2018 Vol. 53, No. 3

2018 Vol. 53, No. 3

© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek Toruń 2018 ISSN 1732-6729 The hard copy is an original version

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CONTENTS

Stanisław Juszczyk Editor’s Preface �� 11

SOCIAL PEDAGOGY Ahmad Sudi Pratikno, Sujarwo Comparative Research on Top Five Universities’ Research Productivity in Indonesia and Malaysia �� 17 Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Katarzyna Kowalczewska-Grabowska Health Promoting Schools in Poland: an Evaluation of Health Promotion Implementation at Schools with a National Certificate �� 28 Unifah Rosyidi Managing Corporate Higher Education: Indonesia’s Greatest Challenge �� 39 Slawomir Pasikowski, Katarzyna Karolina Zajda A Validation of the Inventory of Attitude Toward Social Innovation �� 49 Nasrun Nasution The Effect of Incentive Reward, School Principal Leadership, Work Motivation on the Performance of Senior High School Teachers in Medan �� 62 Silva Bratož, Mojca Žefran Systematicity in Foreign Language Classroom Communication �� 71 Luciana Maia Campos Machado, Claudia Emiko Yoshinaga Self-assessment Accuracy, Overconfidence and Student Performance �� 85 Anam Fatima, Wan Ming, Asad Abbas Chinese students’ Perception on Plagiarism: a Case of Anhui, China �� 95

4

Contents

GENERAL DIDACTICS Asnawi Muslem, Sofyan A Gani, Bustami Usman, Rismawati, Melor Md Yunus The Influence of Authentic English Video Clips on Students’ Listening Comprehension �� 105 Nouri Y. Alwattar, Eisa M. Al-Balhan The Effectiveness of the E-mind Mapping Strategyfor Sixth-Grade Students’ Achievement Level in Learning Arabic Vocabulary in Kuwait �� 115 Elena V. Dostovalova, Pavel S. Lomasko, Alexander A. Maschanov, Elena M. Nazarenko, Anna L. Simonova Teaching in a Continuously and Dynamically Changing Digital Informationand Learning Environment of a Modern University �� 126 Ramly Ramly, Amirullah Abduh Exploring Cognitive Concepts in the National Assessment of the Indonesian Language �� 142 Pramudya Dwi Aristya Putra, Yoshisuke Kumano Energy Learning Progression and STEM ConceptualizationAmong Pre-service Science Teachers in Japan and Indonesia �� 153 Didin Saripudin, Wawan Darmawan, Tarunasena Developing Learning Media of Indonesian History to Raise Students’ Historical Consciousness �� 163 Yulisma Yanti, Soewarno S, Tarmizi, Muhammad Syukri The Influence of E-Portfolio Task Through the Facebook Network on the Creativityof Junior High School Students �� 177 Abdul Wahab, Alimuddin Mahmud, Muhammad Arif Tiro The Effectiveness of a Learning Module for Statistical Literacy �� 187

PEDEUTOLOGY Zlatica Huľová, Ivana Rochovská, Vladimír Klein The Issue of Age Homogeneity in Groups from the Kindergarten Teacher’s Perspective �� 203

Contents

5

Mihaela Brumen, Tomaž Zupančič, María Fernández Agüero, Isabel Alonso-Belmonte Foreign Language Teachers’ Feedback Practices: a Comparative Study �� 216 Oleksandr Malykhin, Nataliia Aristova Investigation into the Participation Activity Rateof Foreign Languages Teachers in Specially Focused Network Pedagogical Communities �� 227 Jovana J. Milutinović, Aleksandra K. Anđelković Relations Between Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs and Teaching Practice in Serbia �� 239 Samsul Hadi, Dedek Andrian Detecting Teacher Difficulties in Implementingthe Local Curriculum Developed by the Local Government �� 250 Krzysztof Rubacha, Mariana Sirotova The sense of Didactic Self-efficacy in Mathematics Teachers with Various Personal Theories Regarding Gender Differences and Mathematical Giftedness �� 261

SPECIAL PEDAGOGY Krystyna Barłóg Empathic Sensitivity of Children with Special Educational Needs in Inclusive Learning Environment in Poland �� 273

CHOSEN ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY Bożydar L.J. Kaczmarek, Marcin Stencel Third Mode of Thinking �� 285

CHRONICLE Eugenia Smyrnova-Trybulska Chronicle of the International Scientific Conferenceon Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Distance Learning, University of Silesia, Poland �� 299

CONTRIBUTORS

Abduh Amirullah

Faculty of Languages and Literature, Universitas Negeri Makassar, Makassar, Indonesia

E-mail: [email protected], Website: https://scholar. google.co.id/citations?user=6 MTQMZYAAAAJ&hl=en

Al-Balhan Eisa M.

PhD, Department of Educational Psychology, Kuwait University, Kaifan, Kuwait

E-mail: [email protected]

AlonsoBelmonte Isabel

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Alwattar Nouri Y.

PhD, Department of Curriculum and Instructions, Kuwait University, Kaifan, Kuwait

E-mail: dna2005@hotmail. com

Anam Fatima

M.A., Economics, International Master’s student, School of Public Affairs, University of Science and Technology of China, Anhui province, People’s Republic of China, E-mail: [email protected]

E-mail: [email protected], Website: https://pef.um.si/

Anđelković Aleksandra K.

PhD, University of Niš, Pedagogical Faculty, Vranje, Serbia

E-mail: aleksandraa@ucfak. ni.ac.rs

Andrian Dedek

M.A., Riau Islamic University, Riau, Indonesia

E-mail: dedek.andri321@ gmail.com

Arif Tiro Muhammad

Professor, Universitas Negeri Makassar, Jalan Bonto Langkasa, Banta-Bantaeng, Rappocini, Kota Makassar, Indonesia


Aristova Nataliia PhD, National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine

E-mail: n.aristova.na@gmail. com

Asad Abbas

PhD, School of Economics and Management, Tongji University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

E-mail: dr.asadabbas@ hotmail.com

Barłóg Krystyna

PhD, Dr hab., University of Rzeszów, Department of Special Education, Rzeszów, Poland

E-mail: krystyna_barlog@ o2.pl

BorzuckaSitkiewicz Katarzyna

PhD, Dr hab., University of Silesia in Katowice, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, Katowice, Poland


Bratož Silva

PhD, Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, University of Primorska, Koper, Slovenia


Brumen Mihaela University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia

8

Contributors

Campos Machado Luciana Maia

PhD Candidate at FGV/EAESP and Undergraduate Programs Coordinator at FIPECAFI, Sao Paulo, Brazil

E-mail: luciana.machado@ fipecafi.org

Darmawan Wawan

Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences Education, Indonesia University of Education, Bandung, Indonesia

E-mail: walin_history@yahoo. co.id, Website: http://upi.edu

Dostovalova Elena V.

Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia

Fernández Agüero María

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Gani Sofyan A.

English Education Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Syiah Kuala University, Indonesia

E-mail: sofyangani@yahoo. com, Website: https://fsd. unsyiah.ac.id/sofyan/

Hadi Samsul

PhD, Yogyakarta States University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia


Huľová Zlatica

doc. PaedDr., PhD., Associate Professor, Matej Bel University in Banskej Bystrici, Faculty of Education, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia

E-mail: zlatica.hulova@umb. sk

Yoshinaga Claudia Emiko

PhD, Professor at FGV/EAESP, Sao Paulo, Brazil

E-mail: claudia.yoshinaga@ fgv.br

Yulis Yulisma Yanti

Bachelor of Education, Syiah Kuala University, Darussalam, Banda Aceh, Indonesia

E-mail: yulismayanti25@ gmail.com

Yunus Melor Md TESL Program, Faculty of Education, University Kebangsaan Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia


Kaczmarek Bożydar L.J.

Professor, PhD, Dr hab. University of Economics and Innovation, Lublin, Poland


Klein Vladimír

doc. PaedDr., PhD., Associate Professor , E-mail: [email protected] Catholic University in Ružomberok, Faculty of Education, Institute of Juraj Páleš in Levoča, Slovakia

KowalczewskaGrabowska Katarzyna

PhD, University of Silesia in Katowice, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, Katowice, Poland


Kumano Yoshisuke

Professor, Graduate School of Science and Technology-Shizuoka University, Shizuoka, Japan

E-mail: kumano.yoshisuke@ shizuoka.ac.jp

Lomasko Pavel S.

Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafyev, Krasnoyarsk, Russia

Contributors

9

Mahmud Alimuddin

Professor, Universitas Negeri Makassar, Jalan Bonto Langkasa, Banta-Bantaeng, Rappocini, Kota Makassar, Indonesia

E-mail: [email protected]. id

Malykhin Oleksandr

PhD, Professor, National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine

E-mail: malykhinalex1972@ gmail.com

Maschanov Alexander A.

Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia

Milutinović Jovana J.

PhD, Professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Pedagogy, Novi Sad, Serbia


Muslem Asnawi


E-mail: drasnawi@unsyiah. ac.id, Website: https://fsd. unsyiah.ac.id/asnawi/

Nasution Nasrun Medan State of University, Indonesia

E-mail: nasrun.nst@gmail. com

Nazarenko Elena Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, M. Russia Pasikowski Sławomir

PhD, Department of Educational Studies, Faculty of Educational Science, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland

E-mail: slawomir.pasikowski@ uni.lodz.pl

Pratikno Ahmad Sudi

M.A., Department of Primary Education, Graduate School, Yogyakarta State University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

E-mail: ahmad.sudi2016@uny. ac.id, Website: http://pps.uny. ac.id

Putra Pramudya Dwi Aristya

M.A., Ph.D Candidate, Graduate School of Science and Technology-Shizuoka University, Shizuoka, Japan

E-mail: pramudya.fkip@unej. ac.id

Ramly Ramly

Faculty of Languages and Literature, Universitas Negeri Makassar, Makassar, Indonesia

E-mail: [email protected], Website: https://scholar. google.co.id/ citations?user=uhRBMgAAAAJ&hl=en

Rismawati


E-mail: imarisma147@yahoo. com

Rochovská Ivana doc. PaedDr., PhD., Associate Professor , E-mail: ivana.rochovska@ku. Catholic University in Ružomberok, Faculty sk of Education, Institute of Juraj Páleš in Levoča, Slovakia Rosyidi Unifah

Department of Education Management, School of Education, State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia


Rubacha Krzysztof

Professor, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland


10

Contributors

Saripudin Didin

Professor, Faculty of Social Sciences Educa- E-mail: kalimaya36@yahoo. tion, Indonesia University of Education, co.id, Website: http://upi.edu Bandung, Indonesia

Simonova Anna L.

Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafyev, Krasnoyarsk, Russia

Sirotova Mariana

University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius v Trnave, Slovakia

E-mail: mariana.sirotova@ ucm.sk

Syukri Muhammad

PhD, Syiah Kuala University, Darussalam, Banda Aceh, Indonesia

E-mail: syukri.physics@ unsyiah.ac.id

SmyrnovaTrybulska Eugenia

PhD, Dr hab. University of Silesia, Poland

Soewarno S.

M.A., Syiah Kuala University, Darussalam, Banda Aceh, Indonesia

E-mail: s.soewarno@unsyiah. ac.id

Stencel Marcin

PhD, University of Economics and Innovation, Lublin, Poland


Sujarwo

PhD, Department of Non Formal Education, Faculty of Education, Yogyakarta State University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://uny.ac.id

Tarmizi

M.A., Syiah Kuala University, Darussalam, Banda Aceh, Indonesia

E-mail: tarmizi_hamid@ unsyiah.ac.id

Tarunasena

Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences Education, Indonesia University of Education, Bandung, Indonesia

E-mail: [email protected], Website: http://upi.edu

Usman Bustami


E-mail: bustamiusman@ unsyiah.ac.id, Website: https:// fsd.unsyiah.ac.id/bustami/

Wahab Abdul

PhD, Universitas Sulawesi Barat Indonesia, Jalan Prof. Dr. Baharuddin Lopa, S.H., Baurung, Banggae Timur, Baurung, Banggae Tim., Kabupaten Majene, Indonesia

E-mail: iwahabusb@gmail. com

Wan Ming

PhD, Associate Professor, School of Public Affairs, University of Science and Technology of China, Anhui province, People’s Republic of China


Zajda Katarzyna Karolina

PhD, Department of Rural and Urban Sociology, Faculty of Economics and Sociology, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland

E-mail: katarzyna.zajda@uni. lodz.pl

Zupančič Tomaž

University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia

Žefran Mojca

PhD, University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia

E-mail: [email protected]. si

Stanisław Juszczyk

Editor’s Preface The third number of The New Educational Review in 2018 is the fifty-third issue of our journal since the start of its foundation in 2003. In this issue there are mainly papers from: Brazil, China, the Czech Republic, Indonesia, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, and Ukraine, because our journal is open for presentation of scientific papers from all over the world. In the present issue the International Editors’ Board have proposed the following subject sessions: Social Pedagogy, General Didactics, Pedeutology, Special Pedagogy, Chosen Aspects of Psychology, and Chronicle. In the subject session “Social Pedagogy” we publish eight articles. The principal objective of the research by Ahmad Sudi Praktikno and Sujarwo is to compare research productivity of top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. The general purpose of the contribution by Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz and Katarzyna Kowalczewska-Grabowska is to report on the findings of a nationwide survey that examined the extent of health promotion implementation at schools in Poland. The paper by Unifah Rosyidi attempts to reveal the essential problem underlying the symptoms of managing corporate higher education and share some thoughts of how to resolve them. Sławomir Pasikowski and Katarzyna Karolina Zajda present the results of validation studies on the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Social Innovation. The objective of the research by Nasrun Nasution is to find out the effect of incentive, leadership, and work motivation on teacher performance. The article by Silva Bratož and Mojca Žefran addresses the intrinsic potential offered by classroom interaction for language development. Luciana Maia Campos Machado and Claudia Emiko Yoshinaga analyse results of the Brazilian National Student Performance exam, applied by the Ministry of Education, to verify overconfidence in students. The publication by Anam Fatima, Wan Ming and Asad Abbas presents factors that influence plagiarism by Chinese students and also explores the com-

12

Stanisław Juszczyk

mon perceptions of students themselves on the idea and act of plagiarism at higher level of education environments. In the subject session “General Didactics” we publish eight articles. Asnawi Muslem and his co-workers prepared a paper aimed at investigating the effects of using authentic English video clips to improve listening comprehension among EFL students in Aceh, Indonesia. The purpose of the article by Nouri Y. Alwattar and Elisa M. Al-Balhan is to identify the effect of using the e-mind maps strategy in learning Arabic vocabulary skills on six-grade primary male students in Iben Al-Atheer School for Intermediate Education in Kuwait in the 2017/2018 school year. The work by Elena V. Dostovalova and her co-workers is devoted to the problem of approaches to the design and implementation of electronic educational courses in the conditions of a continuously and dynamically changing digital information and learning environment of the modern university.Ramly Ramly and Amirullah Abduh report on using the notion of Bloom’s taxonomic framework in exploring the cognitive elements and representations in the Indonesian language curriculum.Pramudya Dwi Aristya Putra and Yoshisuke Kumano explore energy learning progression and STEM conceptualization among pre-service science teachers in Japan and Indonesia. The objective of the research by Didin Saripudin, Wawan Darmawan and Tarunasena is to develop and produce learning media of Indonesian history to raise students’ historical consciousness. Yulisima Yanti and her co-workers aim to determine the influence of the use of e-portfolio tasks through the Facebook network on the creativity of students in the subject of physics in junior high school. The research by Abdul Wahab, Alimuddin Mahmud and Muhammad Arif Tiro is an experiment that aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a learning module for statistical literacy. In the subject session “Pedeutology” we publish six articles. The aim of the study by Zlatica Huľová, Ivana Rochovská, and Vladimír Klein is to find out how kindergarten teachers perceive the issue of age-homogeneous and heterogeneous classes at kindergarten. In their article, Mihaela Brumen and her co-workers describe the current foreign language assessment and feedback practices as reported by 213 experienced primary teachers in Slovenia and Spain. The aim of the study by Oleksandr Malykhin and Nataliia Aristova is to find out the connection between the participation activity rate of foreign languages teachers in specially focused network pedagogical communities and the level of professional self-realization through their self-efficacy. Jovana J. Milutinović and Aleksandra K. Andelković focus on the classification of teachers’ beliefs in the realistic, contextual and relativistic approach. In their paper, Samsul Hadi and Dedek Andrian detect teacher difficulties in implementing the local curriculum developed by provinces. The

Editor’s Preface

13

paper by Krzysztof Rubacha and Mariana Sirotova presents a quasi-experimental study clarifying the variability of maths teachers’ sense of self-efficacy based on their personal theories regarding differences in mathematical giftedness between girls and boys. In the subject session “Special Pedagogy” we publish a paper by Krystyna Barłóg, in which her research is described focused on the development of empathic sensitivity of children and young, able-bodied people. In the subject session “Chosen Aspect of Psychology” we publish an article by Bożydar L.J. Kaczmarek and Marcin Stencel, which confirms improvement in the thematic version of the Wason Test both in pupils and university students. In the Chronicle, Eugenia Smyrnova-Trybulska presents a chronicle of the international scientific conference on theoretical and practical aspects of distance learning, which is organized by the University of Silesia in Poland. We hope that this edition, like previous ones, will encourage new readers not only from the Central European countries to participate in an open international discussion. On behalf of the International Editors’ Board I would like to invite representatives of different pedagogical sub-disciplines and related sciences to publish their texts in The New Educational Review, according to the formal as well as essential requirements placed on our website: www.educationalrev.us.edu. pl – For Authors.

Social Pedagogy

Ahmad Sudi Pratikno, Sujarwo Indonesia

Comparative Research on Top Five Universities’ Research Productivity in Indonesia and Malaysia DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.53.3.01

Abstract The principal objective of this research was to compare research productivity of top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. To reveal the purpose of this research, comparative research was conducted. Data collection was based on Scopus database. Findings showed that over the period 2000–2017, top five universities in Indonesia produced only 3000 – 9000, whereas top five universities in Malaysia produced 29,000 – 39,000 articles. The findings suggest that top five universities in Indonesia, or generally all universities in Indonesia, should encourage academics, lecturers, students, and researchers to produce more research articles. Keywords: comparative research, top five universities

Introduction As stated by the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia and in the constitution of Indonesia, higher education institutions have the function to educate the nation, conduct education, research, and community life (President of the Republic of Indonesia, 2012). Higher education also aims to increase human development. The key point in increasing the human development index is improving the human assets of the country such academics, students, teachers, lecturers, and researchers. The outcome of this purpose is to produce academics, lecturers, and researchers who are innovative, creative, com-

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Ahmad Sudi Pratikno, Sujarwo

petitive, cooperative, and have good character. The quality of higher education is the top element to maintain and sustain the natural resources of Indonesia along with several programs between ministries in Indonesia. The synergy is important to implement these efforts in maximizing Indonesian potential and preserving natural resources. Many higher education institutions in Indonesia cannot compete in many international university rankings in the world. The international university rankings such as QS World Universities Ranking, Webometrics, uniRank, The World University Rankings, and other international rankings use the data publication from Scopus database as one of the scoring instruments. The Scopus database describes the international collaboration, total citations, and total publications of universities (Elsevier Indonesia, 2018). Some efforts were then made to enhance the quality of research in universities, institutions, non-government organization, and other organization. Currently, the Scopus database is embedded as additional data to evaluate the higher education quality in publishing research articles. However, comparative research on top five universities’ research productivity in Indonesia and Malaysia has never been conducted. This research analyzes the research productivity among top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. This result is important as a material discussion in increasing the number of publications in Indonesian universities and Malaysian universities also the nation’s competitiveness. In addition, this research is limited to only top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. Subsequently, further research should be conducted into more universities in other countries. Research Problem The presented study was conducted to analyze the research productivity of top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. The innovative approach was conducting a comparative study of article publications in Scopus database between top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. Research Focus The importance of this research lies in the importance of the topic. This research focused on analyzing research productivity of top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. According to results, previous studies have shown some comparisons of article publications in Scopus database (Zarifmahmoudi, 2012; Mongeon and Paul-Hus, 2015; Atayero, Popoola, Egeonu, and Oludayo, 2018; Lukman et al., 2018).

Comparative Research on Top Five Universities’ Research

19

Research Methodology Research General Background The sample of this research were Indonesian and Malaysian top universities’ research articles. The data for this research was collected from Scopus database in May, 2018. Gathering from the affiliation search resulted in 316 institutions in Indonesia and 190 institutions in Malaysia. These institutions were universities, research facilities, government institutions, non-formal organizations, and other institutions. However, the data collection was limited to top five universities based on the number of documents on Scopus database. The research analysis of the top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia was employed to gather data in each country. These data was then combined in Microsoft Excel for further analysis. The data analysis was quantitative and descriptive. However, as noted in previous research, it was important to view analysis based on online database, considering its limitations. The data in online database will be changed quickly and give impact to the overall database. Thus, the result of this study should be understood based on the time of research, which could be different at the time of its publication. However, this research could be treated as additional research, when a researcher wants to study a related topic around Scopus database.

Research Results The results of top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Scopus database of top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia Country

Institutions

Indonesia

Institute of Technology Bandung

Abbreviation ITB

Website

City

Documents

https://www.itb.ac.id/

Bandung

9,592

University of Indonesia UI

http://www.ui.ac.id

Depok

9,431

Gadjah Mada University

UGM

https://ugm.ac.id/

Yogyakarta

6,047

Bogor Agricultural University

IPB

https://ipb.ac.id/

Bogor

3,958

Institute of Technology Sepuluh Nopember

ITS

https://www.its.ac.id/

Surabaya

3499


20 Country

Institutions

Malay- University of Malaya sia University of Putra Malaysia

Abbreviation

Website

City

Documents

UM

https://www.um.edu.my/ Kuala Lumpur

44754

UPM

http://www.upm.edu. my/

Serdang

32956

National University of Malaysia

UKM

http://www.ukm.my/ portal/

Bangi

32475

University of Sains Malaysia

USM

http://www.usm.my/ index.php/en/

Penang

32211

University of Technology Malaysia

UTM

http://www.utm.my/

Johor Bahru

27997

Source: https://www.scopus.com, accessed on May 19, 2018.

The table shows the top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. Overall, these institutions were universities as listed in Scopus database. The number of research articles in Scopus database indicated that the top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia have good quality in publications and as favorite universities in those countries. In addition, the number of documents also reflects their researchers’ high, academics’, lecturers’, and university students’ determination to produce empirical research articles which are a positive contribution to the academic writing world. The top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia in this research established their first publications in Scopus database. The kinds of documents are research articles, book reviews, conference papers, and short communications. Table 2 shows the number of documents from the five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia, published in Scopus-indexed journal over the period 1970 – 2017. The table also gives the common background of how each university increased their publications indexed by Scopus in the 1970 – 2017 period and leading in publishing articles from the top five universities in each country. Those universities published fewer research articles before 2000, with the number of documents under 10,000. After 2000, the trends of article publications from the top five universities changed significantly. As shown in Table 2, the University of Malaya was leading in article publications, with 7614 documents in the 2000 – 2009 period, while other universities published fewer than 7000 documents on average. Meanwhile, in the 2010 – 2017 period, those five universities in each country published more documents than in the previous period. It may be assumed that those five universities paid increasing attention to publishing articles indexed by Scopus. However, the top five universities in Indonesia still published fewer articles than the top five universities in Malaysia. As an encouragement to


21

Table 2. First year and number of documents in the 1970 – 2017 period from top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia Country

First Year in Scopus

1970 – 1979

Indone- Institute of Technology sia Bandung

1961

27

104

298

1337

7276

University of Indonesia

1948

176

32

585

1602

6276

Gadjah Mada University

1954

40

86

194

735

4552

Bogor Agricultural University

1974

5

31

168

587

2957

Institute of Technology Sepuluh Nopember

1978

1

12

23

279

2843

University of Malaya

1950

1244

1363

2728

7614

31031

University of Putra Malaysia

1918

40

296

1032

6239

24298

National University of Malaysia

1969

197

395

1401

5849

24488

University of Sains Malaysia

1967

165

441

1709

6842

24321

University of Technology Malaysia

1982

0

43

273

3243

25933

Malaysia

Institution

Number of Documents 1980 – 1990 – 2000 – 2010 – 1989 1999 2009 2017

Source: https://www.scopus.com, accessed on May 19, 2018.

produce more research articles which could be indexed by Scopus, the Indonesian government announced that there were many grants and scholarship programs to publish research articles. The grants and scholarship programs such as Hibah Dikti (grant from the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia), LPDP (Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education), BOPTN (Operational Support of States Universities), and university grants. The analysis of research productivity could be used by Indonesian universities to evaluate, design affordable programs, and encourage article publication among university students, lecturers, and researchers. Comparison of the research publications of the top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia is shown in Figure1. Figure 1 shows in more detail how publications in Scopus-indexed journals increased among the top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. The UM reached the top of research article publications and was the most productive university in the whole group of universities in the 2000 – 2017 period. Similarly, UTM, USM, UPM, and UKM had a significant number of article publications after 2000. These Malaysian universities made a good effort for higher education. Meanwhile,


22

Top Five Universities' Documents from the 2000–2017 Period 20000 18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

2000–2004 ITB

UI

2005–2009 UGM

IPB

ITS

2010–2014 UM

UPM

2015–2017 UKM

USM

UTM

Figure 1. Top five universities’ documents from the 2000 – 2017 period

the number of article publications of the Indonesian universities increased slowly. In the 2000 – 2017 period, the Malaysian universities produced about 29,000 – 39,000 articles, while the Indonesian universities 3000 – 9000 articles. In addition, the discussion about the universities’ article productivity was undertaken by Kamdem et al. (2017) in their research article. The universities’ productivity could be seen by its publications in Scopus database. It shows the h-index, citation per document, total citation, total document, year coverage, and annual publication. However, the study only showed the results of total citations and annual publications of the top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. The total citations data are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 shows that the UM has a high total with 153,661 citations. The other universities such as UPM has 131,474 citations, USM 104,187 citations, UKM 85,223, and UTM 81,307 citations. The top five universities in Indonesia such as UI has 54,148 citations, ITB 43,550 citations, UGM 35,187 citations, IPB 24,963 citations, and ITS only 9,567 citations. It can be seen that the top universities in Indonesia have a fewer number of citations than the Malaysian universities. In other words, it is probable that the popularity of research articles of the top five universities in Indonesia does not attract as much interest as that of the top five universities in Malaysia. The novelty and coverage of research concern may be reflected in the total number of citations. The next comparison concerns annual publications in each university. The annual publications are shown in Figure 3.


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Total Citation from First Year until 2018 in Scopus Database 180000 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0

Top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia UM

UPM USM

UKM

UTM

UI

ITB

UGM

IPB

ITS

Figure 2. Total citation of universities’ documents from the first year to 2018 in Scopus database

Annual Publication of Top Five Universities in Indonesia and Malaysia 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

Top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia UTM UKM

UM USM UPM ITB

UI

UGM IPB

ITS

Figure 3. Annual publications of universities in Scopus Database

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Figure 3 shows that UTM reaches the highest annual number of publications in Scopus database with 77,769. UKM reaches 66,276, UM 65,815, USM 63,159, UPM 32,956, ITB 16,828, UI 13,473, UGM 9,448 IPB 8,995 and the lowest annual number of publications is reached by ITS, i.e., 8,748. The universities’ productivity can not only be estimated by total citations, total documents, and annual publication, but also by the average of documents per author.

Discussion This research presents many important results related to the top five universities in Indonesia in its effort to enhance research and maximize Indonesian natural resources. Advance for Indonesia Research productivity is the main measure of advance toward academic writing among Indonesian lecturers and researchers. The research productivity of universities in Malaysia can be used as a reference by the Indonesian government to determine the direction of publication policy for academics, lecturers, and researchers. As stated by the Minister of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia on 17th May 2018, the number of international publications of Indonesia indexed by Scopus is 8,269, which exceeds Singapore with 6,825 publications and is less than Malaysia, with 8,712 publications (Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia, 2018a). Currently, Indonesia is in the second place among ASEAN countries. However, the top five universities in Indonesia still publish less than the top five universities in Malaysia. Nevertheless, all Indonesian universities are still able to enhance research productivity through academic writing. There are some causes of fewer publications among academics, lecturers, and researchers: (i) support from the Indonesian government still does not reach all regions of Indonesia, especially universities in rural regions such Papua, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Nusa Tenggara Barat, and Maluku. Financial support from the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia still does not meet expectations, (ii) awareness among academics lecturers, and researchers to publish research articles indexed by Scopus is still lower than in other countries. The majority of research articles in Indonesia is indexed by DOAJ and Google Scholar. Both DOAJ and Google Scholar have different difficulties and reputations. Based on the regulation of the Minister of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia number 20 of 2017 (Ministry of Research, Technology,


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and Higher Education of Indonesia, 2018b), journals indexed in Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) are categorized as highly reputable journals, journals indexed in DOAJ are categorized as medium reputable journals, whereas journals indexed by Google Scholar are categorized as low reputable journals. Why are publications in Scopus important? Publications as indicators of lecturers’ and researchers’ productivity are part of academic writing in Indonesia. Although Scopus database is not the only one in evaluating and approximating researchers’ and universities’ productivity in a country, the Scopus database could be used as evaluation material in measuring universities’ and researchers’ effectiveness in producing research articles. Publishing research articles in Scopus database can enhance researchers’ quality and include them in the academic world of writing. Moreover, publishing research articles in Scopus database encourages researchers to conduct more research and maximize the potential of Indonesian’s land area, covered by many plants and forests. Ways of improving article publications in Scopus •• Additional fees for researchers and lectures as a reward for achievement In several universities, such Yogyakarta State University (UNY), the lecturers or students who are able to publish their research papers in Scopus will be rewarded with additional charge in rupiah. This benefit may result in enhancing academic writing among lecturers and researchers. Apart from that, it may increase the quality of university to be a world class university. •• ccessibility of research permission The Ministry of Home Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia has introduced a constitution regulation that regulates conducting research in Indonesia. The purpose of this regulation is to improve researchers’ ability to conduct research in Indonesia. Subsequently, the implication was that publications in Indonesia will increase up to excellent productivity. •• Classical conditioning The social cognitive theory suggested by Albert Bandura (Bandura, 1977, pp. 193 – 200). Albert Bandura argues that there are three things which affect a human being’s learning (e.g., learn about academic or learn about environment). These three things are the individual, environment, and behavior. Bandura believes that humans influence and interact with each other between behavior, environment, and personal variables such as cognitive, affection, and psychomotor ones. The social theory can be implemented in academic article by designing an environment conducive to enhancing and improving writing skills among academics, lecturers, and researchers. For example, gathering some people to make a group

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discussion once or twice a week. Then forum, talking about several topics, such as how to publish our research paper in Scopus, guidance to write good and concise research articles, etc. If these activities are held continuously, the academic writing ability may improve.

Conclusion This study aimed to analyze the research productivity of top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia. This study found that generally, that the number of research articles published by the top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia grew slowly before 2000. Afterwards, the publication level of the top five universities grew fast, i.e., in the 2000 – 2017 period. The findings suggest that there was more effort of the Indonesian universities to improve the quantity and quality of publications, also the quality of academics, lecturers, university students, and researchers in Indonesia, which is a good predictor of better competition in the future. The other thing was to maximize the local potential to conduct more research in agricultural and biological sciences. However, a number of important limitations needs to be considered. First, this research only analyzes the research productivity of the top five universities in Indonesia and Malaysia based on documents in Scopus database. Second, the findings cannot cover the other component of research productivity in Indonesia and Malaysia, also other countries. The result of this research should then be compared with other research and may serve as an additional reference to conduct research related to this topic with consideration of universities.

Acknowledgement This research is a grant from the scholarship of the Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia. The authors would like to thank for all support received for this research.

References Atayero, A.A. (2018). Citation analytics: Data exploration and comparative analyses of CiteScores of Open Access and subscription-based publications indexed in Scopus (2014 – 2016). Data in Brief, 19(2018), 198 – 213. doi:10.1016/j.dib.2018.05.005. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.


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Elsevier Indonesia. (2018). Scopus training for Universitas Gadjah Mada. Retrieved from: http://pustakawan.lib.ugm.ac.id/blog/?wpdmdl=923. Kamdem et al. (2017). Comparative research performance of top universities from the northeastern Brazil on three pharmacological disciplines as seen in Scopus database. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 12(6), 483 – 491. doi:10.1016/j. jtumed.2017.03.003. Lukman et al. (2018). Citation performance of Indonesian scholarly journals indexed in Scopus from Scopus and google scholar. Science Editing, 5(1), 53 – 58. doi:10.6087/ kcse.119. Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia. (2018a). International publication of Indonesia was the second grade in ASEAN. Retrieved from: http:// republika.co.id/berita/pendidikan /dunia-kampus/18/05/17/p8v03f335-publikasi-internasional-indonesia-peringkat-kedua-asean. Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia. (2018b). Indonesian regulation number 20 year 2017 about professional fee. Retrieved from: http://kelembagaan.ristekdikti.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/PERMEN-NOMOR-20-TAHUN-2017-TENTANG-TUNJANGAN-PROFESI-DAN-TUNGANGAN-KEHORMATAN-SA.pdf. Mongeon, P. & Paul-Hus, A. (2015). The journal coverage of web of science and Scopus: a comparative analysis. Scientometrics, 106(1) 1 – 16. doi:10.1007/s11192 - 015 - 1765 - 5. President of the Republic of Indonesia. Constitutions of the Republic of Indonesia number 12 year 2012 about higher education. Jakarta: Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia. Zarifmahmoudi, L. & Sadeghi, R. (2012). Comparison of ISI web of knowledge, scopus, and google scholar h-indices of Iranian nuclear medicine scientists. Iranian Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 20(1), 1 – 4. Retrieved from: http://irjnm.tums.ac.ir/pdf_1205_6edf22f4ba1f2038db0be88b2f0a121e.html.

Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Katarzyna Kowalczewska-Grabowska Poland

Health Promoting Schools in Poland: an Evaluation of Health Promotion Implementation at Schools with a National Certificate DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.53.3.02

Abstract The ‘Health Promoting School’ model provides a framework for school-based health promotion (HP) activities, which have become a major theme in the health and educational strategy in Europe. However, the issue of HP implementation is complex. The general purpose of this article is to report on the findings of a nationwide survey that examined the extent of HP implementation at schools in Poland. The research results presented in this paper are part of a broader research project which was conducted at the University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland) in cooperation with the University of Limerick (Ireland). The research was conducted by means of the questionnaire: “National Questionnaire on SPHE and Health Promoting Schools”, developed by the staff of the University of Limerick and adapted to Polish conditions. The questionnaires were sent to schools in Poland holding the National Health Promoting School (HPS) Certificate, one hundred and three of which were completed and returned and then analysed with respect to quantity and quality. Considering the theoretical assumptions of the idea analysed, the information obtained from the respondents describing health promotion at their schools was grouped into four categories: school environment; core curriculum and learning; partnership; policy and planning. It was determined that the work of these schools emphasises mostly two elements in building a health promoting school: the school environment along with core curriculum and learning, while the two other elements (partnership; policy and planning) are more poorly implemented. Keywords: health promoting schools, health education, health promotion coordinators, evaluation

Health Promoting Schools in Poland

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Introduction The ‘Health Promoting School’ model provides a framework for widely accepted school-based health promotion activities, which have become a major theme in health and educational strategy (Inchley et al., 2006). The concept of a health-promoting school (HPS) was first identified in the early 1980s and emerged to be an effective approach in promoting health in schools in the following decades (Lee et al., 2005). In 1992 three international organisations: WHO – Regional Office for Europe, the Council of Europe and the European Commission took the decision to form the European Network of Health Promoting Schools, which adopted an eco-holistic school model suggested by Parsons et al. The model assumed the existence of five interwoven key elements “inside” a school: 1. management, planning and division of roles related to health promotion, 2. cooperation with other organisations, families and the community, 3. curriculum including health education, 4. social and physical environments supporting health promotion, 5. feelings, attitudes, competences and behaviours of the entire school community which are conducive to health (WHO, 1997; Glenddie, 2011). The HPS concept has enabled health issues to be addressed in more effective and empowering ways (Young, 2005). As St Leger claims, ‘school programs that are integrated, holistic and strategic appear to produce better health and education outcomes than those which are mainly information based and implemented only in the classroom’ (2005, p. 145). Elements forming a health promoting school depend on external factors related to legislation, politics and activities undertaken in the health and education sectors, at international, national, regional and local levels. Therefore, there is a belief that initiatives for forming health promoting schools will not be effective unless supported by local communities and by both the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Health. The concept initiators, aware of diverse political, economic or cultural circumstances in various countries, allow country specific models to be created. In Poland, the network structure of health promoting schools has three levels: regional, district or municipal networks, which function at level 1, province networks constitute level 2, while level 3 is the national network. The structure defined in such a manner is vertical in nature (bottom-up type). Every educational establishment may apply to be accepted to the network once four standards defined by the national coordinator of the HPS network are met: 1. The concept of school operations, its structure and organisation should be favourable to the school community’s participation in the implementation

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Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Katarzyna Kowalczewska-Grabowska

of tasks related to health promotion and to the efficient and long term effects of such activities. 2. The aim of the social climate developed within a school is to support the health and well-being of students, teachers and other school staff as well as the students’ parents. 3. The school should implement a health education and prevention programme for students, teachers and other school staff as well as pursue the improvement of its effectiveness. The conditions and organisation of learning and working in the school should be conducive to the health and well-being of students, teachers and other school staff, as well as enhance cooperation with parents (Centre for Education Development, 2016). In Poland, schools more and more often attempt to be accepted to the HPS network by raising their standards and implementing health ethos in their schools. Currently, 3,000 educational establishments are associated with the HPS network in Poland. An important organisational element in the preparatory period preceding joining the network is the appointment of a school coordinator for the project, who will initiate activities promoting health in the educational establishment and form a team for health promotion.

Methodology The research results presented in this paper are a part of a broader research project which was conducted at the University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland) in cooperation with the University of Limerick (Ireland). The aim of the project was to diagnose the implementation of health promotion and health education at schools. The objective of the presented part of the research was to answer the question: What is the course of the implementation of health promotion at schools participating in the research? The researchers used a diagnostic survey. It was conducted by the questionnaire: “National Questionnaire on SPHE and Health Promoting Schools”, developed by the staff of the University of Limerick (Moynihan et al., 2016) and adapted to Polish conditions. The questionnaires were sent to schools in Poland holding the national HPS certificate, one hundred and three questionnaires were completed and returned and then analysed with respect to quantity and quality. The Statistica 12 programme was used to develop quantitative data. In Poland, the teachers performing the function of coordinators for health promotion at individual educational establishments were the addressees of the


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distributed questionnaires. All the schools participating in the research were state schools. Sixty-six respondent coordinators (64.08%) indicated that their schools had belonged to the HPS network for over ten years, thirty-three of them (32.04%) indicated a period from five to ten years, and only three respondents (2.91%) declared that their school had belonged to the network for fewer than five years.

Findings With respect to the literature on the subject, we may assume that a health promoting school creates conditions and initiates activities conducive to the well-being of the members of the school community, by undertaking activities for their own health, and those of others as well as by creating a healthy environment (Parsons et al., 1996). It is also significant that introducing health promotion in schools is not limited to the execution of the curriculum, but it relates to all school activities. With such a perception, we may talk about the ethos of health in schools. An important element of the concept is also cooperation with parents and the local community, which stand behind the intensification of the content learnt at school by students (Moon et al., 1999). In order for the picture of implementing the concept of a health promoting school in Polish conditions to become most complete, all of these elements become the subject of analysis in the research. The respondents participating in the research were requested to describe health promotion at their schools in the form of an open statement. Out of one hundred the three coordinators, ninety-six provided such answers. Considering the theoretical assumptions of the idea analysed and the standards of a health promoting school as well as the areas suggested in the National Guidebook for Health Promoting Schools (Health Service Executive, 2014), the information obtained from the respondents describing health promotion at their schools was grouped into four categories and interpreted in the following manner: 1. School environment – an environment conducive to the health, safety and well-being of students and all the staff is created at health promoting schools. 2. Core curriculum and learning – health promoting schools aim to achieve goals and implement tasks specified in the general educational core curricula and other binding legal acts. At the same time, the health education of students and staff is implemented with the aim to increase its quality and effectiveness.

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3. Partnership – at health promoting schools, health promoting projects are managed in a manner conducive to participation, partnership and cooperation. 4. Policy and planning (school policy, also concerning curriculum execution) – health promoting schools implement standards and plans long term activities on the grounds of a needs diagnosis. As observed, the respondents have knowledge on how to create conditions and initiate activities related to health promotion at schools. Considering the above categories, an analysis of the respondents’ statements, with some of them quoted, can be found below. With regards to the school environment, the respondents indicated that the educational establishments participating in the research ensure a good climate by creating work-and-learning-friendly conditions. According to the respondents’ declarations, a friendly atmosphere is present at the schools involved in the research, therefore everyone enjoys being there: parents, students, teachers as well as the non-teaching staff. The schools are presented as safe places promoting ecologically-friendly behaviours. A good climate at individual schools contributes to a decrease in school stress and a reduction in aggressive behaviour and violence. As one respondent emphasised: “Health promotion at our school includes, but is not limited to, the creation of appropriate relations between all the people working and learning at the school. We have managed to establish a good rapport, a nice atmosphere and tolerance, which boost teaching and learning efficiency”. In their statements, only a few respondents paid attention to the physical environment of the school, which may suggest that changing school equipment in accordance with health promoting principles is more difficult than building a pro-health social environment, because it requires capital. The respondents’ statements on the core curriculum and learning focused on the manner of health education implementation. The respondents emphasised that their educational establishments actively developed towards promoting the healthy mental and physical lifestyle of the entire school community. Furthermore, the education and prevention programme complies with health promotion principles. Its implementation takes place throughout the school year, in several subjects and by various teachers, as necessary. Additionally, the schools run numerous pro-health extracurricular activities such as: interest groups, trips, bike trips, other sports events, festivals, excursions or ecological projects. One coordinator described the scope of topics of activities undertaken at their school in the following way: “Health promotion at our school includes: expanding knowledge about healthy nutrition, balanced diet, physical activity; awareness of hazards caused by stimulants: cigarettes,


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alcohol, designer drugs; raising awareness of hazards for the young person’s body – anorexia, bulimia, obesity; promoting healthy living”. The respondents’ statements also indicated the effectiveness of activities undertaken within the health education area, e.g.: “Eating habits have improved. Students are more keen on bringing wholemeal bread and salads as their snack, they drink mineral water and tea. (…) We have observed an increase in physical activity among students and their parents. They spend more time doing sports: fitness, jogging, Nordic walking, table tennis, football, etc.” Therefore, as the collected data indicates, schools do not limit their activities to the implementation of the core curriculum but also undertake many additional initiatives related to health promotion and shaping a pro-health lifestyle. Partnership was the issue least mentioned in the respondents’ statements. The coordinators who recognised it emphasised the cooperation of individual members of the school community, namely teachers, students, parents and non-teaching staff in the implementation of the health promotion concept. At the same time, the respondents stressed cooperation with institutions functioning in their local community: “We are spreading in the local environment the knowledge on the manner of caring for the health of our students, staff and parents. We implement pro-health tasks in cooperation with associations, organisations and institutions within the local community”; “For years we have run a range of tasks mobilising our schools’ students and the local environment to work; we promote ecological actions, we cooperate with various institutions and the Arka foundation…”. Therefore, the data obtained indicates that the partnership requirement is recognised in the activities of the educational establishments participating in the research, however, not as often as the two previous ones. Analysis of the policy and planning at the health promoting schools showed that the respondents also accentuated these issues slightly less frequently than school environment and curriculum. They emphasised that health promotion boils down to planned and regular activities of the entire school community for raising health awareness. In the respondents’ opinions, such activities should include creating a work plan based on a starting point diagnosis and then on the implementation and evaluation of a plan developed in such a manner. Moreover, the respondents frequently stressed the fact that the implementation of health promotion requires creating an appropriate organisational structure in school, where the key role should be played by the coordinator and the team for health promotion. The comprehensive quotation, which exemplifies most of the statements made by the respondents, is presented below: “The school engages in health supporting activities; they are initiated by a School Team for Health Promotion on the grounds of a starting point diagnosis, which

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results in a list of problems. Then the team, in agreement with the School Head Teacher, selects a priority problem to be solved in a given year (the OBJECTIVE), then the team develops an action plan, indicating tasks which will foster elimination of the causes of problems. Such an action plan must be approved by parents and teachers. Activities supporting health are initiated mainly by the School Team for Health Promotion and teachers. The school gets involved in health promoting activities through the implementation of an action plan created by the Team for Health Promotion. The team members conduct self-evaluation, and introduce changes to the activities.” Among the answers, there were also general statements such as: “Health promotion at our school is a priority”, “it is top quality”, “we introduce one or two priority tasks every school year”, “involves all school groups and the local environment”, “occasionally”, “implemented in accordance with the Health Promoting Programme (available on the website)”, which are difficult to classify into one of the above-mentioned categories. Only seven respondents provided no answer to this question at all. The issue of a school implementing a specific policy promoting healthy living was mentioned additionally in a closed question, due to its importance for the introduction of the HPS idea into school practice. As observed, ninety-nine coordinators (96.12%) admitted that a policy promoting healthy living was initiated for implementation at their schools. Only three respondents (2.91%) were not certain about that issue, one person replied that such a policy had not been introduced at her facility. At the same time, all the coordinators declared that a team for health promotion was appointed at their schools (which is a condition to have the certificate awarded). The answers received were a confirmation of the data obtained earlier through an open question regarding the existence of a structure supporting health promotion in schools participating in the research.

Discussion Popularisation of health promoting schools is particularly important in the modern world, where there is a prevalence of health hazards and problems such as unhealthy lifestyles, pathologies or high indicators of morbidity and mortality, etc. (Davies and Cooke, 2007). Appropriate preparation of the young generation for caring for their health and the health of their immediate environment by qualified teachers will bring the expected results in a long-term perspective. Therefore, it is worth emphasizing that the last thirty years have seen an increase in many


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publications identifying the effects of promoting health in schools (McNamara et al., 2010), but there is still a need for further evaluation of and research on the concept of health-promoting schools and factors enhancing or inhibiting health promotion in school settings (Turunen et al., 2004). Comparison of the data obtained with the Irish data may indicate certain similarities. In both countries the work of schools emphasises mostly two elements building a health promoting school: the environment as well as core curriculum and learning, while the implementation of the two other elements is slightly poorer (partnership as well as policy and planning), even though most Polish coordinators are familiar with the correct structure of a health promoting school. What may seem to be a paradox considering the resources, the position of Poland is slightly better in this juxtaposition – in Ireland, teachers complain more often about limited opportunities of implementing health education in the curriculum and school practice, and problems related to implementing the idea of the entire school community’s participation in health promoting activities seem to be bigger. This may be caused by the fact that all post-primary schools in Ireland were included in the research, while in Poland only schools holding the National Certificate of HPS participated in the survey. The research carried out reveals that the holistic content within the scope of health education is implemented at most health promoting schools, however topics related to social relationships and sexuality are marginalised. At most schools, health education content is implemented in many subjects and a special subject related to health education was created additionally at nearly 12% of the schools, which is perceived as a very beneficial solution. Devoting additional time and space to health education in a school’s organisation allows students to understand the significance of the issues discussed and in further perspective it may be the cause of significant changes to their knowledge and skills. As declared by the coordinators in over 95% of the health promoting schools, a health promoting programme has been developed. Surprisingly, the remaining percentage of the respondents failed to provide an answer or had no opinion regarding that subject. Only schools holding the Certificate of National Network of Health Promoting Schools participated in the research and one of the conditions of receiving the certificate is to develop their own health promoting programme with the assumption that health education is a tool for promoting health. Presumably, knowledge deficits in the case of some respondents are the effect of their lack of interest in performing the function of a coordinator, which may be the result of the fact that they were appointed by the school head teachers to perform this function and had not volunteered for it. At the same time, it needs

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to be highlighted that 96% of the coordinators are convinced of the significance and value of health education and most of them are deeply involved; they perform their functions for the community and are truly devoted to the idea of health promotion and health education. They attempt – to the extent the available funds allow – to implement it in the school’s daily life, despite obstacles of both social and institutional nature. However, the conducted research allowed us to indicate several areas which require further work on the implementation of the concept of health promoting school in Polish conditions. These areas include the involvement of parents and the local community in activities undertaken by the school, a holistic approach to the implemented content or provisions of essential human resources and materials for health promotion implementation at school. Similar issues were pointed out in the Irish research – the respondents there outlined a range of individual themes implemented in schools such as substance use, anti-bullying, healthy eating, but the existence of a coherent HPS policy under which these themes could be addressed was lacking. Parents were visible in only 2% of the responses concerning school activities and descriptions of more meaningful partnerships with the local community were limited and were clearly an area requiring more support (Moynihan et al., 2016). To sum up, both in Poland and in Ireland, schools appeared to demonstrate success in some areas but less so from the whole school perspective. This may suggest that school implementation can be seen as problematic. For more effective implementation of health promotion from the whole school perspective, national educational policies need to conceptualise the whole school approach more clearly. Taking into consideration the diversity of health promotion practices among schools, outlining specific indicators for each HPS component would be helpful (Moynihan et al., 2016). Moreover, schools need strong organizational and material support in their endeavours to become health promoting schools. This study confirms the results obtained in other evidence-based research indicating that school health promotion can have positive outcomes (Stewart-Brown, 2006; Gleddie, 2011), but its implementation is a complex endeavour and for this reason has not yet been successful on a broad scale (Guggleberger, 2011). Furthermore, as indicated by Keshavarz et al. (Keshavarz et al., 2010; Guggleberger, 2011), there are no appropriate rules on how to properly support schools in becoming health promoting ones so far, which is an important issue in the context of capacity building.


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Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Sharon Moynihan, Didier Jourdan and Patricia Mannix McNamara for permission to use and adapt their research tool, as well as share the results of the Irish research.

Refrences Davis, J.M., Cooke, S.M. (2007). Educating for a healthy, sustainable word: an argument for integrating Health Promoting Schools and Sustainable Schools. Health Promotion International, 22, 346 – 353. Gleddie, D. (2011). A journey into schools’ health promotion: district implementation of the health promoting schools approach. Health Promotion International, 27, 82 – 89. Gugglberger, L. (2011). Support for health promoting schools: a typology of supporting strategies in Austrian provinces. Health Promotion International, 26, 447 – 456. Health Service Executive (2014). Schools for health in Ireland: framework for developing Health Promoting Schools. www.healthpromotion.ie. ( last accessed 21 March 2014) Inchley, J., Muldoon, J. and Currie, C. (2006) Becoming a health promoting school: evaluating the process of effective implementation in Scotland. Health Promotion International, 22, 65 – 71. Keshavarz, N., Nutbeam, D., Rowling, L. and Khavarpour, F. (2010). Schools as social complex adaptive systems: a new way to understand the challenges of introducing the health promoting schools concept. Social Science & Medicine, 70, 1467 – 1474. Lee, A., Cheng, F.F., and St Leger, L. (2005). Evaluating health-promoting schools in Hong Kong: development of a framework. Health Promotion International, 20, 177 – 186. McNamara, P.M., Geary, T. and Jourdan, D. (2010). Gender implications of the teaching of relationships and sexuality education for health-promoting schools. Health Promotion International, 26, 230 – 237. Moon, A.M., Mulle, M.A., Rogers, L., Thopmson, R.L., Speller V. and Roderick, P. (1999). Helping schools to become health-promoting environments – an evaluation of the Wessex Healthy Schools Award. Health Promotion International, 14, 111 – 122. Moynihan, S., Jourdan, D., McNamara, P.M. (2016). An examination of Health Promoting Schools in Ireland. Health Education 116, 16 – 33. Parsons, C., Stears, D. and Thomas, C. (1996). The health promoting school in Europe: Conceptualising and evaluating the change. Health Education Journal, 55, 311 – 321. Stewart-Brown, S. (2006) What is the Evidence on School Health Promotion in Improving Health or Preventing Disease and, Specifically, What is the Effectiveness of the Health Promoting Schools Approach? World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen. St. Leger, L. (2005). Protocols and Guidelines for Health Promoting Schools. Promotion and Education, XII, 145 – 150. Turunen, H., Tossavainen, K., Verito, H. (2004). How can critical incidents be used to

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describe health promotion in the Finnish European Network of Health Promoting Schools? Health Promotion International, 19, 419 – 427. WHO. (1997). Promoting Health Through Schools. Report of a WHO Expert Committee on Comprehensive School Health Education and Promotion. World Health Organization Technical Report Series 870, Geneva. Young, I.(2005). Health Promoting in Schools: a historical perspective. Promotion and Education XII, 112.

Unifah Rosyidi Indonesia

Managing Corporate Higher Education: Indonesia’s Greatest Challenge DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.53.3.03

Abstract Corporatizing university is among the typical strategic of higher education (HE) management that enables developed countries to successfully position their universities among the best ones in the world. In Indonesia, the varying quality of universities is influenced by several factors: limited funding, inadequate facilities, meager quality of lecturers and researchers, inefficient management, and ineffective use of public spending. These emerged as symptoms that point to a deep-seated obstacle faced by Indonesian universities, i.e., an inappropriate university management and financing model. This study attempted to reveal the essential problem underlying the symptoms and share some thoughts of how to resolve them. It is concluded that corporatizing university in the country is considered among the most effective strategies to establish world-class universities in the archipelago. Keywords: higher education, higher education management, corporate university, higher education as industry.

Background Nowadays, Indonesia faces a significant challenge to promote its higher education competitive power. Of the 3,000 higher education institutions in the country, its highest-performing university is 724th in the Web-metrics rankings, and its position has worsened over the last ten years. Even in Asia, no Indonesian

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university has reached the continent’s top 100, with the best only reaching 137th (Web-metrics, 2016). Indonesia needs an efficient strategy to transform its university management as such to strengthen their global competitiveness. Building corporate universities requires a great deal of funding to promote the quality of services (Schwab, 2017). Dependent too much on the limited government spending has led the universities to tuition fee hikes in an attempt to raise capital to outlay on service improvements. In fact, increased tuition fees led to inequitable access to higher education in favor of well-off students to access top public universities. Those poorer must choose from one of the many low-quality institutions, leaving them less able to secure a high-quality job upon graduation. To some parts of Indonesian society, the merits of corporatizing universities are doubtful since it creates inequality.

Objective In an attempt to use the corporate higher education concept to contribute to improving Indonesia’s higher education policies and funding models, this study generally aimed to describe whether the corporatization of higher education policy enables the Indonesian universities to scale up toward their world competitive levels. Specifically, this is aimed at investigating the extent to which the academic community believes in the Indonesian university corporatization policy.

Methodology The presented study analyzed relevant statistical data and document information associated with university development strategies, programs and the structure of national education spending. In 2017, within this cross-sectional survey, five universities were selected, consisting of corporate public and private and non-corporate public and private universities in five provinces; 400 students and 150 university lecturers were selected at random from each selected university. The sampling units were systematically selected across schools and departments within each of the universities sampled. A structured, Google-based questionnaire was validated and posted to each selected sampling unit through the internet. Data analysis was used to find how the university academics perceived the corporatization policy toward global competition.

Managing Corporate Higher Education: Indonesia’s Greatest Challenge

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Conceptual Review Viewing higher education as an industry is an underlying concept employed by countries with universities in the upper ranks of the world. Day & Newburger (2002) emphasize that the universities in those countries have a great deal of autonomy, and are subject to significantly less intervention from the government. This, too, includes state universities in the United States (US) and Australia, which have long operated as corporate-like institutions, helping them sustain professional strength and advance their industrial interests and competitive force (Edwards, 2004). Almost three decades ago, Osborne & Gaebler (1992) in Reinventing Government asserted that public service organizations had been undergoing a process of corporatization. Universities also participated in this process in an attempt to improve services. Osborne et al., too, suggested that universities are no longer truly a function of government bureaucracy, as they are now largely autonomous. It is in developing countries that autonomy has not well developed; universities rely much on limited government funding, and management models have discouraged innovation to take place. In the last decade, however, Wildavsky, Kelly & Carey (2011) have observed major changes in many countries in East Asia towards corporatizing their universities’ management. At the same time, the government played a role as facilitator and shareholder rather than as a ‘big boss.’ Bergsten et al. (2006) pointed to some countries in East Asia, e.g., South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and a few ASEAN countries that started to corporatize their universities and in turn some of them evolve into world-class universities. To implement the corporatizing strategy, the way higher education is funded must be transformed from direct financing to institutions to providing student aid, while encouraging universities to become professional and financially self-governing. The US Federal Government, e.g., offers increasing amounts of higher education funding schemes through either grant or loan. The aid soared threefold, from $10 billion in 2000 to $30 billion in 2008. Of the total US$30 billion of Federal Aid in 2008, 92.3% went toward student aid and only 7.7% toward institutions (McCluskey, Neal & Edwards, 2009). The transformation is based on the assumption that higher education stands for private, rather than public, investment. Higher education in the developed world is among the most productive economic sectors and contributes much to their GDP growth; most universities successfully build first-rate services and invite foreign students. They ensure that the more foreign students enrolled in their universities, the greater capital in-flow

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to their country. In 2016, e.g., more than 500 thousand foreign students enrolled in Australian universities and formed substantial capital to the country. It was estimated at more than US$19 billion (International-Student-Data, 2016). The same is true of the 1.1 million students in Malaysian universities, more than 100 thousand of whom are foreign students. They come to study in the 49 universities and 23 colleges within the Malaysian universities and the 411 independent colleges (MOHE, 2016). Providing access to college is a critical social mission of higher education, thereby giving access to people from lower socio-economic backgrounds provides them with improved job prospects (Weisbrod, Ballou & Asch, 2008). To promote universities’ social mission, the government must ensure that all students, both poor and rich, have equal access to even the best universities. To make sure that all students regardless of their socio-economic status have a fair chance of being admitted, funding support is given to the most talented individuals through a merit-based selection process (Bergsten et al., 2006). Higher education is not merely a private interest of each individual; it has to benefit society as a whole (Weisbrod, Ballou & Asch, 2008). The US government provides support to the disadvantaged and gives them equal opportunity to access college education (Edwards, 2004). In the US case, the most substantial portion (57%) of student aid went toward the merit-based student grants, 35% went to the need-based student loans, and the rest went towards the federal administration. In 2008, the net loans stood at US$ 10.4 billion with the repayments assumptions through income tax upon completion of their study and having a job (Edwards, 2004). This loan system has enabled poor and less performing students to access through reducing the cost barrier for students and at the same time encouraged healthy competition among providers to promote their quality of services. Developed countries spent much less on operating university education as it is considered a private rather than public investment (Wildavsky, Kelly & Carey, 2011). Corporate universities were expected to rely on their self-funding in achieving their competitive quality. Beyond this point, universities could move toward real industry, enabling them to promote their status from cost center to cost recovery and to profit center. After all, they would be able to provide the quality of services, to pay off their funds invested and to secure the battle of competition. In the meantime, the government would be able to increase revenues from higher education as an industry. However, beyond these technical reasons, Indonesia faced an even more deep-rooted puzzle in developing corporate universities. To the majority of the policymakers, university education is considered more social goods than an


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industry; they are unconvinced as to promoting the universities in the country to turn into profitable corporate-like institutions (Suryadi et al., 2013). Their mindset is, in fact, different from that of wealthy families around the world, who prefer to send their children to the most competitive universities no matter how much money they must spend (Weisbrod, Ballou & Asch, 2008). In 2016, the number of students from Indonesia flying to Australia and Malaysia was far greater than the reverse; they were driven by reason to get better quality rather than low-cost universities. Corporatizing higher education is among the best ways that enable the universities in developed countries to become professionally competitive and profitable. Some of the private universities in Indonesia, too, managed themselves as corporate through improving their quality of services that attract international students to enroll. This is observed at least in a few private universities, e.g., Malang Islamic University, enrolling more than 500 foreign students from 22 countries (UMM, 2013). Therefore, the private universities including their related international programs needed the government’s support and legal protection. Although private universities offer relatively less quality of service, they charge significantly more. This is unique to developing countries, e.g., those in African continent, as asserted by Schultz (2004, p. 31): “The equity of public subsidies for higher education is a disquieting problem for Africa because higher education in Africa absorbs relatively large public subsidies per student, and benefits accrue disproportionately to the children of relatively well-off families.” The same is true in Indonesia. Suryadi (2014) suggests that public universities greatly benefitted students from more financially able families, indicating that the financing model of higher education was deemed subsidizing the rich and taxing the poor. This is a prime source of inequity that contributes significantly to lowering the average competitive level of Indonesian universities.

Analysis and Discussion Corporatizing Universities in Indonesia The Ministry of Higher Education in Indonesia piloted a few corporate universities during the period of 2009 – 2012, based on the Education Corporate Act 2009. The Act not only promotes universities to become autonomous; it encourages the development of primary and secondary schools in an effort to improve quality (Suryadi & Budimansyah, 2016). In Indonesia, the amount of public spending at primary and secondary levels was US$ 2.9 billion to run schools servicing almost

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45 million students, whereas the budget for higher education was US$3.8 billion to govern universities that enrolled up to 5 million students. It showed that the financing for public universities was dependent too much on the limited government spending (MOEC, 2014). Therefore, the existing university financing system is considered unsuitable for managing corporate universities. What is more, the public universities in Indonesia were novice in financial self-management. Table 1. Percentage growth of public spending on education by sub-sectors, years 2014 – 2015 No

Sub-sector

Budget 2014

Budget 2015

Budget 2016

1

Pre-School

4.18

2.90

3.43

2

Basic Education

22.73

20.13

15.90

3

Secondary Education

18.74

18.45

19.64

4

Higher Education

42.32

49.46

46.82

5

Research and Development

1.62

1.47

1.74 0.47

6

Language and Literature

0.44

0.45

7

Teacher In-Service Training

3.49

3.63

4.85

8

Culture Preservation

1.72

1.47

1.41

9

Supervision

0.24

0.25

0.30

10

Management & Miscellaneous

4.51

1.79

5.44

TOTAL (in million US$)

6,633.8

6,204.7

5,168.4

Source: MOEC (2014)

The university’s financing system in developed countries has enabled them to become profit-generating organizations and manage their own revolving funds (Wildavsky, Kelly & Carey (2011). Conversely, public universities in Indonesia stood as the cost rather than profit centers; they essentially perform only as great public budget spenders. The dependency of public universities on public budget was not just evident in terms of the amount of spending to run the universities, but it also increased all the time, from US$ 1.2 billion in 2008 to US$ 3.8 billion in 2016. Notably, public universities in Indonesia were in a comfort zone because of their long-lasting annual support from the government. Therefore, transforming the financing system is among the most significant challenges for the Ministry of Higher Education to successfully run corporate universities.


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Perception of Academic Community The government promotes some pilot universities in Indonesia to become autonomous corporates in an effort to improve their quality (Suryadi & Budimansyah, 2016). From the outset, the policy had raised social tensions as the university became costlier than it used to be earlier. This survey measured and compared the perception of students and faculty members on how well the corporatization policy had worked. Table 2 shows that no real pattern exists in the students’ responses on how they perceived corporate universities since the responses were not built up from their understanding of the work of the university corporatization. The tension soared as they felt that they were victimized by the policy; the government had reduced public spending allocated to the pilot universities, and they were forced to put the burden onto students through increased tuition fees. It is then sensible to observe that only a tiny part (28.8%) of the students agreed that improving the quality of university services was to be made by way of increasing tuition fees. Likewise, most faculty members (91.3%) believed that improved university services would take place by way of raising tuition fees. From the pattern of the responses, it was apparent that faculty members had a better understanding than their students of the of corporate universities. The students’ responses to the survey were conservative as their answers were centered around 50% or less. No clear-cut attitude of the students was observed toward the work of the corporate universities; they were poorly informed about the extent to which some universities were managed as corporate. Only on the two assertions were the students’ responses above the center; 55.1% agreed that higher education management should be a part of the government bureaucracy and almost 56% accepted that universities were mentally professional institutions. It is then evident that the students knew even less than they should do that managing corporate universities would be more and more effective through holding off their dependence on government spendings. This analysis shows that university corporatization would not work in the absence of the transformation of university financing system. In the developed world, the financing system of universities has allowed them to perform income-generating programs and manage their own revolving funds. It is not true in Indonesia, its financing of public universities was dependent too much on the limited public budget (MOEC, 2014) and their capacity is far from the ability required for financial self-management. Only tiny parts of faculty members (46.0%) and students (43.1%) agreed that to improve their competitive quality, Indonesian universities have to be managed as corporates. Clearly, the greater

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Table 2. Academics’ opinions on university corporatization in Indonesia % agreement of: No.

Agreed on the following Assertion:

Fac. Members

Students

University management should be a part of the government bureaucracy

85.0

55.1

2

University is managed by itself as a bureaucratic institution

83.8

49.7

3

University is an academically professional institution

97.5

55.9

4

To improve its competitive quality, a university needs to be managed as corporate

46.0

43.1

5

To make the quality of services improved, a university should increase its tuition fees

91.3

28.8

6

High quality of university services depends only on the amount of government spending

55.0

46.4

7

As professional institutions, universities should be managed through industrial or business enterprises

45.0

31.6

8

For corporate university management it is imperative to boost its global competitiveness

40.0

32.5

9

High quality of university services has economic value that boosts its revolving funds

90.0

47.7

10

Globally competitive universities can be a substantial source of a country’s income

75.0

47.7

No. of samples

156

427

public spending on higher education placed a heavy burden on the government. However, it is also clear that no matter how much money the government allocated to higher education, it would be far from adequate to establish competitive universities compared to the amounts the world top-ranked universities spent. There is a thread of declining equity in access to higher education as it relied too much on government spending. To provide equal access, public universities have to lower tuition fees regardless of the quality of services they have to offer. Thus, 85% of the faculty members believe that universities would survive if they were a subset of the government bureaucracy. Despite the fact that almost all the faculty members (97.5%) agreed that universities were professional institutions, most of them (83.8%) also believed that they were to be managed as bureaucracy in itself. From this viewpoint, it was entirely reasonable that the number of the faculty members who agreed to the aim of the university corporatization was slightly lower (65%).


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Although most faculty members believed that university was a professional institution, only 45% agreed that university management was primarily a business enterprise. Only 40% of the faculty members agreed that managing universities as corporates was essential to boost their global competitiveness. These responses were prejudiced by the common belief in the country that educational services are considered as public services more than economic enterprises. However, this does not mean that corporatization is such a “taboo” for Indonesian people since virtually all faculty members (98%) continue to believe that improved services quality can be valued economically to strive for university’s survival.

Conclusion and Policy Implication To date, Indonesia has faced a mounting challenge to build well-designed university corporatization strategies, as the bureaucratic management model has led to inequitable access. On the road to corporatizing higher education, Indonesia needs more investment that enables its universities to become financially independent. One of the most critical steps is to transform the financing model from direct institutional financing to an equitable student financial support system. This provides scholarships and the need-based student loan system while enabling universities to become self-funding institutions. This can have a range of benefits, including a dramatic improvement of university services and attracting foreign students, the capital inflow into the country. Before going further, however, Indonesia should start by corporatizing selected higher education institutions for cost recovery and import substitution purposes as the first steps toward creating autonomous, professional and profitable universities. The Ministry of Higher Education faces the challenge to carry out a robust and neutral policy study of university management to generate a well-designed strategy that includes more operational programs and intermediate targets within a defined time frame. This includes the required measures to ensure that each university reaches the final model of a corporate-like university. Equally important, the government needs to open up the plans to society at large to avoid late refusal from the general public.

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References Bergsten, C.F., Gill, B., Lardy, N.R. & Mitchell, D. (2006). China: the Balance Sheet, What the World Needs to Know Now About the Emerging Superpower. New York: Public Affairs. Day, J.C. & Newburger, E.C. (2002) The Big Payoff: Educational Attainment and Synthetic Estimates of Work-Life Earnings. Special Studies. Current Population Reports. Washington DC. Economics and Statistics Administration. Edwards, C. (2004). Downsizing the Federal Government. Policy Analysis. No. 515. June 2. McCluskey, Neal, & Edwards (2009) Higher Education Subsidies in Downsizing The Federal Government, Cato Institute, 1000 Massachusetts Avenue N.W. Washington D.C. MOEC (2014). Percentage Growth of Public Spending by Level of Education, Years 2014 – 2015., Jakarta, the Planning Bureau of the Ministry of Education and Culture. MOHE (2016). National Priorities: Recent Trends & Future Developments in Malaysia. Institute of International Education, Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. Osborne, D. & Gaebler, T. (1992) Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is transforming the Public Sector. London, Addison-Wesley Publ. Co. Schultz, P.T. (2004). Evidence of Returns to Schooling in Africa from Household Surveys: Monitoring and Restructuring the Market for Education. Journal of African Economies 13(2), 95 – 148. Schwab, K. (2017). The Fourth Industrial Revolution Hardcover, Publisher: Crown Business (January 3, 2017) ISBN-10: 1524758868, and ISBN-13: 978 – 1524758868. Suryadi, A., Budimansyah, D., Sudijarto & Suprayogo, I. (2013) Academic Manuscript for the Revision of Education Act No. 20/2003. Jakarta, House of Senate, of the Republic of Indonesia. Suryadi, A. (2014). The Implication of Financing System on Providing Equal Right to Education for All Indonesian Citizens, Paper presented at the Focus Group Discussion, Theme: Direction of Future Indonesian education, hosted by the Indonesia Teacher Union and Kompas Media, June 16th 2014 in Bentara Budaya Kompas Building, Jakarta Indonesia. Suryadi, A. & Budimansyah, D. (2016) Advance School Leadership, Progress Teaching Approach and Boost Learning. The New Educational Review 45(3), 76 – 86. UMM (2013). Universitas Muhamadiyah Malang: From Muhamadiyah for the Nation. Web Site Developed by University of Muhamadiyah Malang East Java, Latest Update: 15 June 2013. Web-metrics (2016). Webometrics Indonesia University Ranking, July 2016 Edition, (http:// www.webometrics.info/en/Asia/indonesia); Jakarta, Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education Indonesia. Weisbrod, B.A., Ballou, J.P. & Asch, E.D. (2008). Mission and Money: Understanding the University. New York: Cambridge University Press. Wildavsky, B., Kelly, A. & Carey, K. (2011) Reinventing Higher Education: The Promise of Innovation. Publication, Date: April 19, 2011: ISBN 10: 1934742872.

Slawomir Pasikowski, Katarzyna Karolina Zajda Poland

A Validation of The Inventory of Attitude Toward Social Innovation DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.53.3.04

Abstract The article presents the results of validation studies on the Inventory of Attitudes Towards Social Innovation. The measurement was conducted on public institution employees and members of non-governmental organizations, i.e., people who, due to their professional or social roles, participate in resolving local social problems. The study was conducted using cross-validation. Factor structure, internal consistency of the test and subscales, and stability over time were assessed using the test-retest method. The results indicate a three-factor structure of the phenomenon, as well as satisfactory psychometric properties of the inventory. Keywords: attitudes, social innovation, measurement, validation

Introduction The aim of implementing grassroots social innovations is to resolve various social problems of residents of different local areas (Pellicer-Sifres et al., 2017). In the article, these innovations refer to actions, services, and products, previously unavailable in a given area, which constitute an alternative to previous practices in this scope, and the implementation of which is dictated by the need to resolve social problems at a local level (Zajda, Pasikowski, 2018). The implementation of grassroots social innovations is connected with the introduction of social change in a specific local context (Van Dyck, Van den

50

Slawomir Pasikowski, Katarzyna Karolina Zajda

Broeck, 2014; Shier, Handy, 2015). As these actions, services, and products have not yet been used in resolving local social problems, their implementation raises uncertainty and does not have to be successful, which is why the leaders of institutions and organizations willing to implement them are expected to accept this risk (Flemig, Osborne, Kinder, 2014). These leaders can represent various institutions and organizations from the public and social sectors, and (less frequently) from the economic sector. Cooperation between entities (representing different sectors) is perceived as the greatest opportunity for these innovations to be implemented. This requires trust in other entities and in unassociated residents of a given area, who participate in the process of grassroots social innovations implementation (Terstriep et al., 2015, pp. 49 – 51, 93). Many public institutions, including the European Commission, support the implementation of social innovations (Jessop et al., 2014, p. 110), e.g., in education. Education is also seen as an opportunity to propagate, implement and popularize social innovations (including grassroots social innovations) (Surikova et al., 2015, p. 238; Jędrych, Szczepańczyk, 2017). Shaping an attitude which fosters the implementation of such innovations is of special significance in former socialist states (such as Poland), where the term social innovation is barely present in public discourse, often being incorrectly associated with economic and organizational innovations, and perceived as an empty slogan used out of necessity in order to obtain means for the realization of various projects connected with resolving social problems (Baran et al., 2016, p.15). Importantly, shaping an attitude which fosters the implementation of grassroots social innovations is possible when we are familiar with this attitude. The aim of this article is to present and assess the authors’ own tool for its measurement. Such a tool (to the authors’ knowledge) is lacking in Polish and as well as English-language source literature. It was taken into consideration during the construction of the tool that currently the prevalent position in attitude theory claims that the evaluative element of attitude plays a significant role in its determination (Bohner & Wanke, 2002; Chaiken & Stangor, 1987; Fazio, 2007). This element is connected with information on the emotional significance of the attitude object, and its storage in memory, from whence it is recalled through stimuli associated with the remembered experience. Thus, attitude tends to be regarded by some authors as acquired and relatively persistent evaluation of objects (Fazio, 2007). Attitude is expressed through spatial and psychological distance. A positive attitude is indicated when the subject seeks to make contact with the object, while a negative attitude is shown when the subject avoids or distances itself from the object (cf., Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1997; Valacher, Nowak, & Kaufman, 1994). For this reason, according to the

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51

above-mentioned definition of attitude as an evaluation of an object, the question concerning distance also makes it possible to encompass that which is treated in older concepts as separate components of attitude, i.e., cognitive, behavioural and affective. Research Problem The main problem on which the study was focused was the identification and description of attitude towards social innovation among people who participate (due to their professional or social roles) in resolving local social problems. For this reason, an instrument to measure this phenomenon was designed and its psychometric properties were assessed.

Research Methodology Research General Background The validation study design was conducted in the model of cross-validation (Urbina, 2004; Vagias et al., 2012), which consists in dividing a set of data into at least 2 parts, on which a part or all of the analyses in the scope of the test psychometric properties and factor structure determination are repeated. The separated parts were equipotent while observations were randomly assigned. The stability of the test was subject to separate assessment using the test-retest method. Participants The measurement was conducted on employees of public institutions in rural community offices who, due to their professional roles, work on solving local social problems, and on members of local NGOs who were the most active in solving these problems. 101 out of 146 public institutions, i.e., community offices and social welfare centres located in the rural communities of the Łódź and Mazovian Provinces (Poland) were drawn at random. An employee from each of these organisations was selected for the sample. NGOs (foundations, associations, unions of associations) were drawn based on the sampling frame acquired by the Central Statistical Office. In this way, further 139 people were selected to the sample. In total, there were 240 participants, including 179 women and 61 men. The average age of the respondents was 47 years (m=47.44, me=47, sd=12.14, As=.20, K=-.58). The distribution of education was as follows: third level (higher) education – 114 people, secondary education – 78 people, below secondary education – 48 people.


52

Instrument and Procedures The entire pool of generated items of the Inventory of Attitudes Towards Social Innovation included 37 elements. It was subject to professional linguistic assessment in the scope of grammatical and substantive accuracy. Then, it was assessed by 5 judges (psychologists, sociologists and pedagogues), who were appointed for this purpose, and who responded to each item in order to determine its adequacy in measuring attitudes towards social innovation. A 5-point rating scale was used to provide answers, where “1” meant “completely unsuitable” and “5” meant “very well suited”. Out of the 37 items, 1 was excluded from further analysis because of its very low general ratings. Agreement among raters was high enough to qualify 36 items for further studies (Kendall’s W =.592, df=35, chi2=103.56, p=.000). The instruction to the Inventory of Attitudes Towards Social Innovation includes information that the subject of the study is individual attitude towards issues connected with the occurrence of changes concerning residents of a given area. The task of the respondent was to determine how close (i.e. it arouses a willingness to approach and attracts) he/she finds the issues referred to in each item of the inventory. The answers were to be provided on a 7-point rating scale, where the left extreme was described as “not close to me at all” and the right extreme was described as “very close to me”. The pool of initial items used in the validation study is presented in Table 1. The order of items in the test was established at random. Table 1. The initial item pool of the Inventory of Attitudes Towards Social Innovation Item No.

…how close do you find EACH of the issues described in the table below

1

implementing unusual methods of dealing with the problems of residents

2

looking for solutions which differ from those previously used in dealing with the problems of residents

3

learning more than is currently required by my role in this AREA

4

ideas put forward by representatives of organisations and institutions other than mine

5

looking for ways to deal with the problems of residents

6

taking risks in making decisions which introduce changes in this AREA

7

putting my own ideas forward

8

ideas put forward by residents

9

projects concerning this AREA, but other than previously undertaken

10

realizing of my own ideas

A Validation of The Inventory of Attitude Toward Social Innovation Item No.

53

…how close do you find EACH of the issues described in the table below

11

ideas deviating from the prevailing standards

12

introducing changes concerning this AREA

13

people with a worldview different from mine

14

people who think differently than others

15

taking responsibility for the implementation of ideas in this AREA, which diverge from common practice

16

someone else’s ideas which foreshadow changes in the current state of affairs

17

experiencing stress while implementing untypical ideas authored by other people

18

ways of dealing with the problems of residents which differ from those currently practiced

19

people who want to introduce changes in this AREA

20

a lot of options when dealing with the problems of residents

21

implementing ideas in this AREA, which diverge from what is usually practiced

22

mistakes in the implementation of untypical ideas which are meant to remedy the problems of residents

23

people who encourage the implementation of untypical ideas which diverge from common standard

24

working on the implementation of untypical ideas in this AREA, but authored by other people

25

developed and fixed methods of dealing with the problems of residents

26

lack of success in the implementation of untypical ideas, which are to remedy the problems of residents

27

bypassing procedures in dealing with the problems of residents

28

realizing untypical ideas in this AREA

29

using available resources in a way which diverges from typical practice

30

people who realize ideas which are risky and different from those previously implemented in this AREA

31

something different from what currently exists, and which is said to make the lives of people who live and work here easier

32

procedures developed by organizations and institutions that are launched when residents have any problems

33

ideas which someone could have, and which do not even occur to other people

34

ideas which are risky and at the same time different from those previously implemented in this AREA

35

few options when dealing with the problems of residents

36

devoting one’s own time to the realization of untypical ideas authored by other people

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The randomly selected institutions were contacted by pollsters, who distributed and collected the inventory forms during single visits. Data Analysis The data was subject to internal consistency of test and exploratory factor analysis, carried out with the use of the principal component method successively with Varimax orthogonal rotation and Oblimin rotation. The test-retest method was applied to assess absolute stability. Statistical inference was carried out at a significance level of α = 0.05.

Research Results First, an analysis of the psychometric properties of particular test items was performed. Then, exploratory factor analysis was carried out on a separate set of data to detect latent variables, which could include individual test items. This approach reduces the number of variables, in this case test items, to more general dimensions. This, in turn, reveals the structure of the test. A separate step was taken to assess the consistency of the test and its scales extracted in the course of factor analysis. Discriminating Power of Items and Internal Consistency of Test Assessment of test properties was initiated by an examination of individual item properties. Attention was focused on item-test correlation, and the susceptibility of items to the selection of extreme responses. The values of discriminating power coefficients were relatively high for most test items. Average value equalled .47 (sd=.14, min=.08, max=.63). A distinctly lower value, i.e., less than 0.30, was found in items 17, 26, 27, and 35. These items were found not to participate in the total correlation occurring among the test items or to display insignificant participation. This is indicated by Cronbach’s α value, which increases or remains unchanged when the items are removed. Cronbach’s α correlation coefficient is a measure of internal consistency. For the inventory, which consisted of 36 items, this coefficient equalled 0.87, but .93 after removing those four items.. Conformity and rejection in response to test items were at an acceptable level, as indicated by the value of the coefficient of difficulty (approval). The coefficient takes values between 0 and 1. In the case of specific items, the closer this value is to 1, the more it indicates a generalised choice of high values

A Validation of The Inventory of Attitude Toward Social Innovation

55

on a rating scale by the participants. The average value for the set of collected data was moderate (m=.65, sd=.07, min=.44, max=.79). Test Structure and Internal Consistency of Test Scales In the case of the initial pool of test items, the use of factor analysis to reduce the number of variables was justified, as indicated by the satisfactory value of the Keiser-Meyer-Olkin coefficient (KMO =.88), and by the statistically significant result in Bartlett’s test of sphericity (chi2=3003.47, df=630, p=.000), which signify that the correlations in the matrix of results were clearly above 0. Cattell’s scree test indicated the presence of 2 factors. However, according to Kaiser’s criterion, an eigenvalue of more than 1 permitted a justified inclusion of at least a three-factor test structure. The eigenvalue of the first, second, and third factors equalled 14.33, 2.22, and 2.02, respectively. The MSA (Measure of Sampling Adequacy) coefficient, which measures the adequacy of the selection of individual variables (test items), was over .5 for most test items. This value was lower only for items 26 and 35. The average MSA value, after removing the items which displayed a value of less than .5, was .87. This indicates an appropriately high partial correlation for individual test items. Before the factor analysis procedure, all the items with an MSA value