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The American University in Cairo School of Humanities and Social Sciences
FARM TO FORK: CAIRO’S FOOD SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION DURING THE MAMLUK SULTANATE (1250-1517)
A Thesis Submitted to
the Department of Arab and Islamic Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Arabic Studies
by Anthony Teke Quickel Bachelor of Arts in International Studies
(under the supervision of Dr. Leonor Fernandes) May/2015
The American University in Cairo Farm to Fork: Cairo’s Food Supply and Distribution During the Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517) A Thesis Submitted by Anthony Teke Quickel to the Department of Arab and Islamic Civilizations May/2015 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Arabic Studies has been approved by
Dr. Leonor Fernandes Thesis Committee Chair / Advisor ________________________________________ Associate Professor of Middle East History, The American University in Cairo Dr. Nelly Hanna Thesis Committee Reader / Examiner _________________________________________ Distinguished Professor of Middle East History, The American University in Cairo Dr. Amina Elbendary Thesis Committee Reader / Examiner ________________________________________ Assistant Professor of Middle East History, The American University in Cairo
_________________________ Department Chair
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____________________ Dean
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DEDICATION To my parents… …for seeing what I saw, believing in that vision, and for never saying “no” to buying me books.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Writing this thesis took infinitely longer than I had initially planned. Along the way, I have benefited greatly from the support, mentorship, and friendship of many people. As it is obviously not possible to thank in a short space the many people to whom gratitude should be necessarily extended, I apologize in advance for the many people who may be left out. However, some special acknowledgements are required. My time at the AUC was made markedly easier because of the help and assistance of Mrs. Maggie Daoud, Mrs. Marwa Sabry, and Ms. Noha Effat, who tolerated my many questions, helped me to navigate the university’s bureaucracy, and kept me on track to graduate. Professors Amina Elbendary and Adam Talib have consistently given me excellent advice regarding the pursuit of my master’s degree as well as long term planning for my academic career, and I am thankful to both. Prof. Elbendary deserves additional thanks for being a reader on this thesis and providing me with advice on a number of extra academic activities. Particular gratitude is due to Professor Nelly Hanna, who has continuously given me guidance and mentorship in all of my academic pursuits. Her constant interest and encouragement in my work has helped me to grow and evolve as a scholar and learner. Finally, Professor Leonor Fernandes has been a pillar of support throughout the duration of my time at the AUC, spending countless hours advising me on this thesis and helping me to learn the in’s and out’s of academia from office work to developing syllabi. Prof. Fernandes has been my coach, and sometimes teammate, on many of the experiences that have made my time in Cairo so profitable. From teaching me in the classroom to working with me side-by-side, she has been tireless in supporting me in all of my endeavors. I hope the scholar I become will be a reward for her efforts, but for now, she deserves my greatest thanks. Along the way, there have been a great number of people who have come into my life and shaped my time in Cairo. I thank Antonio di Pietro and Sara Hassan for their patience as I guess Italian words, for their persistent friendship, and for keeping me sane. For the countless conversations and debates over the years, I am greatly appreciative to Adham Shebl; much of my intellectual growth has occurred on account of his friendship. Kevin Dean, Raph Cormack, and Evan Metzger deserve a great deal of gratitude for their constant presence in my life in Cairo, for sharing in happy moments, and support in difficult ones. I have great gratitude to Mariam Aziza Stephan, who has been a continual source of encouragement and motivation, and who was a very bright light during a tumultuous time. Without Uncle Joe Stanik, my master’s degree and this thesis would never have happened. Our long hikes throughout the Fatimid city and beyond were my first exposure to the wonders of Egyptian history; I very much thank him for showing me the world of the Mamlūks. Other than Prof. Fernandes, only one person has read this thesis multiple times and in its entirety. I am incredibly indebted to Gregory Williams for his advice and edits on the many drafts of the text. More importantly, Gregory has been the person to whom I have constantly turned for counsel and support; his friendship, conversations, and laughs have been invaluable to me. In my six years in Cairo, Peter Selib has been the brother I never had and my anchor. There are no words to describe how much I appreciate everything he has done. This thesis would not have happened without his support. Finally, I owe a great deal of gratitude to my family who has understood that which I have attempted to undertake and willingly given up time I would have otherwise spent with them, especially my grandmother and grandfather. None of my ambitions and dreams would have been possible without the unending support of my mother and father. Everything I am and have done is because of them. !
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ABSTRACT The American University in Cairo School of Humanities and Social Sciences FARM TO FORK: FOOD DISTRIBUTION IN CAIRO DURING THE MAMLUK SULTANATE (1250-1517) Anthony Teke Quickel (under the supervision of Dr. Leonor Fernandes) May/2015
The wealth of Cairo’s markets throughout the Mamlūk period is well attested in the sources. From roving peddlers to stationary markets, the city’s food supply was a testament to Egypt’s agricultural bounty. This study attempts to understand the food economy that provisioned these food markets. In doing so, Egypt’s agricultural production, its transportation network, distribution system, and Cairo’s markets are discussed with a focus towards understanding both the nature of the many aspects of the Mamlūk food economy as well as the changes occurring within it. In providing an overall description of the mechanisms by which the Mamlūk food economy functioned, this thesis argues that the structure of the system was an ongoing dialectic between the labor and efforts of the peasants, the activities of the food merchants and sellers, and the contrivances of those with power, especially the Mamlūk regime itself. The complexities of this system were not only influenced by the activities of these three groups but were also driven by environmental and geographic factors as well. When all of these factors worked in concert, an intricate, multi-layered system produced the abundance and wealth of Cairo’s markets that were evident for all to see. However, the effects of the plague, starting in the fourteenth century CE, combined with the labor-intensive nature of the Egyptian agricultural and transportation systems disrupted this multiplex system. The agricultural sector being key to the overall Mamlūk economy, this breakdown created the conditions from which the agricultural system and, correspondingly, the economy failed to recover.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS I.
Note on Transliteration, Translation, and Dating
viii
II.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
x
III.
Introduction
1
1. Parameters and Definitions of Terms
7
2. Literature Review
10
IV.
V.
VI.
A. Primary Sources
10
B. Secondary Sources
16
Chapter 1: Agriculture in Mamlūk Egypt
21
1. Overview of Agriculture in Medieval Egypt
28
2. Soil Taxonomy in the Mamlūk Period
36
3. Labor, the Regime, and the Plague
41
Chapter 2: Survey of the Food Commodities of Mamlūk Egypt
46
1. Egypt’s Produce by Regions
48
A. Upper Egypt (al-Ṣa‛īd)
48
B. Lower Egypt (the Delta)
55
C. Imported Foods from Other Regions
59
D. Cairo and its environs
64
Chapter 3: Transportation, Distribution, and Storage of Foodstuffs
68
1. Transportation of Goods by Region of Origin
70
A. Upper Egypt (al-Ṣa‛īd) and River Transportation
70
B. Lower Egypt (the Delta)
76
C. Imported Foods from Other Regions
82
D. Cairo and its environs
83
2. Arriving in Cairo: Dockyards, Granaries, and Other Commercial
VII.
Structures
85
A. Wikālahs and Funduqs
89
Chapter 4: Survey of the Food Markets of Late Mamlūk Cairo
97
1. Types and Functions of Various Commercial Structures
100
2. Survey of the Food Markets
102
A. Covered Markets – Qaysārīyyah
102
B. Sūqs
103
C. Suwayqahs - Small, Local Markets
109
3. Crises, Transformations, and the Food Markets of Cairo !
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112
IX.
Conclusions
118
XI.
Tables
123
A. Table 1: Coptic Months and the Agricultural Year
123
B. Table 2: Ibn Mammātī’s Classification of Soil Types as Relayed by
X.
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al-Qalqashandī
124
C. Table 3: al-Makhzūmī’s Land Classifications
125
Bibliography
126
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NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION, TRANSLATION, AND DATING This thesis utilizes the transliteration system of the International Journal of Middle East Studies (IJMES) and is easily available through the journal’s website. The following is a brief overview of the way in which Arabic letters have been rendered into the Latin alphabet and includes notes on certain grammatical issues related to transliteration. It should be noted that IJMES uses a modified Encyclopedia of Islam transliteration system. Consonants
ء
’
'
z
(
q
)
b
*
s
+
k
,
t
-
sh
.
l
/
th
0
ṣ
2
m
3
j
4
ḍ
6
n
7
ḥ
9
ṭ
;
h
