2009 ESC/ERS Pulmonary Hypertension Guidelines and Connective ...

Allergology International. 2011;60:419-424 DOI: 10.2332! allergolint.11-RAI-0362

REVIEW ARTICLE

2009 ESC! ERS Pulmonary Hypertension Guidelines and Connective Tissue Disease Norifumi Nakanishi1 ABSTRACT

Pulmonary hypertension was defined as mean pulmonary artery pressure "25 mmHg at the 4th World Symposium on Pulmonary Hypertension. In 2009, the European Society of Cardiology and European Respiratory Society jointly created guidelines for practical pulmonary hypertension classifications and treatments based on the discussions at the 4th World Symposium. This classification is characterized by division into five groups: Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH); Pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease; Pulmonary hypertension due to lung disease and! or hypoxia; Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension; and Pulmonary hypertension with unclear and!or multifactorial mechanisms. PAH is a common and fatal complication of connective tissue disease (CTD), but pulmonary hypertension in CTD consists of PAH, pulmonary hypertension caused by myocardial involvement, pulmonary veno-occlusive disorder, pulmonary hypertension due to interstitial lung disease. PAH has been studied widely in SSc and the estimated prevalence of 7-12%. Treatment of CTD associated PAH (CTD-PAH) consists of general therapeutic options and specific treatment. Specific treatment of CTD-PAH patients is targeted to produce vasodilatation. Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) are indicated in cases where a sufficient decrease in pulmonary arterial pressure is seen in vasoreactivity testing. If vasoreactivity is absent in CTD-PAH patients, the treatment consists of the endothelin receptor antagonists, the prostacyclin analogues and phosphodiesterase-type 5 inhibitors. Few data are available to support the use of immunosuppression in CTD-PAH. However, some case reports suggested that a minority of CTD-PAH patients could benefit from immunosuppressive therapy. The treatment of CTD-PAH patients may differ from the treatment of idiopathic PAH.

KEY WORDS clinical classification, connective tissue disease, evidence-based treatment algorithms, pulmonary arterial hypertension, pulmonary hypertension

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) was defined as mean pulmonary artery pressure (PAPm) " 25 mmHg at the 4th World Symposium on Pulmonary Hypertension held at Dana Point in the United States in 2008. Definitive diagnosis of this condition thus requires direct measurement of pulmonary arterial pressure using right heart catheterization (RHC).1 However, estimation of the existence of PH from the shape of the left and right ventricles on echocardiography has become relatively easy in recent years. With the concurrent use of Doppler echocardiography, it is even pos-

sible to estimate systolic pulmonary arterial pressure and cardiac output values. These pulmonary hemodynamic parameters are measured in various diseases, leading to the discovery that PH complications occur at a higher rate in many diseases than was previously thought. At the 4th World Symposium on PH, therefore, a clinical classification of PH (Dana Point classification) was created that grouped PH with many common conditions and treatments.1 In 2009, the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and European Respiratory Society (ERS) jointly created guidelines for more practical PH classifications and treatments based on the discussions at the 4th World Sympo-

1Division of Pulmonary Circulation, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Osaka, Japan. Correspondence: Norifumi Nakanishi, MD, PhD, Division of Pulmonary Circulation, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Na-

tional Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, 5−7−1 Fujishiro-dai, Suita, Osaka 565−8565, Japan. Email: [email protected] Received 16 August 2011. !2011 Japanese Society of Allergology

INTRODUCTION

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Table 1 Updated clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension 1. Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: PAH 1.1 Idiopathic PAH 1.2 Heritable 1.2.1 BMPR2 1.2.2 ALK1, endoglin (with or without hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia) 1.2.3 Unknown 1.3 Drug- and toxin-induced 1.4 Associated with 1.4.1 Connective tissue disease 1.4.2 HIV infection 1.4.3 Portal hypertension 1.4.4 Congenital heart disease 1.4.5 Schistosomiasis 1.4.6 Chronic hemolytic anemia 1.5 Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn 1’. Pulmonary Veno-Occlusive Disease (PVOD) and/or Pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis (PCH) 2. Pulmonary hypertension owing to left heart disease 2.1 Systolic dysfunction 2.2 Diastolic dysfunction 2.3 Valvular disease 3. Pulmonary hypertension owing to lung disease and/or hypoxia 3.1 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 3.2 Interstitial lung disease 3.3 Other pulmonary diseases with mixed restrictive and obstructive pattern 3.4 Sleep-disordered breathing 3.5 Alveolar hypoventilation disorders 3.6 Chronic exposure to hight altitude 3.7 Developmental abnormalities 4. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) 5. Pulmonary hypertension with unclear multifactorial mechanisms 5.1 Hematologic disorders: myeloproliferative disorders, splenectomy 5.2 Systemic disorders: sarcoidosis, pulmonary Langerthans cell histiocytosis: lymphangioleiomyomatosis, neurofibromatosis, vasculitis 5.3 Metabolic disorders: glycogen storage disease, Gaucher disease, thyroid disorders 5.4 Others: tumoral obstruction, fibrosing mediastinitis, chronic renal failure on dialysis Adapted from reference 1.

sium on PH.2 The present article first reviews the ESC! ERS clinical classification of PH, diagnostic algorithms, and evidence-based treatment algorithms, and then explains the characteristics of PH associated with connective tissue disease.

ESC! ERS CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PH The ESC! ERS clinical classification of PH adopts the

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same classification method as the Dana Point classification.1 This classification is characterized by division into five groups: Group 1, Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH); Group 2, Pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease; Group 3, Pulmonary hypertension due to lung disease and! or hypoxia; Group 4, Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH); and Group 5, Pulmonary hypertension with unclear and! or multifactorial mechanisms (Table 1).

GROUP 1: PAH Since the first clinical classification of PH was established in 1998,3 PAH has been placed at the most important and typical disorder of PH. In the Dana Point classification, PAH is subdivided into: idiopathic PAH; heritable PAH; drug- and toxin-induced PAH; PAH associated with other disorders; and persistent PH of the newborn. In Group 1’, the subtypes of pulmonary veno-occlusive disease (PVOD) and pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis (PCH) were established. The conditions listed as “associated with other disorders” - connective tissue disease, HIV infection, portal hypertension, congenital heart disease, schistosomiasis, and chronic hemolytic anemia - are taken as diseases that can cause PAH.

IDIOPATHIC! HERITABLE PAH PAH is the generic term for diseases in which serious lesions exist in the pulmonary artery itself, and PH occurs with a high frequency as a result.4 Among PAH, cases in which no obvious primary disease can be identified are categorized as “idiopathic PAH.5” In 2000, BMPR2 germline mutations, which are believed to be associated with the onset of PAH, were discovered in PAH patients with a family history of the condition.6 In 2001, patients were also found to have a mutation in a gene called ACVRL1 (ALK1).7 As a result, PAH cases in which the patient has a confirmed gene mutation were defined together with conventional familial PAH cases (regardless of whether a gene mutation is confirmed) as “heritable PAH.”

CONNECTIVE TISSUE DISEASE-ASSOCIATED PAH (CTD-PAH) In the previous classification, this was called “PAH related to collagen vascular disease,” but was changed to CTD-PAH in the Dana Point classification.5 Many cases of CTD-PAH have been described and this is a clinically important subgroup. Investigations of PAH in systemic sclerosis (SSc) are ongoing in Western countries, and the complication rate of PAH in SSc is reported to be 7-12%.8,9 The prognosis of SSc with concomitant PH is poor compared with idiopathic PAH.10 The PAH complication rate in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD) is unknown, but the frequency is re-


PH Guidelines and Connective Tissue Disease ported to be lower than with SSc. In Japan, however, the PH complication rates in MCTD and SLE are high, reportedly reaching 16% in MCTD, 9.3% in SLE, and 11.4% in SSc.

PORTOPULMONARY HYPERTENSION (POPH) Some 2-6% of Portal hypertension cases are said to have PH, representing POPH.11 Much is unknown about the mechanisms of onset for POPH, and the existence of portal hypertension itself is thought to be a determinant in the development of PH.12 PH exists in the initial stage of POPH, but causes include high cardiac output or diastolic dysfunction of left ventricle in many cases the calculated pulmonary vascular resistance is normal. When the terminal stage of the disease is reached, however, the pulmonary hemodynamics in this condition are the same as in idiopathic PAH. The pathological findings in POPH and idiopathic PAH are also very similar.13

CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE-ASSOCIATED PAH (CHD-PAH) CHD-PAH has long been an important subgroup of PAH. In congenital heart disease, pulmonary blood flow increases as a result of systemic-to-pulmonary shunt, resulting in PH. This occasions organic changes in pulmonary vessels, and PAH is reported to occur with a high frequency. In reports from Europe and North America, the frequency of PAH associated with congenital systemic to pulmonary shunt is 1.6-12.5 per 1 million adults, with Eisenmenger changes estimated to occur in 25-50% of these.14

PULMONARY VENO-OCCLUSIVE DISEASE (PVOD) AND! OR PULMONARY CAPILLARY HEMANGIOMATOSIS (PCH) Both of these diseases have much in common with PAH, and PVOD and PCH together are categorized as a subgroup of Group 1 in the Dana Point classification. Similarities also exist in the histological presentations of PCH and PVOD.15 However, PAH and PVOD! PCH differ greatly in responsiveness to medical treatment. A particularly striking difference is that pulmonary edema occurs in about half of patients in response to PAH therapeutic agents. The prognosis is also poorer than for PAH. There is also some debate about classifying PVOD! PCH in PAH. Other diseases classified in PAH, including drugand toxin-induced PAH, HIV infection, schistosomiasis, and chronic hemolytic anemia, occur in few cases in Japan and are not discussed here.

with left ventricular dysfunction may present with PH.16 However, in PH due to left heart disease, pulmonary arterial pressure is elevated, but pulmonary wedge pressure is also high. As a result, calculated pulmonary vascular resistance is not increased in many cases.

GROUP 3: PH DUE TO LUNG DISEASE AND! OR HYPOXIA Group 3 consists of PH associated with hypoxemia and various respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, interstitial lung disease, sleep-disordered breathing, or chronic exposure to high altitude. In cases due to interstitial lung disease, the PH is not generally conspicuous, and the percentage of patients showing high-level PH with PAPm " 40 mmHg is reportedly around 1%.17 At the 4th World Symposium on PH, new PH accompanying other pulmonary diseases with mixed restrictive and obstructive patterns was adopted as a condition different from PH accompanying other respiratory disease. This disease is a specific disease group in that many cases present with a higher level of PH than expected from the severity of the respiratory dysfunction.18

GROUP 4: CHRONIC THROMBOEMBOLIC PULMONARY HYPERTENSION (CTEPH) Group 4 is PH caused by organizing thrombus present in the pulmonary artery.19 Many of these patients have a history of acute pulmonary thromboembolism. CTEPH was previously subtyped into central and peripheral types, depending on the location of the main occlusion. However, many cases are seen in which even specialists have differing opinions when distinguishing between the central and peripheral types.

GROUP 5: PH WITH UNCLEAR MULTIFACTORIAL MECHANISMS In recent years, the diseases occurring concurrently with PH have been shown to be more diverse than was previously known. In the Dana Point classification, diseases that have been found in recent years to occur concurrently with PH are placed into four subgroups: hematological disorders; systemic disorders; metabolic disorders; and others. These diseases are particularly rare cases even among PH, which is itself already rare. However, findings from diseases in such cases may provide clues for a better understanding of the onset of PH, and elucidation of the causes of these diseases is desired.

GROUP 2: PH DUE TO LEFT HEART DISEASE

DIAGNOSTIC ALGORITHM OF DISEASES THAT ARE CARDINAL SIGNS OF PH

Left heart disease may be the most common cause of PH. PH in this group is subtyped into PH secondary to systolic dysfunction, diastolic dysfunction, and valvular disease. It is reported that 60-70% of patients

Currently, semiquantitative evaluation of pulmonary arterial hemodynamic parameters using Doppler echocardiography is possible in addition to chest radiography and electrocardiography. This has made it


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Nakanishi N much easier than before to infer the existence of PH. In cases when PH is suspected based on noninvasive diagnostic methods, generally a definitive diagnosis of PH is first made, followed by a differential diagnosis of the type of PH. The severity of each case is then assessed. In definitive diagnosis of PH, measurement of pulmonary hemodynamic parameters using RHC is ultimately required, as mentioned above. When conducting a differential diagnosis of each type of PH, diagnosis of Group 3 (PH due to lung disease) is first done based on chest radiography and pulmonary function tests. It is also possible to simultaneously diagnose Group 2 (PH due to left heart disease) using Doppler echocardiography. If Group 2 and Group 3 PH can be excluded, the likelihood is high that remaining cases of PH will belong to Group 1 (PAH) or Group 4 (CTEPH). In distinguishing between these two, ventilation! perfusion lung scan is the essential test.20 Nearly all cases that show normal or mottled pattern findings on perfusion lung scan can be placed in Group 1 (PAH). If multiple wedgeshaped perfusion defects are present on ventilation! perfusion lung scan, the possibility of Group 4 (CTEPH) is high. Group 5 diseases are particularly rare among PH, so this may be offered as a differential diagnosis after other forms of PH have been adequately excluded. In cases when Group 1 (PAH) is diagnosed from a ventilation! perfusion lung scan, it is next necessary to distinguish between idiopathic! heritable PAH and other forms of PAH. Very few reports have described PAH due to drug- and toxin-induced PAH, HIV infection, schistosomiasis, and chronic hemolytic anemia in Japan, and these types can be excluded relatively easily with sufficient history taking. With CTD-PAH, POPH, and CHD-PAH, the presence of connective tissue disease, liver disease, and congenital heart disease, respectively, is diagnosed, and diagnosis is not difficult with the subsequent occurrence of PH. Cases in which these forms of PAH are excluded and the remaining underlying disease cannot be identified are idiopathic! heritable PAH and PVOD! PCH. Heritable PAH, newly established in the Dana Point classification, is defined for cases in which a family history or gene mutation is confirmed. However, considering the ethical problems of performing genetic tests and that only one or two institutions in Japan can perform genetic tests for this condition, determination of heritable PAH is difficult in general clinical settings. The difference between regular PAH and PVOD! PCH stems from the difference in whether the site of the main lesion in the pulmonary vessels is the pulmonary artery or pulmonary veins or capillaries. Diagnosis is considered to be possible from image findings such as chest radiography or computed tomography (CT), and responsiveness to PH therapeutic agents. However, many cases do not show differences in clinical features, and distinguishing between the two

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is often difficult even in specialty institutions. Most cases in which multiple wedge-shaped perfusion defects can be confirmed on perfusion lung scan may be considered to belong in Group 4 (CTEPH). However, lesions also exist in the pulmonary artery in some aortitis syndrome patients, and multiple wedgeshaped perfusion defects are seen on perfusion lung scans even in rare diseases such as primary or secondary tumor in the pulmonary artery. In aortitis syndrome, diagnosis is possible from various clinical symptoms originating in vascular lesions of the aorta. In CTEPH, tests including CT, magnetic resonance imaging, and RHC! pulmonary arteriography are subsequently conducted, the severity of the condition is evaluated, and surgical indications are investigated.

TREATMENT FOR PH The evidence-based treatment algorithm modified by the ESC! ERS from the Dana Point Treatment Algorithm is shown as follows2(Fig. 1). In the clinical trials that have provided accepted evidence for many commercially available PH therapeutic agents, subjects were limited to patients with idiopathic! heritable PAH and CTD-PAH, and a small number with CHD-PAH. Drugs currently available to treat Group 2 (PH due to left heart disease), Group 3 (PH due to lung disease), and CTEPH are thus not formally indicated, and treatment effects have not been sufficiently substantiated. In the ESC! ERS Evidence-Based Treatment Algorithm, first a definitive diagnosis of PAH is made and its severity is evaluated, then right heart failure is treated using oral anticoagulants, diuretics, or digoxin, and O2 or other supportive therapy is given. Next, vasoreactivity testing is recommended. Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) are indicated in cases where a sufficient decrease in pulmonary arterial pressure is seen in vasoreactivity testing.21,22 If WHO functional class I-II can be maintained with CCB, this treatment is continued. In patients without vascular reactivity, specific drug therapy for PAH is started. In the ESC! ERS Evidence-Based Treatment Algorithm, the WHO functional class severity is emphasized when selecting a PH therapeutic agent. If the WHO functional class is II or III, endothelin receptor antagonists or phosphodiesterase type-5 inhibitors are selected.23-26 In Japan, Beraprost, an orally active prostacyclin analogue, is included among the options.27 However, there is very little evidence to refer to in deciding which of the three types of drug to use. Continuous intravenous administration of epoprostenol is the first choice even with WHO functional class III or class IV.28 In cases when necessary improvements in symptoms are not obtained with monotherapy, concurrent therapy with two or three additional drugs is given. When the concurrent therapy is with oral drugs only, the oral drugs and epoprostenol are used in combination. However, data are


PH Guidelines and Connective Tissue Disease

Avoid pregnancy (I-C) Influenza and pneumococcal immunization (I-C) Supervised rehabilitation (IIa-B) Psycho-social support (IIa-C) Avoid excessive physical activity (III-c)

General measures and supportive therapy Expert Referral (I-C) Acute vasoreactivity test (I-C for IPAH) (IIb-C for APAH)

VASOREACTIVE

WHO-FCI-III CCB (I-C)

NON VASOREACTIVE

INITIAL THERAPY RecommendationEvidence I-A

Sustained response (WHO-FCI-II)

YES

Diuretics (I-C) Oxygen† (I-C) Oral anticoagulants: IPAH, heritable PAH and PAH due to anorexigens (IIa-C) APAH (IIb-C) Digoxin (IIb-C)

I-B

NO

IIa-C

Continue CCB

IIb-B

WHO-FC II

WHO-FC III

WHO-FC IV

Ambrisentan, Bosentan, Ambrisentan, Bosentan, Epoprostenol i.v. Sitaxentan, Sildenafil Sildenafil Epoprostenol i.v., Iloprost inhaled Tadalafil‡ Tadalafil‡ Treprostinil s.c., inhaled‡ Sitaxentan Iloprost i.v., Treprostinil i.v. Ambrisentan, Bosentan, Sitaxentan, Sildenafil, Tadalafil‡, Iloprost inhaled, and i.v. Treprostinil s.c., i.v., inhaled‡ Initial Combination Therapy Beraprost INADEQUATE CLINICAL RESPONSE

Sequential combination therapy (IIa-B) INADEQUATE CLINICAL RESPONSE BAS (I-C) and/or Lung transplantation (I-C)

ERA + Prostanoids

+ +

PDE-5 I

Fig. 1 Evidence-based treatment algorithm for pulmonary arterial hypertension patients (for group 1 patients only). †To maintain arterial blood O2 pressure ≥8 kPa (60 mmHg). ‡Under regulatory review in the European Union. §Ila-C for WHO-FC IL. APAH, associated pulmonary arterial hypertension; BAS, balloon atrial septostomy; CCB, calcium channel blocker; ERA, endothelin receptor antagonist; IPAH, idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension; PDE5 I; phosphodiesterase type-5 inhibitor; WHO-FC, World Health Organization functional class. Adapted from reference 2.

currently lacking for judging the relative merits for ways of combining the three types of drugs. In cases where resistance to medical therapy is shown or when medical therapy cannot be given, lung transplantation must also be considered. The preceding describes the ESC! ERS Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of PH, which will probably become the main guidelines in the coming years. However, no consensus of opinion has been reached regarding which drugs are appropriate to use for which conditions, and unfortunately there is no discussion of this in the Guidelines.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PH IN CONNECTIVE TISSUE DISEASE PH complications are one major factor that determines the prognosis of connective tissue disease, and


appropriate PAH therapies are needed to improve the prognosis for this condition. Normally, when PH is secondary to connective tissue disease, the condition is thought to be CTD-PAH due to an unambiguous pulmonary vessel lesion. However, the etiology of PH seen in connective tissue disease involves other factors to various extents, including cases in which a thrombus exists in the pulmonary artery, cases where vasculitis is closely involved, cases where pulmonary fibrosis complicates connective tissue disease and results in hypoxemia as the main conditions, and cases where myocardial damage and left ventricular diastolic dysfunction secondary to connective tissue disease are involved. Therefore, adequate evaluation of the level of contribution of each of these factors is thus necessary when thinking about treatment for this condition. In CTD-PAH, immune abnor-

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Nakanishi N malities contribute to the onset, and cases have been reported in which PH improves with steroids or immunosuppressants.29 This point is vastly different from other PAH treatments that use only therapeutic agents specialized for PAH in three types: the prostacyclin pathway; endothelin pathway; and nitric oxide pathway. Currently, trials that gather evidence with consideration of the above conditions have finally started for the treatment of PAH seen in connective tissue disease. In summary, the treatment of CTDPAH patients may differ from the treatment of idiopathic PAH.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST No potential conflict of interest was disclosed.

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