Identification of Major Insect Pest and Pest Management Practices of Brinjal during Winter at Chittagong District. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):27-32 A survey was conducted at Hathazari, Satkania and Fatikchari upazila in Chittagong district to identify major insect pest and pest management practices used by the brinjal growers. A total of seventy five brinjal growers were selected for interview during November 2006 to February 2007. Twenty five growers were selected from each area and pretested structured questionnaires were used in this survey. Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer (BSFB) was identified as the major insect pest in the study area. Ninety-nine percent of growers relied solely on pesticide use to control brinjal pest. The growers use a variety of pesticides belongs to various chemical groups with various formulations. Brinjal growers applied insecticides more than 23 times in a season. Six days interval gaps between insecticide application and fruit harvest. Pesticide dealers were the major source of information to farmers on the selection of chemicals and application methods. Very few growers used protective clothing or other safety measures during pesticide application; 45% of the respondent did not take any safety measures. Where as 29% of the growers covered their face and body. 17% covered their body and 17% covered their face at the time of spraying. On an average 61% of the farmers believed that pesticide application are harmful to farm labour, 27% farmers expressed their views that pesticide application pollute the water and air. This study reflects the irrational use of pesticide use in brinjal cultivation that has serious consequences to human health and the environment.

Key Words: Brinjal grower, insect identification, pest Management

INTRODUCTION Brinjal (Solamun melongena) is the most important vegetable in Bangladesh. It is cultivated on small and marginal farmer’s where daily sale of the produce serves as cash income. Nationwide, production area for brinjal has increased from 29,132 ha in 1994-95 to 37514 ha in 2004-05 and production has gone up from 187,705 tons to 240095 tons during this period (BBS, 2004). This represents an increase of 1.29 times in area under cultivation and 1.28 times increase in production volume nationwide. Among the many pest species, the brinjal shoot and fruit borer (BSFB), leucinodes orbonalis Guenee, is the most destructive. The pest larvae bore inside tender shoots and plant growth. More severe economical damage caused by the larvae to feeding inside the fruits, which make damaged the fruit and unfit for human consumption. The yield loss varies different environment conditions but can exceed 65% in Bangladesh (BARI, 1999). Despite the importance of brinjal and severity of BSFB problem, the management practices to combat BSFB are still limited to frequent sprays to toxic chemical pesticides (Kabir et al., 1996). Both over use and misuse of insecticides may lead to the loss of effective insecticides due to the development of resistance (Forrester, 1990) and could cause human health hazard and environmental pollution (Maclntyre et al., 1989). Inappropriate selection of insecticides and doses, improper spray scheduling and inadequate spray coverage (Phillips et al., 1990) may causes of failure in controlling insect pests. For vegetables in general, Sabur and Mollah (2000) observed an increase in use of pesticide by farmers in combating pests throughout Bangladesh. According to Pesticide Association of Bangladesh (1999), pesticide use for growing brinjal was 1.41 kg/ha, whereas for all vegetables it was 1.12 kg, while it was only 0.20 kg in rice. Meanwhile, in appropriate pesticides, incorrect time of application and improper doses all have result in high pesticide cost with little or no reduction in target pest populations. For the last few years production of Brinjal is seriously hampered by the severe attack of different insect pests. The yield loss caused by these pests has been estimated up to 86% in Bangladesh. In the present study, an attempt was made to document the pest problems and pest management practices undertaken by the farmers. The results of this study are reported here in. MATERIALS AND METHODS A survey was conducted at Hathazari, Satkania and Fatikchari upazila in Chittagong district. A total of seventy five brinjal growers were interviewed during November 2006 to February 2007 of which twenty five brinjal growers were selected from each area. To determine the recent insecticide use pattern, farmers who did not grow Brinjal over the last one year were not selected. Objectives oriented structured questionnaire was used to identify major insect pest problems and pest management practices with Brinjal cultivation. The collected data were coded, edited for processing and analysis. Descriptive statistical methods were used to analyze the survey data. © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

27


M.H. Rashid et al

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Land utilization pattern Farm size is one of the socio-economic indicators for the farmer to adopt a new technology. The average farm size per household was 2.13 acre in Chittagong district. In Hathazari was much larger (2.26 acre) than Satkania (2.18 acre) and Fatikchori (1.94 acre). A total of 36.25% of the cultivated land was allocated to vegetable cultivation and 33.07% of land under brinjal cultivation over total vegetable cultivated land in surveyed area (Table 1). Table 1. Location wise farm size and vegetables cultivation area of the study area

Hathazari

Total cultivated land (acre/farm) 2.26

Total vegetables area (%) 31.62

Percent of brinjal area over total vegetables area 30.01

Satkania

2.18

44.56

27.31

Fatikchori

1.94

32.58

41.90

Average

2.13

36.25

33.07

Location

Insect pests and their management All the farmers under studied area considered BSFB as the most common pest insect (Table 2).The study found 30.67%, 18.67% and 14.67% growers reported that thrips (Thrips palmi karny), red mites (Tetranychus sp.) and epilachna beetle (Epilachna spp.) were other notable pests in the study area respectively. Study also revealed that 56% growers at Hathazari found red mite attacking in their brinjal fields but none in Satkania and Fatikchari.

Table 2. Percentage of the respondents to the insect infestation in brinjal cultivation % respondent

Pest Brinjal shoot and fruit borer

Hathazari

Satkania

Fatikchori

Average

100

100

100

100

Epilachna beetle

16

16

12

14.67

Thrips

48

24

20

30.67

Red mite

56

-

-

18.87

The percentage of respondents ranged from 20(Fatikchori) to 40 (Hathazari) of different locations perceived that BSFB was controllable. In contrast, 60 (Hathazari) to 80% (Fatikchori) respondents reported that it is difficult to control. The growers considered other insect pests are also problematic in brinjal cultivation as to BSFB. The percentage of farmers ranged from 43 (Fatikchori) to 52% (Satkania) of different locations perceived that Epilachna beetle was controllable. In contrast, 48 (Satkania) to 57% (Fatikchori) farmers reported that it was difficult to control. The percentage of farmers ranged from 46 (Hathazari) to 49 (Satkania) of different locations perceived that Jassids was controllable. In contrast, 51 (Satkania) to 54% (Hathazari) farmers reported that it was difficult to control. The percentage of farmers ranged from 42(Satkania) to 50 (Hathazari) of different locations perceived that Red mite was controllable. In contrast, 50 (Hathazari) to 58% (Satkania) farmers reported that it was difficult to control.

Table 3. Farmers knowledge about control of major insect pests of Brinjal Percent of brinjal growers Particulars Brinjal shoot and fruit borer

Difficult to control

Controllable

Hathazari

Satkania

Fatikchori

Hathazari

Satkania

Fatikchori

60

75

80

40

25

20

Epilachna beetle

51

48

57

49

52

43

Thrips

54

51

52

46

49

48

Red mite

50

58

52

50

42

48

The majority of the brinjal farmers sprayed their brinjal crop from initial indication of pest infestation and their after on a routine basis (Figure 1). Study revealed that 16%, 16% and 4% of brinjal growers spray insecticides in their 28


Survey and Identification of Major Insect Pest and Pest Management Practices of Brinjal during Winter at Chittagong District

field without observing insect pest in Hathazari, Satkania and Fatikchari respectively. Study also found that only 28% farmers of Satkania spray after detection of insect pest followed by Hathazari and Fatikchari respectively.

Percent of farmers

Hathazari

80

90 80

60

70

Satkania 56

Fatikchari

60 50 40

28

24 16

30 20

16

16 4

10 0

Spray without observing pest damage

From initial attack routin spraying

After detecting insect infestation

Period of pesticide application by farmers

Figure 1. Farmers practice of application of pesticide for the control of brinjal pests in Chittagong District Ninety nine percent farmers relied solely on spraying of pesticides for the control of brinjal insect pests; the remaining 1% used a combination of sanitation, which consists of prompt removal of damaged shoot, coupled with pesticide sprays (IPM techniques) (Table 4). Study also found that not a single farmer used cultural methods in cultivation of brinjal. Table 4. Different control measures taken by the farmers for controlling brinjal insect pests Method of insect control

% Farmers' respondent Hathazari

Satkania

Fatikchori

Average

IPM

4

-

-

1.33

Only insecticide

96

100

100

98.67

Cultural method

-

-

-

-

Others

-

-

-

-

Chittagong farmers use a variety of pesticides belonging to different chemical groups with different formulations, such as emulsifiable concentrate (EC), soluble powder (SP), granular (G), and water-soluble concentrate (WSC).Carbosulfan (Marshall) 20 EC and carbofuran (Furadan) 5G were the most popular chemicals, being used by 36%, and 25%, of the brinjal growers, respectively (Table 5). Other insecticides were used in lesser quantities as: Malathion (Fyfanon) 57EC, cypermethrin (ostad) 10EC, dimethoate (perfecthion) 40Ec, cartap (cartuf) etc. Fungicide such as Theovit, Neon poeder, Dithane M-45, Polyrum powder, Cosavit, Sunvit, Bevistin, Ridomil Gold were used for the control of brinjal pest and plant growth regulators such as orbit, macrosul also used by the farmers.

29


M.H. Rashid et al

Table 5. Type of insecticides used by growers to control brinjal pest at surveyed area Chemical

Trade name

Hathazari

percent of farmers’ Satkania Fatikchori

All

Carbamate Carbosulfan Carbofuran Cartap Carbaryl Malathion

Dimethoate Monocrotophos Quinalphos Diazinon

Sunsulfan 20EC Marshal 20EC Furadan 5G Cartuf Suntuf 50SP Emituf 50SP Sevin 85SP Malathion 57EC Sumithion Fyfanon 57EC Syfanon 57EC Perfecthion 40EC Dimethion 40EC Tafgor 40EC Azodrin 40WSC Kinolux 25EC Corolux Diazinon 60Ec Rison 60EC

48 56 32 8 8 12 24 12 4

4 48 8

4 12 12

4 8 4 4 4

20 4 20 24 4 4 4 4

2.67 36 25..33 10.67 1.33 2.67 2.67 2.67 4 6.67 1.33 6.67 8 1.33 1.33 2.67 8 5.33 4

Relothrin 10EC Basuthrin 10EC Superthrin 10EC Ostad 10EC Cypermethrin 10EC Ripcord 10EC Cymbush 10EC Pyriphos Karate 25EC Actara 25WG Admire Omite Sobicron Basudin Polyrum Neon poeder Theovit Dithane M-45 Polyrum powder Cosavit Sunvit Bevistin Ridomil Gold Ocozim Orbit Macsulfur

8 12 4 4 16 12 12 28 8 9.09 16 12 4 -

32 12 4 12 4 4 4 20 8

4 64 12 16 4 8

1.33 13..33 4 21..33 1.33 8 1.33 1.33 10.67 10.67 1.33 4 17..33 8

8 8 12 4 4 4 4

4 16 8 8 8 4 8 -

1.33 13..33 5.33 6.67 4 1.33 4 4 1.33 1.33 1.33

Pyrethroid

Cypermethrin

Chloropyriphos Cyhalothrin Thiomethroxum Admire Miticide

Fungicide

Plant Growth Regulator

30


Survey and Identification of Major Insect Pest and Pest Management Practices of Brinjal during Winter at Chittagong District

The interval between insecticide applications mostly depended upon the season. During winter, brinjal growers applied insecticides more than 23 times a season (Table 6). Six days gaps between insecticide application and the harvest of the fruits. About 84% growers spray insecticides by machine out of that 44% by own machine and 56% rental one. Table 6. Insecticide spraying pattern on brinjal cultivation Location

Spraying interval (day)

Total spray (no.)

Hathazari Satkania Fatikchori All

7 5 6.8 6.27

20 30 21 23.07

% of Sprayer Spray machine Piskari 96 4 96 4 60 40 84 16

% of machine owner

% of machine renter

44 48 40 44

56 52 60 56

Most of the farmers (65%) reported that they received advice for the selection of chemical and its doses from pesticide dealers (Table 7). This indicates that the retailers of pesticides are an important factor for pesticide recommendation in the study area. On the other hand, the widespread miss use of pesticides also indicates that pesticide dealers do not have the expertise to guide farmers on effectively controlling brinjal pest. Even if they have the necessary expertise, but obviously motivated by profits from their own business of pesticide sale. Results of this survey also imply that either the extension workers in the area do not have proper technical expertise or their communication with farmers is not convincing enough. Table 7. Source of information about pest control of brinjal Source Pesticide dealers Neighbors TV/radio Relatives Extension workers Show level Research workers Company Agents

% of respondent Satkania Fatikchori 88 80 4 4 8 12 4

Hathazari 28 32 4 36 12 -

All 65.33 13.33 8 12 4 1.33

Health Hazards Very few farmers used protective clothing or other safety measures during pesticide application; 45% did not taken any safety measures. 29%covered their face and body. 17%covered their body and 17%covered their face (Table 8) at the time of spraying. Table 8. Protection measures taken by the farmers during pesticide application in brinjal Protection measures Cover face Cover body Cover face and body No protection measure

% of respondent Satkania Fatikchori 4 12 36 28 20 4 40 56

Hathazari 8 24 28 40

Average 8 29.33 17.33 45.33

Farmer's Awareness on pesticide use Issues Most of the farmers believed that spraying pesticides is the single most dangerous practice in their farming operations. On an average 61% farmers believed that pesticide applications are harmful to human health, 27% farmers expressed the view that pesticide applications pollute the water and air. In contrast, only 8% of farmers believed that pesticide applications polluter cause harm to natural enemies of pests. On an average16% farmers believed that insecticide is not harmful (Table 9). This is due to the farmer's lack of training in recognizing harmful all useful insects and other arthropods. This lack of knowledge leads to destruction of these useful fauna by indiscriminate pesticide use. 31


M.H. Rashid et al

Table 9. Farmers' awareness about the detrimental effect of insecticides use in brinjal Particulars Water pollution Air pollution Harmful to natural enemies Health hamper Not harmful

Hathazari 28 28 24 64 4

Satkania 52 52 64 -

% of respondent Fatikchori 56 44

Average 26.67 26.67 8 61.33 16

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The present investigation demonstrates, BSFB is the most common pest insect in brinjal and the indiscriminate and irrational use of pesticide to protect brinjal from insect pest in the study area. The existing pattern of pesticide usage, if continued, will result in future loss of efficacy due to development of resistance by brinjal insect pest to pesticides. Other undesirable effects include resource degradation, resurgence of pest populations, environment pollution and threat to human health. Very few farmers use simple sanitation methods, such as cutting off of pest damaged shoots that have potential in reducing pest damage. Although farmers are interested in planting pest- resistant brinjal varieties, such varieties are not likely to develop in the immediate future. The IPM strategy that has been developed to reduce farmer’s pesticide use drastically. Farmers need to be trained by means of field days or demonstrations. The trained farmers should be motivated to adopt all methods, including sanitation, conservation of natural enemies by withholding pesticide use for as long as possible. In the meantime, intensified research is needed to develop component technologies such as BSFB resistant brinjal cultivars, introduction of effective biological pesticides and introduction of additional exotic parasitoids. Rural development authorities need to hire well-trained staff that is willing to assist farmers. The farmers should be encouraged to consult such trained extension workers instead of pesticide dealers and chemical company representatives to get proper information about pest management. Research-extension ties need to be improved for the quick dissemination of the improved IPM approach. Information dissemination through mass media should be undertaken on the use of IPM as well as the detrimental effect of pesticide use in vegetable cultivation. REFERENCES Bangladesh Agricultural Research institute (BARI). 1999. Annual report 1998-99. Joydebpur, Gazipur, Bangladesh: BARI. 481pp. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1994. Statistical Year Book. Dhaka: Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. 305 pp Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2004. Statistical Year Book. Dhaka: Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Forrester, N.W. 1990. Designing, implementing and servicing on insecticide resistance management strategy. Pesticide Sci. 28: 167-180. Kabir, K.H., M.E. Baksh, F. M.A. Rouf and A. Ahmed. 1996. Insecticides use pattern on vegetables at farmers’ level of Jessore region in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Agric. Res. 21(2):214-254. Maclntyre, A., N. Allison and D. Penman. 1989. Pesticides: Issues and options for New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington. New Zealand. Pesticide Association of Bangladesh. 1999. Pesticide Consumption Report. Dhaka. 30 pp Phillips, J.R., J.P. Graves and Luttrell. 1990. Insecticide resistance management: Relationships to integrated pest management. Pesticide Sci. 27: 459-467. Sabur, S. A. and A. R. Mollah. 2000. Marketing and economic use of pesticides. Impact on crop production. ARMP. contact research report. Dhaka: Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council.114 pp.

32



GROWTH STUDY OF AN EXOTIC FISH, RED PIRANHA (Pygocentrus nattereri) IN POLYCULTURE POND, BANGLADESH M. M. RAHMAN1, A. T. ABU AHMED1, M. M. MAHMUD1 AND M. A. HOSSAIN2 1 Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka-1000, Dhaka, 2Fisheries and Marine Resource Technology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh

Accepted for publication: December 28, 2007 ABSTRACT Rahman M. M., Abu Ahmed A. T., Mahmud M. M. and Hossain M. A. 2008. Growth Study of an Exotic Fish, Red Piranha (Pygocentrus nattereri) in Polyculture Pond, Bangladesh. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):33-38 The growth in terms of length and weight of Red Piranha, Pygocentrus nattereri Kner, 1858 was studied in a polyculture pond at the Khaza Matshya Hatchery, Valuka, Mymensingh where the fish were cultured with different fish species, for a period of one year (August 2005 to July 2006). In the observed pond, the final overage weight and length of Piranha was 1102g and 39.1 cm respectively and the growth rate varied from 9.89% to 188.89%. Growth rate in terms of length and weight showed an increasing trend in February. The logarithmic from of equation obtained for the length weight relationship was represented by log W= -3.302+4.122 log (TL) 00 W= 0.00019889 (TL) 4.122. The regression Co-efficient (b) and correlation co-efficient (r) was calculated as 4.122 and 0.985060 respectively. The values of relative condition factor (Kn) ranged from 0.60 to 1.70 with an average of 1.05. It was lowest in July and highest in January. The drop in the Kn value from April to July might be due to maturity of the fish. From the growth of the study, the growth rate of P. nattereri was found to be closely nearer (or higher in some case) to that of the other exotic species of fish.

Key words: Growth, Red Piranha, polyculture

INTRODUCTION In Bangladesh, about 16 species of feed fish have been introduced for increasing the overall production of food fishes, utilizing a vacant niche by appropriate species, controlling insect pests, and decorating aquarium by ornamental varieties (Rahman 2005).The Red Piranha, Pygocentrus nattereri belongs to the family Characidae of order, Characiformes, is one of the exotic species in Bangladesh. P. nattereri also called Red Bellied Piranha originally a resident of Amazon Basin in South America. They are normally about 15 to 25 cm long (6 to 10 inches), although reportedly individuals have been found up to 60 cm in length (Source: Wikipedia).This species was earlier introduced in Thailand, China, Singapore and the Philippines. The fish traders imported this fish in Bangladesh in 2001 from Thailand and China for culture and marketing. A number of people reportedly are involved in the culture of the species in Tongi areas in Dhaka, Trishal, Valuka in Mymensingh, Daudkandi in Comilla and Chandpur, Khulna and Satkhira areas (Rahman, 2005) for the commercially viable growth rate of Piranha. The induced spawning is being practiced at different hatcheries in Mymenshingh area. Already it has been possible to produce fingerlings by artificial breeding through stripping of mature females and mixed with milt obtained from mature males with hormonal treatment. This species at the early stages resembles the Rupchanda and sold in market as Thai Rupchanda. It is anticipated that the fish may accidentally escape the culture system and come in competition with native species for establishment in open water. But it is informed through personal communication with fish farmers that Piranha has a fanning potential in Bangladesh as a high yielding variety and its respective size, shape and colour. The knowledge of age and growth of a fish is extremely useful in management and great biological interest (Lager, 1965). Growth may be simply defined as an increase in size, considering both length and weight (Rounsefell and Everhart, 1962). Several researchers like Vietmeyer (1976), Mehta et al. (1976), Shireman et al. (1980) and Prabhavathy and Sreenivasan (1977) have studied the growth rate in terms of weight and length of Red Bellied Piranha. Length, weight and age are mainly considered to be the growing factors for life, so also in case of fishes. Fishes are known to be poikilothermic animals living in an aquatic media. The growth of fishes in terms of length and weight is a continuous process with some exceptions due to fluctuating velocity. To establish length-weight relationship of particular fish there lying two objectives (Le Cren, 1951): (a) to ascertain measurement of individuals, as indications of fatness, general well- being etc., (b) to convert logarithmic growth rate for weights may also give indications of taxonomic difference and events in the life history. Knowledge of length-weight relationship is a must to establish growth equations in production computation (Rao, 1974). Due to scarcity of data on growth rate of Red Bellied Piranha in Bangladesh, the present study was felt necessary.So the present study was undertaken to explore the growth of Red Bellied piranha, P. nattereri that will be a key element for culture and management of this fish in Bangladesh.


33


M. M. Rahman et al

MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study was conducted from August, 2005 to July, 2006 at the Khaza Matshya Hatchery, Valuka, Mymensingh and at the Fisheries Laboratory of Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka. In the present investigation, a pond situated at hatchery area was used which was cultivated under culturable conditions in polyculture. To study the growth of P. nattereri monthly sampling was done with the help of small seine net (mesh size 8 mm). At least 10% of the catch representing at least one from each size group was collected for this purpose. The study of the growth of fish fry and fingerlings were done just after washing in the laboratory to avoid shrinkage or weight loss by the preservatives. In every month from August 2005 to July 2006, at least ten fishes were caught and measured for weight and lengths to monitor their growth with the help of centimeter scale to the nearest cm and "Triple beam balance" to the nearest gm and then were put back into the pond. The length and weights were recorded at 30 days interval of each month on a particular date. The mathematical function suggested by Le Cren (1951) was used in estimating length – weight relationship W = a Ln Where, W = weight, L = Length, a = constant and n = an exponential usually lying between 2.5 and 4.0 The above formula suggested by Le Cren is originated from the following power function: y = ax b, which is not linear but parabolic in nature. The exponential from the above relationship can be expressed as follows: Logy = Log a + b Log x, which is linear. The value of ‘a’ and ‘b’ was estimated by means of the regression analysis using the original data.

least squares method from

The relative condition factor (Kn) calculated by the formula: Kn = W/Ŵ Where, W= observed log weight and Ŵ= calculated log value RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During the period of investigation, growth in terms of length and weight of Red Bellied Piranha (Pygocentrus nattereri) was observed. Continuous growth of the fish was observed throughout the year. The estimated monthly average total length (cm), average standard length (cm), average weight (g) and the growth rate of P. nattereri in pond are shown in Table 1. In the observed pond the final average weight and length of Piranha was 1102 g and 39.1 cm, respectively and the growth rate varied from 9.89% to 188.89 %.The graphical presentation of monthly average growth of Piranha are shown in Figure 1. The growth of fishes at the early stage was rapid. Growth rate in terms of length and weight showed an increasing trend in February. This might be due to the change of season, start of rainfall and availability of more food items in the pond. Growth of Piranha can be highly variable due to different culture conditions.

34


Growth Study of an Exotic Fish, Red Piranha (Pygocentrus nattereri) in Polyculture Pond, Bangladesh

Table 1. Estimation of monthly recoded average total length, average standard length, average weight, growth rate and gain in weight of P. nattereri. Month Aug.’05 Sep.’05 Oct.’05 Nov.’05 Dec.’05 Jan.’06 Feb.’06 March’06 April 06 May 06 June06 July06

Total length (cm) 15.6 19.6 22.0 23.0 24.0 24.8 28.5 30.1 31.0 33.8 36.1 39.1

Standard length (cm) 13.1 14.9 17.4 18.5 19.6 20.7 23.6 25.0 26.1 28.1 31.2 34.3

Weight (g) 27 78 160 285 362 452 594 683 789 889 1011 1102

Growth rate (%)

Gain in weight (g)

188.89 105.13 78.13 27.02 24.86 31.42 14.98 15.52 12.67 13.72 9.89

51 82 125 77 90 142 89 106 100 122 91

1200

1000

Growth(g)

800 Weight(g)

600

400

200

2005 -2006

Ju l

Ju n

A pr . M ay .

M ar

Ja n. Fe b.

N ov . D ec .

A ug . S ep . O ct .

0

Figure 1. Monthly average growth of red piranha (P. nattereri) The results of length weight relationship of P. nattereri are shown in Table 2.The logarithmic form of equation obtained for the length-weight relationship of P. nattereri was represented by Log =-3.302+4.122 log(TL) or W= 0.00049889(TL)4.122.The computational procedures are shown in Table 2. The regression coefficient (b) and correlation co-efficient (r) was calculated as 4.122 and 0.985060 respectively. The parabolic and logarithmic relationship between the length and weight are given in Figure 2 and 3. Relative condition factor shows cyclical changes in different months. Its values ranged from 0.60 to 1.70 with an average of 1.05. It was lowest in July and highest in January. The drop in the Kn value from April to July might be due to maturity of the fish.

35


M. M. Rahman et al

Table 2. Showing the relationship between total length and weight of P. nattereri Month Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec Jan. Feb. March April May Jun. July

TL (x) 15.6 19.6 22 23 24 24.8 28.5 30.1 31 33.8 36.1 39.1

Log x

(Logx)2

1.193 1.292 1.342 1.362 1.38 1.394 1.455 1.479 1.491 1.529 1.558 1.592

1.423 1.669 1.801 1.855 1.904 1.943 2.117 2.187 2.223 2.338 2.427 2.534

Weight (y) 27 78 160 285 362 452 594 683 789 889 1011 1102

Log y

(Logy)2

Log x X Logy

1.43 1.89 2.2 2.46 2.56 2.66 2.77 2.83 2.9 2.95 3.01 3.04

2.048 3.58 4.85 6.027 6.548 7.049 7.695 8.032 8.393 8.697 9.03 9.254

1.707 2.44 2.958 3.344 3.531 3.701 4.036 4.191 4.319 4.509 4.682 4.843

Calculated Wt.(W) 41.303 105.829 170.370 204.630 243.869 265.503 295.21 602.265 700.357 1000.279 1312.113 1823.388

Calculated Wt (LogW) 1.616 2.025 2.231 2.311 2.387 2.424 2.695 2.793 2.845 3.00 3.118 3.261

Kn 0.654 0.737 0.939 1.393 1.484 1.702 1.199 1.101 1.127 0.889 0.771 0.604

2000 1800

Weight (W) in g

1600

Calculated value Observed value

1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 15.5

18

20.5

23

25.5

28

30.5

33

35.5

38

40.5

Le ngth (TL) cm

Figure 2. Showing the relationship between total length and weight of P. nattereri 3.4

Calculated valu

3.1

Weight (W) in g

Observed value 2.8

Log w = -3.302+4.122 Log (TL)

2.5 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.3 1.19

1.24

1.29

1.34

1.39

1.44

1.49

1.54

1.59

Length (TL) cm

Figure 3. Showing the least square regression of Log weight on Log length of P. nattere 36


Growth Study of an Exotic Fish, Red Piranha (Pygocentrus nattereri) in Polyculture Pond, Bangladesh

In the study of growth, various authors considered either length or weight of the samples. However, in the present study both length and weight were considered. In the observed pond the final average weight and length of piranha was 1102 g and 39.1 cm respectively and the growth rate varied from 9.89% to 188.89%. This result shows that the increase of weight of P. nattereri according to their length is nearer to exotic carp fishes of our country, like silver carp (Hypophthamichthys molitrix), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), grass carp(Ctenopharyngodon idellus ) etc. From the personal communication with the fish farmers, it was known that the growth rate of P. nattereri is higher than the native carps like, Catla catla, Labeo rohita etc. They have also informed that in optimum condition where supplementary feeds are provided properly, the growth rate of P. nattereri exceeds the growth rate of all other exotic species of fish. Merona (1984) reported that growth rate of P. nattereri remains high until the fish reach a 19-22 cm, when the fish are about 9 to 12 months old. Almost same trend of growth was observed in the present study. The length-weight relationship for grass carp (H. molitrix) usually does not differ significantly from the standard cubic growth equation. The logarithmic form of equation obtained for the length -weight relationship of P. nattereri was presented by log W = -3.302+4.122 log (TL) or W= 0.00049889 (TL) 4.122. This relationship is more or less similar to the length-weight relationship of H. molitrix. He determined the relationship of silver carp of 27-66 cm (TL) in a culture pond to be W=0.0005953 (TL) 3.991. The length-weight relationship in parabolic equation usually lies between 2.5 and 4.2 (Hile, 1936). In a typical fish that maintain constant shape "b" will be 3.0, i.e. growth is isometric (Andrade and Campos 2002) The value of the regression co-efficient "b" recorded in the present study was 4.122. However the condition of fish is subject to variations with a number of factors including reproductive cycles and availability of foods (Thomson 1943, Rounsefell and Everhart 1953, Morato et al. 2001) such variation may also be related to the environmental factors and the age and the physiological state of the fish (Brown 1957).The value of the correlation co-efficient `r' recorded in the present study was 0.985 which indicates strong and highly correlated relationship between length and weight of the fish. The relative condition factor (Kn) ranged between 0.60 to 1.70 with an average of 1.05. The Kn values recorded for the fish indicate good condition of the fish. Kn values were found to show an increasing trend with higher age groups but decreasing trend was observed with further increases in age. The present study has demonstrated the growth of pond reared red piranha which is one of the important aspects of biology of a fish. From the growth of the study, it is clear that the growth rate of P. nattereri is closely nearer (or higher in some case) to that of the other exotic species. As a result, a number of people have engaged themselves commercially in the culture of this species. From this point of view, it is a commercially viable species of exotic fish in Bangladesh. But it has been known from the other study on food and feeding behaviour of P. nattereri, the fries are mainly `planktivores’; the fingerlings are "omnivores". The adult is also found to be "omnivores" but the highly carnivorous characters are dominant over the herbivorous characters. This is a negative impact of piranha culture in our country. However, it is highly recommended that the advance research on the biology of the P. nattereri should be carried out further for the culture and management of fish and fisheries resources in Bangladesh. REFERENCES Andrade, H. A. and B. O. Campos. 2002. Allommetry coefficient variations of the length-weight relationship of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) caught in the southwest South Atlantic. Fish. Res., vol. 55: 307-312 Brown, M. E. 1957. The Physiology of Fishes I. Academic Press Inc., New York. pp 371 Hile, R. 1936. Age and growth of the cisco Leucichthys artedi (lesuur) in the lakes of three northern highlands, Wisconsin. Bull. U. Bur. Fish. 48: 11-17 Lagler, K. F., J. E. Bardarch and R. R. Miller. 1962. Ichthyology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. pp 321 Le Cren, E. D. 1951. The length-weight relationship and seasonal cycle in gonad weight and factors in a tropical lake (Govindgarh Lake, M. P.) and interrelationships. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India, 17(1 &2): 11-24 Mehta, I., R.K. Sharma and A.P. Tuank. 1976. The aquatic weed problem in the Chambal irrigated area and its control by grass carp. In: Aquatic weeds in Southeast Asia, C. K. Varshney and J. Rzoshka (Eds.). The Hague, Netherlands. pp. 307-314 Merona, B. and M. M. Bittencourt. 1997. Inter-annual variability of Red Piranha abundance (Pygocentrus nattereri Kner, 1858). In: International Symposium Biology of Tropical Fishes. Manaus, Amazonas. Pp. 23

37


M. M. Rahman et al

Morato, T., R. S. Santos and R. D. M. Nash. 2001. Length-Weight relationships for 21 coastal fish species of the Azores, north-eastern Atlantic. Fish. Res., vol. 50: 297-302 Prabhavathy, G. and A. Sreenivasan. 1977. Cultural prospects of Chinese carps in Tamilandu. Proc. IPEC, 17 (3): 354-362 Rounsfell, G. A. and W. H. Everhart. 1953. Age and Growth. In. Fisheries sciences. John willey and sons, New York. Pp. 297 – 327 Rahman, A.K.A. 2005. Freshwater Fishes of Bangladesh, 2nd ed. Zool. Soci. Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. pp 476 Rao, G. R. 1974. Observations on the age and growth, maturity and fecundity of Labeo fimbriatus of river Godavari. Indian J. Fish. Soc. 88: 53-57 Shireman, J. V., D. E. Colle and M. J. Maceina. 1980. Red Piranha growth rates in Lake Wales, Florida. Aquaculture, 19:379-382 Vietemyer, N. D. 1976. Grass carp in making aquatic weeds useful: some perspectives for developing countries. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C. Pp. 15-21.Vidal H. Jr.and Sazima, I.1999.Piranha Attacks on Humans in Southeast Brazil: Epidemiology, Natural History, and Clinical Treatment, With Description of a Bite Outbreak. Wilderness and Environmental Medicine. 14 (4): 249–254

38



VOLUNTEER EFFORTS FOR DEVELOPMENT CONCERNS’ (VEDCO) IMPACT ON THE KYAGALANYI PIGGERY FARMERS GROUP IN UGANDA M. H. RAHMAN1, K. ALPÍZAR2, T. LUND2, B. BWALYA2 AND B. MJØS2 1

Researcher, Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Science , 2Student, MSc. Management of Natural Resources and Sustainable Agriculture, Norwegian University of Life Science, P.O. 284, Ås 1432, Norway

Accepted for publication: December 30, 2007 ABSTRACT Rahman M. H., Alpízar K., Lund T., Bwalya B. and Mjøs B. 2008. Volunteer Efforts for Development Concerns’ (VEDCO) Impact on the Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group in Uganda. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):39-44 This research was carried out in Luweero district in Uganda, September 2006 to study Volunteer Efforts for Development Concern’s (VEDCO’s) impact on the livelihoods and resource management in Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group. VEDCO is a local non governmental organization (NGO) working with food security, agricultural trade activities, development of community groups and other actions that help to expand poor farmers’. A qualitative research with semi and unstructured interviews was carried out. Fifteen informants for the interviews were selected by random sampling during a previous village meeting. Furthermore, a focus group discussion was done and the participants were selected randomly. All the respondents were farmers rearing pigs and most of them worked on their land. Swine fever has been a serious problem and killing some of the pigs that were given to people by VEDCO. Farmers have received technical advice from VEDCO, but only a few farmers had received pigs. VEDCO has also given seeds to farmers like banana suckers, yam seeds and tree seedlings. The respondents mentioned that advantages of being a member of the Piggery Group included receiving training in piggery with subsequent increased pig productivity, training in crop production, cooperation and market opportunities. Farmers were happy with the trainings that they had received from VEDCO, but they expected new knowledge and more attention to their requests.

Key words: Resource management, pig productivity, piggery farmers

INTRODUCTION Luweero district is located in the central region of Uganda, approximately 65 km north from Kampala. Its principal towns are Luweero (administrative headquarters), Bombo and Wobulenzi (both trading centres). Agriculture is the main activity in the region with focus on food crops (cassava, sweet potatoes, maize, banana, and soya beans), cash crops (coffee), fruits, vegetables and animal husbandry. Most of the farmers produce for subsistence, but some can sell surplus in local markets. The Luweero area suffered civil war for 10 years where both the people and the economic activities were heavily affected. Currently there is much effort from the government and NGO’s to support the inhabitants of Luweero and one of those organizations is VEDCO. VEDCO is a local NGO, which started to work in Luweero district after the civil war (1986) in order to address poverty and other problems in the area. The organization promotes food security, agricultural trade activities, community groups’ development and other actions that help to improve poor peasants’ livelihoods. The Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group was founded in 2003, so it was already established before VEDCO contacted them. The framer group started with 47 members, but the number has dropped to 30, most of whom are subsistence farmers. The requirements to join the group are to pay the membership fee of 10 400 Ush, to coordinate group activities like meetings and proposal writing, to be a resident in the area and to follow the bylaws created by the group. Some of the member benefits are fixed assets, trainings from government and NGO’s in crop production and animal husbandry and other assistance to develop their livelihoods. As a group, they have challenges such as lack of time to attend meetings and envy from non-members. From VEDCO the group has gotten training and seeds for different crops like banana and yam. They have gotten training about pigs and help to build pigs pens. Most of the group members have reared pigs, especially the traditional breeds. They said that the demand for pigs in the area is good so pig rearing is a good income source. January 2006 VEDCO introduced 15 females of exotic pig breeds. These breeds grow faster and produce more offspring than the local breeds, but they can not survive with the same low amount of fodder as the local breeds. Additional challenges with the pigs are lack of food during the drought and swine fever. The purpose of this report is to study the impact of VEDCO on the livelihoods and resource management in the Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group. METHODOLOGY For the research conducted in Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group (from now referred as the Piggery Group) a qualitative research was conducted by using semi and unstructured interviews and focus group discussion. A questionnaire/ check list with questions divided into six different categories was made: 1. Demographic, 2. Livelihood activities, 3. Membership, 4. Food security, 5. Funding schemes and 6. Development agencies in the community. Fifteen respondents were selected by random sampling, during the © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

39


M. H. Rahman et al

village meeting, to be interviewed. For the focus group, four households were selected randomly. The purposes were to cross-check information and identify differences between individual and group responses. To analyse the data an ‘inductive approach’ was chosen, which means that the data collected gave information that was built further on. Mikkelsen (2005) describes the inductive approach as one where “one begins with concrete empirical details and then works towards abstract ideas or general principles. There is often a ‘bottom-up’ perspective – seen from the point of view of the subjects – in the empirical analyses”. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Household interviews Demography In the demographic part the aim was to find out about the land situation of the households, the occupation of the household, educational level, as well as age, sex and religion to get an overview of the living standard. The youngest person interviewed was 27 whereas the oldest was 82. This indicates that the age level of the members in the Piggery Group has a wide range, concluding that the Piggery Group does not leave anyone out due to their age. Most of the households work their land themselves, which has not changed since VEDCO got involved in the community. The number of acres per households ranged from three to 17, which indicates that land access was not an issue for the members of the Piggery Group. Farming was the main source of livelihood for all the respondents, while three had other occupations. Most of the households had been members of the Piggery Group for several years, while two had become members during the past year (2005), meaning that most of the interviewed households had been involved since VEDCO started working with the group. Livelihood Activities Most households reported that the main sources of expenditure were school and medical fees. The main food crops grown were bananas, cassava, beans, sweet potato and yams, other crops grown were soybean, groundnuts and vegetables. Coffee was the main cash crop and the only crop for commercial purposes was vanilla. Fruit trees grown included jackfruit, papaya, mango, orange and avocado. All surveyed households were rearing pig and local chicken. Cattle was a fairly common, some has goats, but very few had sheep. One respondent was practicing apiary and another was carrying out fish farming. Eleven of the respondents complained about swine fever being a problem and killing some of the pigs they had received from VEDCO. They had all gotten technical advice from VEDCO, but as the total number of members in the group was 30 only a few of them had received pigs. VEDCO had also given seeds to the farmers like banana suckers, yam seeds and tree seedlings. Some of these were fruit trees. The farmers complained that the district officials, from the government and NGO’s, never visited them. If they came the visits were too short, maybe five minutes. They managed well with the local pigs before VEDCO came, but VEDCO had given them valuable trainings and improved breeds. NAADS (National Agricultural Advisory Service) also carried out training in pig rearing. None of the farmers had received tools, fertilizer or financial support from any organization though some admitted to have gotten cement to build piggery pens and they had to pay back within a year. All the respondents had received training from VEDCO and organizations like NAADS. Few respondents were complaining, but some complained that they got planting materials and seeds in the dry season resulting into weathering, wilting and death. Other complains were that some farmers were able to attend training in handling and use of pesticides with IBERO (NGO), but they did not get any pesticides and herbicides. Membership Requirements for becoming a member were: • Payment of the membership fee. • Abiding to the group’s laws • To be a long time resident of the locality, not a short-term visitor. • Annual renewal of membership, with payment of a yearly subscription fee of 3000 Ush. • Request for permission to join the group. • Be a pig farmer. • Provide the group with one’s home address (fixed abode) for easy communication A lot of figures were given for the membership fee (5000, 10 000, 10 400, 12 000, 15 000 Ush). The Chairman of the group gave the amount of 10 400Ush and a yearly subscription fee of 3000Ush. Only one other respondent knew of the subscription fee. Most of the respondents showed knowledge of provision for payment

40


Volunteer Efforts for Development Concerns’ (VEDCO) Impact on the Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group in Uganda

of membership fee in installments. The various reasons for joining Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group are summarized below, in no specific order: 1. Wanted development for the household 2. Objectives of the group were in line with needs of the household 3. To learn more about the management of pigs 4. Members of the group paid her a home visit and explained the benefits of belonging to the group 5. Promises of help in meeting household needs when group obtained aid from development organizations. 6. Admired the activities of the group in Kyevunze village. Not being a resident of the village, the only way to be part of these activities was by joining the group. 7. Was eager to learn more about farming techniques. Advantages of being a member of the group included receiving training in piggery with subsequent increased pig productivity as the most important. Other advantages were training in banana and yam management; to receive cement for the construction of pig houses and to receive piglets from VEDCO and NAADS. The group members knew how to look after the exotic pigs while the non-members did not. The group membership was also a good way for community members to get to know each other, to create unity; cooperation and to get market opportunities. Surprisingly, ‘just received training with no tangible assets’ was given as a disadvantage of being a member of Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group. This was closely followed by the group receiving a lot of many visitors that promise a lot of things to no avail. Many members traveled long distances to attend seminars organised for the group as the seminars were usually organized in distant villages. The group demanded monetary contributions for ad hoc activities from its members. After the group was formed in 2003, it had 47 members, but this reduced to 15 due to founder members leaving the group. At the time of this research the group had a membership of 30 as new members had joined. Enquiries into why 32 founder members left the group revealed two major reasons: 1. Some of the members had ‘unrealistic’ expectations. They joined the group expecting immediate returns. They thought they would receive pigs even before undergoing the Piggery training. When this did not happen they left, disappointed. 2. Some members of the group could not attend the group meetings and trainings, and were thus not moving at the same pace as the rest of the group. No major conflicts between Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group members and non-members were reported. Small vices like envy, suspicions, and accusations of selfishness (especially with knowledge and skills acquired from VEDCO and NAADS trainings) were widespread. Intra group conflicts were rare, but had resulted from some members trying to give back gifts of much reduced value compared to the gifts they had received during the gift cycle. These conflicts were however quickly resolved. Impacts of seasonal changes on livelihoods and livelihood strategies were investigated. Inter seasonal drought was reported by all the respondents. Major droughts were reported to have occurred only twice between 2003 and 2006. Livelihood strategies adopted to cope with the seasonal dry spells were mainly planting of cassava and maize. These two crops were preferred because maize, once dried is easy to store while cassava is a root crop that can stay long in the ground and is left there even in dry season. Other strategies included buying of maize flour for making posho (local food), sale of pigs, planting of more trees and high yielding maize and cassava varieties. All the respondents seemed to be actively involved in the group’s activities, but they seemed to resent sharing their knowledge and skills acquired from development and government agencies with non-members. Whether it is piggery management, banana, vanilla, yam or coffee production, their responses revealed a pervasive reluctance to share knowledge with ‘people that have no time for trainings or for the group’. Since organizations like VEDCO are now dealing with communities at group level, this may hinder the trickling down of information to community members that for various reasons are not members of groups. Food security All the respondents seemed to be well off with food supply. They all owned land, the size varied from 3-12 acres. What was grown on the plots was mainly for household consumption and the leftovers used for pig feeds. Various interviewees explained that they had been provided with banana suckers by VEDCO, but a disease that destroyed their banana plantations and affected the village. So far VEDCO had not been able to help them with this problem. Some farmers had been provided with improved pigs breeds from VEDCO, but they all claimed that they had pigs before VEDCO came to the village. None of their livelihood activities had been initiated by the organization, but VEDCO had encouraged them to plant fruit-trees and to expand their pig rearing. VEDCO 41


M. H. Rahman et al

had taught them how to keep the pigs in sheds. This facilitated them to have more pigs at a time and kept the pigs healthier than when they used to tie them with a rope. Several respondents were very happy because of this and said it had lightened their work burden. However, some farmers expressed their dissatisfaction regarding this issue. They explained that they have been promised pigs from VEDCO and the organization encouraged them to build a shed for the pigs. When they had invested in materials and built the shed no pigs were received. They felt deceived and were sorry for the money they had invested in nothing. One respondent even explained that they were promised cement to build the sheds, but as he never received it he built a shed with local materials. He waited for the piglet that never came, and saw no other option but to put his own local breads into the shed. One night it rained so heavy that the whole shed collapsed and killed his three pigs. Another complaint concerned the timing of giving out seeds. Some respondents explained that when they were given seeds by VEDCO the season was not taken into consideration so they could be given seeds that needed a lot of water during the dry-season. They were very happy to be given seeds, but felt it was a waste of resources when the timing was so bad. Most of the interviewees were subsistence farmers, but reared pigs for sale and could also sell some vegetables if they had a surplus. They said the market access was very good and did not encounter any problems selling pigs. Kyagalanyi had a good reputation in the area for their pig rearing and attracted buyers from within the village and other towns nearby. People came to their doorstep to buy. One respondent explained that one benefit of being a member of the piggery group was that they helped each other in finding clients. The profit they got from sales mainly went to buying medicines when someone was ill, school fees, household-necessities such as soap, paraffin, clothes, sugar etc. and to re-invest in pigs and crops. Most of the respondents expressed that they had benefited mentally from VEDCO because they had been given knowledge and skills in modern farming techniques. Still, several respondents claimed that what they were taught could not be applied because it required too much money and was too advanced for their farms. Drought was the main problem in the village, causing water and food scarcity for humans and pigs. Some of the respondents claimed that it is a part of life and nothing you can do about it, whereas others explained that they had been taught seasonal farming and timing of the planting by VEDCO and that helped them in the dry season. If they planted in time so that the seedlings were strong when the drought occurred they could survive with little water. They also tried to harvest enough vegetables beforehand so that they had something to eat during the dry season. All in all it seems like the village was doing well considering food security. VEDCO had not initiated any new strategies to cope with the issue, but had encouraged the villagers to expand what they were already employing and had taught them more efficient methods to do their farming. The village seemed to have benefited from VEDCO’s initiatives, but there were several aspects with VEDCO’s interferences that could be changed to make them more efficient. Credit schemes There were two formal credit schemes in the village: Wekembe and Akukwatiraku. However, very few of the interviewees were members of these schemes. When asked about the credit schemes some respondents expressed their scepticism towards such schemes because they were afraid of the consequences if they failed to pay back. They did not want to risk loosing their land or their house due to a loan. Various respondents mentioned that they had been part of the formal credit schemes but that they had quit. The reasons as to why they quit was that it got too expensive. One respondent explained that Akukwatiraku required 15 000 Ush to join and the interest rate was 15 %. They had shares, but it was not common for a member to have more than one share in the group. The members paid a weekly fee to the group, and some respondents mentioned that it became difficult to accumulate that fee every week, so they had to withdraw from the scheme. People can be rejected from joining the group if they could not provide any sort of security for the loan in case they fail to pay back (fixed assets). Akukwatiraku used to get their funding from the governmental Poverty Action Plan, but after this collapsed the group is receiving money from the Wekembe group. One respondent mentioned a third credit scheme initiated by VEDCO called Akika Embugga. The only requirement to join was a security in fixed assets. The members of the scheme were encouraged by VEDCO to work hard to be able to pay back their loans. The interest rate of this scheme was 11.5 %. It was not certain that the scheme still existed since the respondent informing about this was no longer a member. As mentioned very few respondents were members of formal credit schemes, however, several of the interviewees claimed to be actual or previous members of “Nigima”, a gift circle. The gift circle had expanded to also be a savings-scheme. Instead of just collecting money to buy household necessities for the members of the group they collected money to save. Not all members of the gift circle were also members of the savingsscheme, but the saving was done within the same group. The savings group would like to open a bank account 42


Volunteer Efforts for Development Concerns’ (VEDCO) Impact on the Kyagalanyi Piggery Farmers Group in Uganda

in a bank nearby Kyagalanyi, but that requires 300 000 Ush, and so far they had only managed to save 100 000 Ush. The only difficulty they encountered with the gift circle was that not all people gave the amount of cash they were requested. Other organizations working in the area During the research we wanted to find out what other organizations were working in the area and whether or not they had impacted the households. Overall there four organizations, in addition to VEDCO, were mentioned: 1. NAADS, mentioned by four households 2. IBERO, mentioned by three households 3. Plan, mentioned by four households 4. RUDIFA 5. VEDCO, mentioned by four households The level of involvement from these identified organizations in the households varied, but mainly they described Plan as an organization working with children under the age of five, meaning that the households with children might have had assistance from Plan. It was reported by several households that Plan had built a school and provided school equipment for the children in the village, in addition to health care. NAADS was reported to have assisted in training related to farming, in addition to some piggery involvement as well as goats, but no households reported having received anything other than training from NAADS. During the research we also wanted to identify the changes of VEDCO’s strategy in the village when they went from “Farmer to Farmer” to group focused work. Fifty percent of the interviewed households had not noticed any changes from this strategy shift. The shift had had mainly positive impacts in the sense that “Farmer to Farmer” included fewer households and if one was to learn the methods and techniques one had to go to one of the trained farmers. Often one experienced that one did not learn as well as if learning directly from the training put forward by VEDCO. It was a general idea that VEDCO changed the strategy to be able to include more people. One negative aspect was reported by one farmer saying that there were more meetings and seminars now and that it took more time because he had to travel more often and further than before. The research was also conducted to identify the member’s attitude towards VEDCO. This was done by focusing on the individual memberships, but also by asking direct questions to the members about their relation and opinion about VEDCO. Twelve out of the fifteen members were satisfied the work VEDCO had introduced in the village. They felt that the training had helped and that VEDCO had not implemented any techniques or methods on the members that had not improved already existing methods. One major issue that was reported from most households was that communication between the members and VEDCO was not very good. VEDCO paid frequent visits to the members, but they were short and the members did not feel that they were able to report back necessary information. In addition several members had given VEDCO requests, but never received any feed back or answers. They felt that VEDCO was not interested in their opinions or their livelihoods. Focus group The focus group discussion was conducted with four households, one woman and three men. There were many similarities among the informants in the focus group. They had all pigs, and several acres of land where they grew many of the same crops. During the village group meeting we were informed that access to land was not a problem and hence it was interesting to ask the focus group of the average amount of acres per household in the village. They came up with the answer of two acres based on the fact that two of the members in the focus group had two acres of land while the other two had five and ten. The number of acres shows that access to land was not a problem. During the discussion of land access the focus group stated that there was a problem of selling land in the village, when people move to the towns they wanted to sell their land but there was no demand for land in the village among the inhabitants, which support the statement that land access is not a problem. According to the focus group market access was not a problem; usually people came to their house to buy products. Most of the crop was produced for subsistence farming, but coffee was the major crop produced for marketing. This information indicated that all members of the focus group are both subsistence and commercial farmers. It was also indicated that people would come to the households to buy their products and bring them to the market for sale. Whether this was organized or not was not indicated by the focus group, but they did not indicate that coffee was sold by an organization that bought coffee beans from the farmers and sold it at the market for them. When asked what was the most important crop in the village the focus group indicated that coffee was number one as they could sell it and make money to buy food. Maize was listed as number two because they could eat it, sell it and feed it to the animals. When asked about VEDCO and their involvement in the Piggery Group the focus group responded that advice and training in piggery and crops was the most 43


M. H. Rahman et al

important involvement of VEDCO. They had been given advice about how to grow certain crops, how to deal with pests and crop diseases, as well as useful information on how to cater and care for the pigs. In addition they had been given seeds for bananas as well as cement for pig houses. The focus group also informed that VEDCO only encouraged organic and sustainable farming, meaning that they have not introduced any fertilizer or pesticides to the members of the focus group; instead they have been given advice on how to deal with crop disease as well as been given new seeds that are resistant to the disease identified. During the discussion about VEDCO and their work it was also identified that VEDCO has helped to increase the productivity, but that the problem of the diseases on the banana trees and the coffee plants was still ongoing and that it had affected the households in the focus group. Another problem identified with VEDCO’s initiative to hand out seeds was that the members of the focus group were handed the seeds late in the season and hence the help was not very successful, as they could not grow the seeds in the most productive way. All interviewees had pigs, but only one had a cross breed between the local breed and the new breed introduced by VEDCO. They also stated that they had not yet received a pig from VEDCO as they have been promised, but that they were told that it would take time. However this did not appear to be an issue as all four members was very grateful for the pig training VEDCO had provided which they found applicable to their own pigs. The focus group stated that VEDCO does not help with any funding such as credit or saving schemes and they could not identify any other such activities organized by an organization in the village. During the discussion it was identified that the focus group knew that it was possible to lend money, but it was not an issue as the interest rate was very high and also because payment time was short and since they are farmers they don’t have the ability to pay back right away as they are dependent on many unpredictable factors to make a living. The focus group identified the use of gift circles and how it had changed to cash circles, but it was unclear whether or not the members of the focus group used this cash circles due to the problem of providing the cash. We had the opportunity to ask what the focus group perceived as being rich or poor. The group was very unified in the definition of poor as poor being people who are too lazy to work, even people who had land, but did not work on the land was considered poor as they were too lazy to work their land. Rich was perceived as someone who had a motorcar or vehicle such as a motorcycle. It was interesting to hear these answers as the participants of the focus group did not perceive themselves as poor or rich, they also made an emphasis that people in the village was more or less at the same level of living standard because they all had land access and they all produced the same crops for commercial as well subsistence farming. And because they produce the same crops, they all face the same problem meaning that when something goes wrong it affects all and not just a few. In this sense the focus group felt that the village was very equal in wealth measurement, and if someone was considered poor is was due his or her own laziness. CONCLUSION VEDCO has helped the Piggery Group by providing training for piggery such as how to build proper sheds for the pigs, how to feed, breed and care for the pigs in the best way. In addition VEDCO had introduced a new breed of pigs, which eventually will be handed to all the members. Most people had yet to receive a pig from VEDCO, but that the ones who still had not received a pig had gone through training and were waiting patiently for their pig. Most members mentioned that VEDCO had done a great deal for them to improve their livelihoods. The people was happy with the training they had received and also that VEDCO assisted them to work with what they already had and did not put any effort into introducing anything new. Some people found this to be negative, as they have approached VEDCO with requests that have not been answered. These requests were mainly in relation to agro forestry, seeds and assistance to deal with crop diseases. Another issue that was brought up was that most of the households interviewed had kept guest books, from these books we could read and confirm that they households had had many visitors from VEDCO and other organizations. Even though there had been frequent and short visits from organizations, the households never saw any effects from these visits. They had discovered that there was a lot of talk and little action, and that their requests were not heard. Another aspect of this was that many had the concern that VEDCO’s short visit did not result in any good findings as they did not listen to the villagers. Many of the people who were concerned that VEDCO did not react upon their requests were also concerned that VEDCO did not benefit from meeting with the household. Based on these findings, the research group has several recommendations to VEDCO. REFERENCE Mikkelsen, B. 2005. Methods for Development work and Research. A new guide for practitioners, 2nd edn. SAGE publications. England

44



IMPACTS OF INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT IN TRANSPLANT AMAN RICE T. AHMED1, A.K.M.M.B.CHOWDHURY2, S.M.SAYEM3 AND M.M.KARIM4 1

Scientific Officer, Bangladesh Tea Research Institute, 2Assistant Professor, Dept.of Crop Botany, 3Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University(HSTU), Dinajpur-5200, 4Professor, Dept. of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensigh-2202, Bangladesh Accepted for publication: January 05, 2008 ABSTRACT Ahmed T., Chowdhury A.K.M.M.B.,.Sayem S.M and.Karim M.M. 2008. Impacts of Integrated Weed Management in Transplant Aman Rice. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):45-53 Transplant aman rice suffers from weed infestation which contributes to lower yield of this crop. A field experiment was carried out at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh from July to December 2002 to find out the best approach of weed management and an effective and economical weed control treatment through integrated approach on transplant aman rice cv. BRRI dhan37. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replications. There were fifteen treatments namely, No weeding, One hand weeding, Two hand weeding, Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1, Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1+ 1 hand weeding, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1+ 1 hand weeding, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0 . 7 5 l ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, 1 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, and Weed free. The effect of weed control treatments on the weed density, and weed dry weight was significant. Weed control treatments had significant effect on all the studied crop characters except 1000grain weight. The highest grain and straw yields were produced in the weed free treatment which was followed by Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder and Argold @ 0 . 7 5 l ha-1 + 1 hand weeding. The lowest grain and straw yields were produced in the No weeding treatment which was followed by others. However the cost benefit analysis showed a bit different trend than that of grain and straw yields where the maximum profit was noticed in Argold @ 0 . 7 5 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder which was followed by Argold @ 0 . 7 5 1 h a -1+ 1 hand weeding. M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder and Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1+ 1 hand weeding weed control treatments.

Keywords: Weed, integrated management, yield and economic performance of aman rice

INTRODUCTION Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food of Bangladesh. Almost all the people depend on rice and have tremendous influence on agrarian economy of Bangladesh. Rice alone constitutes 95% of the food grain production in Bangladesh (Julfiquar et al., 1998). Among the three types of rice transplant aman rice covers about 53.28% of total rice area and it contributes to 44.68% of the total rice production in the country (BBS, 2002). Bangladesh ranks fourth in area and production of rice (FAO, 1994) and 39 th in yield of rice in the world (IRRI, 1995). The average yield of rice in Bangladesh is around 2.15 t ha-1 (BBS, 2002) which is frustratingly below the highest ranking country (12.9 t ha-1 ) demonstrated like China (IRRI, 2001). Poor weed control is one of the major factors for yield reduction of rice (Amarjit et al., 1994). According to Thomas et al., (1997) yield losses of rice from uncontrolled weeds can be as high as 74%. Mamun (1990) reported that weed growth reduced the grain yield by 45% in transplant aman rice. This loss is, therefore, a serious threat for the food deficit countries like Bangladesh. In transplant aman rice high weed infestation is a major constraint. The humid climate of Bangladesh, especially in aman season favours weed growth and the edaphic and climatic conditions are suitable for the growth of numerous species of obnoxious weeds in arable lands. For the competitive abilities of weeds exert a serious negative effect on crop production and are responsible for marked losses in crop yield (Mamun et al., 1993). Among the factors responsible for low grain yield of rice, weeds are well recognized as a great factor. So, proper weed management is essential for successful rice production. Weeds are controlled in Bangladesh generally by hand pulling or by using simple tools like niranees, sickles, Japanese rice weeder and so on. Japanese rice weeder controls weeds in between the rows of rice hills efficiently, but the weeds closer to the rice hills seldom come under the action of Japanese rice weeder.Usually two or three hand weeding are done in a transplant rice field depending upon the nature of weeds and their intensity of infestation. Though hand weeding is the most common and effective method of weed control in rice but it is difficult and uneconomical day-by-day due to high wage and non-availability of labours at the peak period of farm operations. Under that situation the use of herbicides may be an alternative in controlling weeds more easy and economic. In a transplant aman rice field weed flora are variable and may not be controlled by herbicide alone as flashes of weeds come up at different stages. On the other hand the continuous uses of single weed control method eg. herbicide alone will lead to build up of weed species of more tolerant to weed control methods (De Datta, 1977). From the above concept integrated weed management (IWM) is introduced. In developed countries IWM is extensively used to control weeds but in Bangladesh it is rather a new approach. © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

45


T. Ahmed et al

The principle of IWM is that no single weed control method is effective in all circumstances. The best weed control is achieved through the integration of several methods simultaneously (Moody and De Datta, 1982). Integration of different weed control methods can effectively control weeds in transplant aman rice and it may even reduce weeding cost. Weed competition at early growth stage can be eliminated through pre-emergence herbicides. Preemergence herbicides in combination with another weed control method like Japanese rice weeder or hand pulling; more efficient weed control may be achieved. Herbicides like Ronstar 25EC (Oxadiazon), Argold l0EC (Cinmethylin) and Emchlor SG (Butachlor) are good selective pre-emergence herbicide having against mono and dicotyledonous weeds in rice field and these can be used in Bangladesh. Replacernent of traditional weeding in transplant aman rice by herbicides and implements or herbicides in combination with hand weeding would help to obtain higher crop yield with less efforts and cost. The present study was therefore, undertaken to find out an effective and economic weed control technology through integrated approaches and comparing their cost and benefits with conventional method of two hand weeding in transplant aman rice cv. BRRI dhan37.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiment was conducted with transplant aman rice cv. BRRI dhan37 at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Department of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the period from July to December 2002.Geographically the field is located at 240 25/ N latitude and 90050/ E longitude at an elevation of average 18 m above the sea level belonging to non- calcareous dark grey flood plain soil under the sonatola series of old Brahmaputra flood plain (AEZ-9) (BARC, 1997; The morphological, physical and chemical characteristics of soil (0-15 cm) of the experimental plot are given below: A. Morphological characters i) Soil tract : Old Brahmmaputra Alluvial ii) Soil series : Sonatola series iii) Parent materials : Old Brahmmaputra River borne deposite B. Physical characters of soil Constituent Per cent i) Sand (2.00-0. 5 mm dia) 25.2 ii) Silt (0.5-0.002 mm dia) 72.0 iii) Clay (below0.002 mm dia) 2.8 Texture Silty loam C. Chemical characters of soil i) pH 6.8 ii) Organic matter (%) 0.93 iii) Total nitrogen (%) 0.11 iv) Available Phosphorus (ppm) 16.3 v) Available sulphur (ppm) 13.9 vi) Exchangeable potassium (%) 0.27 The experiment consisted of fifteen weed control treatments with four replication namely, No weeding (Wo),One hand weeding (W1),Two hand weeding (W2), Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 (W3) ,Argold @ 0.751 ha-1 (W4),M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1, (W5)Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1+ 1 hand weeding (W6), Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding (W7),M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1+ 1 hand weeding (W8),Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder (W9), Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1+ 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder (W10),M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1+ 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder (W11),1 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder (Wl2),2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder (W 13),Weed free (W14). The size of the individual plot was 4.0 m X 2.5 m and total number of plots was 60 having spacing between the unit plots and the replications were 0.75 m and 1.0 m, respectively. The field was fertilized with urea, TSP, MP, gypsum and zinc sulphate at the rate of 150, 100, 70, 60 and 10 kg ha-1respectively following the guideline of BRRI (2000). Thirty five days old seedlings were transplanted in the unit plots on 30 July 2002 at the rate of three seedlings per hill, maintaining row and hill spacing of 25 cm x 15 cm respectively. Weeding was done as per the experimental treatments. Other intercultural operations were done as and when necessary. Data on weed density were collected from each plot at flowering stage of the rice plants by using 0.5 m X 0.5 m quadrants as per method described by Curz et al., (1986).After counting the weed density, the weeds were dried first

46


Impacts of Integrated Weed Management in Transplant Aman Rice

in the sun then in an electrical oven for 72 hours at a temperature of 800C.The dry weight of each weed sample was taken an electrical balance and expressed in g m-2 . The crop was harvested plot-wise at full maturity on 14 December 2002. The harvested crop was threshed with pedal thresher and cleaned thoroughly and sun dried. Data on yield and yield characters were taken namely, Plant height, Total number of tillers hill-1,Number of bearing tillers hill-1,Number of non-bearing tillers hill-1 ,Panicle length, Number of grains panicle-1,Number of sterile spikelets panicle-1, 1000-grain weight, Grain yield, Biological yield and Harvest index. The data were statistically analyzed with the help of computer package programme MSTAT and the mean differences were adjudged by Duncan's Multiple Range Test (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). The cost of individual expenditure head was recorded and partial budget analysis was done. Relative profitability or loss of different methods of weed control was calculated in comparison with Two hand weeding which is the conventional method of weeding. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Weed density Weed density was significantly influenced by different weed control treatments. The highest weed density (298.41 no. m-2) was observed in the no weeding treatment followed by One hand weeding and hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, respectively (Table 1). No weed was observed in the Weed free treatment and the lowest weed density (5.31 no. m-2) was observed in Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand reeding treatment which was followed by Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 + 1 weeding vith Japanese rice weeder (7.38 no. m-2),Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1+ 1 hand weeding (10.43 no. m-2) and M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1+ 1 hand weeding 2.08 no. m-2), respectively. Trivedi et al., (1986) also observed effective control of weeds by 0.75 Oxadiazon ha-1 with manual weeding among the14 different weed control treatments in rice. Among the weed control treatments percent reduction of weed density was observed the highest in Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding (98.22) and the lowest was observed in the One hand weeding treatment (49.26) compared with the No weeding treatment. Similar findings was also reported by Rekha et al., (2002) that weed density was lower in all treatments compared to the unweeded control plot. Weed dry weight The weed dry weight was significantly influenced by weed control treatments. The highest weed dry weight (113.69 g m-2) was recorded from the No weeding plot (Table 1) which was significantly followed by One hand weeding (79.23 g m-2), 1 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder and so on. Singh and Kumar (1999) also reported that the maximum weed dry weight was recorded in the unweeded control which was significantly higher compared to other weed control treatments. The least weed dry weight (1.18 g m-2) was recorded in Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding treatment which was identical with Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.751 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder and 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder. Without the Weed free treatment highest weed control efficiency (98.96%) was recorded from the weed control treatment of Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding which was followed by Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding , M-chlor 13 kg ha-1+ 1 hand weeding, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, M-chlor 13 kg ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, respectively. Among the weed control treatments the least weed control efficiency (30.31 %) was recorded from the One hand weeding treatment. Jena et al., (2002) also reported that Oxadiazon had better weed control efficiency than thiobencarb and the per-emergence application of Oxadiazon supplemented with One hand weeding at 45 DAT in rice field recorded the highest weed control efficiency. Plant height Plant height was significantly influenced by weed control treatments. There was no significant difference among the treatments W3 to W14 and also among W1 to W5 and W7 to W13 (Table 2). The lowest plant height produced in No weeding treatment (WO) was significantly inferior to rest of the weed control treatments. The tallest plant (127.24 cm) was observed in Weed free treatment (W14) which was statistically identical with rest of the treatments except Wo, W1 and W2. Again the difference in plant height among the treatments W1, to W3; and W7 to W13 were not significant. Results indicated that heavy weed infestation in the No weeding treatment might have hampered the normal growth and development of rice plants and ultimately plants became shorter. Similar results were also reported by Patil et al., (1986) that plant height significantly reduced by heavy weed infestation. Total tillers hill-1 Total number of tillers hill-1 was significantly affected by weed control treatments. The highest number of tillers hill-1 (13.46) was observed in the Weed free treatment (Table 2). The next highest total number of tillers hill-1 (12.22)

47


T. Ahmed et al

observed in Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding was identical with 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + l weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding and Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 respectively. On the other hand, the lowest number of total tillers hill-1 (9.00) was observed in No weeding treatment which was identical with one hand weeding. Results of this study showed that weed free condition was best for tiller production. No weeding or only one hand weeding treatment failed to produce more tillers due to severe weed infestation in the experimental plots. Similar results were also reported by Attalla and Kholosy (2002). Bearing tillers hill-1 The weed control treatment exhibited almost the same trend of effect on bearing tillers hill-1 as shown on the total tillers hill-1. The highest number of bearing tillers hill-1 (11. 18) was observed in the Weed free treatment (Table 2) and it was followed by Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder and Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + l weeding with Japanese rice weeder without significant difference. On the other hand the lowest number of bearing tillers hill-1 (4.58) was observed in the No weeding treatment. This might be due to the fact that the higher competition of weeds did not allow the rice plant to produce more number of bearing tillers hill-1 in the No weeding treatment. Similar findings were also reported by Sanjoy et al., (1999) that panicle number m-2 increased by 18% due to weed control over its lower level. Non-bearing tillers hill-1 The number of non-bearing tillers hill-1 was significantly influenced by weed control treatments. The highest number of nonbearing tillers hill-1 (3.53) was observed in No weeding treatment (WO) which was statistically identical with all other weed control treatments except Weed free (W14), Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding (W6) and 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder (W13) (Table 2). The lowest number of nonbearing tillers hill-1 (2.28) was observed in the Weed free treatment (W14) which was identical with W6, W13, W9, W1o, W7 ,W8, W11 and WI, respectively. The reason of producing higher number of nonbearing tillers hill-1 might be due to hard competition from the weeds with the crop plants for nutrient, air, space, light, water and other growth and development requirements of grain formation in the tillers. Panicle length The panicle length was significantly influenced by weed control treatments. The highest length of panicle (23.50 cm) observed in the Weed free treatment was significantly higher than those of rest of them (Table 2). The highest panicle length was followed by the treatment of Ronstar @ 2.01 ha -1 + 1 hand weeding which was identical with Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding and Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder. The lowest length of panicle (I9.17 cm) was observed in the treatment of No weeding. The lowest length of panicle might have resulted due to higher competition of weeds with the crop plants failed to produce the normal growth of panicles. Similar observation was also reported by Attalla and Kholosy (2002) where weed control treatments significantly enhanced the crop characters like panicle length, number of grain panicle-1, 1000-grain weight and harvest index. Total spikelets panicle-1 The weed control treatments significantly affected the total number of spikelets panicle-1. The total number of spikelets panicle-1 was the highest (127.85) in the Weed free treatment which was identical with Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding (Table 2). The total number of spikelets panicle -1 was the lowest (102.44) in the One hand weeding which was identical with No weeding, 1 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder and Two hand weeding, respectively. In the treatments where weeds were controlled effectively there total number of spikelets panicle-1 recorded higher because weeds did not compete with the rice plant for the nutrients, water, light etc. Similar results were reported by Attalla and Kholosy (2002). Grains panicle-1 The influence of different weed control treatments was significant on the number of grains panicle-1. The highest number of grains panicle-1 (107.28) obtained from the Weed free plots was significantly higher than those of rest of the weed control treatments (Table 2). Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding was identical with 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder but both of them were significantly better than the other weed control treatments with herbicides alone or in combination with other implements. The lowest number of grains panicle-1 (69.41) was observed in the No weeding treatment which was inferior to others. This might be due to higher crop-weed competition in the No weeding treatment and the treatments where weeding was not done effectively, because weeds shared with the crop for its nutrients, water, light or other necessary growth factors and consequently reduced grains panicle-1. Similar findings were also reported by Polthanee et al., (1996) and Sanjoy et al., (1999) where the number of filled grains panicle-1 were increased due to weed control over no weeding. Weeds were controlled effectively 48



there total number of spikelets panicle-1 recorded higher because weeds did not compete with the rice plant for the nutrients, water, light etc. Similar results were reported by Attalla and Kholosy (2002). Sterile spikelets panicle-1 The number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 varied significantly due to the effect of weed control treatments. The highest number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 (34.06) was observed in the No weeding treatment which was significantly higher than those of other treatments (Table 2) and was followed by One hand weeding, 1 hand weeding + 1 weeding Japanese rice weeder, Two hand weeding, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 and Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder. The lowest number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 (21.82) was observed in the Weed free treatment. The second lowest number (24.20) produced in Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder was identical with Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 and Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 treatment. Weed infestation perhaps, the main reason for such variation of the number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 in different treatments. In No weeding treatment or the treatments where weeding was inadequate there number of sterile spikelets panicle-1 was high because weed shared with the rice plant for nutrients, water and other growth factors and consequently had adverse effect on the grain formation and caused the high percentage of sterile spikelets panicle-1 . 1000-grain weight Thousand grain weights were not significantly influenced by weed control treatments although they numerically differed among themselves. Similar findings were also reported by Polthanee et al., (1996) where the weed control treatments did not affect the 1000-grain weight but significantly increased the grain yield (Table 2). Grain yield Significant variation was observed in grain yield due to the effect of different weed control treatments (Table 2). The highest grain yield (3.45 t ha-1) was observed in the Weed free treatment and the next highest yield (3.33 t ha-1) in the treatment Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding which was statistically identical with 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Ronstar @ 2.0 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder (Table 2). On the other hand the lowest grain yield (1.82 t ha-1) was observed in the No weeding treatment which was significantly inferior to rest of the treatments. It is seen that the effect of one hand weeding or individual herbicide was less effective in controlling weeds than those of integrated weed control treatments like Herbicide + 1 hand weeding or Herbicide + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder and also 1 or 2 hand weeding + l weeding with Japanese rice weeder. The lowest grain yield in the No weeding treatment might be due to resultant effects of the poor performance of yield contributing characters. This happened due to severe weed infestation with various species of weeds and competition for moisture, space, air, light and nutrient between weeds and rice plant, which had adverse effect on all the yield components and finally on grain yield. In the treatments where weeding were done properly the nutrients, moisture and other growth requirements were used by the rice plants more efficiently and finally increased the grain yield. Similar findings were also reported by Polthanee et al., (1996), Thomas et al., (1997), Sanjoy et al., (1999), Gogoi et al., (2000), Attalla and Kholosy (2002) where different weed control practices significantly increased the rice yield over the unweeded control. Sing and Kumar (1999) also observed the maximum grain yield in Weed free treatment and the lowest grain yield in the unweeded control. Straw yield Straw yield of rice significantly influenced by different weed control treatments. The highest straw yield (5.65 t ha-1 ) was recorded in the Weed free treatment (Table 1). The next highest straw yield (5.33 t ha-1) was observed in the treatments Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding and Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder which were identical with 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 -1

weeding with Japanese rice weeder. On the other hand, the lowest straw yield (3.97 t ha ) was observed in the No weeding treatment because of severe weed infestation that hampered the normal growth and development of rice plant and also its tillering capacity and finally reduced the straw yield. Islam (1995) also reported the highest grain -1

and straw yields ha from the Weed free plots and the lowest from the No weeding plots. Biological yield Biological yield was significantly influenced by different weed control treatments. The highest biological yield (9.10 t ha-1) was observed in the Weed free treatment (Table 2) and the next highest biological yield (8.66 t ha-1) was observed in the weed control treatment of Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding which was statistically identical with 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Ronstar @ 2.01 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder and

49


T. Ahmed et al

M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 + 1 hand weeding treatments. The lowest biological yield (5.79 t ha-1) was observed in the No weeding treatment which was statistically inferior to other weed control treatments. It is evident from Table 1 that use of one of the herbicides + 1 hand weeding or 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder were more effective in controlling weeds and for getting desired yield of grains than the weed control treatments with only one herbicides or One hand weeding. Variation of biological yield among the treatments was dependent upon the severity of weed infestation. Higher weed infestation not only reduced the grain yield but also hampered the plant growth and tillering capacity and ultimately reduced straw yield and also biological yield. Harvest index Harvest index was significantly affected by the different weed control treatments (Table 2). The highest harvest index (38.45) was observed in the weed free treatment (Table 2) which was statistically identical with Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha -1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder treatment, respectively. On the contrary the lowest harvest index (31.39) was found from the No weeding treatment which was statistically inferior to rest of the treatments. Heavy weed infestation in the No weeding treatment reduced the grain yield which ultimately affected the harvest index. Similar observation also reported by Attalla and Kholosy (2002) that all weed control treatments significantly enhanced grain and straw yields and yield components eg. Harvest index. Relative profitability of weed control treatments Relative profitability of weed control treatments in BRRI dhan37 rice have been presented in Table 3. In Bangladesh conventionally Two hand weeding is practised for weed control in transplanted rice field. For this reason relative profitability of different weed control treatments of this experiment was calculated in comparison with Two hand weeding. It was found that all integrated weed management treatments except 1 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder were profitable compared to the conventional method. Among them each of the per-emergence herbicides combined with one hand weeding or weeding with Japanese rice weeder resulted higher profit than conventional method. Application of preemergence herbicide at the initial stage of weed germination resulted less weed infestation to the rice field at a certain stage and after that another weeding through hand or Japanese rice weeder gave favourable condition for rice growth and finally produced higher grain and straw yield than that of Two hand weeding. The highest profit compared to the conventional method was obtained from the integrated weed control treatment Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder (Table 3) and followed by Argold @ 0.75 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 hand weeding, Ronstar @ 2.0 1 ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, M-chlor @ 13 kg ha-1 + l hand weeding and 2 hand weeding + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder integrated weed control treatments, respectively. All the integrated weed control treatments mentioned above were more profitable than the Weed free or any other individual method of weed control treatment. Table: 1. Effect of weed control treatments on Weed density and dry weight of weed. Treatment W0 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10 W11 W12 W13 W14 Level of significance CV (%)

Weed density (no.m-2) 298.41a 1151.39b 77.29d 50.75f 74.28e 79.10d 5.31k 10.43i 12.08hi 7.38j 13.1gh9 15.06g 103.07c 13.77gh 0.00n 0.01 6.67

Weed dry weight (g m-2) 113.69a 79.23b 18.53cd 23.10cd 28.73cd 31.07cd 1.18ef 3.08def 4.21def 2.01ef 4.52c-f 5.08c-f 32.50c 5.09def 0.00f 0.01 5.41

In column, means having common letter (s) do not differ significantly

50



Table: 2. Effect of weed control treatments on the crop characters of transplant aman rice cv. BRRI dhan37 Tillers hill-1

Treatment

Plant height (cm)

total

bearing

non-bearing

W0 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10 W11 W12 W13 W14 Level of significance CV (%)

113.36c 119.94b 120.36b 124.19ab 123.73ab 123.04ab 126.27a 122.47ab 124.28a 123.68ab 123.05ab 122.60ab 122.55ab 125.09ab 127.24a 0.01 4.25

9.00e 9.67de 10.68cd 11.30bc 10.87cd 10.69cd 12.22b 11.30bc 10.75cd 11.48bc 11.37bc 10.87cd 10.45cd 11.60bc 13.46a 0.01 5.15

5.48g 6.65f 7.25ef 8.06cde 7.55def 7.19ef 9.78b 8.38cde 7.82cdef 8.76bc 8.55cd 7.86cde 7.28ef 8.88bc 11.18a 0.01 6.86

3.53a 3.03abcd 3.40ab 3.24ab 3.32ab 3.50ab 2.44cd 2.92abcd 2.94abcd 2.75abcd 2.82abcd 3.00abcd 3.17abc 2.72bcd 2.28d 0.01 8.83

Panicle length (cm) 19.17j 19.98i 21.52fgh 22.26cd 21.76d-h 21.40gh 22.82b 22.43bc 22.22cde 22.35bc 21.96c-h 21.69e-h 21.24h 22.00c-f 23.50a 0.01 5.24

Total spikelets panicle-1 103.47e 102.44e 105.65e 115.52cd 113.06c 112.95c 124.03ab 120.59bc 119.49bc 116.91 cd 120.81 bc 118.31bcd 104.43e 121.64bc 127.85a 0.01 7.64

In column, means having common letter (s) do not differ significantly

Table: 2. contd. Treatment W0 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10 W11 W12 W13 W14 Level of significance CV (%)

Grains panicle-1 (no) 69.41j 73.99i 78.72h 90.18ef 87.24fg 86.01g 99.44b 94.85cd 93.76d 95.21cd 974.00d 92.70de 76.60hi 97.31bc 107.28a

Sterile spikelets panicle-1 (no) 34.06a 28.45b 26.94bcd 25.34de 25.83cde 26.94bcd 24.59e 25.75de 25.74de 24.20e 26.81bcd 25.60de 27.83bc 24.33e 21.82f

0.01 5.74

1.82h 2.26g 2.80e 2.94d 2.88de 2.85de 3.33b 3.27bc 3.21c 3.28bc 3.26bc 3.20c 2.62f 3.30bc 3.45a

Straw yield (t ha-1) 3.97h 4.38g 4.91ef 5.09d 4.96e 4.92ef 5.33b 5.28bc 5.20c 5.33b 5.25bc 5.22c 4.86f 5.31b 5.65a

Biological yield (t ha-1) 5.79h 6.63g 7.55ef 8.03c 7.84cd 7.76de 8.66b 8.56b 8.42b 8.61b 8.51b 8.42b 7.47f 8.61b 9.10a

Harvest index (%) 31.39f 33.99e 37.13bc 36.63c 36.72c 36.67c 38.40a 38.24a 387.15ab 38.10ab 38.32a 38.00ab 34.99d 38.33a 38.45a

NS

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

4.17

5.94

4.05

6.63

5.36

1000-grain weight (g)

Grain yield (t ha-1)

14.76 14.92 15.05 14.96 14.91 14.95 15.22 15.09 15.02 15.15 15.04 14.98 15.05 14.87 15.11

0.01 11.69

In column, means having common letter (s) do not differ significantly NS= Not significant W0= No weeding, W1= One hand weeding, W2 = Two hand weeding, W3= [email protected] l ha-1, W4= Argold@ 0.75 l ha-1, W5= M-chlor@ 13 kg ha-1, W6= [email protected] l ha-1 + One hand weeding, W7= Argold@ 0.75 l ha-1+One hand weeding, W8= M-chlor@ 13 kg ha-1 + One hand weeding, W9= [email protected] l ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, W10= Argold@ 0.75 l ha-1+1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, W11= Mchlor@ 13 kg ha-1 + 1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, W12= One hand weeding +1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, W13= Two hand weeding +1 weeding with Japanese rice weeder, W14= Weed free

51


T. Ahmed et al

Table: 3. Economic performance of transplant aman rice cv. BRRI dhan37 Treatment W0 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10 W11 W12 W13 W14

Total cost (Tk ha-1) 13335.00 14955.00 16275.00 15455.00 13915.00 14535.00 16235.00 14695.00 15315.00 15935.00 14395.00 15015.00 15795.00 16995.00 19695.00

Gross return (Tk ha-1) 21376.00 22600.00 31928 33472.00 32768.00 32436.00 37564.00 36924.00 36260.00 37064.00 36800.00 36676.00 30088.00 37248.00 39020.00

Gross margin (Tk ha-1) 8041.00 11149.00 15653.00 18017.00 18853.00 17901.00 21329.00 22229.00 20945.00 21129.00 22405.00 21661.00 14293.00 20253.00 19325.00

Benefit cost ratio (BCR) 1.60 1.75 1.96 2.17 2.35 2.23 2.31 2.51 2.37 2.33 2.55 2.44 1.90 2.19 1.98

From the above result and discussion it may be concluded that application of pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding or mechanical weeding was a good combination of integrated weed management approach. REFERENCES Amarjit, B., Ganai, B.A., Singh, K.N. and Kotru, R. 1994.Weed control in transplanted rice. Indian ,T. Agron. 39 (1): 16-18 Attalla, S. I. and Kholosy, A. S. 2002. Effect of weed control treatments on transplanted rice. Bull. Fac. of Agric., Cairo Univ. 53(4): 531-538 BARC (Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council). 1997. Fertilizer Recommendation Guide, BARC, New Airport Road, Farmgate, Dhaka. pp. 14-123 BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). 2002. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Stat. Div., Ministry of Planning, Govt. Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka. pp. 123,127 BRRI (Bangladesh Rice Research Institute). 2000. Adhunik dhaner chash (in Bangla). Bangladesh Rice Res. Inst., Joydebpur, Gazipur. pp. 19-48 Cruz, E. D., Moody, K. and Ramos, M, B. D. 1986. Reducing variability in sampling weeds in upland rice (Oryza sativa), Philipp. J. Weed Sci. 13: 56-59 De Datta, S. K. 1977. Approach in the control and management of perennial weeds in rice. Paper presented at the Sixth Asian Pacific: Weed Sci. Soc. Conf. Jakarta. pp. 11-17 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1994. FAO Production Yearbook. Food and Agric. Orga. of the United Nations, Rome. 45:72-73 Gogoi, A. K., Rajkhowa, D. J. and Kandali, R. 2000. Effect of varities and weed control practices on rice productivity and weed growth. Indian J. Agron. 4S (3): 580-585 Gomez, M. A. and Gomez, A. A. 1984. Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. John Willey and Sons. New York, Chichesten, Brisbane, Toronto. pp: 97-129, 207-215 IRRI (International Rice Research Institute). 1995. World Rice Statistics 1993-94. Intl. Rice Res. Inst., Manila, Philippines. pp. 2-19 IRRI (International Rice Research Institute). 2001. Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty alleviation. Yunan, China. p. 5 Islam, M. S. 1995. Effect of cultivar and weeding regime on growth and performance of boro rice. An M. Sc. (Ag.) in Agronomy Thesis, Bangladesh Agril. Univ., Mymensingh. pp. 40-43

52



Jena, S. N., Tripathy, S., Sarangi, S. K. and Biswal, S. 2002. Integrated weed management in direct seeded rainfed lowland rice. Indian J. Weed Sci. 34(1-2): 32-35 Julfiquar, A.W., Hoque, M.M., Enamul Hoque, A.K.G.M. and Rashid, M.A. 1998. Current Status of Hybrid Rice Research and Future Programme in Bangladesh. A Country Report Presented in the Workshop on Use and Development of Hybrid Rice in Bangladesh. May 18-19. 1998, BARC. Dhaka, Bangladesh Mamun, A.A. 1990. Weeds and Their Control: A Review of Weed Research in Bangladesh. Agricultural and rural development in Bangladesh. JSARD, Japan Intl. Co-operation Agency. Dhaka, Bangladesh. pp. 45-72 Mamun, A.A., Karim, S.M.R., Begum, M., Uddin, M.I. and Rahman, M.A. 1993. Weed survey in different crops under three Agro-ecological zones of Bangladesh. BAURES Prog. 8:41-51 Moody, K. and De Datta, S.K. 1982. Integration of weed control practices of rice in Tropical Asia. B10TROP Special Publ. No. 15. pp. 34-47 Patil, S. J., Natarajan, S. P. and Pattanshetti, H.V. 1986. Herbicides for weed control in transplanted rice. Intl. Rice Res. Newl. 11(2): 28 Polthanee, A., Ta-Oun, M., Panchapan, S., Lasirikul, M., Pramojchani, P., Yamazaki, K., Nakano, M., Fukami, M. and Ushikubo, A. 1996. Effect of weed management on growth and rainfed direct seeded rice. Kaen-Kaset Khon Kaen Agril. J. Thailand. 24: 2, 76-80 Rekha, K. B., Razu, M. S. and Reddy, M. D. 2002. Effect of herbicides in transplanted rice. Indian J. Weed Sci. 34(1-Z): 123-125 Sanjoy, S., Moorthy.BTS and Jha, K.P. 1999. Influence of different production factors on the performance of rainfed upland rice. Indian J. Agril. Sci. 69(6):449-450 Singh, S. P. and Kumar M. 1999. Efficacy of single and sequential application of herbicides on weed control in transplanted rice. Indian J. Weed Sci. 31(3-1): 222-224 Thomas, C. G. Abrahana. C. T. and Sreedevi, P. 1997. Weed flora and their relative dominance in semi-dry, rice culture. J. Tropic. Agric. 35 : 5153 Trivedi, K.K., Tiwari. J. P. and Bisen, C.R. 1986. Integrated weed control in upland drilled rice. Pesticide. 20(11): 29-33.

53



INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF MAJOR FUNGAL DISEASES OF TOMATO M. AFROZ1, M. ASHRAFUZZAMAN2, M. N. AHMED3, M. E. ALI4 AND M. R. AZIM5 1, 3

Scientific Officer, Plant Pathology Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur-1701, 2Professor, Department Of Plant Pathology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, 3Assistant Manager , Nitol Sugar Mill, Kishorgong, 4Scientific Officer, Wheat Research Centre, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Bangladesh

Accepted for publication: January 08, 2008 ABSTRACT Afroz M., Ashrafuzzaman M., Ahmed M. N., Ali M. E. and Azim M. R. 2008. Integrated Management of Major Fungal Diseases of Tomato Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):54-59 The experiment was conducted at Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the period from October 2004 to March 2005 to determine an eco-friendly management practices against major fungal diseases of tomato. The treatments were: T1 = BAU - Biofungicide + Sanitation + Neem (3), T2= MOC (Mustard oil cake) + Neem (2) + Karmacha, T3 = BAU-Biofungicide + Neem + Karmacha (2), T4 = BAU-Biofungicide + Karmacha (2) + Mahogony, T5 = BAU-Biofungicide + MOC + Neem + Karmacha + Mahogony, T6 = MOC + Karmacha + Mahogony (2), T7 = BAU - Biofungicide + MOC + Neem + Mahogony (2), T8 = MOC + Sanitation + Neem (3), T9 = BAU - Biofungicide + MOC + Karmacha + Mahogony + Sanitation and T10 = control. In case of late blight treatment T7 gave the lowest value but it showed statistically insignificant with rest treatments except T10. Regarding early blight T6, T7, T8 and T9 exhibited more or less equally effective against the disease and they were statistically similar. As high as 33% wilt infection was recorded in T10 while no wilt infection was detected in all the rest treatments.

Key words: Tomato, BAU-Biofungicide, Fungal diseases

INTRODUCTION Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill) is the most popular vegetable in the world because of its taste, colour and high nutritive value and also for its diversified use (Bose and Som, 1986). In Bangladesh the average yield of tomato is 2.71 metric tons per acre (B.B.S, 2004) which is lamentably low as compared to the other leading tomato producing countries (FAO, 1999). There are many factors involved in such low yield of tomato in Bangladesh; among them are infestations by fungi, bacteria, nematodes or viruses and the competing weeds are predominant (Villaral, 1980). Over 200 diseases have been reported to affect the tomato plants in the world (Watterson, 1986). Among the fungal diseases early blight (Alternaria solani), late blight (Phytophthora infestans) and fusarial wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) are major. Both late and early blight can be effectively controlled by using fungicides but it is costly as well as not easily available to farmers’ door. Wilt control has been restricted to use of wilt resistant cultivars, grafting on wilt resistant root stalk, crop rotation, deep ploughing of land and also use of different soil amendments. Removal of infected plants from the field will help limiting the disease spread. Considering the above points the most urgent need is to develop varieties of tomato that can resist the ravage of important fungal disease like early blight, late blight and wilt. But none of the cultivated tomato varieties in the country are found to be horizontally resistant to these diseases. Therefore, the general control of disease by employing Integrated Disease Management (IDM) program has drawn special attention to the researchers. It can reduce the cost of healthy cropping and the farmers can easily apply them in the field. The IDM practices not only save the crop from the referred field diseases but also reduce the possibility of attack by the other pathogens (fungi, viruses, bacteria and nematodes) to tomato crop in a cropping season. There is a great need to carry out farmer level research aiming to develop a holistic disease management model to manage the major diseases of tomato. In these circumstances, the present study has been undertaken to develop an eco-friendly management practices against major fungal diseases of tomato. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiment was conducted at Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the period from October 2004 to March 2005. Seeds of tomato variety, Oxball (susceptible to diseases) were sown in seedbed on 20 October, 2004. Cow dung 10 tons per ha was applied and no chemical fertilizer was used in this experiment. The unit plot size was 1m x 1m. Row to row and plant to plant spacing was 50 cm. The experiment was laid out in the Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) having three replications. Distance between the blocks was 1m and between the plots was 0.5m. Apparently healthy seedlings of 35 days old were transplanted in the experimental field. There were 10 treatments as follows:


54


M. Afroz et al

T1 = BAU- Biofungicide + Sanitation + Neem (3) T2 = MOC (Mustard oil cake) + Neem (2) + Karamcha T3 = BAU- Biofungicide + Neem + Karamcha (2) T4 = BAU- Biofungicide + Karamcha (2) + Mahogony T5 = BAU- Biofungicide + MOC + Neem + Karamcha + Mahogony T6 = MOC + Karamcha + Mahogony (2) T7 = BAU- Biofungicide + MOC + Neem + Mahogony (2) T8 = MOC + Sanitation + Neem (3) T9 = BAU- Biofungicide + MOC + Karamcha + Mahogony + Sanitation T10 = Control The BAU-Biofungicide was added in the assigned pits @ 50g/pit and mixed well. MOC was decomposed in water for seven days after well grinding. After decomposing, it was diluted by adding plain water and applied @ 50g per plant in ring placement in soil around the base of the seedling, after 30 days of transplanting of seedlings. Sanitation was done 2 times after 30 days and 60 days of transplanting. The diseased leaves, which were 25% infected or more were removed. The dried and dead leaves were also removed from the plot. Plant extract was prepared as suggested by Sharmin (2003). Neem (Azadirachta indica) Mahogony (Swietenia Mahogony) ) and Karamcha (Carissa carandas) extract were applied @ 2g/l at 15days interval. First spray was given ten days after transplanting (DAT). Intercultural operations were done as and when necessasary. Data were taken on late blight infected plant, disease severity of late and early blight (0-6 scale for late blight and 0-5 scale for early blight, Vakalounakis, 1983) and wilted plants. Data were taken at 25, 40, 55 and 70 DAT. Percent data were transformed following Arcsine transformation. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fusarium wilt The results showed that all the tested treatments effectively controlled the wilt disease where none of plants died due to the disease except T10 (Control). In control more than 33% plant wilted during the entire growth period, most of which happened within 40 days of transplanting. Result revealed that integration of treatment combinations (T1 to T9) efficiently suppressed the causal agent of tomato wilt in the experimental field (Table 1). Early blight Significant variation among the treatments became well pronounced in controlling early blight of tomato in all four observations. It was evident that at 25 DAP, more than 59 percent plant became infected due to the disease in control treatment (T10). The lowest early blighted plants of 18.51% were recorded in T7 and it showed statistically insignificant with only T6 (MOC+Karamcha+Mehogoni), T8 and T9. The treatment, T7 also proved its affectivity on observations at 40, 55 and 70 DAT by exhibiting the lowest plant infection due to early blight. While statistical analysis was performed, T7 gave significantly lower infected plants followed by T9, T8 and T6 and they were statistically similar in all four times of observations. Late blight Significant variation among the treatments becomes evident on percent late blighted plants regardless of data recording after days after transplanting (DAT) of tomato except 40 DAT. The late blight infected plants ranged 11.11-40.79%. At 25 DAT the treatment T7 (Bio-fungicide+MOC+Neem+Mehogoni-2) appeared best one in reducing late blight infected plants and showed significantly better compared to rest treatments except T6 (MOC+Karamcha+Mehogoni-2), T8 (MOC+Sanitatin+Neam-3) and T9 (Bio-fungicide + MOC + Karamcha + Mehogoni + Sanitation). (Table 3). Significantly higher late blight infected plants was recorded by T10 (Control) and it differed significantly with all the rest treatments. The effect of treatments on late blight infection was insignificant at 40 DAT. At 55 DAT late blight infected plants ranged 48.15-81.48%. Although treatment T7 gave the lowest late blight infection numerically but it showed statistically similar to all the treatments expect T10. More than 92% tomato plants became infected due to late blight at 70 DAT and it differed significantly with all the rest treatments. Significantly lower infected plant was recorded by T7 and it showed statistically similar T5 (Bio-fungicide + MOC + Neem + Karamcha + Mehogoni) and T9. While disease severity of late blight was considered, there were no significant variation among the treatments whatever they were assessed at 25, 40, 55 and 70 DAT (Table 4). Late blight infection with lower disease severity prevailed at 25 DAT and it increased gradually with increasing of plant age. 55


Integrated Management of Major Fungal Diseases of Tomato

The results of present investigation indicate that the incidence of late blight infected plants and disease severity due to Phytophthora infection were rather low at the period between 25 and 40 DAT. The occurrence of late blight attained an epiphytotic momentum when the plants interred into their reproductive phase that means between 40 and 55 DAT. This may be happened due to congenial environmental condition of the fungus. During this period the minimum and the maximum air temperature were 12.490C and 22.720C respectively, cocepled with more than 80% relative humidity. This was in accordance with Dey et al (1998) who worked with late blight of potato. The treatment T7 appeared the best against late blight where Bio-fungicide (T. harzianum) integrated with MOC, Neem and Mehogoni but results were not, so much encouraging. This was close agreement with the findings of Slusarski and Pieter (2003) and Dey (2004). Dey (2004) screened a good number of antagonists including T. harzianum and T. viride against late blight under artificial inoculation of P. infestans in net house and concluded that the antagonists have the ability to reduce the late blight infection as prophylactic, not a curative. Integration of treatments with sanitation had some positive influence against late blight which is corroborate with the findings of Cohen (1987), Tumwine (1990), Begum (2001) and Islam (2002). But all of then suggested that sanitation with fungicide spray is more effective in controlling late blight of tomato. Regarding early blight T7 also exhibited better in controlling the disease compared to other treatment combinations. The effectiveness of Trichoderma against Alternaria spp. has been reported by Slusarski and Pieter (2003). Under the study all the integrating treatments (T1 to T9) performed excellent against wilt (Fusariam oxysporum) disease of tomato. The findings of the present study clearly supported those obtained by many researchers throughout the world (Ehteshmul et al. 1990, Parveen and Ghaffar, 1995; Mukherjee et al. 1995; Raj and Kapoor, 1996; Hossain and Fakir, 2001; Banu, 2003 and Dey, 2004) who worked on the biocontrol potentiality of different species of Trichoderma both in vitro and in vivo against wide range of soilborne pathogens including Fusarium oxysporum Elad et al. (1982) claimed that T. harzianum excreted 1.3glucanase and chitinase that showed antagonistic activity to control soil-borne pathogens. The affectivity of Mustard oil cake became reflected against. F. oxyporum under the present study which was in line with the findings Raj and kapoor (1996). Table 1 Effect of treatments on % Wilt during the growth period under field condition Treatments T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10

% Wilt (up to 70 DAT) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33.33

T1 = BAU- Bio-fungicide +Sanitation + Neem (3) T2 = Mustard oil cake + Neem (2) + Karamcha T3= BAU- Bio-fungicide + Neem + Karamcha (2) T4 = BAU- Bio-fungicide +Karamcha (2) + Mehogoni T5 = BAU- Bio-fungicide + Mustard oil cake +Neem + Karamcha +Mehogoni T6 = Mustard oil cake + Karamcha + Mehogoni (2) T7 = BAU- Bio-fungicide + Mustard oil cake +Neem +Mehogoni (2) T8 = Mustard oil cake + Sanitation +Neem (3) T9 = BAU- Bio-fungicide + Mustard oil cake +Karamcha +Mehogoni + Sanitation T10 = Control

56


M. Afroz et al

Table 2 Effect of treatments on the occurrence of early blight infection at different growing periods under field condition Treatments

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 Level of significance (p=0.05)

25 44.443 b (41.78) 40.737 bc (39.64) 40.737 bc (39.64) 40.737 bc (39.64) 37.033 bcd (37.47) 25.923 de (30.59) 18.517 e (25.48) 29.627 cde (32.96) 25.923 de (30.59) 59.263 a (50.30) **

% Early blighted plants Days after transplanting (DAT) 40 55 59.260 b 62.963 b (50.30) (52.48) 55.560 bc 59.263 bc (48.16) (50.30) 59.263 b 62.967 b (50.30) (52.48) 51.853 bc 55.557 bc (46.03) (48.16) 48.147 bcd 55.557 bc (43.91) (48.16) 40.740 cde 44.443 cd (39.64) (41.78) 25.930 e 29.627 d (30.59) (32.96) 40.737 cde 44.443 cd (39.64) (41.78) 33.330 de 37.033 d (35.24) (37.47) 77.780 a 81.483 a (61.82) (64.45) **

**

70 66.670 b (54.70) 70.373 ab (56.98) 70.373 ab (56.98) 62.967 bc (52.48) 62.967 bc (52.48) 55.557 bc (48.16) 33.330 d (35.24) 48.147 cd (43.91) 37.033 d (37.47) 85.187 a (67.29) **

*Figures in parenthesis indicate the transformed value, ** =Significant at 1% level.

Table 3 Effect of treatments on the occurrence of late blight infection at different growing periods under field condition Treatments T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 Level of significance (0.05)

25 33.330 b (35.24) 29.627 bc (32.96) 29.627 bc (32.96) 29.627 bc (32.96) 25.923 bcd (30.59) 14.813 de (22.63) 11.110 e (19.46) 18.517 cde (25.48) 14.813 de (22.63) 40.737 a (39.64) **

% late blighted plants Days after transplanting (DAT) 40 55 37.033 70.373 ab (37.47) (56.98) 33.330 66.670 ab (35.24) (54.70) 37.033 66.670 ab (37.47) (54.70) 33.330 66.670 ab (35.24) (54.70) 29.627 55.557 b (32.96) (48.16) 25.923 55.557 b (30.59) (48.16) 18.517 48.150 b (25.48) (43.91) 25.923 62.967 ab (30.59) (52.48) 22.220 48.147 b (28.11) (43.91) 48.147 81.483 a (43.91) (64.45) NS

*

70 74.077 b (59.34) 74.077 b (59.34) 74.077 b (59.34) 66.670 bc (54.70) 59.263 bcd (50.30) 66.670 bc (54.70) 44.443 d (41.78) 62.967 bc (52.48) 55.557 cd (48.16) 92.593 a (74.11) **

*Figures in parenthesis indicate the transformed value, ** =Significant at 1% level. * = Significant at 5% level, NS = Non significant

57


Integrated Management of Major Fungal Diseases of Tomato

Table 4 Effect of %leaf infection/plant due to late blight under different treatments as different days after transplanting in the field Treatments

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10

25 22.220 (28.11) 33.330 (35.24) 22.220 (28.11) 22.220 (28.11) 22.220 (28.11) 18.517 (25.48) 11.110 (19.46) 18.517 (25.48) 14.813 (22.63) 25.923 (30.59)

Disease severity % Leaf spot/leaf blighted symptom bearing leaves Infected plants Days After Transplanting (DAT) 40 55 33.330 59.263 (35.24) (50.30) 48.147 48.147 (43.91) (43.91) 37.033 51.853 (37.47) (46.03) 37.037 44.447 (37.47) (41.78) 37.037 37.037 (37.47) (37.47) 33.330 62.967 (35.24) (52.48) 25.923 40.740 (30.59) (39.64) 29.627 44.447 (32.96) (41.78) 25.923 40.740 (30.59) (39.64) 55.557 74.077 (48.16) (59.34)

70 92.593 (74.11) 81.483 (64.45) 85.187 (67.29) 77.777 (61.82) 70.370 (56.98) 96.297 (78.76) 74.077 (59.34) 77.777 (61.82) 74.077 (59.34) 97.407 (80.19)

*Figures in parenthesis indicate the transformed value

REFERENCES BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). 2004. Monthly Statistics Bulletin of Bangladesh, October. Agricultural Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Govt. of Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. 58p Banu, M.A. 2003. Cultural variations, fungitioxicity and cross pathogenicity in selected isolates of Sclerotium rolfsii. M.Sc. Thesis, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka. 154p Begum, F. 2001. Integrated management of early blight, late blight and wilt diseases of tomato cv. Pusa Ruby. M.S Thesis. Department of Plant Pathology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. 16p Bose, T.K. and M.G. Som. 1986. Vegetable crops in India. 1st End. Naya Prikash, Calcutta. 262-264 Cohen, Y. 1987. Late blight of potatoes, epidemiology and control. Hassadish. 68 (2): 268-271 Dey, T.K., M.S. Ali. and S.M. Elias. 1998. Late blight and bacterial wilt of potato. TCRC, BARI, Gazipur. 8P. Dey, T.K., 2004. Bioconotrol potentialities of some antagonists against late blight of potato. Annual Report (2003-2004). TCRC, BARI, Gazipur. 82 pp Ehteshamul, H.S., A. Gaffar and M. J. Zaki. 1990. Biological control of root rot disease of okra, sunflower, soybean and mungbean. Pakistan J. Botany. 22 (2): 212-214 Elad, Y., I. Chet and Y. Henis. 1982. Degradation of plant pathogenic fungi by Trichoderma harzianum. Canadian Microbiol. 28(7): 719-725 FAO. 1999. Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics. Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome. 12 (3/4): 79-80 Hossain, I. and G.A. Fakir. 2001. Biological control of seed-borne pathogens of some crops. 1st ed. Seed Pathology Laboratory (SPL), Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymnensingh, Bangladesh. 30 pp Islam, M.S. 2002. Management of late blight of tomato. M.S. Thesis. Department of plant Pathology. Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. 89p

58


M. Afroz et al

Mukherjee, P.K.; A.N. Mukhopadhay; D.K. Sharma and S.M. Shreshtha. 1995. Comparative antagonistic properties of Gliocladium virens and Trichoderma harzianum on Sclerotium rolfsii and Rhizoctonia solani on its relevant to understanding the mechanism of biological pathogenicity. Phytopath 143 (5): 275-279 Parveen, S. and Gaffar. 1995. Effect of microbial antagonists in the control of soil-borne root infecting fungi in tomato and okra. Pakistan J. Bot. 26 (1): 179-182 Raj, H. and Kapoor, I.J. 1996. Effect of oils cake amendment of soil on tomato wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycompersici. Indian Phytopathology 49 (4): 355-366 Sharmin. N. 2003. A study of leaf blight on mustard and its management. M. Sc. Thesis. Dept. of Botany, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka. Slusarski, C. and Pietr, S. J. 2003. Validation of chemical and non-chemical treatments as methyl bromide replacement in field grown cabbage, celeriae and tomato. Vegetable Crops Research Bulletin. 2003. 58: 113126. Tumwine, J. 1990. Towards the development of integrated cultural control of tomato late blight (Phytophthora infestans) in Uganda. Kawanda Agricultural Institute, Kampala, Uganda. 152p. Volkalounakis, D. J. 1983. Evaluation of tomato cultivars for the resistance to Alternaria blight. Annls of Applied Biology. 102 (Suppl.): 138-139 Villaral, E.R. 1980. Tomato in tropics. West View Press. Inc. Baulder Golarodo. 77p Watterson, J.C. 1986. Diseases, the tomato crops. Edited by Atherton and Rudich. Champan and Hall Ltd. Ny. 461-462p

59



GENETIC DIVERGENCE IN BUCKWHEAT (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) N. R. DEBNATH1, M. G. RASUL2, M. M. H. SARKER3, M.H. RAHMAN4 AND A.K.PAUL5 1 Student, 2Professor, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding (GPB), 3Student, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, 4Scientific Officer, 5Senior Scientific Officer, Hybrid Rice Project, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh

Accepted for publication: January 12, 2008 ABSTRACT Debnath N. R., Rasul M. G., Sarker M. M. H., Rahman M.H. and Paul A.K. 2008. Genetic Divergence in Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.). Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2): 60-68 An experiment was conducted with 21local genotypes of buckwheat at the experimental field of Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Salna, Gazipur to study the variability and their interrelationship and diversity pattern based on quantitative and qualitative characters during the November 2004 to March 2005. Multivariate techniques were used to classify 21 buckwheat genotypes. All the genotypes were grouped into five different clusters. Cluster IV had the maximum (six) and cluster II had the minimum (one) genotype. The highest inter cluster distance was observed between I and II. The lowest inter cluster distance was found between the cluster III and V. Days to first germination, days to first flowering, first node distance from the soil level, plant height, branches per plant, inflorescence per plant, grains per raceme and total grains per plant were found to contribute maximum towards genetic divergence among the buckwheat genotypes. The clustering pattern of genotypes revealed that genotypes collected from the same places did not form a single cluster. Considering diversity pattern and other agronomic performance the genotypes G21, G9, G8 and G10 might be selected as promising genotypes for future hybridization program.

Key words: Genetic variability, multivariate technique, buckwheat

INTRODUCTION Buckwheat is one of the minor crops grown in Bangladesh belonging the family Polygonaceae. Buckwheat is believed to be cultivated first in the Himalayan region of India, from where it spreaded to China, Middle Asia and the Caucasus and later on to other European areas (Krotov, 1976). Common buckwheat, the principal species Fagopyrum esculentum appears to have been derived from F. cymosum, a wild species of Asia. Buckwheat is called ‘Poor man’s food’ in Danish. In Bangladesh, buckwheat is cultivated in the north-west region especially in Thakurgaon, Panchagar and parts of Dinajpur and Rangpur districts during the rabi (October to March) season. Most of the farmers in east and south are not familiar with the principle product of buckwheat, i. e. flour. The buckwheat plant is an annual. Buckwheat requires only a short growing season of 10-12 weeks in the temperate zone (Martin, et.al., 1976) and is highly cross-pollinated. The grain contains 10.3% protein. 2.4% fat, 2.4% mineral matter, 6.8% fibre and 65.0% carbohydrate (chiefly starch). Besides, it also contains calcium (0.07%) phosphorus (0.03%), iron (13.2 mg) and vitamin B (Narain, 1979 and Ram et al., 1979). It is well suited to light and well-drained soils such as sandy loam or silt loams and it grows satisfactorily on soil, too acid for other grain crops. It produces a better crop on relatively infertile, poorly tilled land than other grain crops when the climate is favorable. It, however, does not produce enough biomass to lodge badly on rich soil with high nitrogen content (White et al., 1941, Sando, 1956, Narain 1979 and Ram et al., 1979). For this reason, buckwheat can be called as ‘poor land’s crop’. Though it is a minor crop it has a great importance. But it may be mentioned that until to date there is no released variety of buckwheat with high yield potential and better quality. Further a very few limited attempt had been made for genetic improvement of this crop. Knowledge of genetic diversity among existing cultivars of any crop is essential for long term success of breeding program and maximizes the exploitation of the germplasm resources (Belaj et al., 2002 and Rasul and Okubo, 2002). Genetically diverse parents are able to produce considerable variability, which can enhance the scope of selection. More diverse the parents, greater are the chances of obtaining high heterotic F1 and broad spectrums of variability in segregating generations (Arunachalam, 1981). Such a study also permits to select the genetically divergent parents to obtain the desirable recombinant in the segregating generations. Hence, in the present investigation, an effort has been made to find out the genetic variability among the existing genotypes for their further utilization in the breeding program. MATERIALS AND METHODS The investigation was carried out at the Experimental Field of Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding of the Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Salna, Gazipur during November © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

60


N. R. Debnath et al

2004 to March 2005. Twenty-one indigenous buckwheat genotypes included in this study were collected from the northern part of Bangladesh. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The field was divided into three blocks and each of the blocks was subdivided into 21 plots where genotypes were randomly assigned. The unit plot size was 4m X 1.25m consisting of five rows. Row to row distance was 25 cm. Ten plants were selected at random from each plot for recording observations on various characters. Data were recorded on days to first germination, days to 100% germination, days to first flowering, first node distance from soil level (cm), plant height (cm), branches per plant, inflorescence per plant, flowers per inflorescence, grain setting raceme per plant, grains per raceme, length of raceme (cm), grain number per plant, seed yield per plant (g), 100-seed weight (g) and seed yield (kg/m2) Statistical Analysis of Data Replicated and mean data for each quantitative character were subjected to univariate and multivariate analysis, respectively. Univariate analysis For univariate analysis, analysis of variance was done individually and test of significance was done by F-test (Pense and Shukhatme, 1978). Mean, range, standard error (SE) and co-efficient of variation (CV %) were estimated using MSTATAC computer program. For calculating the genotypic and phenotypic correlation co-efficient for all possible combination the formula suggested by Miller et al, (1958). Hanson et al, (1956), Johanson et al,(1955) were adopted. Multivariate analysis (D2 analysis) Multivariate analysis viz., genetic diversity was analyzed using GENSTAT 5.13 software program (copyright 1987, Lawes agricultural Trust, Rothamasted Experimental Station,UK). Genetic diversity analysis involves several steps, i.e., estimation of distance between the varieties clustering and analysis of inter-cluster distance. Therefore, more than one multivariate technique are required to represent the results more clearly and it is obvious from the results of many researches (Basher, 2002; Uddin, 2001; Juned et al , 1988; Ariyo, 1987; Patil et al., 1987). Principal Component Analysis Principal component analysis (PCA), one of the multivariate techniques, is used to examine the interrelationships among several characters and can be done from the sum of squares and products matrix for the characters. Thus, PCA finds linear combinations of a set variate that maximize the variation contained within them, thereby displaying most of the original variability in a smaller number of dimensions. Therefore, principal components were computed from the correlation matrix and genotype i.e. scores obtained for the first components (Which has the property of accounting for maximum variance) and succeeding components with latent roots greater than unity (Jeger et al., 1983). Contributions of the different morphological characters towards divergence are discussed from the latent vectors of the first two principal components. Principal Coordinate Analysis Principal Coordinate (PCO) analysis is used to calculate inter unit distances. Though the use of all dimensions of PCA it gives the minimum distance between each pair of the N points using similarity matrix (Digby et al., 1989). Canonical Variate Analysis Canonical Vector Analysis (CVA) finds linear combination of original variability that maximizes the ratio of between groups to within group’s variation, thereby giving functions of the original variables that can be used to discriminate between the groups. Thus in this analysis, a series of orthogonal transformations sequentially maximizing the ratio of among groups to within group variations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Variability among buckwheat genotypes Range, mean, standard error (SE) and coefficient of variation (CV) of fifteen characters of buckwheat genotypes are presented in the Table 1. The genotypes showed that considerable variability existed among the genotypes. Analysis of variance showed that the genotypes varied significantly (1% level of probability) for all the characters (Table 1).

61


Genetic Divergence in Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.)

Table 1. Range, mean, standard error (SE) with coefficient of variation (CV) for fifteen characters of 21 local buckwheat genotypes Characters Days to first germination Days to 100% germination Days to first flowering Distance from first node to soil level (cm) Plant height (cm) Branches per plant (no.) Inflorescence per plant (no.) Flowers per inflorescence (no.) Grain setting raceme per plant (no.) Grains per raceme (no.) Raceme length (cm) Total grains per plant Seed yield per plant (g) 100 seed weight (g) Seed yield (kg/m2) Characters Flowers per inflorescence (no.) Grain setting raceme per plant (no.) Grains per raceme (no.) Raceme length (cm) Total grains per plant Seed yield per plant (g) 100 seed weight (g) Seed yield (kg/m2)

Maximum 3.80 7.93 31.53 7.07 84.57 27.47 112.53 45.80 95.87 11.67 1.86 864.20 10.71 1.49 9.35 Maximum 45.80 95.87 11.67 1.86 864.20 10.71 1.49 9.35

Minimum 3.20 7.00 25.87 3.27 66.29 13.53 84.47 24.87 68.20 5.40 1.29 317.20 2.89 1.03 3.25 Minimum 24.87 68.20 5.40 1.29 317.20 2.89 1.03 3.25

Mean ± SE 3.49±0.025 7.47±0.034 28.35±0.198 4.58±0.162 77.22±0.785 23.463±0.434 98.6±1.008 30.25±0.721 82.8±1.220 8.05±0.204 1.61±0.029 557.98±21.156 6.79±0.369 1.22±0.018 6.32±9.995 Mean ± SE 30.25±0.721 82.8±1.220 8.05±0.204 1.61±0.029 557.98±21.156 6.79±0.369 1.22±0.018 6.32±9.995

CV% 4.04 2.65 3.23 26.34 5.75 6.78 5.06 6.63 9.38 9.73 8.99 18.4 33.11 6.71 31.57 CV% 6.63 9.38 9.73 8.99 18.4 33.11 6.71 31.57

Table 2. Analysis of variance for 15 characters in 21 local genotypes of buckwheat Source of variation

df

Replication Genotype Error

2 20 40

Source of variation

df


2 20 40

DFG 0.109 0.068** 0.02

IP 1.48 5.84** 24.86

Source of Variation

df


2 20 40

DHG 0.012 0.155** 0.037

Mean sum of squares DF PH 1.679 14.31** 5.79** 2.68** 0.841 19.689 Mean sum of squares GSRP 213.76 148.86** 60.27

FI 1.48 93.33** 4.021

GR 0.94 6.79** 0.613

Mean sum of squares SYP 100SW 31.48* 0.016 13.3** 0.049** 5.055 0.007

GR 40006.16 62333.69** 10538.164

BP 1.07 12.44** 2.53

RL 0.096 0.108** 0.021

SY 8594.04 10622.14** 4014.048

DFG=Days to first germination, DHG= Days to hundred percent germination, DF= Days to first flowering, DN= Distance of first node from the soil level, PH= Plant height, BP= Branches per plant, IP= Inflorescence per plant, FI= Flowers per inflorescence, GSRP=Grain setting raceme per plant, GR= Grains per raceme, RL= Raceme length, GP= Grains per plant, SYP= Seed yield per plant, 100SW= 100-seed weight, Y=Seed yield (kg/m2).

Diversity of the Buckwheat genotypes Principal component analysis The principal component analysis yielded eigen values of each principal component axes of ordination of genotypes with the first axes totally accounted for the variation among the genotypes, while three of these with eigen values above unity accounted for 81.71%. The first two principal axes accounted for 70.58% of the total variation among the 15 characters describing 21 Buckwheat genotypes (Table 3).

62


N. R. Debnath et al

Table 3. Eigen values and percentage of variation for corresponding 15 components characters in 21 buckwheat genotypes. Principal component characters

Eigen values

Days to first germination Days to100% germination Days to first flowering Distance from first node to soil level (cm) Plant height (cm) Branches per plant (no.) Inflorescence per plant (no.) Flowers per inflorescence (no.) Grain setting raceme per plant (no.) Grains per raceme (no.) Raceme length (cm) Total grain per plant Seed yield per plant (g) 100 seed weight (g) Seed yield (kg/m2)

3.748 1.545 0.834 0.425 0.40 0.249 0.173 0.062 0.0472 0.0267 0.0205 0.0134 0.0105 0.0033 0.0023

Principal component characters

Eigen values

Inflorescence per plant (no.) Flowers per inflorescence (no.) Grain setting raceme per plant (no.) Grains per raceme (no.) Raceme length (cm) Total grain per plant Seed yield per plant (g) 100 seed weight (g) Seed yield (kg/m2)

0.173 0.062 0.0472 0.0267 0.0205 0.0134 0.0105 0.0033 0.0023

Percentage of total variation accounted for 49.97 20.61 11.13 5.67 4.53 3.32 2.30 0.82 0.63 0.36 0.27 0.18 0.14 0.04 0.03

Percentage of total variation accounted for 2.30 0.82 0.63 0.36 0.27 0.18 0.14 0.04 0.03

Cumulative percentage 49.97 70.58 81.71 87.38 91.91 95.23 97.53 98.35 98.98 99.34 99.61 99.79 99.93 99.97 100

Cumulative percentage 97.53 98.35 98.98 99.34 99.61 99.79 99.93 99.97 100

Construction of scattered diagram Based on the values of principal component scores I and II obtained from the principal component analysis, a two-dimensional scattered diagram (Z1-Z2) using component score 1 as X-axis and component score 2 as Y-axis was constructed, which has been presented in the Figure 1. The position of the genotypes in the scattered diagram was apparently distributed into five groups, which indicated that there exists considerable diversity among the genotypes. The scattered diagram for the Buckwheat genotypes of different clusters revealed that the genotype number 9 and the genotypes of cluster V were distantly located which suggesting more diverged from rest of the genotypes.

63



10

600 10

600

12 12 400

400

V 15

15

200

3

13

3 17

13 17

200 7 4

0 5

0

8 19

7

16 1

2120 145

4

8 1911

16 1

6

2120

2 18 9

-200

-200

Z2

14

IV

6

11

III

2 18 9

-400

Z2

-400

-200

-400 Z1 -400

0

-200

200

0

400

600 II

200

400

600

Z1 Figure 1. Scatter distribution of 21 buckwheat genotypes on the basis of principal component scores Principal Coordinate Analysis Inter genotypic distances as obtained by principal coordinate (PCO) analysis for selective combination showed that the highest distance was 1.743 observed between the genotypes G9 and G21 and the lowest distance was observed between G13 and G14 (0.217) (Table 4). The intra-cluster distances were computed by the values of inter-genotypic distance matrix of PCO according to Singh and Chaudhary (1985). There were not marked variation in intra-cluster distances, which ranged from 0 to 0.852 (Table 5). The magnitudes of the intra-cluster distances were not always proportion to the number of genotypes in the clusters. In the present study it was found that although cluster IV composed of the largest number of genotypes, (6) but its intra-cluster distances was moderate (0.737) among the five clusters (Table 5). The highest intra-cluster distance was computed for the cluster I (0.852) composed of five genotypes followed by the cluster IV (0.737) composed of six genotypes. The intra-cluster distance in cluster III and V were 0.477 and 0.427 consisting of four and five genotypes, respectively. The intra-cluster distance was 0 for cluster II that composed of only one genotype. However, the highest value (0.852) of intra-cluster distance in cluster I indicated the genotypes (5) constituted this cluster might have diverged characters, which contributed to the formation of this cluster (Table 5). Canonical variate analysis Canonical variate analysis was performed to obtain the inter-cluster distances (Mahalanobis’s D2 values). These values of inter-cluster distance (D2) are presented in the Table 5. The inter-cluster distance was maximum between cluster I and II (69.62), while the distance was minimum between the cluster III and V (12.42), followed by the distance between I and III (15.50). The maximum values of inter-cluster distance indicated that the genotypes belonging to cluster I was far diverged from those o f

64


N. R. Debnath et al

cluster II. Similarly the highest inter-cluster distance values between clusters II and III, cluster II and V, clusters I and IV indicated the genotypes belonging to each pair of clusters were far diverse. Table 4. Highest and lowest four inter-genotypic distances (D2) of different clusters (from PCO analysis) Category Between genotypes Distances(D2) Highest four inter genotypic G9-G21 1.743 distances G8-G21 1.675 G13-G21 1.649 G14-G21 1.629 Lowest four inter genotypic G9-G14 0.334 distances G10-G15 0.320 G10-G17 0.289 G13-G14 0.217 Table 5. Average intra (Bold) and intercluster distance (D2) for 21 buckwheat genotypes Clusters I II III IV V

I 0.852 69.62 15.50 45.02 25.76

II

III

IV

V

0.00 56.89 28.12 48.85

0.48 31.33 12.42

0.737 21.71

0.427

I 0.852

25.76 69.62

15.50 II 0.0

V 0.4268

48.85 45.02 56.89

12.42 III 0.477

28.12 21.71 IV 0.736

31.33

Figure 2. Diagram showing inter cluster (outside the circle) and intra cluster (inside the circle) distances of 21 local buckwheat genotypes. Non- hierarchical clustering By application of non-hierarchical clustering using co-variance matrix, 21 buckwheat genotypes were grouped into five different clusters. These results confirmed the clustering pattern of the genotypes according to the principal component analysis. Composition of different clusters with their corresponding genotypes and collection site included in each cluster are presented in Table 6. 65



Cluster IV had maximum six genotypes followed by clusters I, V, III and II which had five, five, four and one genotypes respectively. Cluster I composed of five genotypes, namely, G1, G4, G16, G20 and G21 collected from Ranigonj, Ranigonj, Goraya, Thakurgaon sadar and Patikadangi. From the clustering mean values (Table 7), it was observed that cluster I produced the highest mean for days to first germination (3.53), first node distance from the soil level (5.04 cm), total grains per raceme (8.43) but produced the lowest mean for plant height (77.00 cm), branch number per plant (22.48), total grain number per plant (385.53), seed yield per plant (4.75g). Cluster II was composed of a single genotype, namely G9 collected from Bhulli. This genotype produced the highest mean value for plant height (82.23 cm), branches per plant (24.73), inflorescence per plant (112.53), grain setting raceme per plant (92.67), raceme length (1.70 cm), total number of grains per plant (864.20), seed yield per plant (9.91g). This produced the lowest mean value for days to first germination (3.33), first node distance from the soil level (4.00 cm), flower number per inflorescence (26.67), 100-seed weight (1.07). Cluster III was constituted of four genotypes such as G2, G6, G11 and G18 collected from Ranigonj, Ranigonj, Bhulli and Chaudury Hat, respectively. These genotypes produced the highest mean value for days to first flowering (28.58), flower number per inflorescence (31.90), 100-seed weight (1.34) but produced the lowest mean value for days to 100% germination (7.37), number of inflorescence per plant (92.62), grain setting raceme per plant (75.93), seed yield kg/m2 (3.68). Cluster IV constituted of six genotypes, namely, G5, G7, G8, G13, G14, and G19 collected from Ranigonj, Ranigonj, Ranigonj, Board Bazar, Goraya and Chaudury Hat area. These genotypes produced the highest mean value for seed yield kg/m2 (7.66) but the lowest for grains per raceme (7.65), raceme length (1.58cm). For rest of the characters this cluster contained the moderate mean value. Cluster V composed of five genotypes, namely, G3, G10, G12, G15 and G17 collected from Ranigonj, Bhulli, Board bazar, Goraya and Chaudury Hut. The highest mean value was found for days to first germination (3.53) and days to100% germination (7.63) but produced the lowest values for days to first flowering (28) and raceme length (1.58 cm). From the class mean values it was found that all the cluster mean values for days to first germination, days to 100% germination, days to first flowering, first node distance from the soil level, raceme length, 100-seed weight were more or less similar. The maximum range of variability were recorded for total number of grains per plant (385.53-864.20) and incase of seed yield kg/ m2 (3.68-7.66) among all the characters in five clusters. Genotype of cluster II was important in respect of highest plant height, branches per plant, inflorescence per plant and grain setting raceme per plant. Cluster IV was important for seed yield kg/m2 while cluster V was important for the early flowering Table 6. Distribution of 21 genotypes in five different clusters clusters

Number of genotypes

I

5

II III

1 4

IV

6

V

5

Genotypes with place of collection G1 (Ranigonj), G4 (Ranigonj), G16 (Goraya),G20 (Thakurgaon sadar), G21 (Patikadangi) G9 (Bhulli) G2 (Ranigonj),G6 (Ranigonj),G11 (Bhulli),G18 (Chaudury Hat) G5 (Ranigonj), G7 (Ranigonj), G8 (Ranigonj), G13 (Board Bazar), G14 (Goraya), G19 (Chaudury Hut) G3 (Ranigonj), G10 (Bhulli), G12 (Board Bazar), G15 (Goraya), G17 (Chaudury Hat)

66


N. R. Debnath et al

Table 7. Cluster means of 15 characters of local buckwheat genotypes. Characters Days to first germination Days to 100% germination Days to first flowering Distance from first node to soil level (cm) Plant height (cm) Branches per plant (no.) Inflorescence per plant (no.) Flowers per inflorescence (no.) Grain setting raceme per plant (no.) Grains per raceme (no.) Raceme length (cm) Total grains per plant (no.) Seed yield per plant (g) 100-seed weight (g) Seed yield (kg/m2)

I 3.53 (H) 7.36 28.31 5.04 (H) 77.00 22.48 97.03 31.40 80.81 8.43 (H) 1.61 385.53 4.75 1.24 6.52

II 3.33 7.40 28.53 4.00 82.23 (H) 24.73 (H) 112.53 (H) 26.67 92.67 (H) 8.13 1.70 (H) 864.20 (H) 9.91 (H) 1.07 6.93

III 3.40 7.37 28.58 (H) 4.63 72.91 22.57 92.62 31.90 (H) 75.93 7.85 1.60 481.98 6.25 1.34 (H) 3.68

IV 3.50 7.52 28.48 4.45 78.57 23.70 101.18 27.72 85.09 7.65 1.58 703.89 8.65 1.23 7.66(H)

V 3.53 7.63 (H) 28.00 4.35 78.25 24.63 99.03 31.47 85.56 8.28 1.58 554.88 6.41 1.10 6.51

Contribution of characters towards divergence of the genotypes The PCA revealed from Table 8 that in Vector 1 (Z1) the important characters responsible for genetic divergence in the major axis of differentiation were days to first germination (19.259), number of grains per raceme (2.241), branches per plant (1.851), first node distance from the soil level (1.429), plant height (1.028), days to first flowering (0.878), inflorescence per plant (0.228) and total number of grains per plant (0.181). In vector II (Z2), which was the second axis of differentiation were days to first germination (13.951), days to 100% germination (12.745), number of grains per raceme (1.893) and number of branches per plant (1.770). The role of days to first germination, node distance, branches per plant, number of grains per raceme and number of grains per plant for both the vectors was positive across two axis indicating the important components of genetic divergence in these materials. From the above results it appeared that contribution of days to first germination was the highest followed by number of grains per raceme, branches per plant, first node distance from the soil level, plant height in the buckwheat genotypes Table 8. Latent vectors for 15 characters of local buckwheat genotypes Characters Vector1 Vector2 Days to first germination 19.259 13.951 Days to100% germination -5.496 12.745 Days to first flowering 0.878 -0.846 Distance from first node to soil level (cm) 1.429 0.614 Plant height (cm) 1.028 -0.455 Branches per plant (no.) 1.851 1.770 Inflorescence per plant (no.) 0.228 -1.150 Flowers per inflorescence (no.) -0.991 -0.115 Grain setting raceme per plant (no.) -1.103 -0.225 Grains per raceme (no.) 2.241 1.893 Raceme length (cm) -10.944 -17.356 Total grain per plant (no.) 0.181 0.046 Seed yield per plant (g) -2.882 -1.800 100-seed weight (g) -0.584 -10.326 Seed yield (kg/m2) -0.054 0.016 Selection of genotypes for future hybridization program The genotypes of cluster I could be selected for earliest germination, higher number of grain per raceme and the shorter plant stature and lesser 100-seed weight. The genotypes of cluster II could be selected for the highest plant height, highest number of branches per plant, inflorescence per plant, grain setting raceme per plant, raceme length, total number of grains per plant, seed yield per plant and the lowest for earliest germination, flower number per inflorescence, 100-seed weight. The genotypes of cluster III for the earliest flowering, the highest flower number per inflorescence, 100-seed weight and for the lowest 100% germination, number of 67



inflorescence per plant, grain setting raceme per plant and seed yield (kg/m2). The genotypes of cluster IV for the highest seed yield (kg/m2) and lowest for grains per raceme, raceme length. The genotypes of cluster V for the earliest first germination and 100% germination and the lowest flowering and raceme length. CONCLUSION The highest inter cluster distance was observed between I and II (69.62) followed by II and III (56.89). The lowest inter cluster distance was found between the cluster III and V (12.42) followed by I and III (15.50). The clustering pattern of genotypes revealed that genotypes collected from the same places did not form a single cluster. The genotypes included in cluster I were important for earliest germination, higher number of grain per raceme and the lowest plant height, cluster II for the highest plant height, highest number of branches per plant, inflorescence per plant, grain setting raceme per plant, raceme length, total number of grains per plant, seed yield per plant. The genotypes of cluster III were important for the earliest flowering, the highest flowers number per inflorescence, 100-seed weight. The genotypes of cluster IV were important for the highest seed yield. The genotypes of cluster V were important for the earliest first germination and late flowering. Considering the genetic diversity of G21, G9, G8 and G10 might be selected as promising genotypes for future hybridization. Divergent genotypes (G9 and G10) are recommended to use as parent in future hybridization program, which may produce desirable segregants. REFERENCES Arunachalam, G. 1981. Genetic distances in plant breeding. Indian J. Genet., 41: 226-236 Belaj, A., Z. Satovic, L. Rallo and I Trujillo. 2002. Genetic diversity and relationship in olive germplasm collection as determined by RAPD. Theor. Appl. Genet. 105(4): 638-644 Fisher, R. A. 1941. Statistical methods for research workers, 8th ed. Oliver and Boyd, London Hanson, C. H., H. F. Robinson and R. E. Comstock 1956. Biometrical studies of yield in segregating populations of Korean Lespedza.Agron. j. 48: 268-272 Krotov, A. S., and AvezdzhanoG, R. M. 1976. Establishment of Buckwheat as a crop. Byulletene vsesoyuznogo, order leihnai, orderna Druzhby Narodov Institute Rastenievodstra imeni N. I. Vavilova no. 62, 27-30(RU) vsesoyuznyi Institute, Rastenievodstre, Leningrad, USSR. Martin, J. H., Warren H. Leonard and David L. Stamp. 1976. Principles of field crop production. (Third edn.). Macmillan publishing Co. Enc. collier Macmillan publishers London. pp 789-796 Miller, P. J., J. C. Williams, H. F. Robinson and R. F. Comstock. 1958. Estimates of genotypes and environmental variances and covariance in upland cotton and their implications in selections. Agron. J. 50: 126131 Narain, P. 1979. Buckwheat cultivation in plain of UP. Indian Farming 29(1) 3-5, 28 Pense, V. G. and Shukhatme, P. V. 1978. Statistical methods for agricultural workers. 3rd edition, Indian Council of Agricultural Research. New Delhi. pp. 258-268 Ram, S., R. K. Gupta and M. L. Khybri.1979. Buckwheat for Doon Valley. Indian Farming 29(2): 9-11, 17 Rasul, M. G. and H. Okubo. 2002. Genetic diversity in tassel gourd (Momordica dioica Rox b.). Bangladesh J. Pl. Breed. Genet. 15(2): 9-15 Sando. W. J. 1956. ‘Buckwheat culture’, USDA Farmers Bull. 2095 Singh, D., P. Kumar and B. P. S. Chauhan. 1980. Genetic diversity for some quantitative characters in barley. Indian J. Genet. Pl. Breed. 40(2): 391-395 White, J. W., Holben F. J., and Richer A. C. 1941. Experiments with buckwheat. Pa. Agric Exp. Sta. Bull. 403

68



MATURITY AND POST HARVEST STUDY OF PINEAPPLE WITH QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE UNDER RED SOIL M. DHAR1, S.M.RAHMAN2 AND S.M. SAYEM2 1

MS student, Department of Horticulture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensigh, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, Bangladesh Accepted for publication: January 15, 2008 ABSTRACT Dhar M., Rahman S.M. and Sayem S.M. 2008. Maturity and Post Harvest Study of Pineapple with Quality and Shelf Life under Red Soil. Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):69-75 A field experiment was conducted at the Horticulture, Food Technology and Rural Industries and IPM laboratories, Bangladesh Agricultural University during the period from July to September, 2003 to study the maturity and post harvest study of pineapple with quality and shelf life under red soil during storage under Madhupur district. The experiment was laid out in the Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three maturity stages and six post harvest treatments and with three replications. Changes in different physico-chemical aspect of pineapple fruits and shelf-life were studied during the storage period. Stage-I fruit exhibited the maximum shelf-life (21.05 days), while the minimum shelf-life (12.70 days) was recorded in stage-III fruits. The highest shelf-life (27.33 days) was recorded in stage-I fruits under the low temperature treatment. The higher Juice content (64.65%) edible portion (69.80%), reducing sugar (4.89%), total sugar (13.36%), total soluble solid (12.50%) and pH (3.93%) were obtained from stage-III fruits, while stage-I fruits contained higher ascorbic acid (24.41 mg/100g fruit pulp), moisture content (87.28%) and titratable acidity (0.826%) at initial stage. Among the physico-chemical parameters such as, total weight loss, edible portion, juice content, TSS, and pH increased with the progress of storage period, and total sugar content declined after an initial increased. On the other hand, moisture content, reducing sugar and titratable acidity decreased with the advancement of storage period.

Key words: Maturity, shelf-life, storage period, juice content.

INTRODUCTION Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.) belongs to the family Bromeliaceae and is one of the most important commercial fruits of the world. This excellent fruit was probably indigenous to Brazil, and it had spread to other parts of tropical America by the time of columbus who took it to Europe (Hayes, 1996). Now a day it is found to grow throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Pineapple is a very popular fruits in Bangladesh with a total production of is 1710 Mt per annum in an area of 14156 hectares of land (BBS, 2002). Pineapple is a good source of carotene and ascorbic acid and is fairly rich in vitamins B and B2 (Lal and Pruthi, 1995). Pineapple fruits, harvested at different maturity stages, are not of uniform quality, and they show significant variations in the shelf-life and physico-chemical changes during storages (Ahmed and Bora, 1989). In Bangladesh, the peak harvesting period of pineapple is June to August. During this period substandard post harvest handling, storage, poor communication, improper transport and marketing, inadequate processing and preservation facilities cause a glut in the market. As a result, the grower’s fail to get a remunerative return of their produce and large portion of harvested fruit is sold at a throw away price. Therefore, the need to reduce post harvest losses of the fruit is of permanent importance. MATERIALS AND METHOD The experiment was conducted in the laboratories of the department of Horticulture, Food Technology and Rural Industries, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the period from July to September, 2003. The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three maturity stages and six post-harvest treatments and with three replications. The maturity stages treatments were: Stage – I (S1) = 14 days before optimum mature stage, stage – II (S2) = 7 days before optimum mature stage and stage – III (S3) = optimum mature stage and six post harvest treatments were: control (T0), 100 ppm GA3 (T1), 100 ppm NAA (T2) low temperature (T3), covering with straw (T4) and perforated polythene bag (T5). The test crop was pineapple fruits of the variety giant Kew. External fruit characteristics were measured by the standard colour chart (IPGRI, 1992). Total weight loss of fruit was determined by the weighing a balance and kept for storage. Percent of weight loss was calculated by using following formula: IW-FW % weight loss (WL) = X 100 IW Where, % WL = Weight loss of fruits in percent IW = Initial weight of fruits IW = Final weight of fruits © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

69


M. Dhar et al

Moisture content of fruit pulp was estimated, Juice content of fruit pulp was measured by blended with blending machine. The percentage of juice content of the fruit pulp was calculated by using the following formula: % Juice in fruit pulp = wt. of Juice/wt. of pulp x 100 Edible portion of fruit was determined by balance and pulp to peel ratio was determined by separately weighing pulps and peels of fruits of each treatment and each replication by using electrical balance. Sugar in fruit pulp was measured by the method of Lane and Eynon (1923). Estimation of non-reducing sugar was measured by the following formula: % Non-reducing sugar = % Total invert sugar - % Reducing sugar. Estimation of total sugar was determined by the following formula: % Total sugar = % Reducing sugar +% Non – reducing sugar. Total soluble solid (TSS) content of fruit Juice was estimated by using Abbe refractometer. A drop of pulp solution squinted from the fruit pulp on the prism of refractometer. The percentage of TSS was obtained from direct reading of the instrument temperature correction were made by using the methods described by Ranganna (1994). Extraction of pineapple Juice was determined by the following formula: % Titratable acidity = (T X N X V1 X E / V2 X W X 1000) X 100 Where, T = Time N = Normality of NaOH V1 = Volume made up E = Equivalent weight of acid V2 = Volume of extract W = Weight of sample. TSS to acidity ratio of fruit pulp was calculated using the following formula: TSS to acidity ratio of fruit pulp = (% TSS content of fruit pulp / % Acidity in fruit pulp) Ascorbic acid content of fruit pulp was determined to the method of Ranganna (1994) by using 2, 6Dichlophenol-Indophenol visual Titration method. Shelf-life of pineapple fruits as influenced by different post harvest treatment and maturity stages were calculated by counting the days required to attain the last stage of ripening but the fruits remaining still fit for marketing and eating qualities. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results have been presented and discussed and possible interpretations have been given under the following headings: External fruit characteristics The change in colour during storage was faster in stage-III followed by stage-II and it was slow in stage-I fruits (Table 1.). Fruits treated with low temperature were found to be fresher which was almost similar perforated polythene bag, probably due to less moisture loss from them. The changes of peel colour during storage were faster in 100 ppm NAA treatment than 100 ppm GA3 treatment. Total weight loss of fruit Total weight loss in stage-I fruits was always higher during the entire period of storage (Table 2.). At the 4th day of storage, the total weight loss in stage-I fruits was 5.79% that raise to 12.74% at 12th day. The total weight loss was lowest in stage-II fruits being (4.34%) at 4th day of storage and (4.75%) at 12th day of storage. The weight loss in stage-I fruits was relatively higher probably the high rate of dehydration through a particular mechanism. The maximum weight loss (15.34%) was recorded in control fruits which were closely followed by straw treatment (14.63%) while it was minimum (9.50%) in fruits, those were kept in perforate polythene bags as recorded at 12th day of storage. Moisture content of fruit pulp The moisture contents of fruits pulp were 87.28%, 85.80% and 83.6% in stage-I, stage-II and stage-III fruits, respectively, at the day of harvested which decreased gradually with the progress of storage period to 76.18%, 77.25% and 79.07% was recorded at 12th days of storage (Table 2.). All post harvest treatments fruits showed a decline in moisture content with the increasing of storage duration. At 12th day of storage, the highest moisture content (79.33%) was recorded in the fruits treated with low temperature which was statistically similar to covering with straw treatment (78.22%), while it was minimum (76.18%) in control. The highest moisture 70


Maturity and Post Harvest Study of Pineapple with Quality and Shelf Life under Red Soil

content (80.12%) was observed in the stage – II fruits with low temperature and it was minimum (74.88%) in stage-I with control fruits as observed at 12th day of storage (Table 3). Juice content of fruit pulp Freshly harvested stage-I, stage-II and stage-III fruits contained 61.04%, 63.65% and 64.65% juice respectively, (Table 2) which were increased with increasing period of storage. The Juice content of fruits under all post harvest treatments increased with advancement of storage period. At 12th day of storage the maximum Juice content (72.64%) was recorded in control fruits, while the 100 ppm NAA treated fruits contained the minimum Juice (69.08%). The interaction effect was found to be non significant on the Juice content of fruit pulp. Edible portion of fruit The edible portion of the three maturity stages fruit was increased up to 12th day of storage (Table 4). The post harvest treatments had no significant effect on edible portion. The combined effect between stage of maturity and post harvest treatment also showed significant variation in relation to edible portion of fruit during storage. Pulp to peel ratio It was observed that highest (2.51) pulp to peel ratio found in stage-III fruits and the lowest (2.05) in stage-I fruits at initial stage. At 12th day of storage, the highest pulp to peel ratio (2.97) was recorded in fruits treated with 100 ppm GA3, which was statistically similar to that of control and perforated polythene bag treatments (2.96), while it was the lowest (2.72) in fruits treatment with 100 ppm NAA (Table 4). The interaction between the stage of maturity and postharvest treatments in consideration of pulp to peel ratio was non significant during storage period. Non-reducing sugar content of fruit pulp The highest non-reducing sugar (8.47%) was recorded in stage-III fruits while it was minimum (6.23%) in stage-I fruits at initial stage (Table 5). Singleton and Gortner (1965) observed similar results in developing pineapple fruits. Among the post harvest treatments control fruits were found to be most effective in checking the decrease in non-reducing sugar content of fruit pulp. The interaction effect was non-significant on this change. Total sugar content of fruit pulp The maximum total sugar (13.36%) was recorded in stage-III fruits while it was minimum (10.65%) in stage-I fruits at initial stage. At 12th day of storage, the highest total sugar content (12.10%) was observed in control fruits which was closely followed by low temperature treatment (11.58%), on the other hand it was minimum (10.35%) in fruits treated with 100 ppm GA3(Table 6). The interaction effect was found to be significant in this contrast. TSS (Total soluble solid) content of fruit pulp Stage-III fruits contained the highest TSS (12.05%) while it was minimum (10.19%) in stage-I fruits. Singleton and Botrel et. al. (1993) also found similar results. Post harvest treatments were also found significant effects on change in TSS content of fruit Juice during storage. Similar results were reported by Das and Medhi (1996). At 12th day of storage the highest TSS (15.71%) was recorded in stage-III fruits under control, while it was minimum (12.00%) in stage-I fruits under 100 ppm GA3 treatment (Table 6). Total titratable acidity in fruit pulp Freshly harvested stage-I fruits contained the maximum (0.826%) total titratable acidity while the minimum (0.682%) in stage-III fruits. It was decreased with the advancement of storage period. Total titratable acidity of fruit pulp under all post harvest treatments decreased with the advancement of storage period. The interaction between the stage of maturity and post harvest treatments in respect of total titratable acidity was found to be non-significant during storage period. TSS to acidity ration of fruit pulp Result showed that the ascorbic acid content was decreased with the progress of ripening of fruits. Among the post harvest treatments, low temperature treatment was found to be the most effective in checking the decrease in ascorbic acid content of fruit pulp. The ascorbic acid content of fruit was significantly influenced by the treatment combinations during storage (Table 6). Shelf-life of fruit The maximum shelf-life (21.05 days) was recorded for stage-I fruits followed by stage-II fruits (18.11 days). The maximum shelf-life (23.03 days) was observed in fruit treated with low temperature which was closely followed by 100 ppm GA3 treatment (20.77 days), where as minimum shelf-life (12.70 days) was recorded in 71


M. Dhar et al

control condition. Analysis of variance showed that there was non significant interaction between the stage of maturity and post harvest treatment in the shelf-life of pineapple fruit but their combined effect was significant. Low temperature prolong the shelf-life in both mature fruits were probably due to the reduction of various gases (O2, CO2) exchange from the inner and outer atmosphere as well as slowing down the hydrolysis process (Uddin and Hossain, 1993). 'I'able I. Effects of maturity stage of fruits and postharvest treatments on changes in external characteristics of pineapple fruits during storage period Postharvest treatments

Days Maturity of stage storage

0

4

8

12

Control

100 ppm GA3

100 ppm NAA

Low temperature

Covering with straw

Perforated polythene bag

Light green

Light green

Light green

Light green

Light green

S1

Light green

S2

Trace yellow at Trace yellow at the Trace yellow at the Trace yellow at the Trace yellow at the Trace yellow at the the stem end stem end stem end stem end stem end stem end

S3

2 rd /3 yellow

2 rd /3 yellow

2 rd /3 yellow

2 rd /3 yellow

S1

Trace yellow at the stem end

Light green

Light green

Light green

S2

Half yellow

S3

Trace green at 1/3rd portion of the the apex base became yellow

S1

2 rd /3 yellow

S2

Golden yellow, Two rows of eyes at Two rows of eyes Two rows of eyes softening the base became at the base became at the base became started yellow yellow yellow

S3

Rottening started

S1

Full yellow, blackish spot developed

Trace yellow at the stem end

S2

Deep yellow, softening started

Two rows of eyes at the base became yellow

Half yellow

S3

Discarded due to rottening

Trace green at the apex

Full yellow, blackish spot developed

/3" yellow

Trace yellow at the Trace yellow at the stem end stem end

Trace yellow at the Trace yellow at the Trace yellow at the stem end stem end stem end 1 rd /3 portion

of the base became yellow

S1: 14 days before optimum mature stage S3: Optimum mature stage

Half yellow

Half yellow

1 rd /3

portion of the Trace green at the Trace green at the base became apex apex yellow

Trace yellow at the Trace yellow at the stem end stem end

Half yellow

2 rd /3 yellow

2 rd /3

Light green

2 rd /3

yellow

Full yellow

Full yellow

Golden yellow, softening started

Golden yellow, softening started

Full yellow

Trace green at the apex

Light yellow colour

Deep yellow

Deep yellow softening started

Deep yellow



Light yellow colour

Half yellow

yellow

'/3rd portion of the Trace yellow at the base stem end became yellow

S2: 7 days before optimum mature stage DAS: Days after storage

Table 2. Main effects of stage of maturity on changes in weight loss, moisture content and juice content of pineapple fruit during storage Maturity stage

Weight loss (%) at DAS 0

4

Juice content (%) at DAS

Moisture content (%) at DAS

8

12

0

4

8

12

0

4

8

12

S1

0.00 5.79

8.76

12.74

87.28

84.36

77.73

76.18

61.04

64.94

68.51

69.G2

S,

0.00 4.34

8.34

11.75

85.80

81.94

79.08

77.25

63.G5

68.G7

68.87

69.56

S3

0.00 4.77

7.74

10.95

83.62

81.21

79.19

79.07

64.G5

71.22

71.63

72.57

LSD (0.05)

-

0.137 0.333

0.454

1.396

1.185

1.111

1.444

1.701

1.445

1.424

1.361

LSD (0.01)

-

0.184 0.447

0.609

1.872

1.589

1.490

1.936

2.281

1.938

1.909

1.825

72



Table 3. Combined effect of stage of maturity and postharvest treatments on changes in weight loss, moisture content and juice content of pineapple fruit during storage Treatment combinations

S1

Weight loss (°%) at DAS

Moisture content (%) at DAS

0

4

8

12

0

4

To

0.00

7.32

12.00

16.67

87.49

T1

0.00

6.84

8.05

11.80

87.49

T2

0.00

6.73

8.12

11.97

87.32

T3

0.00

3.98

6.98

10.12

T4

0.00

5.87

10.28

15.54

Juice content (%) at DAS

8

12

0

4

8

12

82.98

76.30

68.00

70.73

71.18

76.63

61.06

62.78

67.36

68.98

84.22

77.25

74.88 75.52 ` 75.20

60.87

83.28

61.39

63.25

67.12

67.74

87.46

86.11

80.48

77.95

60.83

65.88

68.08

69.30

87.49

84.65

78.05

76.85

60.76

65.30

68.77

70.05

T5

0.00

4.00

7.14

10.33

86.42

84.90

77.68

76.66

61.33

64.40

68.97

70.49

To

0.00

6.99

11.86

15.37

85.88

80.52

78.05

75.10

63.87

71.20

71.75

73.03

T1

0.00

6.05

7.53

10.38

85.76

81.32

78.10

75.36

63.67

66.77

67.97

68.86

T2

0.00

6.21

8.14

10.98

85.68

80.98

77.85

75.87

63.41

67.86

67.86

68.10

T3

0.00

3.85

6.06

9.64

85.92

83.49

81.33

80.12

63.10

69.53

67.97

69.08

T4

0.00

5.26

9.98

14.39

85.80

82.33

80.03

78.39

64.02

68.14

68.66

68.88

T5

0.00

3.80

6.49

9.72

85.73

83.00

79.09

78.65

63.87

68.52

69.02

69.43

To

0.00

5.35

10.05

13.97

83.54

80.02

78.67

78.57

64.40

71.40

72.67

73.71

T1

0.00

5.41

7.57

10.02

83.54

80.98

78.77

78.53

64.97

70.20

72.47

73.03

T2

0.00

5.89

7.76

80.67

64.67

70.05

71.08

71.40

3.73

5.87

83.72

82.56

79.26 81.13

78.77

0.00

10.26 9.05

83.45

T3

79.94

64.60

72.42

70.22

72.41

T4

0.00

4.98

9.13

13.95

83.70

81.68

79.20

79.42

64.87

71.97

71.87

72.90

T5

0.00

3.26

6.05

8.44

83.74

81.34

78.11

79.20

64.41

71.28

71.46

71.97

LSD (0.05)

-

0.335

0.816

1.112

3.420

2.902

2.722

3.536

4.167

3.540

3.488

3.335

LSD (0.01)

-

0.450

1.095

1.491

NS

3.892

NS

NS

5.587

4.747

4.677

4.471

S2

S3

Table 4. Main effects of stage of maturity on changes in edible portion and pulp to peel ratio of pineapple fruit during storage Edible portion (%) at DAS

Maturity stage

Pulp to peel ratio at DAS

0

4

8

12

0

4

8

12

S1

64.37

66.69

67.52

68.66

2.05

2.52

2.64

2.84

S2

68.35

70.88

71.83

71.87

2.31

2.72

2.79

2.90

S3

69.50

74.07

74.62

73.45

2.51

2.79

2.83

2.99

LSD (0.05)

1.404

1.789

1.449

1.500

0.083

0.077

0.080

0.057

LSD (0.01)

1.883

2.399

1.943

2.011

0.111

0.103

0.107

0.076

Table 5. Main effects of stage of maturity on changes in reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar and total sugar content of pineapple fruit during storage Maturity stage

Reducing sugar (%) at DAS

Non-reducing sugar (%) at DAS

Total sugar (%) DAS

0

4

8

12

0

4

8

12

0

4

S1

4.42

3.84

3.63

3.41

6.23

6.05

6.34

6.35

10.65

9.89

9.98

9.76

S2

4.57

4.14

3.97

3.74

7.40

7.61

7.79

7.84

11.97

11.75

11.76

11.58

S3

4.89

4.40

4.14

3.88

8.47

8.55

8.45

8.37

13.36

12.95

12.59

12.25

LSD (0.05)

0.196

0.123

0.121

0.091

0.212

0.191

0.137

0.161

0.246

0.255

0.194

0.195

LSD (0.01)

0.263

0.165

0.162

0.122

0.284

0.256

0.184

0.216

0.329

0.342

0.260

0.261

73

12


M. Dhar et al

Table 6. Combined effect of stage of maturity and postharvest treatments on changes in total soluble solid, titratable acidity and their ratio of pineapple fruit during storage Total Soluble Solid (%) at DAS

Treatment combinations

S1

S2

S3

Titratable Acidity (%) at DAS 8

12

TSS:TA at DAS

0

4

8

12

0

4

0

4

8

12

T0

10.40

11.92

12.90

13.41

0.816

0.726

0.707

0.692

12.74

16.41

18.24

19.39

T1

10.25

10.11

11.20

12.00

0.825

0.790

0.759

0.749

12.42

12.80

14.76

16.05

T2

10.15

10.23

11.26

12.01

0.806

0.796

0.746

0.736

12.59

12.86

15.09

16.37

T3

1O.O6

11.36

12.06

13.04

0.833

0.735

0.715

0.702

12.08

15.48

16.87

18.60

T4

10.11

11.15

12.31

12.84

0.845

0.733

0.709

0.706

11.96

15.20

17.36

18.19

T5

10.18

11.10

12.20

12.76

0.830

0.726

0.717

0.713

12.27

15.27

17.00

17.91

To

11.85

12.79

13.46

14.37

0.706

0.636

0.621

0.587

16.77

20.12

21.66

24.51

Tl

11.67

11.43

12.02

12.86

0.704

0.693

0.676

0.630

16.59

16.50

17.78

20.43

T2

11.80

11.36

12.06

13.02

0.721

0.706

0.683

0.627

16.34

16.09

17.67

20.78

T3

11.39

12.08

13.05

13.77

0.727

0.646

0.626

0.597

15.66

18.67

20.82

23.05

T4

11.77

11.96

12.75

13.66

0.708

0.626 0.622

0.602

16.63

19.13

20.50

22.70

T5

11..94

12.10

12.69

13.67

0.716

0.633

0.630

0.611

16.68

19.16

20.15

22.40

To

12..87

14.16

15.32

15.71

0.693

0,623

0.601

0.549

18.57

22.69

25.49

28.64

T1

12..36

12.77

13.98

14.43

0.687

0.699

0.638

0.592

18.02

18.28

21.89

24.39

T2

12..93

12.85

14.02

14.78

0.697

0.710

0.630

0.585

18.53

18.12

22.28

25.25

T3

12.67

14.01

15.02

15.32

0.669

0.645

0.610

0.555

18.93

21.70

24.63

27.67

T4

12.33

14.00

14.33

15.16

0.G81

0.650

0.635

0.563

18.10

21.53

22.64

26.93

T5

11.82

13.76

14.45

15.22

0.667

0.655

0.614

0.570

17.72

20.99

23.54

26.74

LSD (0.05)

0.907

1.190

1.085

0.712

0.017

0.017

0.017

0.017

1.164

1.453

1.648

1.653

ISD (0.01)

1..216

1.595

1.454

0.955

0.022

0.022

0.022

0.022 1..561 1..946 2..210

2..217

S1: 14 days before optimum mature stage S2: 7 days before optimum mature stage S3: Optimum mature stage

To: Control Tl: GA3 (100 ppm) T2: NAA (100 ppm)

T3: Low temperature T4: Covering with straw T5: Perforated ploythene bag

CONCLUSION For immediate consumption as fresh fruit the optimum mature stage appeared to be the best. Earlier harvesting might be appropriate for canning and long distance transport. Keeping the harvested fruits at low temperature or treated with 100 ppm GA3 appeared to be suitable for extending the shelf-life as well as other quality attributes of pineapple fruits. REFERENCES Ahmed, F. and P.C. Bora. 1989. Changes in quality of Kew pineapple fruit at different times. J. Food Sci. Technol., 26 (1): 51-52 BBS. 2002. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics of Bangladesh 2000. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Govt. of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka. P. 140 Botrel, N., V.D. De-Carvalho and V.D. De-Capriade. 1993. Effect of fruit Weight on internal browning and quality in pineapple Smooth Cayenne. III. Internal browning, total soluble solids, total titratable acidity, PH and sugars. Pesquisa Agropequaria Brasiliera, 28(9): 1055-1064 [Cited from Postharvest News and Information, 9(2): 329, 1995] Das, R. and G. Medhi. 1998. Physico-chemical changes of pineapple fruits under certain postharvest treatments. South Indian Hort. J., 30(1): 147 Hayes, W.B. 1996. The pineapple. In: Fruit Growing in India. Kitabistan Publication, Allahabad, India. pp. 368381 IPGRI. 1992. Sigma Colour. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy

74



Lal, G. and J.S. Pruthi. 1995. Ascorbic acid retention in Pineapple Products. Indian J. Hort., 12: 137-141. Lane, J.H. and L. Eynon. 1923. Method for determination of reducing and non-reducing sugars. J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 42(2): 32-37 Ranganna, S. 1994. Manual of Analysis of Fruit and Vegetable Products. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. P. 634 Singleton, V.L. and W.A. Gortner. 1965. Chemical and Physical development of the pineapple fruit. II. Carbohydrate and acid constituents. J. Food Sci., 30 (1): 19-29 Uddin, M.N. and AK.M.A. Hossain. 1993. Effect of different types of planting materials on the growth and yield of pineapple (cv. Giant Kew). Bangladesh Hort., 16(2): 30-34

75



IN VITRO REGENERATION FROM MATURE EMBRYOS IN SPRING WHEAT M.M. RAHMAN1, A.K.M. SHAMSUDDIN2 AND U. ASAD3 1

Scientific Officer (Plant Breeding), Pulses Research Centre, Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Ishurdi, Pabna, 2 Professor, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 3Scientific Officer (Plant Breeding), Oilseed Research Centre, Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Ishurdi, Pabna, Bangladesh Accepted for publication: January 17, 2008 ABSTRACT Rahman M.M., Shamsuddin A.K.M. and Asad U. 2008. In Vitro Regeneration from Mature Embryos in Spring Wheat Int. J. Sustain. Crop Prod. 3(2):76-80 The experiment was carried in laboratory of the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, BAU, Mymensingh during 2006. In vitro regeneration in wheat plants was carried out from mature embryos in five genotypes of spring wheat including two doubled haploids. Three concentrations of 2, 4-D were used for induction of callus. Maximum number of callus were produced on MS medium supplemented with 6.0 mg/L of 2, 4-D. But comparatively larger calli were produced on MS medium supplemented with 4.0 mg/L of 2, 4-D. Only two doubled haploid (DH-2 and DH-10) responded to regeneration. The genotype DH-10 performed better for callusing. Maximum numbers of plants were regenerated on the MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/L of kinetin which was followed by 2.0 mg/L of kinetin in the medium. Both the lines had similar regeneration capacity. Early shoot regeneration was observed on MS medium supplemented with 200.0 mg/L casein hydrolysate.

Keywords: Doubled haploid, mature embryo, regeneration, in vitro, wheat

INTRODUCTION Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the leading cereals in the world. About two thirds of the world populations live on wheat grain. In Bangladesh it ranks second next to rice (Razzaque and Hossain, 1991). Moreover, tissue culture technique provide unique possibilities for overcoming the barriers of interspecific cross, asexual gene introgression, period of dormancy etc. has also facilitated rapid development of new varieties. Tissue culture technique also offers creation of variation through somaclonal and gametoclonal variations. These variations could be exploited for crop improvement program. Therefore, plant regeneration from callus cultures could provide useful germplasm for plant breeding program. The yield and quality of wheat have been gradually improved during the past several decades by traditional breeding methods. These methods have some limitations such as long time required and rather limited gene pool available for wheat breeders (Malik et al., 2003). To circumvent such problems, application of biotechnological techniques has been advocated. For such purpose, a group of activities was focused on in vitro culture and regeneration and haploid breeding as a tool of cereal breeding in the recent years. It is also well known that the genetic engineering of cereals currently depends on the use of tissue culture and plant regeneration techniques (Mendoza and Kaeppler, 2002). In vitro regeneration of wheat is possible from different explants such as mature and immature embryos, seeds, endosperm, leaves, shoot bases and root tips (Sarker and Biswas, 2002). Among them the immature embryo was reported as the best for callus induction and shoot regeneration (Sarker and Biswas 2002, Arzani and Mirodjagh 1999; Hou et al., 1997). But availability of immature embryo is limited by wheat growing season or requires expensive and sophisticated growth chambers. On the other hand mature seeds of wheat are readily available throughout the year, hence can be used for plant regeneration in any convenient time. High frequency of callus induction is also reported through mature embryo culture in wheat (Ozagen et al., 1998). Establishing an efficient tissue culture technique is difficult in monocotyledonous species particularly in Gramineae family (Sears and Deckard, 1982). As a member of the family, wheat is also a recalcitrant crop that limits the utilization of tissue culture technique for crop improvement (Vasil and Vasil, 1986). If a suitable protocol for plant regeneration from mature embryogenic callus is available, research can be carried out on wheat transformation throughout the year. With this in view, the present study was conducted to develop a protocol for regeneration of plants from mature embryos was attempted in five genotypes of wheat including two doubled haploids. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiment was carried in the green house and tissue culture laboratory of the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during 2006. Mature wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) embryos of five genotypes including two doubled haploid (DH) lines were used as explants for callus induction and subsequent plant regeneration. The genotypes were Sourav, Gourab, Shatabdi, DH-2 and DH-10. Mature seeds were soaked in petridish on a moistened filter paper for 2 hours before embryo dissection, so that the embryos can swell and become distinctly visible. The soaked seeds were sterilized by treating them © 2007 Green World Foundation (GWF)

76


M.M. Rahman et al

with 70% ethanol for 15 minutes followed by washing with distilled water. This was followed by treating for 5 min in 30% chlorox (containing 4.7% chlorine). During sterilization the seeds were occasionally agitated. Finally the seeds were washed 5 times with sterile distilled water for removing the sterilant. Then the mature embryos were aseptically excised from the caryopsis and placed on callus induction medium in sterile petridish keeping the scutellum side up. Ten mature embryos were placed in each petridish and were sealed with parafilm (Figure 1a). The callus induction media contained agar solidified MS media (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) supplemented with three different doses of 2,4-D (4.0 mg/L, 5.0 mg/L, 6.0 mg/L, respectively). The explants were incubated in dark under 25 ±10C for 3-5 days. When callus initiation began the petridish were transferred to light with 16 hours photoperiod under the same temperature regime. The cultures were cheeked daily to note the initiation and the development of calli. After 30 days of inoculation, the developed calli were transferred to regeneration media (Figure 1b). The regeneration media contained agar solidified MS media supplemented with different combinations and concentrations of growth regulators (MS as control, MS+ 1.0 mg/L of BAP, MS+ 2.0 mg/L of BAP, MS + 1.0 mg/L of kinetin, MS+ 2.0 mg/L of kinetin, MS + 100.0 mg/L of Casein hydrolysate and MS + 200.0 mg/L of Casein hydrolysate). All the explants, calli cultures were kept at 25±1°C under 3000 Lux light intensity and 16 hours photoperiod. The data were recorded for days to callus induction, number of callus initiated, callus size (mm), days to plant regeneration and number of plants regenerated. Data were estimated as percentage and the mean values in percent were used for analysis of data. The percent of callus induction and regeneration were estimated on the basis of the number of embryo and calli, respectively. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The effects of three concentrations of 2, 4-D supplemented in MS medium to induce callus from the mature embryos were evaluated. Medium supplemented with 6.0 mg/L of 2, 4-D produced maximum calli (10.08%), while medium supplemented with lower concentrations of 2,4-D produced larger size (4.40 mm) calli (Table 1). Among the genotypes, DH-10 produced maximum calli (9.83%), whereas days to callus induction and callus size were similar for all genotypes. Sarkar and Biswas (2002) reported that the MS medium supplemented with 6.0 mg/L of 2, 4-D showed the best response for callus induction from mature wheat embryos. Yasmin et al. (2001) observed that the mature embryos failed to initiate any type of calli at low concentrations of 2, 4-D resulting only in initial swelling. Tomar and Punia (2003) reported that increase of 2, 4-D concentration in culture media produced good callus from mature embryo of wheat. In the present study, it was observed that maximum number of small size callus were produced in high concentration of 2, 4-D but took more time for callus initiation. Out of the five genotypes studied calli of Sourav, Gourab and Satabdi became greenish but did not regenerate (Figure 1c). Only two doubled haploid lines (DH-2 and DH-10) produced plants (Figure 1d). Effects of different combinations and concentrations of growth regulators on the regeneration of plants from these two lines of wheat are presented in the Table 2. Highest percentage of regeneration (13.63%) occurred on MS medium supplemented with 1.00 mg/L of kinetin followed by the medium with 200.00 mg/L casein hydrolysate (9.5%). On the other hand, the control treatment produced minimum percentage of plants (3.65%). From the mean value of regeneration it appears that both the genotypes had similar regeneration capacity. Longer duration (31 days) was needed for shoot initiation on the control. Plant regeneration was quick (22 days) on the treatment medium supplemented with 200 mg/L of casein hydrolysate. Malik et al. (2003) obtained high frequency of plant regeneration of wheat on MS medium supplemented with 0.5+0.1 mg of BAP+IAA/L. Shah et al. (2003) studied in vitro regeneration of wheat and they observed that regeneration was the highest on MS medium supplemented with 4.0 mg/L of BAP alone or 2.0 mg/L of BAP in combination with 1.0 mg /L of IAA. Sarkar and Biswas (2002) obtained maximum shoot regeneration on MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/L of BAP + 0.5 mg/L of kinetin. From the present study, it could be concluded that good and rapid shoot regeneration was observed on medium containing 200.0 mg/L casein hydrolysate. On the other hand higher number of plant regeneration was observed on media supplement with kinetin although it took longer time.

77


In Vitro Regeneration from Mature Embryos in Spring Wheat

Table 1. Effect of different concentrations of 2, 4-D on callus induction of wheat from mature embryo Variety

Callus induction

Media

Sourav

Gourab

Satabdi

DH-2

DH-10

MS+4 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+5 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+6 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+4 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+5 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+6 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+4 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+5 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+6 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+4 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+5 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+6 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+4 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+5 mg/L 2, 4-D MS+6 mg/L 2, 4-D

Callus (%) 5.74 6.44 4.90 4.76 2.10 1.68 6.44 6.44 8.40 8.54 6.44 9.24 8.26 9.80 10.08

Mean (%) 5.69

2.85

7.10

8.10

9.83

Days to callus induction Days Mean 6 6 5 7 5 5.67 5 7 6 5.3 5 5 4 5.3 5 7 4 5 5 6

Callus size (diameter, mm) Size Mean 4.35 4.10 4.00 3.90 4.00 4.13 3.80 4.60 4.20 4.00 4.50 3.50 4.40 4.23 4.40 3.90 4.35 4.21 4.30 4.00

Table 2. Effects of different concentration and combination of growth regulators on regeneration of wheat Variety

DH-2

DH-10

Media MS MS + 1 mg/L BAP MS + 2 mg/L BAP MS +1 mg/L kinetin MS + 2 mg/L kinetin MS + 100 mg/L casein hydrolysate MS + 200 mg/L casein hydrolysate MS MS + 1 mg/L BAP MS + 2 mg/L BAP MS +1 mg/L kinetin MS + 2 mg/L kinetin MS + 100 mg/L casein hydrolysate MS + 200 mg/L casein hydrolysate

Plants regeneration Regeneration (%) Mean (%) 4.76 6.35 6.35 7.14 7.93 6.35 8.75 9.5 3.65 6.36 5.45 7.00 13.63 9.09 5.45 6.36

78

Days to regeneration 31 26 24 27 25 23 22 30 25 25 27 27 23 23


M.M. Rahman et al

1(a)

1(b)

1(c)

1(d)

Figure 1. Different stages of in vitro callus induction and plant regeneration from mature embryos of wheat. (a) mature embryos on MS medium supplemented with 2.0 mg/L of 2,4-D. (b) 30 days old callus. (c) greenish callus on MS medium supplemented with 100.0 mg/L of casein hydrolysate and (d) regenerated plant from callus. REFERENCES Arzani, A. and S.S. Mirodjagh, 1999. Response of durum wheat cultivars to immature embryo culture, callus induction and in vitro salt stress. Plant Cell, Tissue & Organ Culture. 58: 67–72 Hou, B., H. Yu and S. Teng, 1997. Effects of low temperature on induction and differentiation of wheat calluses. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 49: 35–8 Malik, S.T.; Hamid, R.; Tayyaba, Y. and Minhas, N.M. 2003. Effects of 2,4-D on callus induction from mature wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Seeds Int. J. Agri. Biol. 6(1): 156-159. Mendoza, M.G. and H.F. Kaeppler, 2002. Auxin and sugar effects on callus induction and plant regeneration frequencies from mature embryos of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. Plants. 38: 39–45 Murashige, T. and F. Skoog. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Plant Physiol. 15: 473-497 Ozagen, M.; Turet, M.; Altiinok, S. and Sancak, C. 1998. Efficient callus induction and plant regeneration from mature embryo culture of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes. Plant Cell Reports. 18(3-4): 331-335 Razzaque, M.A. and A.B.S. Hossain. 1991. The wheat development programme in Bangladesh In: Saunders, D.A. (ed.). Wheat for the Nontraditional warm Areas. Mexico. D.F. CIMMYT. 44-54 79


In Vitro Regeneration from Mature Embryos in Spring Wheat

Sarker, R.H., and Biswas, A. 2002. In vitro plantlet regeneration and Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation of wheat. Plant Tissue Cult. 12(2): 155-165 Sears, R.G. and Deckard, E.L. 1982. Tissue culture variability in wheat: Callus induction and plant regeneration. Crop Sci. 22: 546-550 Shah, M.I.; Mussarat, J. and Ihsan, I. 2003. In vitro callus induction, its proliferation and regeneration in seed explants of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Pakistan Journal of Botany. 35(2): 209-217 Tomar, P.C. and Punia, M.S. 2003. Callus induction and efficient plant regeneration in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Annals of Agri-Bio-Research. 8 (1): 1-4 Vasil, V. and Vasil, I.K. 1986. Regeneration in cereal and other grass species; in: Cell culture and Somatic Cell. Genet. Plants. 3:121-149 Yasmin, R.; Javed, F. and Arfan M. 2001.Somatic embryogenesis in callus culture of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) accession 235/2. Int. J. Agri. Biol. 3(2):163-166

80


1 EFFECT OF HORTICULTURAL PRACTICES ON

1 EFFECT OF HORTICULTURAL PRACTICES ON

Suggest Documents

Horticultural Practices of Peach in Venezuela

Fertiliser Management Practices for Horticultural Crops

1: The Effect Of International Staffing Practices On - Semantic Scholar

1 Effect of Tillage Practices on Water and Solute ...

EFFECT OF GREEN BUSINESS PRACTICES ON ...

Effect of moisture conservation practices on growth

1 Transportation of fresh horticultural produce

1 European Journal of Horticultural Science

Page 1 Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology (2005) 80 (1 ...

Knowledge Sharing Effect on HRM Practices and

Page 1 Journal of Horticultural Science (1994) 69 (4) 679-685 Effect of ...

The Effect of Governance Practices

Effect of level of education on hygiene practices of ...

effect of yogic practices on different systems of human body

Effect of different harvesting practices on the dynamics of Paphia ...

Effect of postharvest management practices on welfare of ... - Cogent OA

effect of agricultural practices on chemical quality of ...

Effect of Drainage and Management Practices on Hydrology of Pine ...

Effect of precautionary statements on the purchasing practices of ...

Effect of Tillage Practices on Vertical Distribution of Phytophthora sojae

Effect of past peat cultivation practices on present dynamics of ...

Predictive Effect of Parenting Practices on Social Interaction of ... - mcser

An Analysis of the Effect of Operations Management Practices on ...

The effect of agricultural practices on the development of indigenous ...