Time versus concentration data irt a climatic chamber or .... ter is expressed by e.g. the great number of different .... the thresholds range from mg to J.tg per m3 ...... (Harrje, 1991) and on the outer dimatic conditions ...... pollutants wcre associated with min, 8 hrs), SD-GC ...... emission profiles and it assumes that TVOC is a.
Volatile Organic Compounds Sources, Measurements, Emissions, and the Impact on Indoor Air Quality
by
Peder Wolkoff, Ph.D.
Arbejdstilsynet Arbejdsmiljøinstituttet
National Institute of Occupational Health, Denmark Copenhagen
5
This thesis has been submined as partial fulfiltment for obtaining the degree of D.Med.Sc. at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Copenhagen. In addition, the thesis contains ten original studies (1- 10) listed below:
List of studies* l. P. Wolkoff, L.F. Hansen, G.D. Nielsen (1988) "Airway-lrritating Effect of CarbonJess Copy Paper Examined by the Sensory Irritation Test in Mice", Envirommmt Imernational, 14, 43-48. 2. P. Wolkoff (1990a) "Proposal of Methods for Developing Healthy Building Materials - Labaratory and Field Experiments", Enviromnemal Technology, 11, 327- 338. 3. P. Wolkoff (1990b) "Some Guides for Measurements ofVolatile Organic Compounds lndoors", Environmemal Technology, 11, 339- 344. 4 . P. Wolkoff, P.A. Clausen, P.A. Nielsen, L. Mølhave (1991 a) "The Danish Twin Apartment Srudy. Part 1: Formaldehyde and Long-Term Measurements of VOC", Indoor Air, 1, 478490. 5. P. Wolkoff, G.D. Nielsen, L.F. Hansen, O. Albrechtsen, C.R Johnsen, J. Heinig, C. Franck, P.A. Nielsen (1991b) "A Srudy ofHuman Reactions to Emissions from Building Materials in Climatic Chambers. Part II: VOC Measurements, Mouse Bioassay, and Decipol Evaluation in the 1- 2 mglm3 TVOC Range", Indoor Air, 1, 389-403. 6. P.A. Clausen, P. Wolkoff, E. Holst, P.A. Nielsen ( 1991) "Lon g Term Emission o f Volatile O r-
*) Thc studies arc marked with an asterisk in the list of references.
7.
8.
9.
l O.
ganic Compounds from Waterbome Paints. Methods of Comparison", Indoor Air, l, 562576. P. Wolkoff, P.A. Clausen, P.A. Nielsen, H . Gustafsson, B. Jonsson, E . Rasmusen (1991c) "Field and Labaratory Emission Cell: FLEC", IAQ '91 Healzhy Buildings, ASHRAE, pp. 160165. P. Wolkoff, C.R johnsen, C . Franck, P. Wilhardt, O. Albrechtsen (1992) "A Srudy of Human Reactions to Office Machines in a Climatic Chamber", Journal of Exposure Aualysis and Enviromuemal Epidemiology, Suppl. l, 7196. P. Wolkoff, C. Wilkins, P.A. Clausen, K. Larsen (1993a) "Comparison of Volatile Organic Compounds from Processed Paper and Toners from Office Copiers and Printers: Methods, Emission Rates, and Modeled Concentrations", Indoor Air, 3 113- 123. P. Wolkoff, P.A. Clausen, P.A. Nielsen and L. Gunnarsen (1993b) "Documentation of Field and Labaratory Emission Cell "FLEC" ldentification o f Emission Processes from Carpet, Linoleum, Paint, and Sealant", Indoor Air, 3, 291 - 297.
6
Contents Ust of Studies Abbreviations and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 8 9
Chapter l - Introduetion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The Office Environment - The Future Occupational Environment . . . 1.4 Determination and Evaluation of lndoor VOC Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Summary ofThesis Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 11 11 13 14 14
Chapter 2 - Sources of VOC in the Indoor Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduetion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Building Materials (interior use) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Human Activity (2.3.1 General Aetivity, 2.3.2 Activities in the Office environment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Mieroorganisms (MVOCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Outdoor Air and lndoor Air Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 VOCs Reported to Have Caused IAQ Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Emission Rate ......... ..... . ... ................ . ... . . ........ 2.8 Pollutant Source Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 17 17 19 21 21 22 23 24
Chapter 3 - Sampling Strategy and Methods of Sampling, Analysis and Source Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Sampling Overview . .. . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . .. . .......... .. ....... . 3.2 Sampling Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Sampling Methods ..... ... . .. . ... . ..... ....... ..... . .. . ....... 3.4 Analysis, Reporting, Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Methods of Potential VOC Source ldentifieation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Future Need for Sampling and Analysis .... . ... . . .. . .. ... . . . . . . ..
26 26 26 29 32 34 35
4
Chapter 4 - VOC Field Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4.1 VOC Field Measurements . . ...... . . . . .... . ... .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . ... 36 4.2 Association Between VOC Exposure and SBS . .. ... . . .. .. .. . .. . ... 37 Chapter 5 - Emission Testing of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduetion . . ............ . .. ... ........ . ........ . . .... . . .. . . . 5.2 Chemieal Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Experimental Parameters Influencing the Emission of VOCs from Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Models .... . ..... ..... . .. . ........ . . . . .. . . . ......... . ..... . .. 5.5 Emission Testing - Other Methods . . . . ... . .. ..... . .. .. . .. .. . . . ..
42 42 42 43 48 49
Chapter 6 - Chamber Exposure Studies with VOCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduetion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Chamber Exposure Studies with VOCs and VOC Mixtures . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Chamber Exposure Studies with Materials and Offiee Equipment . . . . 6.4 The Association between Field Studies and Chamber Exposure Studies
50 50 50 53 55
Conelusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7
Abbreviations and Terminology AER
BTV eNSConcentration ECA
EDso Emission profile Emission rate
= Air exchange rate (h•1) . = Breakthrough valurne (1/g). The volume of air at which 5% of a given VOC has eluted through l gram of sorbent = Central nervous system. = Quantity, mass or mol of volatile organic compound per m 3 , normally irt J.lg/m3 or ppb. = European Collaborative Action, Indoor Air Quality & Its Impact on Man. = Effective median dose that eauses l 0 % o f maximal response. = Effective median dose that eauses 50% of maximal response. = Time versus concentration data irt a climatic chamber or room. = The release of a VOC per square meter per hour (mgl
ETS
=
Exposure
=
FID FLEC FTIIR GC Headspace H RIGC
= =
IAQ
= = :::a:
= =
Lipophilidty
=
MS MVOC Odor threshold
""'
PID RDso
=
= =
=
RSD
=
SBS SD
=
Source strength
= z:
TD
= =
TLV
=
TVOC
=
VDT
= =
svoc
voc woc
=
WHO
=
(m 2 Xh )). Environmental tobacco smoke. Concentration of volatile compounds that reaches the target population, organ or tissue. Flame ionizadon detector. Field and labaratory emission cell. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Gas chromatography. Air sample above test (material) surface. High resolution gas chromatography. Indoor air quality. Measure of solubility irt fat. Cko.w)i = the octanol-water partition of voci dissolved irt octanollwater. Mass spectrometry. Microbiological originated volatile organic compounds. Concentration of VOC at which 50% of panel can perceive the odor of a given VOC. Photoionization detector. Concentration which depresses the respiratory rate (mice) to 50%. Relative standard deviation. Sick buildirtg syndrome. Solvent desorption. Emission rate multiplied by materlal area (mglh). Semi volatile organic compound. Thermal desorption. Occupational threshold limit value. Total (non-reactive) volatile organic compounds; not well defined. Video display unit. Volatile organic compound. Very volatile organic compound. World Health Organization.
8
Units Dalton mglm3 J.lg/mJ nglm3
=
Mass unit. = Milligram per cubic meter. - Microgram per cubic meter. = Nanogram per cubic meter.
TlrJoor Air 1995, Suppl 3: 9-73 PrimrJ in Dmmark · aU n glrts ~uMJCJ
C 10, Crawl (branched), aromatics, space 11 , Elevator system u , Motor chlorinated aromatics vchiclcs 1}-1\ Outdor air 1s
a-Pinenc
6-methyl-5-heptene-2-one3
~-Pinen e
Formnldehydc, acetone, cyclohexnnone, nopinone 1
References: l, 2) Verhoeff et al., 1987, 1988. 3) Schercr et al., 1993. 4) Kliest et al., 1989. 5) Kuliman nnd Hill, 1990. 6) Cohcn et al., 1989. 7) Garnmage and Matthews, 1988. 8) Hawthorne et al., 1986. 9) Weisel and Lawryk, 1993. IO) Hodgson et al., 1991a. 11) Wolkoff et al., 1991a. 12) Wcschler et al. 1990b. 13) Pleil et al., 1989. 14) Daisey et nl., 1994. 15) Lewis, 1991
Styrene
Formaldehyde, benznldchydc~b.~
Un- and sat. hydrocarbons, fatty acids
Aldehydes~•
Vinyl cyclohexenc
Formaldchydc and formic acid~b
1
Ncighboring industry ·! Bitumen plant 3
found an increase of benzene and toluene with the ventilation on, while the concentration of halocarbons increased, when the ventilation was off indicating local sources. Similarly, Nagda et aL (1991) found that 1VOC was substantially higher at high ventilation rate during summer time (the outdoor level was also high). Few studies have dealt with VOCs formed by oxidation processes, i.e., autoxidation and reactions with ozone and nitrate radicals. E.g., hexanal and other aliphatic aldehydes have been reported to be ernined from paints and paint resins after curing (De Bonoli et al., 1985; Ullrich et al., 1982; Young, 1992). These aldehydes are very likely formed by autoxidation processes. The exposure of carpet emissions to ozone showed an increase of aldehyde formation and TVOC (Weshler and Hodgson, 1992), while a marked increase offormaldehyde has been found in a simulated office environment study with ozone emitting machines (Wolkoff et al., 1992). The aldehyde formation may arise, i.a., from degradation of long-chain fany acids in resins and linolewn Gensen et al., 1994, 1995a). Wolkoff et al. (1991 a) observed an increase of hexanal in an inhabited apartment during the warm season. Some VOCs formed by oxidative processes are Iisted in Tabte 2.5.2. There are indkations that atmospheric (indoor air) chemistry, e.g. reflected in an increase of aldehydes (Zhang et al., 1994a,b), may be important for understanding increased SBS prevalence and loss of 1VOC from intake to exhaust air (Sundell et al., 1993). The formaldehyde yield from reactions of lirnonene and styrene, respectively, with ozone was found to be from 125 to 150% molar
References: l ) Grosjean et al., 1993. 2a, b) Zhnng et al., 1994a, b. 3) Cicclioli et al., 1992. 4) Tuazoo et al., 1993
equivalents (Zhang et al., 1994b). The reported formation of 6~methyl-5-heptene-2-one identified in vacuum cleaner dust (Wolkoff and Wilkins, 1994; Wilkins et al., 1993) is comparible with oxidation of a-pinene (Ciccioli et al., 1992). Reactions of other terpenes with ozone result in formaldehyde and various ketones, see Tabte 2.5.2.
2.6 VOCs Repor1ed to Have Caused
IAQ Problems Tabte 2.6.1 summarizes selected cases where VOCs have been suspected to partially have caused some discomfort, however, questionnaires have rarely been used. The dominant symptoms reported have been mucous membrane irritation and odor annoyance. A classical example is the emission of aliphatic amines, diamines and sulfides, including ammonia from casein containing self-leveling monar on wet concrete (Karlsson et al., 1989; Lundholm et al., 1990). Some VOCs have low irritation thresholds such as aliphatic acids and amines, or may be allergerne like shampoo constituents (Taylor and Hindson, 1982). The VOCs may be (mal)odorous with low odor thresholds, like sulphur containing VOCs from polysulfide based sealants (Wolkoff, l 990a) and 4-phenylcyclohexene from latex based carpets (Hodgson et al., 1993). The VOCs ernined are solvent residues, additives, and reactants from the raw materials, deearnposition products, which are formed during the hardening processes and finally secondary pollutants caused by hydrolysis reactions (e.g. plasticizers) or by microbiological action. There are few intervention studies direcdy related
Peder W olkoll· Vololtle Orgonic Compounds
23
Table 2.6.1 Selecled exomples ol VOC sources reporled lo hove coused IAQ problems
References
Sourcc
Emission testing
Field measurement
Mono-isopropylbiphenylm
CarbonJess copy paper Carpet
Typica\ VOCs emitted/mcasurcd rcported, o - odor annoyance, m - mucous membrane irritation
2
Elevator
2
2-Ethylhexanol, styrene, 4-phcnylcyclohcxenem•"
3
Alkanes
Fluorcsccnt lighting fiXture
4
yolatilized asphalt"
Frcshly painted radiator
5
Hexanal, hexanoic acidm•"
Gas station
6
Petrol0
linoleum
7- 9
Microorganisms Painted wooden frame Plastic flooring (pvc)
8 lO
8
8
Il
MVOCs", see Tablc 2.4. 1 White spiritm 2-Ethylhexanol
Plant (bitumen)
12
Dimethyl disullide"
Printing shop
13
Solvents"
Roof insulation {rubber) Scalant in theater
Bcnzothiazole
11
1,2,5-Trithicpan, divinyl disulfide"
8
Self-lcvcling morrar
14-16
Aliphatic amines, diamines, and sullides, "ammonia" 1s m ,n
Shampoo
17, 18
Ally! phcnoxyacelatc 1K, (sodium dodccyl sulphate 19)m
Thcrmnl insulation matcrial
20
Wall-to-wall carpet
21
20
Aromatics, aliph11tic aldehydes, ketanes Aliph11tic nlcohols {C r C Q)"
References: l) Norback et al., 1988. 2) Seifen et al., 1989b. 3) Wt.-schler et al., 1990b. 4) Tavris et al., 1984. 5) Ullrich et al., 1982. 6) Kuliman and Hill, 1990. 7) Snarela and Sandcll, 1991. 8) Wolkoff, l990a. 9) Wolkoff et al., 1995. l O) Strom et al., 1994. I l) Andersson et al., 199311. 12) Schercr et al., 1993. 13) Verhoeff et al., 1987. 14) Karlsson et al., 1989. 15) Lundholm et nl., 1990. 16) Saarcla, 1992. 17) Kreiss et al., 1982. 18) Taylor and Hindson, 1982. 19) Non-volatile surfactant. 20) Van der Wal et al., 1989. 21) McLaughlin and Aiguer, 1990
to building materiais and their emission of VOCs. In a longitudinal intervention srudy, the removal of wall-to-wall carpets in schools resulted in a decrease of reported SBS symptoms relative to a group not exposed to carpets (Norbiick and Torgen, 1989). The carpets were 8-1 O years old, any VOC emission should have been low (decomposition or MVOCs), and other pollutants, e.g. mites and mold, may have been removed also.
2.7 Emission Rate Most reported VOC emission rates (mass ernined per area and time)) arebasedon one measurement, usually the supposed "steady state" concentration (Levin, 1992). From a practical viewpoint, emission rate constants are preferable for purposes of modeling emission profiles over time, e.g. in a stan-
dard room (Wolkoff and Nielsen, 1995). Reported emission rates, usually obtained from "steady state" measurements, are in the order of a few ._.g/(m2 Xh) to mg/(m2 Xh) (Biack et al., 1991; Colombo et al., 1990; Davidson et al., 1991; Miksch et al., 1982; Mølhave, 1982; Saarela and Sandell, 1991; Strobridge and Black, 1991; Wallace et al., 1987b). The source strength in a room is obtained by multiplying the materlal area with its emission rate. Many factors can influence the emission rate, like temperature, to a less extent the relative humidicy and the materlal age, for further discussion, see Chapter 5. Body eftluent emissions have been determined to be about 0.2-Q.3 mg/h per kg body weight (Mølhave et al., 1995), in agreement with the classic study by Wang (1975). Isoprene appears to be a major body VOC with an emission ca. 30()-400 ._.g1 h (Ellin et al., 1974). Lewis and Zweidinger (1992)
24
Peder Wolkoff: Volatile Orgonic Compounds
estirnated aldehyde emission rates to 9.4 mg/h and other non-methane TVOC to l 00 mg/h in residences.
2.8 Pollutant Source Dynamics The total indoor air pollution of VOCs comprises the combined contributions from the building related, human activity related and outdoor sources. Each pollutant source has its own emission characteristic, i.e. temporal emission and spatial patterns. Figure 2.8.1 shows the deeline of the coatescent agent Texanol, used in a waterbome paint, in a new apartment over a one year period from the time of completion (Wolkoff et al., 1991 a). Several research groups have suggesred schemes to describe the variability of di.fferent emission sources. Seifert and Ullrich (1987) distinguished between continuous and discontinuous emission sources. These emissions may further be subdivided into those behaving in a regular or irregular mode as shown below in Scheme 2.8.1. The time scale of the continuous type was in the arder of months or weeks while it proceeded within hours or minutes for the discontinuous type. Others distinguish between short and long term temporal variations including spatial variations (Otson and Fellin, 1992) while Miksch et al.,
JlQ·m" 4oco~~---r--~--~~----~----~--~-.
3500 3000.
- - Texanol •••••••• Texanol" - - Ethanol'
2500 : 2000
--- · Acetone•
-·-Acetone
1500
1000 500 0~~~~--~~~~==~------~--
"500 L..-~50"..--:-1~00"..-~15~0~2~00:-=-1'~2~50~~300=-=-~3~5~0~4~0~0~450 Days
Fig. 2.8.1 Average time/ concentralion profiles ol Iong-term VOC sampling (7 - 14 doysl ol acetone, ethanol, and Texanal in Danish Twin Apartments (occupied and vacant)_ Date O(date ol building completion) .. 1 November 1987. • =occupied . .!.=Date ol oc· cupancy. i 20 June 1988 _{Wolkoff et ol., 1991 ol
(1982) presented a simple model with three emission types such as constant generation, workday generation and episodic generation. By combining the temporal patteros with the sparlal patteros Levin ( 1992) ended up with a two-by-three matrix, see Scheme 2.8.2, in which he distinguished between point sources and distributed sources each having constant, periodic (occupational) and episodic time pattems. The concentration-time pattern of VOCs in the office environment with aetlvities may vary significantly during the working hours and depends upon a series of imerrelated factors such as location, occupant density and user related activity (Crump and Madany, 1993; Ekberg, 1994; Hodgson, 1992; Johansson, 1978; Wolkoff, 1990b). This also includes photocopying (Daisey et al., 1994; Grot et al., 1989; Hodgson et al., 1991 a) and the use of personal care produets (Shields and Fleischer, 1993). The temperature, humidity, ad- and desorption processes (Borrazzo et al., 1993) and outside aerlvities (Ekberg, 1994; Pleil et al., 1989) can also contribute. On a Iong-term basis, the primary VOCs from building materiais will dominate during the first year in a new building. The contribution from daily aetlvities (e.g. office machines and other human activities) and secondary pollutant sources will progressively dominate the indoor air. This could be one explanation for the identified association between use of photocopying machines and SBS prevalence (e.g., Sundeli et al., 1994). However, SBS has not been found to be associated with the use of computers (Fisk et al., 1993). The impact of the ad- and desorption processes could be reflected in a typical office in which emitted pollutants from human aerlvities during the workday are adsorbed on fleecy surfaces (textiles) and shelves (paper). During the night, while the ventilation system is turned off, and over time, the equilibrium between VOCs in the air and sorbed VOCs is reestablished, with a resulting increase in air concentration which the occupants will be exposed to the next morning. Conversely, if the
,. Rcgular (constant emission rate) Continuous
/'
\.
Irregular (variable emission rate)
Pollutant \. Rcgular (constant time panem) Discontinuous ( Irrcgular (variable time pattem) Scheme 2.8.1 Seifert ond Ullrich scheme l l 987)
Source:
Constant
Periodic
Episodic
Point ~
Room freshener
Photocopying, papcr handling
Hobby nctivity
Carpets
Smoking
Pai n ting
Distributcd
~
Scheme 2.8.2 Levi n sc:heme l 19921
Peder Wolkolf: Volatile Orgonic Compounds
HVAC system is rurned on ovemight with heating the VOCs could be removed (Nielsen, 1988). The association between the fleece factor (Nielsen, 1987) and increased SBS prevalence Oaakkola et al., 1994), however, has not been found in two other studies (Zweers et al., 1992; Sundeli et al., 1994). The building characteristics (Harrje, 1991 ), i. e. different ventilation conditions and wind direction may also play an important role and add to the variability and temporality of indoor pollurants. Weschler et al. (1990a, 1992) found that indoor ozone concentrations may vary greatly with the time of the day and this may affect the types and concentrations of VOCs found indoors (Weschler and Hodgson, 1992). Generally, TVOC levels have been found to be inversely proportional to the air exchange rate, i.e. concentrations increased when ventilation was
25
reduced (e.g., Grot et at., 1991; Shields and Weschler, 1992; Turiel et al., 1983). It was shown in the Danish town hall study that the office size and occupant density were important parameters associated with increased SBS prevalence (Skov et al., 1990). This may lead to the condusion that local pollutant sources (e.g. work stations, human activities including bioeffiuents) may play a more important role than ventilation (Farant et at., 1992; Hodgson, 1992; Nagda et at., 1991). The overall source dynamics of VOCs indoors are reflected in the variabilicy expressed by the following: the plethorn of source types and their emission characteristics as temporal and spatial panems; the concentration ranges eneouncered indoors. lt is important to realize that the sampling strategies should be related to these dynamics (cf. Chapter 3).
3. Sampling Strategy and Methods ofSampling, Analysis and Source ldentification 3.1 Sampling overview
3.2 Sampling Strategy
Sampling of indoor VOCs has three main purposes. First, it is to measure time integrated mean concentrations for exposure assessment according to a defined sampling objective, second, to carry out source identification and third, to characterize building materiais and produets according to their emission profiles. Both field air sampling and emission testing require a choice of sampling technique and method for analysis. In addition, field sampling requires consideration of sampling objecrive, data quality objective and a sampling strategy. Source characterization by emission testing has to be conducted under controlled environmental conditions, usually in a climatic chamber (see Chapter 5). The VOC measurement should end with interpretation and evaluntion of the potential impact on IAQ and hwnan health, e.g. in terms of odor annoyance and mucous membrane irritation. Seteecion of the hest sampling method will depend on the nature of the potential VOCs of interest, environmental conditions and the sampling objective. The method of choice for analyzing VOCs depends on the criteria of sensitivity and selectivity and the time resolution required for sampling according to the sampling objective. No single method allows for sampling of the whole range of volatile organics. There are several sampling techniques available. These are continuous sampling, grab sampling, active sampling and diffusive sampling (Knoppet, 1992a,b; Wallace, 1991). Exeept for continuous sampling, the remaining methods all can inelude identification of single VOCs present. Sampling integrates concentration over time which may be short, requiring high analytical sensitivity or long providing a Iong-term average concentration over time. The most common methods, their advantages and disadvantages are summarized in Tabte 3.3.1.
A series of quesrions are prerequisite which allow a resolution of the scientific hypothesis. The first and second questions are: What is the hypothesis and what is the sampling strategy that is needed to test the hypothesis. This leads to the foliowing questions about strategy: Why measure; What to measure; How to measure; When to measure; Where to measure; How aften to measure (sampling frequency); and How long to measure (sampling durarien). As a rute of thurnb, short-term samples rnonitoring peak concentrations rnay be related to acute events of symptoms, while Iong-term rneasurements expressing a mean time-integrated concentration could be associated with chronic effects (ECA, 1989b). The procedure for field air sampling for analysis and identification ofVOCs entails five steps: l) Definition o f the sampling objective(s) (McCharty et al., 1991; ECA, 1989b; Thorsen and Mølhave, 1987; Wolkoff, 1990b), 2) definition ofthe data qualicy objective (Keith, 1990), 3) design ofthe sampling strategy inelucting the selection of microenvironment (ECA, 1989b, 1994), 4) choice of sampling technique and specificity, transport and storage properries and finally 5) the analysis, see Tabte 3.3.2. Although sampling strategy is a well-known concept in occupational hygiene, the sampling strategy of an indoor environment must, in addition, be based on a careful definition of the sampling objective with due consideration of all IAQ pararneters and their possible interrelarionships (ECA, 1989b). Finally, the sources dynamics (Weschler and Hodgson, 1992; Wolkoff, 1992a) and building characterisrics, inelucting the environmental conditions befare and during sampling should be considered. The fundamental rule still is that the sampling must be carried out according to the sampling objecrive. For exarnple, in complaint cases the time of sampling and sampling duration should fit with the complaint event.
Table 3.3. 1 Sampirog lechnrques for measurrng VVOCs VOCs ond same SVOCs rn rndoor 011 Sampling tcchnique"'r
Advnntage
Disadvantagc
Time resolution minimum sampling time
Continuous 1.~
Easy-to-use, High time resolution
N on-selective
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