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32 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES SUPPLIED BY MEDITERRANEAN BASIN ECOSYSTEMS Berta Martín-López, Elisa Oteros-Rozas, Emmanuelle CohenShacham, Fernando Santos-Martín, Marta Nieto-Romero, Claudia Carvalho-Santos, José A. González, Marina García-Llorente, Keren Klass, Ilse Geijzendorffer, Carlos Montes and Wolfgang Cramer Importance of the Mediterranean ecosystems for biodiversity and ecosystem services The Mediterranean Basin is located across the south of Europe and the North of Africa. A key defining feature is the climate variability, with contrasting temperatures and rainfall conditions between winter and summer.These characteristics, together with the relatively irregular nature of precipitation, determine the high spatial-temporal variability of biophysical conditions that create a complex mosaic of ecosystems (Le Houérou, 2005). The transformation of landscapes by people, over more than three millennia, has promoted a high diversity of ecosystems as well as a high level of endemism and species richness (Myers et al., 2000).The anthropogenic transformation of ecosystems was the result of people adapting to the unpredictable and changing environment (Blondel et al., 2010).Thus, landscapes of the Mediterranean are characterized by the co-evolution of social and ecological systems where original forests and shrublands have been transformed into a shifting mosaic of patches containing different states of maturity of forests and more or less intensively used croplands. Many of the cultural landscapes resulting from this co-evolutionary process are highly multifunctional (Blondel et al., 2010). Overall, the Mediterranean Basin is widely recognized as one of the world’s most important biodiversity hotspots, being home to almost 10% of the vascular plants and 3% of the planet’s terrestrial vertebrates (Myers et al., 2000). This high level of endemism and species diversity both characterizes its uniqueness and makes it vulnerable to drivers of change, such as the effects of climate (e.g., the extent, intensity and frequency of fire events and droughts), land-use change (e.g., urbanization, agriculture intensification or land-abandonment) or the introduction of alien species (Cuttelod et al., 2008). The multifunctional landscapes of the Mediterranean provide many examples of socialecological systems with a diversity of disturbance levels, where ecosystems with extensive disturbance and human management could reach a peak of species and ecosystem services diversity (García-Llorente et al., 2012).We can therefore think about the Mediterranean systems as a complex adaptive social-ecological systems in which the relationships between people and nature have created the socio-cultural and ecological conditions to deliver a diverse flow of ecosystem services. 405
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For example, multifunctional areas, such as the cork oak savannahs, montados or dehesas in the Iberian Peninsula can provide a range of ecosystem services (Bugalho et al., 2011). The traditional extensive management of Mediterranean landscapes is currently being replaced, either by more intensive land-use management practices, such as agriculture, or by land-abandonment. In many areas, this transformation causes a deterioration of most services, especially those involved in the regulation of ecosystem processes or those associated with spiritual enrichment, heritage, recreation and aesthetic experiences (Bugalho et al., 2011; Martín-López et al., 2012). This chapter synthesizes the main results from the sub-global Millennium Assessments that have been undertaken in the Mediterranean Basin, and analyses the relationships between the provision of ecosystem services and the effect of different drivers of change in different Mediterranean ecosystems. It concludes by looking at the challenges facing the management of ecosystem services in the region.
Ecosystem services assessment initiatives in the Mediterranean Basin The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment has inspired several ‘sub-global’ assessments in the Mediterranean Basin, namely the Spanish National Ecosystem Assessment (S-NEA) and the Israel National Ecosystem Assessment (I-NEA) (Table 32.1). The S-NEA started 2009, supported by the Biodiversity Foundation of the Ministry of Environment. It involved around 60 biophysical and social scientists and assessed the implications of the degradation of ecosystems and loss of biodiversity for human wellbeing in Spain (S-NEA, 2014). The ambition was to develop the basis for a new generation of policy instruments that focussed on the relationships between ecosystems, biodiversity and human well-being, and which also comply with various regulations, agreements and international initiatives that link the biodiversity conservation policies of Spain and Europe. Using the conceptual framework shown in Figure 32.1, the S-NEA sought to evaluate and provide interdisciplinary information on the consequences of changes in terrestrial and marine ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity for human well-being over the last five decades. The goal was to move the debate on the conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity beyond the academic world and to show its relevance to society.The main message of the S-NEA was that ‘the present and future economic, social and cultural life of the inhabitants of the ecosystems of Spain is closely linked to the conservation of their ability to generate provisioning, regulating and cultural services that determine different components of our wellbeing’.The assessment Table 32.1 Main characteristics of the sub-global Millennium Assessments of ecosystem services in the Mediterranean Basin: the case of the Spanish (S-NEA) and Israeli National Ecosystem Assessments (I-NEA)
Timeline Overall objective
S-NEA
I-NEA
2009- on-going Evaluate and provide interdisciplinary information on the consequences of changes in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity for human wellbeing
2012–2015 • Increase awareness of the multifaceted value of nature and human dependence on functioning ecosystems; to assist decision-makers in incorporating the value of ecosystem services into landscape planning processes.
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Timeline Conceptual framework
Assessment users Ecosystem typology
Ecosystem services assessed Methodological procedures
Organizational structure
Scale
Impacts
Future challenges
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I-NEA
2009- on-going The conceptual framework is modified from the MA (2005). In addition, the Driver-Pressure-State-ImpactResponse (DPSIR) was used to analyse the complex relationships established between ecosystems and human systems from (Santos-Martín et al., 2013). Multiple stakeholders, such as government, academics, expert staff, NGOs and the private sector. 14 ecosystem types were evaluated based on a set of general operational issues appropriate for articulating the assessment at a national scale
2012–2015 The conceptual framework is an adaptation of the UK NEA (2011), CICES (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2013) and the MA (2005).
22 services (7 provisioning, 8 regulating and 7 cultural) Creation of a typology of ecosystem services based on MA (2005). Selection of ecosystem services indicators being temporally explicit, scalable and quantifiable. Assessing ecosystem services through biophysical, socio-cultural and economic methods. Approximately 60 researchers from different disciplines in the ecological and social sciences and from more than 20 universities and research centres
Multi-scale approach, including national and local scale (five case studies have been included) The results are designed for managers, the business sector, association networks, NGOs and civil society in general
Multidimensional framework for assessing ecosystem services, including methods ranging from biophysical (supply-side) to socio-cultural and economic approaches (demand-side)
Managers, planners and decision-makers.
6 broad ecosystem types: Mediterranean, desert, inland water, marine (Mediterranean and Red Seas), agricultural, and urban ecosystems that are further sub-divided into specific ecosystems 20 services (8 provisioning, 9 regulating and 3 cultural). Collection and synthesis of existing data and information from scientific and grey literature. Quantification and valuation of services and benefits using multiple indicators found in the data collected to present biophysical, economic, health and social measures. Assessment board (approximately 40 representatives; stakeholders and clients), assessment team (approximately 120 experts; leads and contributing authors), two assessment co-chairs, project management and support provided by Hamaarag. Multi-scale approach,including national and local scale (different case studies will be included based on existing data). Assessment outputs are designed to serve the needs of policy- and decision-makers, as well as planners and practitioners, and serve as a broad knowledge base on the state of ecosystem services in Israel. As the assessment progresses it faces challenges in integration of data from different sources collected at different scales with different methods and shaping the content to meet the practical needs of potential users
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Figure 32.1 Conceptual framework of the Spanish ecosystem assessment (S-NEA) Source: Santos-Martin et al., 2013
found that around 45% of Spain’s ecosystem services have been degraded, with regulating services being the most negatively affected; coastal and inland aquatic ecosystems have suffered the greatest deterioration, while forests and mountains have been the best-conserved ecosystems. It also established that the synergistic interactions between economic and demographic drivers have promoted dramatic land use changes, leading to biodiversity loss (Santos-Martín et al., 2013). Finally, it concluded that while there is still sufficient natural capital to provide ecosystem services to present and future generations, steps need to be taken to deal with drivers of change to ensure the sustainability of Spanish social-ecological systems (S-NEA, 2014). The I-NEA1 which was conducted by Hamaarag, was modelled after the UK National Ecosystem Assessment (UK NEA, 2011). It was initiated in September 2012 to undertake an assessment by integrating existing data and information from different sources (Table 32.1), and to increase the awareness of the public and decision-makers about the multifaceted value of nature and societal dependence on the functioning ecosystems. Additionally, it has sought to help managers and decision- and policy-makers to incorporate the value of ecosystem services and biodiversity into planning, land management and policy development.The I-NEA has been guided by a Board of over 40 representatives of local and national government ministries and agencies, NGOs and the business sector.These represented the future users of the I-NEA and so have been actively involved in the assessment process.The I-NEA’s conceptual framework (Figure 32.2) captures the project’s scope, which is to present a comprehensive picture of the current state and trends of the country’s ecosystem services across all ecosystem types, to establish their value, to evaluate the effect of drivers of change affecting services and to design management and policy response options. The I-NEA has also sought to identify significant and pressing knowledge gaps. 408
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Figure 32.2 Conceptual framework of the Israel ecosystem assessment (I-NEA), which is an interim draft adapted from Orenstein and Izhaki (2014). Please note that the I-NEA refers to supporting services (MA, 2005) as ‘supporting ecological processes’.
Ecosystem services delivered by Mediterranean ecosystems Agroecosystems Agroecosystems are those ecosystems managed with the intention of producing, distributing and consuming food, fuel and fibre (Power, 2010).Thus while they are significant sources of provisioning services, to a lesser extent they also provide important regulating and cultural services (Nieto-Romero et al., 2014). Provisioning services include food such as olives, cereals and wine grapes, or meat and dairy produce, timber and fibres (e.g., Oteros-Rozas et al., 2014; Willaarts et al., 2012). The regulating services that are frequently overlooked include fire prevention by grazing activities, which decreases woody vegetation density (Ruiz-Mirazo et al., 2011), water regulation through specific agrarian and forestry practices as in the dehesas and montados (Willaarts et al., 2012), or pollination through the maintenance of higher floral diversity communities (Potts et al., 2006). Similarly, cultural services are very important in the context of traditional Mediterranean agroecosystems (Blondel et al., 2010).The cultural benefits include existence and aesthetic values of landscapes (Sayadi et al., 2009; García-Llorente et al., 2012) and recreational activities (Fleischer and Tsur, 2000). Trade-offs between ecosystem services occur in agroecosystems (Power, 2010). Although regulating and cultural services are necessary inputs for certain provisioning services, such as food or fibre, the maximization of provisioning services have impacted certain regulating and cultural ecosystem services and associated benefits in agroecosystems. In large parts of Mediterranean agroecosystems, land-use simplification, either by intensification or land abandonment, has hindered the provision of regulating services such as the control of soil erosion or water 409
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flow, cultural benefits such as sense of place and identity, and specific provisioning services such as those related to livestock (Oteros-Rozas et al., 2014).
Forests and scrublands Mediterranean forests and shrublands are an important for biodiversity and the delivery of ecosystem services to people (FAO, 2013). Although shrublands are natural in the region, the majority have resulted from human disturbance of forest ecosystems through fires and cutting, or from the abandonment of agricultural land (Calvo et al., 2012). Forests and scrublands are important for the regulation of water quantity and quality, climate and air quality, as well as erosion control, pollination and pest incidence. As a result of the vegetation structure, composition and associated management practices, provisioning services including firewood, timber and pulp, biomass for energy production and non-timber products such as cork, charcoal, resin, fodder for livestock, mushrooms, pine kernels, chestnuts, honey, fruits for liquors and aromatic plants used to cook, as medicines or for cosmetics (e.g., Calvo et al., 2012). However, in some parts of the Mediterranean Basin, shrublands have been considered as marginal lands due to their low productivity, and have been replaced by forests in order to better protect soils from erosion and increase land profitability (Calvo et al., 2012). Forests and shrublands are also important providers of cultural benefits such as: recreational activities in the form of tourism, hunting and relaxation; local ecological knowledge related to traditional practices such as charcoal production; scientific knowledge; environmental education; scenic beauty and cultural identity (López-Santiago et al., 2014). Many human factors are responsible for the degradation of Mediterranean forests. In the east and the south of the Mediterranean Basin, the drivers of ecosystem services supply reduction are habitat homogenization due to the expansion of cultivated areas and urbanization, desertification and effects of climate change, and increasing use of forests for fuelwood, grazing, and mass tourism (García-Ruíz et al., 2011). In the north of the Mediterranean Basin, the abandonment of farmland and land-use intensification, as well as the growth of the tourist sector, have had the highest impact (Kuvan, 2012). However, overall, Mediterranean forests and shrubs are expanding, mainly as a result of farmland abandonment (García-Ruíz et al., 2011).This can impact the ecosystem services supply in several ways, such as a decrease of water yield in drier regions and increased fire risk (Scarascia-Mugnozza et al., 2000).
Wetlands The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands defines these ecosystems as areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters (Article 1.1). The main ecological characteristic of Mediterranean wetlands is their negative water balance, with a higher evapotranspiration than precipitation. This has significant consequences for the hydrological cycle and, therefore, for specific regulating services (Mediterranean Wetlands Outlook, 2012). Wetlands contribute to supply provisioning services such as crops, fish or meat, and freshwater (Martín-López et al., 2011; Mediterranean Wetlands Outlook, 2012); regulating services such as flood attenuation, erosion control, hydrological regulation, water purification and pollination (García-Llorente et al., 2011); and cultural benefits, such as ecotourism (Beltrame et al., 2013), scientific knowledge, inspiration for art and cultural heritage. In addition, wetlands are important for endemic species and for aquatic and terrestrial migratory species (García-Llorente et al., 2011). 410
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Temporal and spatial trade-offs between ecosystem services are apparent in Mediterranean wetlands (e.g., Cohen-Shacham et al., 2011; Martín-López et al., 2011). For example, the drainage of the Hula Wetland in Israel for intensive crop production, critically affected regulating services, triggered the release of large amounts of nutrients downstream that impacted the Sea of Galilee a few decades later.The change in land use also reduced the output of traditional foods from activities such as buffalo farming, fishing and hunting, and raw material for the construction of huts, mats, ropes, baskets and small fishing rafts (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2011). In the past, wetlands have often been used for their grazing resources or considered non-usable and unhealthy areas. As a result, they were often ignored in biodiversity conservation strategies and have been lost by conversion to agriculture (Mediterranean Wetlands Outlook 2012).The intensification of land-uses outside wetland areas can also have negative impacts on the provision of regulating services and can lead to social conflict (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2013). For example, the broad-scale hydrological flows responsible for the existence of wetlands makes them especially sensitive to pressures generated across multiple scales.Within the Mediterranean Basin, there are more than 3,500 dams that affect water and sediment discharge and hence wetland function (Cuttelod et al., 2008). In addition, Mediterranean coastal wetlands are among the most threatened in the world due to global sea-level rise (Cuttelod et al., 2008). As a result of the combined effect of land-use changes, water overexploitation and climate change, the social perception of wetland values has been fundamentally transformed. This has prompted several recent international efforts to protect and sustainably use them. Since 1991, the efforts to recognize the value of wetlands have been coordinated by the MEDWET initiative, a partnership between the European Commission, the Ramsar Secretariat, 26 governments of Mediterranean and peri-Mediterranean countries and several non-governmental organizations.Today, more than 360 wetland sites in the Mediterranean Basin have been listed as being of international importance for conservation under the Ramsar Convention.
Sustainable management in the Mediterranean Learning from the past The co-evolution of ecosystems and human societies in the Mediterranean Basin since Neolithic times has produced a unique and characteristic landscape. Indeed so close are the links between society and ecology that some authors suggest that Mediterranean landscapes were ‘designed’ by different cultures and that ‘natural’ ecosystems no longer really exist (Blondel et al., 2010).This notion has important implications for our understanding of ecosystem dynamics and integrity. It poses a particular challenge for ecosystem services assessments because services have been co-produced through the interaction of historically transformed ecosystems and particular traditional management practices.Thus the supply of many ecosystem services often now depends on the maintenance of traditional management practices (Box 32.1). However, the output of other ecosystem services may also depend on modern land management strategies, such as organic farming (Nieto-Romero et al., 2014). Specific regulating services related to soil and water management are highly associated with the maintenance of traditional practices and their embedded local ecological knowledge (Martín-López et al., 2012). Such knowledge, which is also referred to as experiential, traditional or ecoliteracy, is a cumulative body of understandings and beliefs, developed by stakeholders at a local scale through the interaction with their environment (Berkes et al., 2000). The importance and relevance of this knowledge system in the Mediterranean Basin lies in its local and integrative nature and the support it gives to the sustainable use and management of ecosystem services. However, the effect of indirect drivers 411
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Box 32.1 The case of transhumant landscapes: how human traditional practices can promote the delivery of ecosystem services Transhumance is a customary management practice to move livestock from one grazing ground to another, as from lowlands to highlands, with the change of seasons or with changing weather. Seasonal movements of flocks allow herders to match grazing pressure with seasonal peaks in pasture availability, favouring an optimal exploitation of existing resources. Transhumant pastoralism still persists in many Mediterranean countries, although on a smaller scale than in the past. A recent assessment of ecosystem services has shown that many important ecosystem services are highly dependent on the maintenance of transhumant pastoralist practices in Spain (Oteros-Rozas et al., 2014). In fact, some regulating services, such as fire prevention, maintenance of soil fertility provided by sheep manure, holm-oak regeneration, habitat connectivity and seed dispersal, are dependent on the maintenance of this traditional practice and associated local ecological knowledge (Oteros-Rozas et al., 2013).
of change in rural systems of the Mediterranean Basin, through such processes as land abandonment or land-use intensification, is eroding these local knowledge systems (Oteros-Rozas et al., 2013; Iniesta-Arandia et al., 2015) and related ecosystem services (Martín-López et al., 2012). On the basis of the review of current knowledge of ecosystem services in the Mediterranean Basin, some important insights emerge for improved ecosystem services management. Assuming that traditional mosaic landscapes can supply both a more diverse bundles of ecosystem services as well as greater quantities of services (Bugalho et al., 2011; García-Llorente et al., 2012), an appropriate objective would be to restore their structural characteristics and avoid further landscape homogenization.The sustainable supply and use of ecosystem services across urban-rural gradients should be considered in planning policy in the Mediterranean Basin (García-Nieto et al., 2013).
Insights for landscape management To ensure the maintenance of ecosystem services relevant for human well-being in the Mediterranean, a reform of policy instruments used in landscape planning is probably required. For example, the wider public and decision-makers need to be aware of the importance of counteracting the deterioration of regulating and cultural services caused by the direct drivers of change, such as land-use, climate or overexploitation of water. It is also likely that a diversity of land-uses, including both traditional and modern practices, increases the ability of the social-ecological system to deliver ecosystem services to people. While more research is required to substantiate this, the conclusion should be considered in developing regional and local land-use policy. Further, it might be valuable to recognize the role of traditional management practices in keeping and shaping multifunctional landscapes and the need to empower local communities to manage them by drawing on their local ecological knowledge-systems in the decision-making process. Finally, we should design institutional systems able to include multiple stakeholder groups and organizations, and their values across different spatial and administrative scales.
Note 1
http://www.hamaarag.org.il/en/content/inner/ecosystem-services
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