smgle-sex educat10nal institutions, The œj or hypothes1s ...... out" in mueh the
sama way they had always dOVe, or to' "act-out" together, vbere once they had ...
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SINCLE~SEX
EDUCATIONAL INST-ITVTIQNS
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by
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CAllEER'ASPIRATIONS OF YOUNG WOMEN IN
DORIS ,0" ICElFE "
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A thesis submi tte'd to the Faculty of Graduate Stud1es and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the' degree of Master of Arts
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Faculty of Education McGill University MOn treal. Quebec /
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Augus t. 1985 Ç>
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Highest Muee. tional Level Compiéted by l.ioth~r ' .' · '.. • l-fothers' Occupation • , • • , • • • •
•
105
HÇ)thers' Invo1vement :in Vo1untary Activ1ties
•
107
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Reasons for Attending' tne Study
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12.
Reasons for Attending Queen of Angels A~dëuiy
13°.
neasons ror
1.4.
.stu~ent
A~tendin:; Trai'a~~"
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Highest Bduca tionnl Lev~l Go~plete' by Fn.ther ,
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Attitudes towards Hothers tlorking-:,,&· Outside the IiolllC. ..'~. • •
•
,113
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Perception of Fathers' AttituQë tO\'l8.raS ~rot.her'~s-- - - - --1'Torking outside the Home .. • • • • • • '. 114
15.
Percepti.on of whether or ,not lIothers v10uld pre fer to he Full-Time Homemakers •• ••• •
us
student attitudes tOW'a2"ds llothers as Full-T:LIne . ",Home"makers'
Rèlat1ve
21.,
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
U6
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of, "Sign1f1,cant Others 11, (Overall)
120
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Im~ct
•
22,"
Pe:rcep.tage of Parents who Enoouraged Daughi.,ers to, pursue H~her ,Education • • • • •
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121
•
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23.
Percentage of Parents -'who Encouraged Daughters to Asp~e tcn-rards a Career • • • • •
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, Parents who Enc~aged Daushters ta be Independant • •
Per~entage I~f
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)220
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122
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"tribution of the questionnaire in their respective schools •. "
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1 would 1llie to express particular ~e.titude to Dr.
~
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of this stud~', and consequently a11cn:ing the dis-
,
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Margaret Gillett, my thesis advisor, "-,,ithout
~lhose
tutelace,
,,-support and, ideas th1s tnecis. woulcf not pave' been \>1l'itten. Special thanl:::: to ~t parents, Pierrette EOld Albert "
O'r.eere, who encouraged ana ~uppor~,ed ef-1.their .~hildren's career and eduootional' aspira'tions, regardless of sexe ' ,
g . .
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Finally. 1 would like to ,t~l: my husband Ole for hif; 0
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aupp~
patience'.
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and understanding.
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ltuch discussion has revolved around the voments tloveIllent ainee
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Betty Friedan \'Trote The .Fell:inine r:ystigue in 1963.
1
This discussion
bas resulted in arCUtlent and analys~ of 'WoIllen 1 S 18Dues by individuals ,
,
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Ferninist literature has flourishec1 and \lODen' s 2· studies cour,ses have evolved on ltany univeroity ~alJpuses. This ho.cl led I:!0J:le
to believe that tllcre 18 no loncer a "wotlen' s problet1". ,
.--
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s~me 'casea they
r' Il
Day even have a sliCht edge over nen, i.e.,
throuch atfir~tive action procrll.;;Js.
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and in
It ls thought
ac~ess to educationcl institutions and employcent
that 'Women have equal
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in' 0.11 walks of lire.
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• b 'ecoises: Flowever, Pour les' gye
,
beyond any doubt 'that, in fact, are bl' no liIee.ns -on
.
\-10tlOn,
"
~rallt~ et indépendance indicates even
e~t;:ta\. ground with men ,
of
the loeeent generations.
in Quebe 7 society •.3
For 1."1-
stance, while \-locen represented .49.3% of the total , seeondary school pop\.\14t1on durint; the 1975-1976 achoo:l:, year, dU,ring that sace year.' women
represented oru.y
32:5~
of Quebec's total
1:~A.
and Ph.D.
~tudent
population. 4 ,
*" 1. Betty Friedan. The Fet:1nine !:yst1oue (Hell Yor!:: ing Co., 1963). : e
Dell Publish-
2. rlorence lIwe and Ce.rol Ah1uti, "\':omen', s Studios and Sooirll Change,-" Aco.àe::ie l!omen on the l:ove, I..lice S. nosd and !.rm Calderwooo, eds. (Uew Yor!:: P.ussell Sage' Fo.undation, 197.3), p. 39.3.
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3. Conaèil du statut de la' Femme, POUl' les québécoises: et indépendance (Editeur officiel du Québec, 1978). 4.
Ibid., p. 218.
égalité
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These figures mask the tact that,.in certain fields women are hardI)' rep-
,
resented,'whereas in other "t1')!lditionally remala fields". women predomiThese fields of stuct.Y lead very orten to different care$r options,
nate. f"
which in turn ditfer in. terms of' Prestige and power as well as salary •
•
The' fact that a "woma,n ~ problem" remains in Canada 18 aiSo supported in \
9lm0rtunity for Chpiçs:
A Goal for Women in Capada.
5
r
A receht newspaper article-
en~itled
, "Why Most of Canada's poor
are Women" reports: Ken Ba.:f;t.le, Executive D:i:rector of the "National V/e1f'are Couricil, believes that the primary culpr1t for poverty am0Dg Canadian women 1s lov salaries. 1 The labour market is still Just as unequal as ever', he said in an interview with The Gazette. 'The avera~e woman 1 s wages are only about 60 par cent of the average ~_ts. The j ob ghetto hasn't changed and women are as vulnerable as ,ever'.6 ,
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1
This po~t is further illustrated in Women and We1fare, a report
, 1
.
by the National CouncU of Welfare which states tbat female poverty is a ~ direct
of "by
\result of' the widely held assumption that women will be taken eare
\urn. \
re like1y explana't:2,.on (tb.att the "cu1tqre of poverty" eory) for much Cif the ppverty in Canada, and one that
5. Gall Coqk. ed., Opportun1.ty; for Choice: A Goa1 for Women in Canada (Stat1.st1cs Canada in Associat.ion with C.!J. Hove Research Inst1.- " tute, 1976). .. L
6. Susan Carson, "Why Gazette, May 26, 1984.
!
Most of Canada's Poor ,are Women ," lb!
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'lIIight have been ,arrived at long ago i f poverty experts had
!' , not ignored the f'act that 60 many of the poor are female, , 18 tbat one balf of this country is brought up on the aso~-l!U1IlJ)tion -t-hat-i-t--will-always' be financ:1ally taken ca:r.... eo-t'lorf'-f-------'--by the other balf'. '. • • When the male provider fails to , œterialize or leà"es_ or dies. women are told it is up to them to .tind ways to support themselves and their, familie~ eq i "
It is evident that the myth tbat nonels prince wUl comen·-and
,\
stay, has been very costlf for W0men.
j
. One cannot 'understand the position of lrlomen in society without analyzing the imFflct of education on women. ' The majority of
Ca~dian
educational institutions (elementary. secondary, and post-secondary) J'
are now co-educational. educational
school~g
The move from sex-segregated schooling to co-
lrlas heralded as an 'important educational ref'orm,
by many individuals committed to equality of the sexes, and today it 1s considered both normal and natural. This was not always, the case e
In 1932. Paul:ite Beruiing, Il grad-
0
F
uate student at McG111 University,' submi'tted a thesis entitled, 'lbe Ques8 tion of Sex Differentiation in FnucatiOn e · ~or
Benning put forth arguments
co-education, a concept tbat was st111 controversial at tbat time. Il
7. National Couneil" of' Welfare, Women and Poverty (ottawa: ernment of Canada. 1979), p. 2.
J
8. (Mutar's
Gov-
tion in Education
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thesis, whieh 18 w;itten rrom an. aCknQwledged reminj.st
perspectiv., is Uvided into , rive substantivè' ,~hapters and ~ conclusion. . / :
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'Chapter One w1;ll examine
~o~ facto~s)whlch·are
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genEfral1y
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~onS1d-'
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ered ,t~ have a signif'ioant impact on wOlDen' s career ,aspira-
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tions;
or women' s
Chapter Tvo wUl exp~ore the impLct
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e,.olleges on Ameri-
carr women;
Chapter Three will explore current trends in singl.e sex education
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t'or Canad ian women;'
II>
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Chapter Four will describe and d~cusÈt the methodology of a
, . çase study or' girls at three Montreal. school.s;
,
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Chapter Five will documént the case, study findings
aitd analyse,
the ilDpllcatians of these findings for oontem~ Canad:1an women.
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of
The ·conelus1.on ~ill include a s'umœ,ry
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t.he- case study f1ndings Ud of'-
ter suggest1.ons fOr turthér study.·
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to her accepting a secondary role to men in the workplace, i.e .. , to become a nurse rather than a medieal doctor for instance. The messages that young females first receive in the home, are ,
...
then reinforced in the school setting- in various ways, being the ten-
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dency' to reinforce different qualities in 'Women ·than in men. ' Both at home and school, girls are conditioned to be encouraged to think of' , thelDBèlves as hëIpless and vulnerable. Mueh of what is considered "bood ft in Iittle girls la considered downright repulsive in little boys. Physica.l timidity or hypercauti~sness, being quietlQ well bebaved •.and depending on others for help and support are thought to be natural--if not outright charming:.in girls. Boys, however ~re actively diacouraged trom • depandent f'orms of relat,j,ng which are considered "sissy!sh n :in male children. 7 .'
This douQle standard of mental health continues. ioto women' s adult ,~
{,
l.il.,
.
wher•• k~
~ c.~petenci4 are deVl11u~
and where the
f
,
de~ini-
Jk an "unhealth'y "adult" .. ThiS ,\'1 _ , • classic '~Y conducted by Brover!Jl8.Il et ~.
tion of a "heaJ.thy female" is that •
. . concept derives from the now
.
In this study. mental health pnlctitioners described well adjusted ,",omen •
as more submissive, lesa :1.ndependent. lees competitive, less adventurous.
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more easlly ..in!'luenced • le88 aggress ive,
16
tional, exc:1.table and
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va:1n.
Furtherm'ore, it
un:interested in science and mathematics.
8
d.iusted remale is c
.'. and
for her'and ail vornen.
FEAR OF SUCCESS
1
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A .much di.scussed theory which claims to expJ.ain wo'men 'B asp:irational
level 1s the "rear of success" concept developed by t-fatina Homer. Homer defines this in the following manner: The presence of a motive to avoi.d success ••• implies tbat the expression of the achievement-directed tendenc1es of most otherwise positively motivated young women ls inhlblted by the arousal of thwa.rting dispos ition to be anxious about negative consequences they expect will follow the desired success. 9 \
Simply 'put, Horner' s thesis 15 that W'omen are, uncons iously
1
dr:1.ven to avoid success as they reel that the priee they would have Q,
( l.K. Broverman et a1 •• "Sax Stereotypes and ,Clinical Judgft Journal of Consulting and Clinical PsychologY. vol.34(1970). pp. 1-7. .-B.
_ntaO of Mental Health.
9. Hatina Horner. "Toward an Understandint; of: l'.chievement Rela"'ted Conf11cts in i'lomen. ft l~omen and Achievement, ed. J1ednick.' Tangri ~d, Hoffman Washington: Hemi.sphere Publislling Co.» 1975). p. 208,.
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to pa)' for 1.t would be too high.
There is t in fae,t. evidence to su Poo:
port the theory that women often risk a good deal in being overly amb1t~ous.
o
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One of the fieatest of' these ripks appears to be the chance
of being Ùnattract~ve to men with a11 the attendant social consequences der:Lved from
lonel~esS'
magazine for
execut~~e w~men,
\
or cèlibacy. .
For example, in one contemporary "Single Shock:
the cover story read: . 10 'Where are all the Men for the WOn1en at the Top?"
~\
•
TEîs -is . a real 0
-issue for many women 'over thirty and a risk young women must ..:Teigh when
mald;ng educational and ëareer deéisions which may very well post?one
marriage until th.ey are thettlselves over thirty •. Once they thi.z-!.Y, they tilld themselves in an- age category where
~re
ovar
(a) there are
fever men of' their own- age. and (b) the competition for marriageable males is compounded by the tact that men tend to IIltirry vomen younger than themselves,.
11
A third disadvantage for
succes~:rul
,
career women
in their thirties is that because they are succ9ssful. they have fewer I118n
f'rom whom to choose.
to nmarry upn.
Women in our, society have been conditioned
Hovever. women who are at the top bave ,
they cao look up to t or even cons ider as nequals ft.
~
,f'ev .men who
Men t on 'the other
10. Christine Doudna and Fern McBride. "Single Shock: Where are a11 the Men qfor the Women st the Top?". Sam:' The Magazine for Executive Wome~ February 1980. ll.
Ibid.. p. 18."
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band.,.--have baen, conditioned te choose as mates. women to whom they can
teel. superior, which gives them a cons iderably larger population trom "\
vhich to cmoose :i.:r they are Successrul.
12
(
\ , Despite the tact that greater numbers of women are now j o1ning the
"
work rorce, the qua1ities that would anable them to achieve euccess are, , aven today, no\ considered tao "becoming" in a 'Woman by the young men who are their pdt.ential marriage J:6.rtners ~
/
• • • Aggressiveness, drive. and the will to succeed . --the qualities required for getting high-pe.ying j ops in our society "are precisely those not wanted by most' t men in "lives". Today' s up-and-coming professiona1 men--those in Ivy League schools, at least--are' still looldng for mothers of their prbgeny. They are not l.ooking for professiona1 women who can function in the world wi:th as much sQphistication--and independence-as ~hey. 1.3
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Thus. 1t would appear that 'Women' s fears that 8uccess will advereely
atfect their social" liveS are not unfounded. ,
In addition, fear of
.,
8uccess saems ta be a "class" problem.
'l'hat i8, women from the middl.e
and upper middle classes--\ihere wives have tradit10nally not workad out-
,
: side _the home--seem to·exhib1t higher levels of "fear
or
success" than
women from 1011er social classes.
';
Î
12., Ibid.·
13. Dowllng. pp. 176-177. "
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The women who veren't so hung up on success came from ~ l.ower-class homes with mathera who are often better cated than their husbands, and who 14sually worked t oughout their lives. '1'hJ daughters of these vomen d It experience a c~lict between achievement and f'emininity because they had grown up seeing the tvo happUy integrated in their ;mothers. 14
:E
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Thus, it would seem that those women who would have the greatest L
,
, opportunity ror career 8uceess--in that they come from ramUies who l.
,
.-
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eould- af'ford to provide them with an1 excellent education--are those who are lIlost likely to
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, be ncrippl.ed n by
~
fear of suceess.
,
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Onee fear of suceess 1:8' aroused in 'Women thèir level.s • or aspiration plummet l.ike mercury arter a cold 'front hits. It's not that women eourt faUure'; theyavoid success .' For example even th ough their grade pointaverages were in top percentUes, the high-FOS 'women vere opting for less challenging, 'so called "feminine" , " occupations--housewife, mother. nurse. teacher. It vas as i f byavoiding tougher career~. they eould prove, to theDÏselves that they were still okay as women. For the individual woman, avoiding suceess JIlB.y not be as blatantly selr-destructive' as seeld.ng faUure, but the ' effec" or this phenomenon on women in general. can' t he underestimated. 15
,-
) ./
Horner 1 s study vas conducted with American university students. _ It would appear however that Ca.nadian women are not exempt :!rom reelings
of ambivalenee about success.
Meredith Killlball attempted to duplicate·
--
Horner' s study in a Canadian h1gh 8ch001 and reported her- tind1.ngs in
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1..4. Ibid •• p. 177.
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15. Ibid., p. 178.
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a study entit1ed \
.round
n~lomen
and Success:· - A Basic Conf1ict".
.
that fear of success seems to increase in higher
Kimball
g~des
and. de-
spite the fact t.hat girlS' in ber study showed greater "'fear of s\Jcceas" t.han their ma.1e counterparts. the boys also showed a relatively high ,.-,
~
d.egreé of' fear of success.
..
Finally. the results of' Kimba1.l' s study
. indicates that when asked which of t'Wo peop1.e that studellts thought l'
J
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were , happie~, which they liked better and who they would rather be. '
.
.
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over hall of the respondants chose the moderately successful person--, ~ . , ' 16 whether that person had a -male or female name. ,
Fear'lof suc cess and its imract on women 15 not yet cJ.~ar1y una'e:t;;-
stood.
However the evidence wf1ich does exist, points to the fact. that , it does play an important rol.e in det.ermining women loS career aspu:,ations.
.
It ls eSpe'cially important that this phenomenon not be over1ooked by .
,"
educators and counsel1.ors of 'Women as well as by policy makers in the
areas of' education and emp10Yl11ent •. Fear of success is c10se1y re+s:ted to the concep1:. of' role conflict.
"1
-which we shall now consider. as it relates to yo~g women and their career :lnt.erests., \
, (
/16.
Heroolth Kimball. "Women and Success: A Basic Confl1ct?" in
Women in Canada, ed. Mary1ee Stephenson (Don Mills. Ontario: Publishin~
~nl
Co. Ltd., 1977), pp.'73-89. J
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ROLE 'CON nI CT " "
Today, more and more women with children. are' either choos'ing' to~, ~
forced' to" j 0111 the lab~, for,ce • ..
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Having tvo. oft~n contradi~tory, ~
1
Some fee~
ro1es frequently causes a certain malai.sj3 in 'these women'. • , 1
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they a,re not do~g' just'iée to th~ir re~es a~> mothers;. others f.eel that
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their work is not up 'lio par due t'o fami.1y ob~igationS-,- wh~~ oth~rs ree~
sti.ll
..
tbat they are not performing either 'role as,. well
~s
,they
should or could, given different' circumstances,. ~, TÏ\e psychelogica~ term t'or. this malaise is role conflict. ,Role conflict· lias been def:med as a· subj'ective n~e1ing cif frustra. t iop whére pers ons are puJ.;l.ed in' oppos j,te direct?-ons in the performance of their roles. Rol.e con- ' fl1ct may occur 6",rhen expectations betw~en work P,irtners are net mutual or wh,en the demand;3 of twd or more roles ,are incompe.tibl~ •. 17 \ "
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The roles oi'
1
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and,'mother and tbat of career 'Women have tra-
d1tionally been consid,ered incompatib1e.
In the 'p9.st, a woman was
expected to ·~i.c1~te in the hbour force u'ntll sh~ married and bad
children.
She vas 'toM in no uncertain terms that a woiuan could not
,
~
h,
, "1
adequateJ.y tultUl the role or wife and mother 11' she had a career. ~
_!
Thua, if" she wanted to work outside t.he home, or had to work outside \
the hOM •.she usual1y felt quite guilty •. She would often feel that' !
,
. ,
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,
v
•. • • -
,
."
,.. •
4\
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lit
, .. ther ,;interesting finding of the Hawley study
1 ,f
wa~
tha t women' s
Perceptions of how men perceived them di.ffered according to the women 1 s
~ ~
",...
f
•
marital statua.-
i'
. ,
,1
,
,
,
Peggy Hawley, "What Women think Hen think: Does 'it affect' their Career Choiee?", Journal of' Counselling Psychè>lo,gY, vol. 18, no\ 3, 1971, pp. 193-199. 26.
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29
, In fact, married women tended not to believe that men made distinctions between j obe, in terms of being appropriate for males only or
"
Women who vere not married on the other hand were
for femalès only. mueh more rikely
to
.
think that men make more distinctions in terme of .,
sex-appropr:1ateness ~ of a given type of worf than their married counter-
pu-ts.27.. ~
'This finding 18 extremely significant. as we know that young girls 1
and vomen are usually called upon to make career choices at the high
echo01 and W'liversi.ty levels, i.e., before they are married.
Thet'el.' ore " \
when women are perhaps less l.ikely to perceive limitations 'in terms of career choices, it i.s already too l.a.te for many. as they have already made
..
restrictive dec is ions •
•Hen are by no mean0fhe only significant others in women' s lives. Other categorie; of persons who often tw.ve significant i.mpict on women' s career choices include parents, paers, and teachers.
One Canadian study
U\J1ng dflta on 3,687 high school boys and - girls showed the order of influ..... ~
.1
~
ence of nsignificant others n for girls to be as follows: Parents 1 expectations were most important to grade ten giI"is, followed by those of teachers.
. Peers 1 expectations were given the least
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27.
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Ibid., p. 198.
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