207 'what is beautiful is loved': physical attractiveness in love ...

207

WHAT IS BEAUTIFUL IS LOVED SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2000, 28 (3), 207-218 © Society for Personality Research (Inc.)

‘WHAT IS BEAUTIFUL IS LOVED’: PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS IN LOVE RELATIONSHIPS IN A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

JO S É LU I S S A N G R A D O R A N D CARLO S YELA Complutense University, Madrid, Spain From many theoretical standpoints (behaviorist, cognitive, socio-biological, psychodynamic, socialization) it is predictable that Physical Attractiveness of the Other person (PAO) is actually more important in the loving relationships than people usually believe. To verify the working hypotheses derived from this general one, a questionnaire was administered in individual interviews, to a representative sample ( n=1949) of the Spanish population. Data about perceived physical attractiveness by the interviewee in his/her partner, and some variables relevant to loving relationships, were collected. Results indicate that PAO is the principal factor in sporadic relationships, and influences the manner of falling in love. It is also important in stable relationships. In addition, PAO is linked both to feelings and thoughts associated with love (intimacy, passion, commitment, idealization) and to satisfaction with the relationship.

There is a great amount of evidence that Physical Attractiveness (henceforth referred to as PA) plays an important role in first encounters and the formation of impressions (“what is beautiful is good”) from the classic studies of Dion, Berscheid, and Walster (1972) to recent ones (e.g. Chen, Shaffer & Wu, 1997), and so it is often tackled by Social Psychology (e.g. Patzer, 1985). In this way, PA has more often been studied in the field of research about attraction (Berscheid & Reis, 1998) or interpersonal perception, but its treatment in the context of research about love is not so common (Sangrador, 1998).

José Luis Sangrador and Carlos Yela, Departmento de Psicologia Social, Facultad de Psicologia, Universidad Complutense, Spain. Appreciation is due to reviewers including: Mikel Villareal, Departamento de Psicología Social, Universidad del País Vasco, Spain, and José Maria León, Departamento de Psicología Social, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain. Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: José Luis Sangrador, Departmento de Psicologia Social, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Complutense, Campus de Somosaguas, 28223, Madrid, Spain. Phone: 34-913943184 or 34-913942910; Fax: 34-913943189; Email:

207

Sbbeauti.p65

207

5/2/00, 11:57 AM

208

WHAT IS BEA UTIFUL IS LOVED

However, this research deals with the role of PA not in the first interactions nor in the impression formation as usually, but in actual loving behavior. Even though people habitually do not recognize (when they are asked about it) a particularly relevant role of PA in their choice of a partner or in the origin and course of their love (e.g. Hadjistavropoulos & Genest, 1994), PA actually could have a significant role also in loving relationships, as this study will endeavor to show. In this way, while the majority of the literature restricts PA to the context of PA of an unknown individual (a stranger), in this work the role of the physical attractiveness of the other person -the partner, the loved one- (PAO henceforth) is considered instead. And it is worthy of note that, while the immense majority of empirical studies are carried out with samples of students (or in any case with non-representative samples), our data have been collected from a representative sample of the Spanish population (in fact, this is the first time that such a sample has been used in Spain to investigate this matter). THEORETICAL BASES By looking at the problem from diverse theoretical viewpoints, a series of arguments and hypotheses can be formulated with respect to the important role of PA in loving behavior. Thus, in the context of reinforcement theories, there is little doubt that “beautiful packaging” improves the final product. It is according to both the well-known Pavlovian Conditioning processes -unconscious association of positive feelings and aspects with attractive stimuli- and from instrumental and vicarious learning a strong social reinforcement provided, in fact, by PA- (Byrne, 1971; Centers, 1975...). From the perspective of cognitive theories, if an individual’s own PA proves to be an important factor in the formation of a self-concept (Wiederman & Hurst, 1997), it follows that the PAO may also be an important factor in our concept of him or her. Countless studies have been carried out on the “halo effect” and the “physical attractiveness stereotype” (we perceive attractive persons as being more intelligent, successful, friendly, trustworthy and even taller), from the classic studies of Dion et al. (1972), to some revisions (Hatfield & Sprecher, 1986), to some meta-analysis (Feingold, 1992), and the more recent works, some of them about differences across cultures (Wheeler & Kim, 1997). Similarly, arising from theories generated in this context such as dissonance (Festinger, 1957), balance (Heider, 1958), acquaintance (Newcomb, 1961), justice motive (Lerner, 1974) etc., and arising also from approaches centered around information processing -biases and mechanisms- (e.g. Ajzen, 1977), there is a tendency towards the association “beautiful—good”, as a reflection of that state of equilibrium or harmony towards which human beings tend (from Dion et al, 1972; to Sangrador, 1993; or Dion & Dion, 1995).

Sbbeauti.p65

208

5/2/00, 11:57 AM

WHAT IS BEAUTIFUL IS LOVED

209

From a socio-biological perspective, the role of PA has re-emerged as a “natural” indicator of good health, therefore having a strong adaptive value in sexual selection (in the mating process), as well as serving as a “releaser” of sexual attraction. For this reason, it should be a fundamental factor, especially in the choice of partner and at the beginning of a relationship (from Trivers, 1972; to Buss, 1994). From a psychodynamic viewpoint, some light can be thrown on the role of PA in love if we pretend that the choice of a partner may be a response to the previous existence in the individual of an “internal model”. This model could be a kind of mental structure reflecting the ideal character as well as physical traits, which serves as a guide, albeit unconscious, in the search for a partner, such that all love is effectively a return to prototypical love. That internal model may be related to the attachment figure (from Bowlby, 1969; and Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall, 1978; to Ortiz & Yárnoz, 1993). Finally, the enormous “exchange value” of PA in our culture is also fruit of the socialization process and relevant social and cultural norms, which generate a strong social pressure encouraging PA (Tseelon, 1992; Lin, 1998). Men and women dedicate a great part of their time, effort and money not to being more pleasant, intelligent, friendly, sincere etc. (all among the traits most valued in ‘the other’ in research) but instead, and not in vain, in endeavoring to be more attractive. From early infancy, we begin this difficult process of learning the exchange value of PA. Thus, and not entirely consciously, a tendency emerges to reject immediately the least physically attractive individuals. This process, via the effect of what in Sociology is known as “Self-fulfilling Prophecies” (Merton, 1948), can lead less goodlooking individuals, under the effects of being discriminated against and treated “differently”, eventually to form a self-image which shows a strong social influence, that reflects what they see in the attitudes of others towards them. This being the case, these individuals actually come to be less successful, less friendly etc., and in this way they confirm the previous expectations (e.g. Burns & Farina, 1992). HYPOTHESES As noted earlier, PA could have a more relevant role than it may seem, and much more relevant than that for which it is normally given credit, with respect to loving relationships. For this reason we have formulated some hypotheses derived from the aforementioned psychosocial literature, which highlight and substantiate the important role of PA in love, and in falling in love processes, specifically in the next three issues: 1) Key factors in the creation of a loving relationship and the way of falling in love: This is a matter often emphasized in specialized literature, referring to the most relevant factors at the point where an individual becomes involved in a rela-

Sbbeauti.p65

209

5/2/00, 11:57 AM

210


tionship. A distinction is made between short-term (sporadic) and long-term (stable) relationships. In accordance with previous relevant research (e.g. Hatfield & Sprecher, 1995; Buss 1998) we consider that PA could be one of these relevant factors in both types of relationship, although presumably more in short-term relationships (as predicted by both socio-biological theories and socialization). But PA can be a key factor not only in falling in love, but also in the manner in which this happens, as can be clearly seen in love-stories throughout history. Thus, certain ways of falling in love (e.g. love at first sight) could be more strongly linked with a high-perceived PAO. Hypothesis 1: The perceived PAO is one of the key factors in the creation of loving relationships (both short-term and stable or lasting) as well as in the manner of falling in love. 2) Components of love. Research about the basic dimensions or components of that complex set of feelings, beliefs and behaviors we call love, has been a customary subject of concern in literature and the object of recent theoretical models. Taking into account Sternberg’s model (1986, 1988), and its refinement by Yela (1996), we suppose that PAO will be related to both the passionate components of love (erotic passion and romantic passion) and even to the non-passionate components (intimacy and commitment), as well as to the idealization of the partner (Barrón, de Paúl, Martinez-Iñigo & Yela, 1999). Hypothesis 2: The perceived PAO will be related to the different components of love (both passionate and non-passionate), including the idealization of the partner. 3) Satisfaction with the loving relationship. Satisfaction is one of the most recurring themes in the literature relating to loving behavior; moreover, it seems to operate as the criterion of adequacy in a relationship between a couple (from Sternberg & Grajek 1984; to Yela, 2000). As in previous hypotheses, we consider that the PAO will have also an influence on the satisfaction with the relationship. Hypothesis 3: The perceived PAO will be an important element in the perception of satisfaction with the relationship. METHODOLOGY This study falls within the framework of a larger investigation into loving behavior. The investigation was conducted by means of individual interviews with a representative sample of the Spanish population (Project PB 91-0360). Here we refer only to those methodological aspects related to the testing of the aforementioned hypotheses.

Sbbeauti.p65

210

5/2/00, 11:57 AM


211

S UBJECTS The sample was composed of 1,949 individuals of both sexes, between 18 and 64 years of age, resident in towns with a population of over 2,000, from all parts of Spain. The sampling procedure was multi-stage, stratified by conglomerates, with selection of the primary sampling units (towns) and the secondary units (sections) carried out in a random proportional manner, and of the final units (individuals) by random means considering sex and age quotas. Because of this method, the definitive sample is highly representative of the Spanish population (sampling error ± 2.23, with a level of confidence of 95.5%). VARIABLES AND INSTRUMENTS OF MEASUREMENT The variables used and the means of evaluating them were as follows: Physical attractiveness of the “other” (PAO). Physical attractiveness as perceived by the interviewee in their partner. Evaluated by means of a direct question, with a range of 0-10. (These data were obtained only for those interviewees currently involved in a relationship; n = 1600). Preferences in sporadic relationships. Preferred characteristics of the “other” with respect to a sporadic or short-term relationship. Evaluated by using a questionnaire item with 20 alternative options, and the possibility of selecting various items (up to five). Options included PA, as well as an open option: “others”. Preferences in stable relationships. Preferred characteristics of the “other” with respect to serious and stable or long-term relationships. Evaluated in the same way as preferences in sporadic relationships. Manner of falling in love. How the subject came to fall in love with the other person. Evaluated using a questionnaire item with three alternative responses (love at first sight, gradually, reciprocally) as well as “others”. (These data were obtained only for those interviewees currently involved in a relationship). Erotic passion. Physical and physiological aspects of loving passion (arousal in the presence of the other, sexual desire, etc.). This variable was measured using a Likert scale questionnaire item, with a range of 1-5. The following three variables were measured in the same way. This variable and the following three variables together constitute the components of love, and were assessed only for those interviewees currently involved in a relationship. Romantic passion. The more psychological aspects of loving passion (e.g. recurrent intrusive thoughts of the loved one). Intimacy. A special bonding affective link between both partners (communication, understanding etc.). Commitment. Belief in the stability of the relationship and a decision, not necessarily conscious, to maintain it (confidence in the relationship lasting and in the stability of the relationship).

Sbbeauti.p65

211

5/2/00, 11:57 AM

212


Idealization of the “other”. Positively-biased evaluation of the partner, evaluated by means of a Likert scale questionnaire item with five response levels (range 15). (These data were obtained only for those interviewees currently involved in a relationship). Satisfaction with the relationship. This was evaluated by means of three questionnaire items about meeting expectations and satisfying personal needs, frequency of arguments (this was inversely scaled), and a direct self-assessment, all with a response range 1-5. (These data were obtained only for those interviewees currently involved in a relationship). PROCEDURE AND ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE Each interview was carried out individually in the interviewee’s own home, and anonymity was guaranteed to all subjects. Interviewees were selected according to the sampling procedure detailed above. Once the responses had been coded, different types of data analysis were carried out; in the current study descriptive statistics, linear correlations, variance analysis, difference of averages and regression analysis are included. The statistical package used was SPSS 7.5 for Windows. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION HYPOTHESIS 1: KEY FACTORS AND MANNER OF FALLING IN LOVE The results relating to the preferred characteristics in a partner are shown in Table 1, for both sporadic and stable relationships. As is clear from the table, and corroborating the first part of the hypothesis, the PAO not only appears as an important factor with respect to sporadic relationships, but also actually emerges as the single most important or most valued characteristic in the other person. The result is even more outstanding given that the interviewee was presented with some 20 explicit alternative responses and given the option to add any other response themselves. However, the data indicate also that PAO seems to be much less relevant with respect to a stable relationship (it falls to 9th place), or at least this is what the interviewees reported. Maybe PAO really is a less important characteristic in such relationships, according to our previous statements in reference to Sociobiology, or to some psychosocial theories and research underlining the progressively growing importance of some factors -values, attitudes, personality, etc.- which need more time to act (From Levinger & Snoek, 1972; to Yela, 1998b). However, this result could be due also to the existence of an implicit social rule that penalizes the acknowledgement of the true importance of this factor in respect of a stable relationship, as previously suggested. In support of this last explanation, and as will be seen in the analyses which follow, the PA actually plays a relevant (though unrec-

Sbbeauti.p65

212

5/2/00, 11:57 AM


213

ognized) part in stable relationships as well. In any case, it is important to emphasize that both explanations are not mutually exclusive. TABLE 1 PREFERRED C HARACTERISTICS

OF

PARTNER *

Sporadic Relationship

%

Stable relationship

%

1st , Physical attractiveness 2nd , Pleasant nature 3rd , Romanticism 4th , Sexual accessibility 5th , Sexual prowess 6th , Intelligence 7th , Sincerity 8th , Sensitivity 9th , Passion 10th , Youth ........................... ........................... 20th , Socio-economic status

53.7 45.8 25.2 23.3 22.7 22.6 20.9 20.3 19.5 18.2 ....... ....... 4.2

1st , Pleasant nature 2nd , Intelligence 3rd , Sincerity 4th , Sexual fidelity 5th , Similarity in values 6th , Sensitivity 7th , Romanticism 8th , Self confidence 9th , Physical attractiveness 10th , Health ............................. ............................. 20th , Sexual accessibility

57.6 50.8 49.3 41.5 33.3 30.8 26.9 19.7 19.6 18.1 ....... ....... 4.2

* Percentage of interviewees who mention the characteristic among those most valued (up to a maximum of five characteristics) in the other person with respect to a loving relationship (sporadic or stable).

On the other hand, data presented in Table 2 show that the influence of PAO on the manner of falling in love with someone is more important than is usually thought. INFLUENCE

OF

PAO

TABLE 2 MANNER

ON THE

OF

FALLING

IN

LOVE

Variance Analysis Source

D.F.

Sum of Squares

Mean Squares

F Ratio

F Prob.

Between Groups Within Groups Total

4 1336 1340

86,8725 4148,4832 4235,3557

21,7181 3,1052

6,9942

,0000

Manner of falling in love

PAO *

Love at the first sight Little by little, as I have come to know them When the other started to show an interest in me

8.47 a 7.98 b 7.45 c

Other responses

7.92 F = 7.00

p .000

* Different superscripts indicate significantly different values (p .000)

This datum is, in our opinion, a crystal-clear reflection of the role of PA in falling in love. So, the more attractive the other person seems, the more probability there is of “love at first sight”. If he or she seems somewhat less attractive, the process of falling in love will be less sudden. And in the case that the other person

Sbbeauti.p65

213

5/2/00, 11:57 AM

214


appears even less attractive..., it seems that we will have to wait until this “not too attractive” person shows some interest in us. HYPOTHESIS 2: COMPONENTS OF LOVE AND IDEALIZATION We found a significant Pearson correlation between PAO and each one of the components of love aforementioned (r PAO-Erotic passion = .21; r PAO-Romantic passion = .10; r PAO-Intimacy = .22; r PAO-Commitment = .18). It is especially remarkable that the component with the strongest correlation is intimacy, a factor that at first glance would seem to have nothing to do with physical matters. This, and other data, could indicate that the perception of the PAO is a response not just to merely physical traits, but instead to a complex combination in which many more psychological and/or emotional aspects are included. On the other hand, a .17 correlation was found between PAO and the idealization of the partner, which constitutes a further indicator of the real importance of PA in the birth of thoughts and feelings related to love. Even though correlations found between the components of love and PAO may not seem excessively high, it should be pointed out that they are no lower than those found between these components and other variables supposedly related to the birth of love. In fact, the majority of correlations found in the global investigation from which this study is derived (see initial note) are of this magnitude. This could be due, among other causes, to the way in which the variables were operationalized (having been evaluated mostly by means of a single questionnaire item), or it could, ultimately, be a definitive indicator of the intricate network of variables involved in the phenomenon of love. Furthermore, only an experimental method (with both practical and ethical problems in this area) would allow us to establish whether PAO is what leads us to feel greater passion, intimacy or commitment, or if these components are what make us perceive the other person as being physically more attractive. HYPOTHESIS 3: SATISFACTION In Table 3 it may be observed that satisfaction grows systematically, and in a remarkable way, as PAO increases - as indicated by both the variance analysis and the correlation found. In any case, it should be remembered that we are speaking about perceived PAO and not about the “objective” or “real” PAO. It is possible that a satisfactory relationship distorts or “contaminates” the physical perception of the other, which is seen in a more attractive light than it would be if the relationship were less gratifying.

Sbbeauti.p65

214

5/2/00, 11:57 AM

215

WHAT IS BEAUTIFUL IS LOVED INFLUENCE

OF

PAO

ON THE

TABLE 3 S ATISFACTION WITH THE RELATIONSHIP (I): VARIANCE ANALYSIS LINEAR C ORRELATION

AND

Variance Analysis Source

D.F.

Sum of Squares

Mean Squares

F Ratio

F Prob.

Between Groups Within Groups Total

4 1304 1308

268.7632 3864.4438 4133.2070

67.1908 2.9635

22.6726

.0000

PAO* 8.89 a 8.38 a 7.78 b 6.76 c 6.18 c

Very satisfied........................ Quite satisfied....................... Normal.................................. Not very satisfied.................. Not at all satisfied.................

F = 22.67 r = .27

p .000 p .000

* Different superscripts indicate significantly different values (p. 000)

Table 4 presents the results of the regression analyses relative to satisfaction with the relationship. These results confirm the importance of PA in satisfaction. INFLUENCE

OF

PAO

ON

S ATISFACTION

Multiple R R Square Adjusted R Square Standard Error

.57813 .33424 .33149 .48801

Variance Analysis Regression Residual

DF 4 969

TABLE 4 RELATIONSHIP (II): REGRESSION ANALYSIS

WITH THE

Sum of Squares 115.85696 230.77507

Mean Square 28.96424 .23816

F = 121.61776 Signif. F = .0000 Variables in the Equation Variable B SE B Beta Intimacy .228956 .019125 .354995 Commitment .137627 .018101 .222399 PAO .046776 .009112 .139444 Idealization .046323 .013266 .096040 (Constant) 1.884239 .097263

T 11.972 7.603 5.133 3.492 19.373

Sig. T .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005 .0000

As can be seen, PAO appears as one of the few factors which plays an important role in predicting satisfaction with a relationship. It is worthy of note that, in another regression analysis, including all of the variables used in the global investigation from which this study is derived (see initial note and methodology section) PAO also appears among the six variables of the regression equation, out of a set of nearly 100 variables. Thus, our results agree with those of other, previous studies (e.g. Sternberg & Grajek, 1984; Yela, 2000). In general, the results obtained offer some empirical support for the hypotheses proposed with respect to the influence of PA on different aspects of love and fall-

Sbbeauti.p65

215

5/2/00, 11:57 AM

216


ing in love. This empirical support is especially relevant given the number of subjects and the selection procedure employed in defining the sample (representative of the Spanish population), somewhat unusual in this type of study. On the other hand, it is obvious that the study does not manage to escape some of the limitations of the methodology used. Thus, for example, there is no doubt that the use of self-report techniques can bring with it certain biases in responses (especially when dealing with such a personal subject area). To obtain information about a large number of variables it is necessary to restrict the number of questionnaire items employed to evaluate each one. This makes the use of classic scales specific to each variable difficult (those of Hatfield & Sprecher, 1985; Critelli, Myers, & Loos, 1986; Hendrick, 1988; Sternberg, 1988...). This factor could be responsible for the relatively low magnitude of the correlations found, although the correlations were both statistically and psychologically significant. At the same time, and given that PA and love seem to be subtly entwined, it is worth revisiting a theme touched upon earlier: Is it PAO that makes me love my partner, or is it love that makes me find him/her more attractive? Are they more attractive because they have some characteristics I am fond of, or do I attribute such characteristics to them because they physically attract me? It seems that the answers to these questions will not emerge for the time being (since, among other things, ascertaining the direction of a presumed causality would require the use of an experimental method, which in this field is practically and ethically problematical). On the other hand, and relating to attribution area, this is clearly a re-working of the familiar dilemma about predominance of the affective over the cognitive or vice-versa (e.g. Clark & Fiske, 1982; Fiske & Taylor, 1991; Forgas, 1991). Finally, the authors are not unaware of the presumably important variable of gender and temporal course of relation in the influence of PA on love and falling in love (e.g. Feingold, 1992; Sangrador, 1996; Townsend & Wasserman, 1997; Yela 1998a, 1998b). In fact, the data from our global investigation about this topic (not included here for obvious space reasons) seem to suggest many interesting differences. They will be tackled specifically in two forthcoming studies (Yela y Sangrador, in press). In any case, and to conclude, it could be affirmed that PA seems to behave as a more complex variable than is normally thought, and that it often acts in an underhand or latent manner. In fact our results suggest, contrary to the current trend, the importance of PA with respect to love, despite the habitual cynicism of human beings, in general little inclined to acknowledge that they are victims of its effect. Whether this influence should be more generally acknowledged (insofar as it acts on loving relations, as we have shown), or whether it is desirable to reduce that influence (insofar as it could overshadow or obstruct the operation of other pre-

Sbbeauti.p65

216

5/2/00, 11:57 AM


217

sumably less “frivolous” factors), or indeed whether both things should be done at once, constitute questions beyond the scope of this study. REFERENCES Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E. Y., & Walls, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. Ajzen, I. (1977). Effects of information on interpersonal attraction: Similarity vs. affective value. In S. Duck (Ed.): Theory and practice in interpersonal attraction. London: Academic Press. Barrón, A., de Paúl, P., Martinez-Iñigo, D., & Yela, C. (1999). Beliefs and romantic myths in Spain. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 2(1), 64-73. Berscheid, E., & Reis, H. R. (1998). Attraction and close relationships. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, and G. Lindzey (Eds.). The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Burns, G., & Farina, A. (1992). The role of physical attractiveness in adjustment. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 118(2), 157-194 Buss, D. M. (1994). The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating. NY. Basic Books. Buss, D. M. (1998). The Ψ of human mate selection. In Crawford, C.B. & Krebs, D. L. (Eds.): Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Ideas, issues and applications. pp. 405-429. Mahwach. NJ: L.E.A. Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm . New York: Academic Press. Centers, R. (1975). Sexual attraction and love: An instrumental theory. Springfield. Illinois: Charles. C. Thomas. Chen, N. Y., Shaffer, D. R., & Wu, C. (1997). On physical attractiveness stereotyping in Taiwan: A revised sociocultural perspective. Journal of Social Psychology, 137(1), 117-124. Clark, M. S., & Fiske, S. T. (Eds.) (1982). Affect and Cognition. Hillsdale. Erlbaum. Critelli, J. W., Myers, E. J. & Loos, V. E. (1986). The components of love: Romantic attraction and sex role orientation. Journal of Personality, 54(2), 354-370. Dion, K. K., & Dion, K. L. (1995). On the love of beauty and the beauty of love: Two psychologists study attraction. In G. G. Brannigan, & M. R. Merrens (Eds): The Social Psychologists: Research Adventures. New York: McGraw-Hill. Dion, K. K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 24(3), 285-290. Feingold, A. (1992). Good-looking people are not what we think. Psychological Bulletin , 111(2), 304341. Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford Univ. Press. California. Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social Cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Forgas, J. P. (1991). Emotion and social judgements. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press. Hadjistavropoulos, T., & Genest, M. (1994). The underestimation of the role of physical attractiveness in dating preferences: Ignorance or taboo? Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 26(2), 298318. Hatfield, E., & Sprecher, S. (1985). Measuring passionate love in intimate relations. Journal of Adolescence, 9(4), 383-411. Hatfield, E., & Sprecher, S. (1986). Mirror, mirror: The importance of looks in everyday life. Albany: State University of New York Press. Hatfield, E., & Sprecher, S. (1995). Men’s and women’s preferences in marital partners in the United States, Russia, and Japan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26(6), 728-750. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.

Sbbeauti.p65

217

5/2/00, 11:57 AM

218


Hendrick, S. (1988). The Relationship Assessment Scale: A generic measure of relationship satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 93-98. Lerner, M. (1974). Social Psychology of justice and interpersonal attraction. In T. L. Huston (Ed.): Foundations on Interpersonal Attraction. New York: Academic Press. Levinger, G., & Snoek, J. D. (1972). Attraction in relationship: A new look of interpersonal attraction. New York: General Learning Press. Lin, C. A. (1998). Uses of sex appeals in prime-time television commercials. Sex-Roles, 38(5-6), 461475. Merton, R. K. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. Antioch Review, 8, 193-210. Newcomb, T .M. (1961). The acquaintance process. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Ortíz, M. J., & Yarnoz, S. (1993). Teoría del apego y relaciones afectivas [Attachment theory and affective relationships]. Bilbao, Spain: Basque Country University. Patzer, G. L. (1985). The physical attractiveness phenomenon. New York: Plenum. Sangrador, J. L. (1993). Consideraciones psicosociales sobre el amor romántico [Psychosocial considerations about romantic love]. Psicothema, 5, 181-196. Sangrador, J. L. (1996). Mujer y amor: una perspectiva psicosocial [Woman and love: A psychosocial perspective]. In A. I. Blanco (Ed.): Mujer, violencia y medios de comunicación [Woman, violence and mass media]. León, Spain: Universidad de León. Sangrador, J. L. (1998). El amor en la Psicología Social: Desarrollos teóricos, líneas de investigación y sugerencias cara al futuro [Love in Social Psychology: Theoretical developments, lines of investigation and suggestions face to the future]. In D. Páez y S. Ayestarán (Eds.). Los desarrollos de la Psicología y Aprendizaje. Sternberg, R. J., & Grajek, S. (1984). The nature of love. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 47(2), 312-329. Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Review, 93(2), 119-135. Sternberg, R. J. (1988). The triangle of love: Intimacy, Passion and Commitment. New York: Basic Books. Townsend, J. M., & Wasserman, T. (1997). The perception of sexual attractiveness: Sex differences in variability. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26(3), 243-268. Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campell (Ed.): Sexual selection and the descent of man. Chicago: Aldine. Tseëlon, E. (1992). What is beautiful is bad: Physical attractiveness as a stigma. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 22(3), 295-309. Wheeler, L., & Kim, Y. (1997). What is beautiful is culturally good: The physical attractiveness stereotype has different content in collectivistic cultures. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(8), 795-800. Wiederman, M. W., & Hurst, S. R. (1997). Physical attractiveness, body image, and women’s sexual self-schema. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 567-580. Yela, C. (1996). Componentes básicos del amor: Algunas matizaciones al modelo de R. J. Sternberg [Basic components of love: some refinements to the model of R.J. Sternberg]. Revista de Psicología Social, 11(2), 185-201. Yela, C. (1998a). Diferencias entre sexos en los juicios sobre su comportamiento amoroso y sexual [Differences among sexes in the judgments on their loving and sexual behavior]. Revista de Psicología General y Aplicada, 51(1), 115-147. Yela, C. (1998b). Temporal course of the basic components of love throughout relationships. Psychology in Spain , 2(1), 76-86. Yela, C. (2000). Predictors and related factors for loving and sexual satisfaction. European Review of Applied Psychology, 50(1). Yela, C. y Sangrador, J. L. Temporal course of the perception of physical attractiveness along the loving relationships (submitted for publication).

Sbbeauti.p65

218

5/2/00, 11:57 AM