2nd European Conference on Games Based Learning Hosted by the The Univesitat Oberta de Catalunya Spain 16-17 October 2008 Edited by Thomas Conolly and Mark Stansfield University of West of Scotland Paisley UK
Copyright The Authors, 2008. All Rights Reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission may be made without written permission from the individual authors. Papers have been double-blind peer reviewed before final submission to the conference. Initially, paper abstracts were read and selected by the conference panel for submission as possible papers for the conference. Many thanks to the reviewers who helped ensure the quality of the full papers. Further copies of this book and previous year’s proceedings can be purchased from http://academic-conferences.org/2-proceedings.htm ISBN:
978-1-906638-19-1
Published by Academic Publishing Limited Reading UK 44-118-972-4148 www.academic-publishing.org
CD
ECGBL 2008 Contents Paper Title
Author(s)
Page No.
Preface
vii
Biographies of Conference Chairs, Programme Chair, Keynote Speaker and Mini-track Chairs
ix
Biographies of contributing authors
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Study to Inform the Design of a PsychoEducational Game: Children and the Magical Do Better
Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham, UK
1
Groovy Music: Research Based Product Design Applied to Games Based Learning in Primary Music Education
Michael Avery Sibelius Software – A part of Avid, London, UK
9
Effects of Two Types of Sudoku Puzzles on Students’ Logical Thinking
Youngkyun Baek1, Bokyeong Kim2, Seongchul Yun1, Donguk Cheong1 1 Korea National University of Education, South Korea 2 Department of Instructional Technology, University of Virginia, USA
19
Funchal 500 years: Learning Through Role Play Games
Ricardo Baptista1 and Carlos Vaz de Carvalho2 1 Escola da APEL, Funchal, Portugal 2 Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal
25
0BOpen Source Portals for Online Simulation Games? The Computer-Supported Business Game “Go4C” for Realistic IT and Business Management Training
Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar Technische Universität München, Garching b. München, Germany
31
Play it Seriously: Juxtaposing AR and RW Crises
Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson and Paula Rusnak The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
43
The Impact of Mind Game Playing on Children’s Reasoning Abilities: Reflections from an Experience
Rosa Maria Bottino, Michela Ott and Mauro Tavella Istituto Tecnologie Didattiche Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Genova, Italy
51
A Review of Theories of Player Enjoyment in Playing Computer Games
Elizabeth Boyle and Thomas Connolly University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland
59
Games for Learning: Does Gender Make a Difference?
Elizabeth Boyle and Thomas Connolly University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, UK
69
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Paper Title
Author(s)
Games-Based Learning in Teacher Education: A Strategy to Integrate Digital Games into Secondary Schools
Nathalie Charlier1 and Bieke De Fraine2 1 University of Leuven, Belgium 2 Centre for Educational Effectiveness and Evaluation, Belgium
77
An Experimental Study of Game-Based Music Education of Primary School Children
Sibel Çoban1 and İmge Tuncer2 Marmara University, IstanbulTurkey 2 Anatolian High School Zonguldak-Turkey
85
Arguing For Multilingual Motivation in Web 2.0: Using Alternate Reality Games to Support Language Learning
Thomas Connolly University of West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland, UK, et al
95
Development of a General Framework for Evaluating Games-Based Learning
Thomas Connolly, Mark Stansfield and Thomas Hainey University of West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland
105
Game Based Learning as a Vehicle for Practice Change and Quality Caring in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
Mary Coughlin1, Alan Gibbins2, Steve Hoath3, and Sharyn Gibbins4,5 1 Children’s Medical Ventures, Norwell, MA USA 2 Anglersthree Multimedia, Burlington, Ontario Canada 3 Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati OH USA 4 Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 5 The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
115
Geography Educational Gaming System for Mobile Devices
Juan Manuel de Blas Quintana, Salvador Otón, Roberto Barchino, and José Ramón Hilera Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, España
119
Technological Platform for Info-Educational Contents Sharing
Luis de Marcos, Roberto Barchino, José Martínez, José Maria Gutiérrez, and José Antonio Gutiérrez University of Alcala, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, España
127
Collaborative Indicators in Learning Games: An Immersive Factor
Elise Gendron, Thibault Carron and Jean-Charles Marty University of Savoie, Le Bourget Du Lac, France
135
Playability: The Secret of the Educational Videogame Design
José Luis González Sánchez, Natalia. Padilla Zea, Francisco Luis. Gutiérrez, Marcelino José. Cabrera and Patricia Paderewski University of Granada, Granada, Spain
147
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Page No.
Paper Title
Author(s)
“Finger On The Screen”: Using A Strategy Video Game To Mediate Curricular Learning
1
Page No.
Begoña Gros1 and José Garrido2 Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain 2 Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile
157
Exploring the Discrepancy between Educational Goals and Educational Game Design
Rasmus Harr¹, Tasha Buch² and Thorkild Hanghøj³ ¹IT University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark ²University of Aarhus, Copenhagen, Denmark ³University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
165
ThinknDrinkn? – An Evaluation of the use of Games Based Learning (GBL) for Alcohol Awareness
Ashley Healy and Thomas Connolly University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland
175
A framework for the development, design and deployment of customisable mobile and hand held device based serious games.
Hanno Hildmann, Cherif Branki, C Pardavila and Daniel Livingstone University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland
187
Therapeutic Games: Work Should Not Be This Much fun
Robyn Hromek The University of Sydney, Australia Department of Education and Training, NSW, Australia
199
Cognitive and Affective Effects of Learning History by Playing a Mobile Game
Jantina Huizenga1, Wilfried Admiraal1, Sanne Akkerman2 and Geert ten Dam1 1 University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands 2 IVLOS Institute of Education of the University of Utrecht, the Netherlands
207
From Simulation to Imitation: New controllers, New forms of Play
Jennifer Jenson1 and Suzanne de Castell2 1 York University, Toronto, Canada 2 SuzanSimon Fraser University, Vancouver, Canada
213
Exploratory Learning Through Role Playing Simulation Games in e-Business Education: Experiences with the Beer Game in the University Education
Elisabeth Katzlinger Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria
219
The Effects of Individualized Feedback in Digital Educational Games
Michael Kickmeier-Rust1, Birgit Marte1, Stephanie Linek1, Tiphaine Lalonde2 and Dietrich Albert1 1 University of Graz, Austria 2 ORT France, Paris, France
227
A Reflection Walkthrough Method: Designing Knowledge Construction in Learning Games
Kristian Kiili Tampere University of technology, Pori, Finland
237
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Paper Title
Author(s)
Development of Competencies by Playing Digital Sports-Games?!
Rolf Kretschmann University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
243
Commercial Video Games in Educational and Multimedia Contexts
Pilar Lacasa University of Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
251
Homeless: It’s No Game - Measuring the Effectiveness of a Persuasive Videogame
Terry Lavender Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, Canada
261
Computer-Based Business Simulation Games as Tools for Learning: A Comparative Study of Student and Teacher Perceptions
Jörgen Lindh1, Stefan Hrastinski2, Cecilia Bruhn1 and Linda Mozgira1 1 Jönköping International Business School, Sweden 2 Uppsala University, Sweden
267
Ludicity. A theoretical Horizon for Understanding the Concepts of Game, Game-Playing and Play
Maria da Conceição Lopes University of Aveiro, Portugal
275
Students and Video Game Players
Moisy Magali Université de Rennes 2-Haute Bretagne, Rennes, France
285
Designing Serious Games for Computer Assisted Language Learning – Teacher/Learner Perspectives and User-Centered Design
Bente Meyer and Birgitte Holm Sørensen Aarhus University, Denmark
291
Virtual Work Experience: From Classroom to Workplace
Mark Milne1, Martyn Horner1, Jared Benjamin1 and Gayle Monteith2 1 Glasgow School of Art, Glasgow, UK 2 Learning and Teaching Scotland, Glasgow, UK
299
XML Application for Educative Games
Miroslav Minović, Miloš Milovanović, Miroslav Lazović and Dušan Starčević Belgrade University, Faculty of Organizational Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia
307
Experiences in Using XBeerGame Virtual Gaming for Learning Supply Chain Management
Benoit Montreuil, Interuniversity Research Center on Enterprise Networks, Logistics and Transportation (CIRRELT),Univeristy of Laval, Canada, et al
317
The Impact of Using Guess and Tell Games on Student Achievement, Interest, and Gender Discrimination in the Teaching of Mathematics
Javed Mustafa International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
331
Videogame Aesthetics and e-Learning: A Retrolooking Computer Game to Explain the Normal Distribution in Statistics Teaching
Sol Nte and Richard Stephens Keele University, UK
341
Player Transfer: How Learning Transfer and Serious Games Answer Serious (and Transferable) Questions about One Another
Gearoid O Suilleabhain DEIS, Cork Institute of Technology; Co. Cork; Ireland
349
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Page No.
Paper Title
Author(s)
3D Games-Based Learning Environments in Northern Ireland Classrooms: What do the Teachers and Pupils Think of This Technology?
Karen Orr and Carol McGuinness School of Psychology, Queen’s University, Belfast, Northern Ireland
357
Design of Educational Multiplayer Videogames. A Vision From Collaborative Learning
Natalia Padilla Zea, José González Sánchez, Cabrera Cuevas, Francisco Gutiérrez Vela and Patricia Paderewski Rodríguez Software Engineering Department, University of Granada, Spain
365
Applying Online Multiplayer Educational Games based on Generic Shells to Enhance Learning of Recursive Algorithms: Students' Preliminary Results
Eleni Rossiou1 and Spyros Papadakis2 1 University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece 2 Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece
373
Articulation of Ecological Values in Alternate Reality Gaming: A Case Study of World without Oil
Paula Rusnak, Teresa Dobson and Natasha Boskic University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
383
Enhancing Educational Outcomes Through Games Based Learning: A Case Study
Elizabeth Salles Iona College, Brisbane, Australia
393
Applying Digital Game Based Learning Solutions to the Primary and Special Classroom: Results from Field Studies
Maria Saridaki, Giannis Chaniotakis, Vaia Manoli, Manessis Dionissios, Maria Karafotia, Dimitris Gouskos, Michael Meimaris 1 National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
401
Cultivating the Respectful Mind with Games and Simulations
Andy Smith Blackpool and The Fylde College, UK, Lancaster University, UK
413
Digital Dialogue in the Game of Collaborative Knowledge Building: A Democratic Endeavour on the Intercultural Arena
Elsebeth Korsgaard Sorensen; Bo Fibiger and Christian Dalsgaard University of Aarhus, Denmark
423
Learning Behavior in Games for Learning
Franziska Spring-Keller and Helmut Schauer University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
433
The Effect of User Experience Measurement on Entrepreneurship Business Venture Simulation Game Design
Lam Tak-Ming The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
443
Supply-Side Competition Included
Richard Teach1 and Elizabeth Murff2 1 Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta USA 2 Eastern Washington University, Spokane USA
449
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Page No.
Paper Title
Author(s)
An Architectural Model for the Design of GameBased Learning Activities for Virtual Patients in Second Life
Maria Toro-Troconis1,2, Ulf Mellström1, Martyn Partridge1,and Michael Barrett1 1 Imperial College London, Faculty of Medicine, London, UK 2 Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
459
The Tooth Morphology Board Game: An Innovative Strategy in Tutoring Dental Technology Learners in Combating Rote Learning
Anisa Vahed Durban University of Technology, South Africa
467
Self City: Training Social Skills in a Game
Dick van Dijk1, Ronald Hünneman2 and Sabine Wildevuur1 1 Waag Society, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 2 University of Groningen, The Netherlands
481
Meaningful Double-Loop Learning in Educational Games
Michael Vogel Bremerhaven University of Applied Sciences, Germany
489
Innovative Induction with Alternate Reality Games
Nicola Whitton1, Peter Whitton2, Rosie Jones1 and Scott Wilson3 1 Manchester Metropolitan University, UK 2 School of Materials, Manchester University, UK 3 Institute for Educational Cybernetics, University of Bolton, UK
499
MobileMath: The Phone, the Game and the Math
Monica Wijers1, Vincent Jonker1 and Kristel Kerstens2 1 Freudenthal Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands 2 Waag Society, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
507
Cognition-based Learning Principles in the Design of Effective Serious Games: How to Engage Learners in Genuine Learning
Pieter Wouters, Erik van der Spek and Herre van Oostendorp Utrecht University, the Netherlands
517
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Page No.
Preface This year is the 2nd European Conference on Games-Based Learning, which is being hosted by The Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain. The Conference Co Chairs are Jordi Sánchez Navarro and Daniel Aranda, both from the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, and the Programme Co Chairs are Thomas Connolly and Mark Stansfield, both from University of the West of Scotland, UK. The conference will be opened with a keynote from Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen, IT-University of Copenhagen, Denmark, on the topic of Beyond Edutainment: The educational potential of computer games. The second day will be opened with a presentation from Ben Sawyer, Co-Founder, Digitalmill, Portland, Maine, USA. The main purpose of the Conference is for individuals to present their research findings, work in progress and conceptual advances in many different branches of games-based learning as well as to come together to share knowledge with peers interested in the same area of study. The papers included in these proceedings is clear evidence that the conference has moved forward since its inception last year. A key aim of the conference is about sharing ideas and meeting the people who hold them. The range of papers will ensure an interesting two days. With an initial submission of 109 abstracts, after the double blind, peer review processes there are 62 papers published in these Conference Proceedings. These papers represent research from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Pakistan, Portugal, Serbia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, UK and the USA. We hope that you have an enjoyable conference. Prof Thomas Conolly Conference Chair
Dr Mark Stansfield Programme Chair
[email protected]
[email protected]
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Conference Executive: Dr Wilfried Admiraal, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Dr Daniel Aranda, Univesitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain Dr Tobias Bevc, Political Science, Technical University of Munich Dr Erik Champion, University of New South Wales, Australia Professor Thomas M Connolly, University of the West of Scotland, UK Dr David Edgar, Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Kevin Grant, Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Dr. Begoña Gros, Univesitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain Dr Jeff Haywood, University of Edinburgh, UK Dr Kristian Kiili, Tampere University of Technology, Pori, Finland Professor Feng Li, University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK Dr Hamish MacLeod, University of Edinburgh, UK Dr Jordi Sánchez Navarro, Univesitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain Dr Mark Stansfield, University of the West of Scotland, UK John Sutherland, University of Abertay, UK
Conference Committee:
The conference programme committee consists of key people in the games based learning community, both from the UK and overseas. The following people have confirmed their participation: Wilfried Admiraal (Universiteit van Amsterdam, Netherlands); Samad Ahmadi (University of De Montfort, Leicester, UK); Daniel Aranda (Univesitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain); Tobias Bevc (Technische Universität, München, Germany); John Biggam (Glasgow Caledonian University, UK); Patrick Blum (Inside Business Group, Germany); Liz Boyle (Univesity of the West of Scotland, UK); Willem-Paul Brinkman (Delft University of Technology, Netherlands); David Brown (Nottingham Trent University, UK); Daniel Burgos (Open University of The Netherland, Heerlen, Netherlands); Thibault Carron (Université de Savoie, Chambéry, France); Erik Champion (Massey University, New Zealand); Maiga Chang (National Science and Technology Programme for e-Learning, Chung-Li, Taiwan); Nathalie Charlier (Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium); Thomas Connolly (University of the West of Scotland, UK); David Edgar (Glasgow Caledonian University, UK); Patrick Felicia (Waterford Institute of Technology, Ireland); Sara De Freitas (Birkbeck College (University of London, UK); Pedro Antonio González-Calero (Complutense University of Madrid, Spain); Kevin Grant (Glasgow Caledonian University, UK); Begoña Gros (Univesitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain); David Guralnick (Kaleidoscope Learning, New York, USA); Mike Hart (University of Winchester, UK); Dr Jeff Haywood (University of Edinburgh, UK); Stefan Hrastinski (Uppsala University, Sweden); Rozhan Idrus (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia); Jeffrey Jacobson (Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, USA); Runa Jesmin (Kings College London, UK); Michail Kalogiannakis University Paris 5 Rene Descartes, France); Elisabeth Katzlinger (Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria) Kristian Kiili (Tampere University of Technology, Pori, Finland); Feng Li (University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK); Martin Lynch University of Glamorgen, UK); Hamish Macleod (University of Edinburgh, UK); Stephanos Mavromoustakos (European University Cyprus); Jean-Charles Marty (Université de Savoie, Chambéry, France); Alice Mitchell (Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK); Jonathan Moizer (University of Plymouth, UK); Paul Peachey (University of Glamorgan, Treforest, UK); Elias Pimenidis (University of East London, UK); Selwyn Piramuthu (University of Florida, Gainesville, USA); Daniela Romano (University of Sheffield, UK); David Rush (University of Winchester, UK); Florin Salajan (University of Toronto, Canada); Jordi Sánchez Navarro (Univesitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain); Elsebeth Sorensen (Aarhus University,Denmark); Mark Stansfield (University of West of Scotland, UK); Constance Steinkuehler (University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA); John Sutherland (University of Abertay, UK); Timo Lainema (University of Turku, Finland); Uday Trivedi (R.C. Technical Institute, India); Richard Tunstall (University of Glamorgan, UK); Linda Van Ryneveld (Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa); Nicola Whitton (Manchester Metropolitan University, UK); Dorathy Williams (Robert Gordon University, UK)
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Biographies of Conference Chairs, Programme Chair and Keynote Speaker Conference Chairs Jordi Sánchez-Navarro is a lecturer at the Information and Communication Sciences Department at the Open University of Catalonia, where he coordinates and teaches on screen studies, interactive narratives and digital publishing. He has taught at the Universitat Ramon Llull, and collaborated in several masters at the Universitat Autònoma of Barcelona and the School of Cinema and Audiovisuals of Catalonia (ESCAC). He achieved a PhD in Film Studies (Universitat Ramon Llull) with a dissertation about the concepts of authorship, crisis of the genres and cultural recycling in post-modern media. At present, his research interests are screen studies, current film practices in contemporary media landscape, video games, animation, children and youth media education in leisure time and rethinking media. He is currently involved in a project which is researching into how video games work as educational tools, and in the formal aspects of video games, approaching both issues to the more general field of screen studies. Among other activities, he collaborates with the research groups SPIDER (Smarter People through Interactive Digital Entertainment Resources) and COMCAD (Audiovisual Communication and Digital Culture). Both groups have commissioned or funded by public institutions research in progress. Daniel Aranda is a Lecturer responsible for the area of Theory and Sociology of Communication at the Open University of Catalonia (Universitat Oberta de Catalunya). He has achieved a PhD in Media Studies (University Ramon Llull) and a Master in Education and Communication (Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona). He is also the Coordinator of a research group called COMCAD (Open University of Catalonia) which investigates the context of digital media creation (integration and legitimization of digital art and Digital aesthetics) and the use and consumption of technologies related to digital leisure: p2P networks, phone culture and video games (http://spider-uoc.blogspot.com/). He is currently involved in a project which is researching into how video games work as educational tools; the formal aspects of video games, but also, and fundamentally, their use and application by children and youth in leisure settings managed by nonformal education bodies, such as leisure associations for young people.
Programme Chairs Thomas Connolly is a Professor in the School of Computing at the University of the West of Scotland, having managed the Department of Computing and Information Systems for several years. Thomas worked for over 15 years in industry as a Manager and Technical Director in international software houses before entering academia. His specialisms are games-based learning, online learning and database systems. He has developed three fully online MSc programmes and developed and leads the undergraduate BSc Computer Games Technology programme. He is co-author of the highly successful academic textbooks Database Systems (now in its 4th edition) and Database Solutions (in its 2nd edition). He is a reviewer for several international journals and has been on the committee for various international conferences. He is a member of CPHC (Council of Professors and Heads of Computing) and member of the Higher Education Academy. Mark Stansfield is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Computing at the University of the West of Scotland. He has a PhD in Information Systems and has written and cowritten more than 70 refereed papers in areas relating to e-Learning, games-based eLearning, information systems and e-Business. Journals in which papers have been published include the European Journal of Information Systems, Systems Practice and Action Research, the Journal of Further and Higher Education, the Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, the Journal of IT Education, and Computers and Education. Mark also serves on the editorial boards of several international journals that include the International Journal of Information Management, Journal of Information Systems Education, ALT-J and the Journal of IT Education. Mark was appointed Member of the International Association of Science and Technology for Development (IASTED) Technical Committee on Education for the term 2005-
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2008 and is a Registered Practitioner of the Higher Education Academy in the UK. He has presented papers at international conferences for over 15 years and has won Best Paper Awards at a number of conferences that include the UK Systems Society Conference in 1993 and the Informing Science and IT Education Conferences in 2003 and 2006
Keynote Speakers Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen (PhD, Psychologist) is currently an assistant professor at the IT-University of Copenhagen. He researchers the educational potential of computer games, but has during the last 10 years covered a wide area of game research. He is also CEO of Serious Games Interactive that is recognized as a world leader in the development of educational computer games. Earlier he worked in the industry with online games, learning, entertainment, children, and web applications. He has served on the Digital Game Research Association Board for 3 years, edited the Ivory tower column for 2 years, and has served as a reviewer for several journals, research projects and conferences within game research. He is a founding member of Centre for Video games Research Copenhagen, co-founder of Game-research.com, and has authored four books covering the topics video games, education and learning. Ben Sawyer is the co-founder of Digitalmill, Ben Sawyer is in charge of strategy, technology, and business development and is the producer of Virtual U, a million dollar plus foundation funded project to build a university management simulator. Virtual U, now shipping Version 2.1, was a 2000 Independent Games Festival finalist. Ben is also the author of Serious Games: Improving Public Policy through GameBased Learning and Simulation Whitepaper for the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (wwics.si.edu) and was a contributor to Game Developer Magazine. He is author of two books on gaming for Coriolis Group Books and is developing a book on simulations with Paraglyph Press. He has published several research reports on the games industry for DFC Intelligence
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Biographies of contributing authors (in alphabetical order) Michael Avery is Senior Product Manager, Global Education for Sibelius Software - a Part of Avid. Originally from Wellington, New Zealand, he is now based in London, UK. He has worked in the field of educational software design for music for over 10 years, and has produced over 7 software titles for use at a variety of levels. Many titles have won education industry awards including Groovy Music (WorldDidac winner), Switzerland 2006), Sibelius Compass (Winner, BETT UK, 2005), Sibelius Instruments (Parent's choice, USA, 2005) and Inotes (TUANZ, New Zealand, 1998).He produces Jazz records in his spare time. Youngkyun Baek has been teaching at Korea National University of Education since 1991. He has presented several papers at SITE and NECC on gaming and simulations. He published two books on educational games and wrote two books chapters: “Design of an adaptive mobile learning management system based on student learning styles” in Handbook of Research on User Interface Design and Evaluation For Mobile Technology; “Revealing New Hidden Curriculum of Digital Games” in Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education (IGI Global). He is co-author of the book (in press) entitled “Digital Simulations for Improving Education: Learning Through Artificial Teaching Environments” by IGI Global. Roberto Barchino has a Computer Sciences Engineering degree by Polytechnics University of Madrid and Ph.D. from University of Alcala. Currently, he is Associate Professor in the Computer Science Department of the University of Alcalá and Tutor Professor in the Open University of Spain (UNED). He has been invited to “Dipartimento di Informatica e Automatica”, University of Rome Tre, Rome, Italy, for five months. He is author or co-author of more than 60 scientific works (books, articles, papers and research projects), some of them directly related to Learning Technology. He is also member of the group for the standardization of Learning Technology in the Spanish Official Body for Standardization (AENOR). Ricardo Jose Vieira Baptista has a degree in Engineering Computer Systems and the University of Madeira and master in the Multimedia Technologies FEUP. Currently, is professor of secondary education of the School of APEL (Madeira island). Ended the draft Master's thesis, Role Play Games (RPGs) - a strategy in the context education, which sought to use the games of computers as a tool for learning multidisciplinary, through an RPG on the commemoration the 500 years of lifting the city of Funchal. Natasha Boskic is pursuing her Ph.D. in Language and Literacy Education at the University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, Canada. The focus of her research is the intersections of gaming and literacy. She is interested in the form of textuality that is specific to these narrative spaces, and the ways students engage with them. Natasha works as an Educational Technology Manager in the Faculty of Education at UBC. Marcelino Cabrera Cuevas: Lecturer in the Software Engineering Department and Research Member of GEDES Software Research Group, University of Granada, Spain. He is specialized in software adaptation/personalization techniques using videogames to readapt the educational contents with the user profile. He has collaborated with Nintendo Spain in different studies about the real impact of videogames in the mental training. Nathalie Charlier is a lecturer in the Teacher training programme in health education at the University of Leuven, Belgium. She obtained a BSc and MSc in Pharmaceutical Sciences in 1999 and her PhD in Medical Sciences in 2003. Her current research interest is the use of technology in health education. Sibel Çoban. Her graduations (master and PhD) in the Marmara University. She is a lecturer in the Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Fine Arts Educational Department Music Teachers’ Main Scientific Branch. The essential purpose of the Main Scientific Branch is to provide education to music teachers for primary and secondary schools in her country. She is giving “Teaching Methods in School Music Education” to the music students. She also has interested in “teaching methods in music education”, “school experience”, “teaching and learning in Higher Education, including student expectations and achievement predictors. Thomas Connolly is a Professor in the School of Computing at the University of the West of Scotland, having managed the Department of Computing and Information Systems for several years. Thomas worked for over 15 years in industry as a Manager and Technical Director in international software houses before entering academia. His specialisms are games-based learning, online learning and database systems. He has developed three fully online MSc programmes and developed and leads the undergraduate BSc Computer Games Technology programme. He is co-author of the highly successful academic textbooks Database Systems (now in its 4th edition) and Database Solutions (in its 2nd edition). He is a reviewer for
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several international journals and has been on the committee for various international conferences. He is a member of CPHC (Council of Professors and Heads of Computing) and member of the Higher Education Academy Mary Coughlin, MS, NNP, CCRN is a neonatal nurse practitioner and the Manager of Global Clinical Services for Children’s Medical Ventures. Mary’s tenure in the specialty of neonatal nursing includes seven years of active military duty in the U.S. Air Force Nurse Corp and fifteen years as an NNP at the Brigham and Woman’s Hospital in Boston, MA. In her current position, Mary’s responsibilities focus specifically on evidence-based practice and education program content and learning platform development and as well as quality healthcare initiatives and analysis of the impact of education on clinical practice changes. Luis de Marcos has a BSc (2001) Computer Science and a MSc (2005) in Software Engineering from the University of Alcalá, where he is a pre-doctoral researcher and a PhD candidate in the Information, Documentation and Knowledge program. He is member of the IEEE Learning Technology Standard Committee (LTSC) and of the ACM Special Interest Group in Computer Science Education (SIGCSE). His research interests include competencies and learning objectives definition, adaptable and adaptative systems, learning objects, mobile and ambient learning, and e-learning standardization. Elise Gendron is a second year PhD student, at the University of Savoie. She obtained her Master in the computer laboratory at the University of Maine (LIUM).Her interests are concerned with the collaborative activities improvement. In particular, she wants to point out which collaborative indicators are useful to improve a collaborative process. Her results are both applied to the educational activities (CSCL) and to the work activities (CSCW). More recently, she decided to look carefully at the educational game domain, where indicators are significant from the awareness point of view. José Luis González Sánchez: Lecturer in the Software Engineering Department and Research Member of GEDES Software Research Group, University of Granada, Spain. He is specialized in videogames design and playability techniques. He is interested in the use of videogames as classroom support tools. He has collaborated with Nintendo Spain in different studies about the real impact of videogames in the mental training. He is member of the Human-Computer Spanish Association. Francisco Gutierrez Vela: PhD in Software Engineering, Lecturer in the Software Engineering Department and Research Member of GEDES Software Research Group, University of Granada, Spain. He is specialized in interactive systems, user interface design and collaborative design systems. He is interested in the use of videogames and interactive systems applied to education. He is member of the Human-Computer Spanish Association. Thomas Hainey is in his final year of his doctoral studies at the University of the West of Scotland. His research is focused on the application of games-based learning to teach requirements collection and analysis in software engineering. Hanno Hildmann is a PhD student at the UNiversity of the West of Scotland (UWS) working on the formal design of serious games for mobile devices. He has an MSc in Artificial Intelligence from the University of Amsterdam and has been involved in teaching or research at universities in Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, England and Scotland. Jantina Huizenga is a PhD-student at the Graduate School of Teaching and Learning at the University of Amsterdam. Her research subject is Game-Based Learning in secondary education. Jantina's academic background is Education and Child Studies. Her research interest is in ICT in Educational Sciences." Jennifer Jenson (Associate Professor, York University) and Suzanne de Castell (Interim Dean, Faculty of Education, Simon Fraser University) work together on a number of projects, including the design and development of games for education. They are co-editors of a online, open access journal, Loading...: A Journal of the Canadian Game Studies Association (http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/) as well as a collection of papers on digital games research, Worlds in Play (Peter Lang, 2007). Elisabeth Katzlinger-Felhofer Scientist at the department of Data Processing in Social Sciences, Economics and Business, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria. She has degrees in business administration and pedagogy. Her research interests include business education and technology enhanced learning. Kristian Kiili is the senior researcher in Tampere University of Technology, Information Technology at Pori, Finland. He got his M. Ed. from the University of Turku in 2001 and his Dr. Philosophy at Tampere University
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of Technology in 2006. Recently, Kiili has studied issues related to learning, user experience and game design. He has participated in several research and development projects on this area. Helmut Krcmar holds the Chair for Information Systems at the Department of Informatics, Technische Universität München (TUM), Germany since 2002. His research interests include Information and Knowledge Management, IT-enabled Value webs, Service Management, Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Information Systems in Health Care and eGovernment. Terry Lavender is a Vancouver-based game researcher and consultant, specializing in social advocacy games. A graduate student at the School of Interactive Arts and Technology at Simon Fraser University, he is best known as the creator of Homeless: It's No Game, which he has been using to study the persuasiveness of video games. Lavender is also the communications manager at Simon Fraser University's Surrey campus and is a volunteer with various community and housing groups in Vancouver. Jörgen Lindh is Associate Professor of Informatics at Jönköping International Business School (JIBS) in Sweden. Jörgen has during almost three decades been involved in development work and Swedish research projects in the field of computer supported learning. During the last five years he has paid a lot attention to online learning. At the moment Jörgen is a coordinator of the research group “Networked Learning, Collaboration and Competence” at JIBS. Maria da Conceição de Oliveira Lopes – PhD in Communication Sciences and Technology from the University of Aveiro. She is Auxiliary Professor with Distinction at the University of Aveiro and teacher on the degree courses, and on the master’s courses in Communication and Education in Science and Multimedia Communication. She is a member of the Centre for the Study of Technology, Art and Communication) research unit and has participated in many research and training projects, and community and institutional intervention programmes over the past 30 years. Bente Meyer is an Associate Professor at the Department of Curriculum Studies, School of Education, University of Aarhus and a member of the research programme Media, ICT and learning. Her research interests are second and foreign language education, intercultural and citizenship education as well as computer assisted language learning (CALL). She has edited several books on media, ICT and Learning, the most recent one being Digital Media and Educational Design (Digitale Medier og Didaktisk Design, The Danish University of Education Press, to be published in the Fall of 2008). Miroslav Minovic is Ph.D. student at Belgrade University, Faculty of organizational science, Informational Systems department. He is also engaged as teaching assistant and member of Multimedia Communications Lab since 2003. His major field of research is game-based learning, HCI, mobile computing and computer networks. Magali Moisy a psychologist used ICTs such as video games to help adults and teenagers. Now, she is researcher in the field of Education at the University of Rennes 2 (France). Today, she is doing an international comparative study (Québec, France, Suède, Mexique) about undergraduate students’ Internet appropriation and a thesis on students and video gamers. Benoit Montreuil is professor of operations and decisions systems in the administration sciences faculty of Université Laval in Quebec City, Canada, since 1988. He got his Ph.D. (1982) in Industrial Engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta, U.S.A.). He holds the Canada Research Chair in Enterprise Engineering and the NSERC-Bell-Cisco Business Design Research Chair. He is a founding member of the CIRRELT Interuniversity Research Centre on Enterprise Networks, Logistics and Transportation. His main research interests lie in developing concepts, methodologies and technologies for creating, transforming and enabling businesses and value creation networks to thrive in the new economy. He has extensive advisory, entrepreneurial and collaborative research experience with industry. Javed Mustafa MSc Mathematics, MA Political Science and MEd Teacher Education.Taught mathematics at secondary level in public schools for eleven years. Remained as part time tutor and resource person at Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad in BEd and MEd programs for six years.Recieved four months lead master training at National Institute of Science and Technical Education, (NISTE) Islamabad, Pakistan for teaching mathematics and forty days training of laboratory organization at Melburn University, Australia. Worked as master trainer in the second science education project and trained more than two hundred mathematics teachers. Currently working on PhD thesis at International Islamic University Islamabad, Pakistan.
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Sol Nte spent 10 years developing software for research and teaching in the School of Psychology at Keele University (UK). During this time he was able to experiment with videogame mechanisms and also lecture in multimedia software development. He is currently undertaking a PhD in Computer Science at Wolverhampton University (UK) looking at reconstructing videogame user-experiences for E-Learning. Gearóid Ó Súilleabháin is the elearning projects manager for the DEIS Department of Education Development in the Cork Institute of Technology where he also works as a lecturer in modules relating to the fields of education, educational psychology and elearning. He had been working in the elearning field for over 10 years and has over this time published and presented widely on a range of topics. He is currently undertaking a Phd on the topic of “Learning Transfer and Computer Game Environments”. Karen Orr is a 3rd year Psychology PhD student at Queen’s University, Belfast, working under the supervision of Professor Carol Mc Guinness. Since beginning her PhD Karen has worked with schools from both Northern Ireland and England. Work to date has examined teachers’ and pupils’ attitudes towards games-based learning, as well as observational research focussing on pupils’ use of games-based learning applications, assessing their interactions, collaboration and dialogue. Michela Ott works as a senior researcher at the Institute for Educational Technology of the Italian National Research Council (ITD-CNR). At present, she carries out researches in the field of: cognitive processes underpinning learning, educational use of software tools (including digital games), e-learning effectiveness, learning design, distance education, special education (including, disabled children and also both long term hospitalised and immigrant children Patricia Paderewski Rodríguez: PhD in Software Engineering, Lecturer in the Software Engineering Department and Research Member of GEDES Software Research Group, University of Granada, Spain. She is specialized in software architectures, software evolution and adaptation and software distributed agents for collaborative work environments and classroom work. Natalia Padilla Zea: Research Member of GEDES Software Research Group, University of Granada, Spain. She is a grant holder by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science, F.P.U Programme. She is specialized in collaborative videogames techniques to apply them to education and cognitive work and psycho-pedagogical classroom work methodologies. Eleni Rossiou BSc in Mathematics, MSc in Computer Science, Postgraduate Certificate in Distance Education, PhD candidate in the area blended learning methods with synchronous (virtual classrooms, educational games) and asynchronous tools (LMS, webcasts). She is a teacher of Informatics in secondary education, member of Algorithmic Operations Research Group of the University of Macedonia, member of Hellenic Network of Open and Distance Education, and member of Hellenic Scientific Association of Information and communication technologies. She is authored and co-authored in various research papers and books. She has extended experience in distance education, adults’ education, teaching and learning in virtual learning environments and development of eLearning materials Elizabeth Salles (B.Ed., Grad.Dip. Comp. Ed.) is the Head of the Information Technology Department at Iona College in Australia. She has presented at numerous National and International Conferences with published research on the use of IT in the classroom. She has also been involved in providing training for some leading Australian Universities. Andy Smith helped design and develop one the world’s first massively multiplayer persistent worlds and went on to run a successful games design and development company for over 17 years, creating various IP’s in the process. Turning his attention to education, Andy became a college lecturer as well as a PhD scholar, focusing on the role of narrative and emotion on learning in serious games. Elsebeth Korsgaard Sorensen is a senior lecturer in ICT and Learning in the Institute of Information and Media Studies, University of Aarhus, Denmark. For many years she was head of the online Master programme in ICT & Learning, offered collaboratively by five Danish universities. Her international research focuses on collaborative dialogue and knowledge building online, pedagogical design and delivery of networked learning, and implementation of electronic portfolios as reflective tools in online learning process. Elsebeth presents her research at international conferences, frequently as keynote speaker, and she has published extensively in international journals and books within the field. She serves on the editorial board of several international journals and on program committees of international conferences within the field. Mark Stansfield is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Computing at the University of the West of Scotland. He has a PhD in Information Systems and has written and co-written more than 70 refereed papers in areas
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relating to e-Learning, games-based e-Learning, information systems and e-Business. Journals in which papers have been published include the European Journal of Information Systems, Systems Practice and Action Research, the Journal of Further and Higher Education, the Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, the Journal of IT Education, and Computers and Education. Mark also serves on the editorial boards of several international journals that include the International Journal of Information Management, Journal of Information Systems Education, ALT-J and the Journal of IT Education. Mark was appointed Member of the International Association of Science and Technology for Development (IASTED) Technical Committee on Education for the term 2005-2008 and is a Registered Practitioner of the Higher Education Academy in the UK. He has presented papers at international conferences for over 15 years and has won Best Paper Awards at a number of conferences that include the UK Systems Society Conference in 1993 and the Informing Science and IT Education Conferences in 2003 and 2006. Lam Tak Ming has had over 15 years of business operations and venture experience before joining this University. He had held senior positions as Managing Director and CEO with various local and international prestige organizations, in such diversified industries as Web Based Learning, e-Business Strategies, Business Process Reengineering, Web Promotion, Advertising, Marketing, Mobile Communications, Telecommunications, Data Communications, IT Education and Management Consultancy, etc. Maria Toro Troconis Maria is a senior learning technologist at the Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London. Her main role is to support the development and delivery of the Faculty’s e-learning strategy. Her research interest is game-based learning for the delivery of virtual patients in Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs), such as Second Life. She is currently undertaking a PhD within the Faculty of Medicine in Imperial College London and Luleå University of Technology entitled "Gender-related differences and game-based learning for virtual patients in Second Life". Her key skills include instructional design, coordination across distributed teams, business analysis and project management. She also has an in depth knowledge of International Learning Standards and their implementation across platforms. Anisa Vahed is a Dental Technologist and lecturer in the Dental Technology programme, Dental Sciences Department at the Durban, University of Technology, South Africa. In 2005, she obtained her Master's degree in Dental Technology and identified a potential niche area in Dental Technology education involving game based learning. She has been working for the past 2 years on the development of the Tooth Morphology board game (2006) and "Muscle Mania" multi media game (2007) as a learning tool for first year Dental Technology learners." Michael Vogel is both a professor and a student. At the University of London's Institute of Education he researches for a Doctorate in Education. His interest in higher education is related to his job back home in Germany where he is a Professor of Tourism Management at the Bremerhaven University of Applied Sciences. His research interests include tourism economics, economic education and the professionalism of higher education teachers. In his pre-academic life Michael worked in corporate strategy consulting and for an international tourism group in various countries. Dick van Dijk is concept developer at Waag Society. Waag Society is an Amsterdam based Medialab investigating the interplay of culture and technology in relation to society, education, government and industry. Waag Society wishes to make a contribution to the design of the information society by looking at the possibilities of people, their creativity and culture. Monica Wijers is a senior staff member of the Freudenthal Institute (FI) of Utrecht University in the Netherlands. She is currently involved in several design and research projects on mathematics problem solving, learning and teaching and the use of technology. She participates in the Th!nklets development team (www.thinklets.nl) and in research into the role of games in relation to mathematics, in educational setting as well as in informal settings. She is co-designer of MobileMath. Pieter Wouters is researcher at the Institute for Information and Computing Sciences (ICS), Utrecht University. He holds a Ph.D (2007) in Instructional Design (How to optimize cognitive load for learning from animated models) from the Open University of the Netherlands. His current research focuses on cognitive and motivational processes in learning from serious games and game discourse analysis.
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Study to Inform the Design of a Psycho-Educational Game: Children and the Magical Do Better Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham, UK
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
Abstract: Factors currently affecting the use of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) include limitations on access due to the lack of therapists, the cost involved and the reluctance of patients. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) recommends Computerized CBT (CCBT) as a way of tackling these problems. A number of attempts have been made to use computer games as a specific therapeutic tool. Most of these have been directed at older age ranges and those with good reading skills. Our work is in the development of a computer game to be used specifically in the treatment of young children (8-12 years) who are exhibiting behavioural disorders. The children in the target group are experiencing a range of emotional problems with various causes. The children have specific needs and behaviours which affect the way in which they will interact with games. The design of this game has involved us in a long term ethnographic study of the children during their treatment and experiments involving two groups of children playing a number of computer games. These studies have enabled us to determine the nature of the game and to establish how the children interact with computers, the types of games they would relate to and the levels of complexity they could cope with. Most of the children come from deprived backgrounds with low academic achievement but have a relatively high exposure to computer games and “sophisticated” tastes. The results of the study and further research including interviews with therapists have informed the design of the game. One crucial factor has been the inclusion of psychoeducation principles in the design. In common with most other CBT games it is a role-play game with a set of tasks. However, from our study we can see that the interfaces provided by most current CBT games would have a limited appeal – being too simplistic in some ways but requiring too large a vocabulary for the target group of children. Providing a sophisticated interface but where a limited level of reading is needed has proved an important factor in the design. In addition the player is given the ability to design his or her own character to improve identification. A “conscience” character – the magical do better – who has qualities determined by the player’s chosen character accompanies the player. Keywords: Ethnography, CBT, young children with behavioural problems, psycho-education
1. Introduction Behaviour disorders in children take many forms and have many causes. All children will exhibit signs of the behaviours associated with these disorders at some time, due to stress factors in their lives but when they become frequent or continuous they may be diagnosed as having a disorder. These include obsessive compulsive behaviours, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD). Currently CD is the “largest single group of psychiatric conditions in children and adolescents.” (Oxford College 2006). Frequently problems develop through home life pressures, including parenting issues such as neglect. Children develop difficulties in understanding how other people think and feel and communicating with people in general (Offord Centre for Child Studies). Many forms of treatment are used including parent management training, functional family therapy and medication (Government of Victoria Australia, Better Health Channel 2007). A common form of therapy that may be included in many of the above is Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT). The basic idea behind CBT is to get the patient to understand how their thoughts affect their feelings. It is an assumption of this form of therapy that faulty thinking leads to inappropriate behaviour. Treatment using CBT normally involves a therapist working with a patient. The patient will be taken through scenarios and asked to consider the consequences, emotions and thoughts behind their decisions. Many resources are available though much of this is paper based – especially when used with children. However one of the significant issues is the lack of trained therapists. As a result the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) has recommended increased use of Computerised Self Help (for example Computerised CBT - CCBT). They have been very careful to recommend it only for certain situations and currently mainly only for depression and anxiety where it has been shown to be effective. “Of 500 therapists contacted only 12 reported using computerised self help and only 5 as an alternative to direct therapist contact.” (Kaltenthaler, Brazier et all 2005) Even though these programs have been tested and shown to work quite well without therapist contact they are still seen by therapists as a supplement rather than an alternative to therapist led treatment. Personal discussion with CBT experts has confirmed this opinion. We are therefore designing a game as an aid to
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Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield therapists. In order to do this we carried out a six months ethnographic study in which one of the authors worked in a treatment centre. We followed this up with an experiment where two groups of the children were brought in to the University in order to see them working at first hand with games. We believe the results of this study have been significant in guiding our design which is now in the prototype stage. The significance of the ethnographic study and the experiments are discussed in section 3. Section 2 gives a brief overview of other work of relevance.
2. Computer based therapy There have been attempts to computerise many therapies. The implementation of electronic interactive tools in counselling, psychotherapy and social work has without doubt been slow and sparse when compared to other areas of education where uptake has been far more widespread. It is only comparatively recently that the computer game has started to be taken seriously as a potential tool for positive uses. Despite this, the origin of work with computerised games in the above fields stretches all the way back to the release of the microcomputer in the early 1980s.
2.1 Early work Richard Schoech, Professor-School of Social Work at the University of Arlington, Texas along with a psychological assistant named Betty Clark created one of the very first therapeutically focused games titled “Adventures of Lost Loch”, they published their findings in 1984 (Clark, Schoech 1984). The game was an entirely text based adventure game designed specifically for adolescents in therapy for issues relating to low impulse control and represented a significant attempt to scientifically test the hypothesis that computer games can aid in the delivery of therapy and contribute to motivation. The game involved a fantasy quest to lead a band of adventurers though a dangerous cave in search of the stolen crown of the King. Scenarios were provided and the player presented with three to four possible decisions regarding how to proceed. A score was given to the player based on the impulse level of the decision they selected, points were added or subtracted based on the level of impulse control of the choice made. Good decisions were rewarded and poor decisions presented additional problems. Cognitive therapy techniques were incorporated into this system via a coaching system which took the shape of a character in the game called Mentor. The game attempted to utilise techniques commonly used by cognitive therapists to teach the player to consider alternative methods of solving problems and teaching self statements to help the player cope with errors and mistakes. The game was tested, with real therapists, by four children aged eleven through seventeen all deemed to have presenting problems associated with low impulse control such as fighting, stealing and playing truant from school. Initial results were positive. The clients involved seemed eager to play the game and attendance of the therapy sessions involved increased from an average of 66% attendance to over 90% with only a single session being missed. Hy Resnick, again a professor at a U.S. school for social work, this time at the University of Washington published initial details of his purpose designed computer game in 1986 (Resnick 1986). The game, entitled BUSTED, was a computer game designed to reduce antisocial behaviour in young offenders through improvement of consequence awareness. The game was targeted directly at young people in corrective institutions or care homes. BUSTED was a computer based board game with a layout similar to a Monopoly board. Players moved around the board by rolling (computerised) dice, around the board were situation squares, upon landing on such the player was given a random situation and a number of possible actions they could take in response. A consequence related to the selection action was given once selected points were generally subtracted in addition to some form of trouble for the scenario character on receipt of a poor choice. BUSTED was only a prototype at the time of the publication, it remained unfinished for a further 15 years when it was eventually passed on to and finished by Les Cowan. At the time, however, Cowan was working on his own computer game The Optex Adventure system (Cowan 1994). Optex was designed by Cowan while working as a Social Worker in Scotland. He had been given a “preparation pack” for young clients involved in adoption breakdowns. The pack included a number of short scenarios involving characters in similar situations which the child would be asked to consider the outcomes and repercussions of a selection of choices the character could make. Cowan set out to computerise this process, the resulting Optex Adventure System, was an authoring tool to allow the creation of text based multiple choice adventure computer games.
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Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield Throughout the 90s several attempts were made to integrate ordinary computer gaming systems into therapy as a 3rd object. Gardener experimented with the Nintendo hit Super Mario Brothers (Gardener 1991). Child practitioner Ron Kokish also experimented with a commercial computer game title as a tool for play therapy, this time Ultima for the Apple computer (Kokish 1994). Both concluded that the computerised games could be very helpful in play therapy and experienced excellent results in engaging the children’s attention.
2.2 Commercial work In 1994, continuing on from his development of OPTEXT, Les Cowan founded the company Information Plus which would produce “social learning software”. His first title was an interactive story based named Bruce's Multimedia Story, released in 1998, then in 1999 he updated the original premise behind OPTEX into a multimedia adventure called Billy Brakes the Rules (Cowan 2002). In 2006 Zipland Interactive, a company based in Tel Aviv Israel and headed by child therapist Chaya Harash released a research based psychological computer game designed to help children deal with emotional distress stemming from a parental divorce. The game, named Earthquake in Zipland, was designed to implement Strategic Paradoxical and Solution Focused principles in therapy. It features a multimedia point and click interface and a story revolving around a moose living in a land divided into two halves via a zip. No specific mention of divorce itself is made during the game, instead focuses on metaphors, initially an earthquake which separates the two continents with each parent on one side. The player then embarks on a quest to reunite the continents and the two separated parents. As the story unfolds it becomes apparent that this is an unrealistic and unachievable goal (Ziplandinteractive 2008).
2.3 Recent academic work A team of academics at the Computer Science Department, Trinity College Dublin developed a computer game in 2005 entitled Personal Investigator. This attempts to implement “Computer Mediated Adolescent Psychotherapy” (Mathews, Coyle et al 2004). The game follows the framework laid out in SFT (Solution focused therapy). The player takes on the role of a trainee detective, who searches for solutions to personal problems, the goal of is to become Master Detective by talking to other detectives and listening to stories from adolescents about how they overcame their problems. Personal Investigator was intended for use as a tool to engage adolescents. Paul Stallard the acclaimed authority on CBT with children and author of Think Good Feel Good has also recently undertaken some therapeutic work with computer games. (Stallard 2005) A team at Nottingham Trent University have recently developed a game aimed at adolescents who, for various reasons, are deemed to be at risk of being socially excluded. The game places the player on a volcanic island in danger due to an imminent eruption. In order to escape, the player must acquire crew members who are recruited as the player completes personal development tasks. The developers again stress the game as a tool for engagement of adolescents but also are keen to stress the strengths of computer games as a unique platform for learning (Brown, Shopland et al 2007). Most recently, Treasure Hunt, a game designed to utilise CBT Techniques as a support tool for psychotherapists has been developed by a partnership between the Departments of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Computer Aided Architectural Design, at the University and ETH in Zurich, Switzerland. The game is designed for eight to twelve year olds and takes place aboard an old ship, captained by an experienced sailor who needs the child’s help to solve a mystery. It aims to support the therapeutic process by utilising theoretically solid Cognitive Behavioural Therapy techniques, offering attractive electronic homework and allowing the child to practice rehearsing basic psychoeducational treatments (Brezinka, Hovestadt, 2007). Many of the above were never developed into finished products, all however, reported promising initial conclusions and some were tested in real therapeutic settings with clients receiving real therapy.
3. The current work The aim of our work is the production of a Computer Based CBT (CCBT) tool to aid clinicians and others in the treatment of children with behavioural disorders. The children are generally from socially
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Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield deprived backgrounds and the underlying causes of their behaviour are many. The group of particular interest are being treated in a day centre, which they attend on a weekly basis. We decided to base the CCBT tool around a computer game because of a number of factors. The children concerned mostly exhibit attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and games are normally used with this group to improve attention by using their intrinsic motivational properties. Two approaches were taken to inform the domain analysis for the software design. The first was a prolonged ethnographic study involving one of the authors over a period of six months. They attended the clinic on a weekly basis, becoming part of the treatment support team. The second was an experiment carried out on two groups of children who came in to the University. The purpose of this experiment was to observe the children interacting with a range of existing games from different genre. The results of both studies are outlined below.
3.1 Ethnographic study The groups of about 12 children attend the centre once a week. The team is led by trained nursing staff and supported by experienced helpers. The research worker joined this team. During the process the researcher took part in the general activities of the group as a support worker. Over time the children became familiar with her and were able to relate normally in her presence. After a while the researcher led specific sessions, in particular looking at aspects of the current treatment that would be useful in the game design and to add value to the game from scenarios of real every day life of the children. Notes were made after every session and these results were interpreted. A second researcher checked the observations and conclusions to verify them. The centre seems well organised. Every morning, children are encouraged to listen to the program of the day which is presented on the board of the meeting room in order to see what they will be doing during the day. This reminds the children of the possible activities they are invited to. Such a technique can be applied within the potential game by making a rules icon that appears at any time there is a need for a guide. Within individual therapy the children freely expressed their fears and worries. The individual therapy and group therapy both are both designed to equip the children with the tools and facilities to address their cognitive, social and emotional development. For example, psychotherapeutic game boards, stories and worksheets are used to help children to control their feelings and to think positively. In fact, games at the centre were chosen carefully to encourage children to restructure their thoughts and behaviour. However, when boys alone were present they enthusiastically chose to play sports most of the time and preferred the games that had monetary rewards rather than other games designed to encourage learning feeling management or problem solving tasks. However, this situation changed when there were girls present. In general children seemed able to develop meaning and values through the play activities the centre provided. In group work major activities which took place were Activity Group, Play Group, Discovery Group, Art Group, Food Group, Sport Group, Fantasy Group, Free Style Group, Construction Group, Pokemon Group, Film Group, Building Group, Music & Movement Group, Drama Group, Inventors Group and Creative Group. Groups gave particularly useful information for this study were the Play group, the Fantasy Group, the Film Group and the Art Group. Although all these activities were provided sports were remarkably the common and most activity was chosen by children. Fantasy Group: It was observed that children come up with their own ideas and are invited to lead. For example, they build dens and make islands of dens out of chairs. One child had a desert island with waterfalls and mountains, and animals. Another had mountains with ice and dinosaurs. Another did not have any idea but said that he wanted to stay in a tree. On one occasion in fantasy play the children made a large tower and crushed the tower. They were pretending that they were stuck under it and they were saving each other. This followed seeing the results of a massive earthquake on television. Children project themselves symbolically through the fantasy group activity. Film group: In this group children make a film. It was observed that the film group increased children’s self awareness, what they look like, their bodies, the way they move and the way they talk as it allows them to see themselves as others see them. The child can somehow detach from himself a little bit and have a look at himself. Some of them said, “Am I really loud when I do that?” The children were advised, “If you want to work on that we can make you quieter.” It can increase their confidence, body image, and help the therapist know how the children see themselves compared to what they sometimes say about themselves. Another important thing the children learn in this group is how to
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Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield behave properly with the television and video equipment. This activity was a helpful tool to obtain real scenarios from children’s imagination. Film group included a variety of other activities’ principles such as drama, expression, and fantasy. Genre, plot and setting of films were explained to the children. An example of an observed scenario development is as follows: First scene: A girl suggested that a kidnapper bullies the children. A sister and her brother are playing in the play ground. Second scene: Involves the kidnapper and the police [possibly relating to being in trouble with authority]. The kidnapper runs away. In this stage the researcher observed how the key worker helped children to present different feelings in different scenes. Third scene: The children felt afraid and wanted their parents to come. One of the boys acted the role of the kidnapper and when every one was sleeping he came in and killed the mother and elder brother. The ethnography was conducted to identify how traditional methods of psychotherapeutic treatment support the cognitive and social development of the children. These activities were also used by the staff of the centre to help assess the children’s motor skills, and their concentration etc. The study helped in understanding the real world of these children and the daily language they use when communicating with each other and with the key workers. Key workers usually set examples of how to behave and used role modelling when children fought when, for example, they were required to take turns. Reminding the children of the day centre rules was a basic step to be taken at the beginning of each activity or when any of the children behave inadequately. It was important to know how these children thought and how to use their imaginations when playing. It was observed that some of the eleven year olds had an educational and emotional development age of four or five. Further, while playing the children expressed emotions they are unable to express in school or at home. These include traumatic experiences and distorted behaviour. Thus game scenario would be carefully chosen to suit the children’s cognitive, emotional, and developmental stages. As a result of this study it was clear that role play games would offer the best genre for a large proportion of the children. The children were used to the idea of identifying with a character in a role play situation. During one activity for example children were asked to identify and draw the super hero they would be and what powers they would have. Their limited academic and drawing skills made this difficult but this use of a representative character allowed the children to identify with the character without personalising the interaction completely. One simple advantage of using a computer based tool will be that children will be able to choose from a range of possible characteristics for their player.
3.2 Experiment The experiment was repeated with two separate groups of 12 in an enclosed lab in the University. The children were attended by the group of their care workers. A number of researchers were on hand to support the experiment, including the authors and in particular the one who had completed the ethnographic study. A series of eight computer games from different genre were set up on a number of computers including games consoles (Xbox 360). Interaction for many of the games was through games pads but some were controlled through the keyboard. The visits were fitted into the normal patterns for the time of year when they took place thus providing less disruption to the children. Obviously the situation was abnormal for them and the general behaviour of the children (unusually) was not disruptive! This made it possible to complete the experiments fairly well. The children generally expressed enjoyment with the experience. Game types employed were Bus Driver, Thrill Ville express, The Sims 2, Broken Sword and Broken Sword 2, Pro Evolution Soccer, The Ant Bully and Viva Piñata. As well as varying in genre these games varied in the degree to which the player could customise their presence in the game. This was to prove helpful in deciding how children should be allowed to personalise their characters in the game being designed. During game play the activities in the game were recorded using Camtasia
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Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield Studio for subsequent analysis. The children’s parents or guardians had previously given permission for them to take part in the experiment but all information gathered was anonymised.
3.3 Analysis of the experiment While the groups of children in the study have particular needs it was decided to analyse their experience first with common user interface design criteria. These criteria have been used in analysing experience for groups of users of computer games specifically. Examples of work in this area are those of (Malone, Lepper 1988), (Sweetser, 2005) and (Federoff 2002). A number of heuristics have thus been proposed to determine the usability of games. Some of the negative measures observed in the experiment were, “task stopped”, “task repeated”, “ability to find a function”, “doubt, unpleasant surprise or frustration”, “quitting task”, “passivity” and “misunderstanding of goal.” Clearly these issues might have had specifically high frequencies for the group of children being observed. On the other hand the software is being designed for this group and clearly issues that can produce such frustrations must be avoided in our design. On the positive side it was noted that given the right game (and this depended on the particular child) all the children who had generally been diagnosed as ADD or ADHD were able to concentrate on a game for the full 45 minutes of the experiment. As a particular example one student who immediately stopped playing Sims 2 after getting frustrated with the opening sequence spent most of the rest of the time driving a bus. Conversely, one girl spent the entire time designing her character in Sims 2. One interesting observation was that children became able to perceive the player in a game as being themselves, examples “Look at this, I am the driver!” and “Come on kick, give me that, I got to score a goal.” The children were thus successfully immersed in the narrative environment in which they were experiencing the “perceptual illusion of nonmediation” as noted by Lombard & Ditton in (G Riva 1999) The different games used in the experiment utilised many different interface and control schemes. Helpful observations were made relating to the children’s interactions with these different schemes. The Bus Driver game was entirely keyboard controlled, Broken Sword entirely by mouse and the remaining games by control pad. Some children were used to playing computer games and had no problem utilising the game pad controllers while others not used to playing such games struggled. This was especially true for one girl who was attempting to play the game Ant Hero. In this game the player must move their character around a 3D environment and jump onto various platforms. The child in question was unable to master the control scheme and as such could not execute the difficult jumps required to progress. She quickly became frustrated and was subsequently moved to the Broken Sword games. She found the mouse controls much easier and play through to the conclusion of the experiment with no further problems.
4. Conclusions The initial domain analysis and preliminary design are now complete. Most currently existing CCBT software including games are seen to be not applicable to the group of children we are most interested in. Issues of particular concern are the lack of academic development of the children (often with reduced reading ability) and short attention span. Many of the treatment looked at during our analysis have quite sophisticated use of language and need long attention span. One particular issue we are seeking to address is how to convey the nature of a choice response a child is going to be offered without including a lot of text. One member of the development team has a lot of experience in animation and it is our intention to add non verbal communication through high quality animation of facial expressions and body language. As a result the basic design of the game is taking shape and a prototype has been developed. In line with the observations in the ethnographic study a role play game is being developed. A major element of the interface for many children will be the choice of the character. It was observed in the ethnographic study that doing this correctly allowed children to identify with the character in the game in a way which would enhance them in applying their conclusions from the game to themselves. An initial idea of mapping photos of the children to the models directly was abandoned on advice from a therapist. The level of identification must be limitable so that the child can distance themselves from results when they do not like the outcome. In the experiment it was evident, however, that while some children liked to spend a long time developing their character others could not cope with a long period of preparation. The prototype interface thus has the choice between complete customisation and choosing from a very limited set of generic characters.
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Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield The game will be allowed to adapt to the perceived needs of the children and address a range of problems depending on their symptoms. In the game design the child will be attended by a conscience character (in the vein of Jiminy Cricket) which will also be customisable. We are currently calling this character the “magical do better.” An important issue is to enhance these children’s mental model by use of a natural metaphor of their everyday environment. This has been seen to increase concentration and enhance emersion (Davidson, Weltz 1999). Metaphors which were generated through the ethnographic study to understand children’s needs would give the play of the children playing the designed game the fluidity and flexibility to stimulate their imagination and interaction and enable them to concentrate in a better way than traditional games and methods. Through metaphors children would use what would fit with what they know. The potential game aims to encourage children to analyse patterns of emotions in relation to the models of thoughts and behaviour. The levels of the game would give a space to the players to discover new social skills in life and to discover what their strengths are. One therapist interviewed suggested that, “The game tasks revolve around solutions the players choose from to be used as a magical advice the player offers to their friends in the game to do better and to cope well in various life situations”. [Dr. Williams].The player having the role of a magical advisor in the game will give children the opportunity to experience a role in real life which they may not have a chance to experience. Such an experience will help children in the future when facing similar situations in reality. The most important aspect of the game design is the inbuilt educational methods by which it is hoped the children will learn while playing. Therapist led CBT involves the investigation of the client’s individual problems, thought processes, feelings and behaviours. The therapist then undertakes various activities aimed at helping the client to challenge problem thought processes and behaviours. This investigation process involves deeply personal communication between therapist and client. There is no way for a computerised system to replace this process. This is especially relevant when working with children and when using a limited input scheme. One of the most important goals of this study will be to determine effective solutions to overcome this particular obstacle. The shortcomings of computerised systems can be negated if the game is designed to be used in active sessions as a tool to aid the therapist in their work with children. In this case the most relevant pieces of game content could be selected by the therapist based on their professional assessment of the child’s particular problems and thinking patterns. Another route involves attempting to educate by utilising the benefits of the computer game medium for psychotherapeutic modelling. This technique would involve the creation of fictitious “patient characters” which are modelled on commonly encountered dysfunctional thought processes and resulting problematic behaviours. The child could then become actively involved in a storyline involving the process of psychoeducation and in aiding in the resolution of the problems of this character. If the character accurately models behaviours and thought patterns that the child identifies with directly then there could be powerful educational potential. Another potential advantage of the method is the possibility that the system could be used before the child entered psychotherapy sessions though this would be subject to clearance from a relevant ethics comity. Whatever the method, effectively overcoming the limitations of the computerised medium will require collaboration with psychiatric professionals and this will be the focus of the next stage of this study. Work published elsewhere has concentrated on self help for adults. The methods used are not generally applicable to children and even less so to the group in this current study who have low educational attainment, and generally are ADD or ADHD. In addition to this much of what has been done in CCBT for children is to transfer paper based systems to computer, making very little advantage of the unique strengths of computer based systems. Some work with games has been undertaken but mostly the interfaces are simplistic in visual content but sophisticated in verbal content. Again this does not cater to the needs of our group. Our design makes use of the experimental and ethnographic study observations. A high degree of sophistication in the interface is being blended with non-verbal and semiotic communication styles.
References Brezinka V, Hovestadt L (2007) Serious Games Can Support Psychotherapy of Children and Adolescents: Springer-Verlag Brown D, Shopland N, Battersby S, Lewis J, Evett L (2007) “Can Serious Games Engage the Disengaged?” ECGBL07 Paisley, Scotland
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Hend Alshanqiti, John Carr and Peter Blanchfield Clark B & Schoech D. (1984) A Computer Assisted Therapeutic Game for Adolescents: Using Computers in Clinical Practice, Howarth Press Inc Cowan L (1994) “OPTEXT Adventure System, Software Development in Practice” Computers in Human Services, Volume 11, Howarth Press Inc Cowan L (2002) “Interactive Media for Child Care and Counselling: New Resources, New Opportunities” Electronic Technology for Social Work Education and Practice 2nd ed Davidson M J, Weltz J (1999) Mental Models and Usability. [online] Cognitive Psychology 404. DePaul University. http://www.lauradove.info/reports/mental%20models.htm Federoff M A, (2002) Heuristics and Usability Guidelines for the Creation and Evaluation of Fun and Video Games. [online] Department of Telecommunications of Indiana University. http://melissafederoff.com/heuristics_usability_games.html Gardener James E (1991) “Can the Mario Bros Help? Nintendo Games as an Adjunct in Therapy With Children” Psychotherapy, Volume 28, No 4 Government of Victoria Australia, Better Health Channel (2007): [online] http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Conduct_disorder Kaltenthaler E, Brazier E De Nigris J, Tumur I, Ferriter M, Beverley C, Parry G, Rooney G, Sutcliffe P (2005) Computerised cognitive behaviour therapy for depression and anxiety update: a systematic review and economic evaluation: NICE Assessment report TA87 Kokish R (1994) “Experiences using A PC in Play Therapy With Children” Electronic Technology for Social Work Education and Practice, Howarth Press Malone T W, Lepper M R, (1988) “Making Learning Fun: A Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivations for Learning.” In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, Learning and Instruction: III. Cognitive and affective process analyses (pp. 223-253). Hilsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Matthews M, Coyle D, Sharry J, Nisbet A, Doherty G (2004) “Personal Investigator: Computer Mediated Adolescent Psychotherapy using an Interactive 3D Game” NILE 2004 3rd International Conference for Narrative in Interactive Learning Environments Offord Centre for Child Studies website (2006) [online]: http://www.knowledge.offordcentre.com Oxford College (2006): Online diploma in Child and Adolescent Counselling. Oxford UK Resnick H (1986) “Electronic Technology and Rehabilitation, A Computerised Simulation Game for Youthful Offenders” Simulations and Games, Volume 17, No 4, Sage Publishing Riva G (1999) “Virtual Reality as communication tool: a socio-cognitive analysis”, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments Stallard P (2002) Think Good - Feel Good: A Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Workbook for Children and Young People: John Wiley &Sons Ltd. England Sweetser P, (2005) “GameFlow: A Model for Evaluating Player Enjoyment in Games.” Computers in Entertainment (CIE) Ziplandinteractive Web Site (2008) [online] http://www.ziplandinteractive.com/
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Groovy Music: Research Based Product Design Applied to Games Based Learning in Primary Music Education Michael Avery Sibelius Software – A part of Avid, London, UK
[email protected]
Abstract: How can game interactions be beneficial to children’s music learning? How can software based game models be applied to music, and how can this influence software design? What are the practical issues for children involved in learning with music software games including their use in a networked environment and the relationship between attention span and average class time? Groovy Music is a research-based product by Sibelius Software that applies games-based learning to children’s music exploration and creativity. Designed using research with over 500 children, it is now used in thousands of schools worldwide. Keywords: Research based product design, primary music, music, exploration, creative music game
1. Introduction Sibelius Groovy Music is a series of three programs for primary children. Each of the three Groovy Music programs is designed for use by a different age group. Each program has its own 'theme', with graphics to appeal to the age group for which it’s designed. Children create their own profile for their use of each Groovy program, represented by an avatar whose costume changes according to the theme selected. Teachers are supported with guide booklets containing sets of lesson plans for using the program in their classroom or computer lab.
2. The three groovy programs Each Groovy program comprises an Explore mode and a Create mode. These are linked under a game metaphor through a set of animated Sound effects or “bonus shapes”. These are received as rewards as children advance through the Explore mode, and can later be incorporated into music they compose in Create mode.
2.1 Explore mode
Figure 1: Groovy explore mode is modeled on musical flashcards The interactive content Explore mode is modeled around the idea of musical flashcards, in which musical concepts are presented to children in sequence followed by identification or comparison activities to reinforce their understanding. The complexity of musical ideas explored increases as children progress through the series. Groovy Shapes is targeted at 5- 7 year olds, Groovy Jungle 7-9 year olds, and Groovy City 9-12 year olds.
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2.2 Create mode
Figure 2: Groovy shapes create mode In Create mode, each shape on the screen or “Playspace” plays a musical phrase or sound as the avatar walks past it. A library of preset phrases is included, which children can simply drag onto the screen to build up their musical creation. Bonus shapes earned in Explore mode can also be added to the music, thus creating an incentive for children to earn as many bonuses as possible by working their way through the learning content in Explore mode. Shapes can also be edited, with the musical phrases they contain displayed as simplified graphic music notation.
Figure 3: Editing notes in a musical shape
2.3 Groovy Shapes Groovy Shapes, the first of the three programs, teaches children about basic musical concepts.
Figure 4: Basic musical concepts in groovy shapes explore mode
2.4 Groovy Jungle Groovy Jungle introduces children to notes and notation, musical concepts such as ostinato, major, minor, texture and simple musical terms.
Figure 5: Examples of musical notation and musical terms topics in Groovy Jungle
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Michael Avery A Jungle-themed Create mode allows children to create music with sounds represented by animals and plants:
Figure 6: Create mode in Groovy Jungle
2.5 Groovy city Groovy City, the third program in the Groovy series, delves deeper into music notation and provides more complex listening tasks than the earlier programs. Children are also introduced to concepts such as question and answer phrases and the blues scale, so that they can begin to build up more sophisticated compositions.
Figure 7: More advanced topics in Groovy City’s Explore mode Groovy City’s create mode then allows children to explore and create music in a futuristic cityscape:
Figure 8: Create mode in Groovy City
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3. Product design research Product design research was carried out in numerous schools from a wide variety of demographics in the UK, San Francisco, San Jose, Oregon State and Sydney, Australia in early 2005. This involved interviews with 12 teachers and observations of each of their classes each ranging from 12 – 30 students, in total approximately 200 children aged 5- 12. The interviews were carried out in school classrooms and computer labs.
3.1 Underlying issues Before product design could begin, two underlying issues needed to be explored: 1. How can game interactions be beneficial to children’s music learning? 2. How can software based game models be applied to music, and how can this influence software design? During the teacher interviews, the underlying issues above were explored using four practical questions. Their answers are collectively summarised here as follows:
3.2 Teacher interviews 3.2.1 Which (if any) formal curricula or pedagogy do teachers work with? Over 90% of teachers were familiar with either their national or statewide music or performing arts curriculum, which prescribed set learning goals and objectives together with recommendations for learning content, hierarchically organised across different learning ages. While at least 70% admitted that they did not strictly follow these guidelines in their day to day teaching, they believed that it was extremely important for any commercially offered education package to be easily compatible with them.
3.2.2 Which traditional or technological resources do teachers have available? Availability of traditional and technological resources varied incredibly. Of the teachers interviewed, around 40% had access to large, modern IT facilities in their own classrooms or within the school. Another 20% of teachers, especially in remote areas, had only a single computer to be shared within a large number of children. Traditional resources ranged from a few classroom instruments and wall charts to entire sets of curriculum –based textbooks and large collections of western and ethnic instruments for children to play.
3.2.3 What type of games to teachers use in their music teaching? Games activities have always been a feature of children’s music learning and are prescribed by most curricula. In terms of resources, it was notable that at least 75% of music classrooms had sets of music flashcards – whether commercial or hand-made – and used these to play a variety of music games. These games were used to reinforce musical learning in classroom lessons – where music concepts were symbolised, illustrated and reinforced through identification and comparison.
3.2.4 What would teachers like to see in a music software package such that it would benefit their children’s learning? All teachers expressed that any software that could be used to reinforce classroom teaching would be beneficial, including software that automated flashcard-type activities. Importantly, however, it was noted that at least 80% of teachers beleived that software that also offered children with creative activities linking to the theoretical content would be more beneficial, as children would be motivated to succeed when they knew they could create something they owned personally as a result of their work or study, in this case, a musical composition.
3.3 Class observations As well as recording answers given by teachers and children, real-time observations were made of teachers and children in classroom settings. This was intended to help gauge how the responses given equated with the practical everyday teaching and learning taking place.
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Michael Avery For the benefits of the software design, this would also help derive a common teaching and learning pattern that could be implemented within the software, thus increasing its inherent ease of use and appeal. While the content of classroom lessons given by the teachers interviewed varied hugely, one common pattern was frequently observed. In classes, children were usually introduced to musical concepts, given positive feedback as they succeeded in understanding them, and then guided through a collaborative performance activity where the concepts gained could be reinforced through creative interaction with others. It was decided that Groovy should attempt to mimic this pattern as far as possible, and the Create mode of the program was scripted such that creative guidance using the concepts explored would be possible.
3.4 Initial lessons learned 3.4.1 How game interactions can be beneficial to children’s music learning As we observed everywhere, traditional music teaching already makes substantial use of games. Interactive content for learning therefore benefits greatly if the overall structure of learning content delivery is organized into patterns of increasing challenge and reward as is typical of many games. Applying games structures in this way helps to maintain children’s interest in the learning content they experience.
3.4.2 How software based game models can be applied to music, and how can this influence software design At the surface level, interactive emulation of the various game models found within flashcards appeals to music teachers, as they are already familiar with these as traditional teaching tools. If rewards from learning games can be linked to creative possibilities within the software, the appeal of the software increases. Children like being able to “own” the creative result of their learning, while teachers view the creative outcome as an appropriate outcome of the children’s exploration, thus relevance of the software to their teaching curriculum.
4. Iterative research 4.1 Observations and responses during development What are the practical issues for children involved in learning with music software games including their use in a networked environment and the relationship between attention span and average class time? Iterative research commenced with Groovy’s formal development in late 2005. A further 200 to 300 children from a broader range of geographical locale that with the original product design research were field-tested using the software from the very first alpha release right up until the final pre-release versions. Children were observed in both class groups and working alone and in pairs at computer workstations. The observations made in the field tests fed directly into refinements that were made continuously before the final products were released in 2007.
4.1.1 Use of voice instead of text It was commonly observed that the less text we used, the easier it was for children to use the software. While some children had good reading skills even at age 5, the variance found across groups even at age 12 meant that text could cause problems with class workflow – if one child struggled, the whole class could loose momentum. We found that children’s ability to follow verbal instructions often greatly surpassed their reading ability, and so decided to use voice instructions as much as possible
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Michael Avery This required over 800 separate voiceovers to be performed, recorded edited and integrated into each program. We also created a separate voiceover set for each language region. Initially this has only been for UK and US English, but we will need to create more sets as we localize the program into more languages including Japanese and German.
4.1.2 Buttons and labels Using less text also meant using large, colourful icons on buttons, with small, unimportant text labels.
4.1.3 Text in learning content Wherever it looked like text might be involved with the program interface, we tried hard to find an alternative graphical or verbal solution. However, some of the learning content actually needed to teach musical vocabulary – for example the recognition of musical terms and instrument names, so we had to fine tune the interactive and flashcard content to introduce these terms at the correct pace for each age level. We used plenty of animation and voiceover to achieve this.
4.1.4 Instruments menu in Groovy City
Figure 9: Instruments menu in Groovy City Although we wanted to use as little text as possible, there was a strong pedagogical reason for using text for this feature. In the instruments menu, the multitude of instrument labels that appear relate directly to the learning of instrument names children undertake beforehand in Groovy City’s Explore mode. As children will have learned the vocabulary before they use the menu, it is appropriate for these instrument names to appear here.
4.1.5 The text line
Figure 10: The text line The Text Line reinforces the connection between music and other topics based on a child’s existing written vocabulary, so again this does not clash with keeping as much text as possible out of the program interface. We also found that teachers could use the text line in order to set tasks where they could choose a level of vocabulary appropriate to their class.
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4.1.6 Optimal layouts for quiz games in learning content Over 500 sequences of interactive quiz games were developed for the Explore modes of the three Groovy programs. The initial design focus for these centered around the meanings inherent in the content itself, and these interactions were field tested at an early stage in order to find out how children would react to them. Problems for children with the early versions of the interactions included: 1. Too much information at once 2. Voiceover instructions too long or ambiguous 3. To many repetitive tasks, children would get bored 4. Children could work out a way to cheat 5. Musical timings to fast for students to follow As these issues were dealt with on a case-by-case basis and the material refined accordingly, it was observed that the quiz games became increasingly uniform in terms of layout, number of interactive objects and required user responses. Ultimately, all content layout and interaction in the final versions of the software was delivered within one or two of the following models: 1. Listening to sounds, music and introduction to musical terms and symbols 2. Drag-drop identification of objects 3. Drag-drop comparison or sorting of objects 4. Clicking on the correct object when briefly flashed on screen 5. Tapping the space bar in time with music 6. Drawing lines of correspondence between words 7. Moving notes onto or around a musical staff to match a word description (advanced) 8. Scripts combining all the above games in order to complete a piece of music Through constant testing and refining of the quiz games, we discovered that our iterative process established an interaction framework that worked for us with a wide variety of learning content. If we were to create more learning content in the future for Groovy, we would be able to reuse this vocabulary to select appropriate delivery mechanisms for a broad range of musical concepts.
4.1.7 Time Time proved to be a huge influence on software usability. Across all field test locations, average class time during which the software could be effectively used by a child (excluding class entrance, introduction, any required student pairing, conclusion and exit) averaged at about 35 minutes. Teachers expected the software to behave flawlessly and engage the children’s attention during this time. Especially during early field tests, Teachers found themselves having to continually solve problems for children including hardware problems, unexpected software bugs, explaining how a learning quiz worked, and listening to children’s creative results. With the notable exception of the latter, it was found that the more time the teacher was required to spend on all the other issues, the less effective and less attractive they perceived the software to be. If a teacher could get a class up and running smoothly, have the children fully engaged and still have enough time to make a cup of coffee during class, it was considered a miracle! Another important issue was for teachers to be able to quickly regain their control of the class when children were in the middle of using the software. It was observed that pulling children attention away from the computers often was often very difficult! In response to these issues, the software design was refined such that: 1. The learning content was divided into chapters, and the delivery speed of the content timed such that each chapter would run for approximately 25 minutes, leaving 10 minutes for students to engage with the Create mode in the software afterwards. 2. Lab control features were introduced, including the ability to freeze the entire lab with a single click. Screens would go black, and the children’s attention would magically be refocused on the teacher!
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4.1.8 Children’s writing ability When logging in to Groovy, each child must enter their name so their progress through the learning content can be stored. This often proved to be a major task for younger children , with it sometimes taking up to 10 minutes for the whole class to log in. When children worked in pairs, hybrid names were created – the challenge and outcome of which often proved to be as fun and rewarding as one of the challenge and reward activities within the actual learning content!
4.1.9 Abstract interfaces Early into the iterative research, children were observed using Create mode. The early version of Create used a floating menu from which they could choose from a palette of different sound colours. Dragging these onto a shape would change it’s sound. Amusingly, it was observed that once this floating menu was opened, children did not realize that it could be moved or turned off. As a result, students created songs in which they worked around the menu – leaving huge holes in their music! This was a valuable insight into how children do – or don’t - understand abstract interfaces. Any games developer should be aware of this before relying on younger children to make choices involving three graphic dimensions. As a result, we realised that we needed to rethink parts of the Groovy interface completely. We decided that floating menus or dialogue boxes should be avoided wherever possible. We adopted a stretchy, expanding set of drag- drop menus that could be used in place of most box menus or dialogs:
Figure 11: Stretchy expanding menus are easy for children to use
4.1.10 Ability to use a mouse Early field tests with Groovy were very frustrating, as we discovered that many young children and even some adults had a great deal of difficulty using a mouse. Many were almost unable to perform essential functions, such as dragging and dropping, and therefore unable to use the program. This problem required special attention. We were carefully observed as many children as possible to find what range of mouse skills they actually had. We found that while children’s movements were often slow and inaccurate, their gestures were still similar to adult mouse movements. Most of the problems children experienced occurred when they had to move their hand while at the same time holding down the mouse button. Typically, children would click on an object, but instead of knowing to immediately drag the object, would slowly release the mouse and fail to drag the object as intended. They would then feel frustrated, often saying something like ”oh, I was trying to move that and it escaped!” To get around this issue, we devised a solution which we called “collect stamping”. When the user clicks the mouse on an object that is supposed to be dragged, then after a small delay the object is automatically collected by the mouse and will move wherever the user moves the object. To release the object, the user needs only to click the mouse again, and the object is to be released at the position of the mouse – “stamping”. Finally, if the user has carefully positioned an object but does not realise that they need to click again to release it, this will happen automatically after a short delay. Children’s response to collect stamping was terrific, and we suddenly found ourselves with a program that children at all levels were able to use. Interestingly, we found that adults found they now had difficulty using the software, as the mouse now behaved in a way that they were not used to. The solution was to dynamically switch between drag dropping and collect stamping by using a delay
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Michael Avery timer. This works on the principle that an experienced user’s normally executes actions with a mouse in less than 600ms, as was observed by various field tests. As such, “normal” we made normal drag and drop mouse actions available before this time, and then Groovy would automatically switch to collect stamping afterwards. We now had a program that both children and adults could use, regardless of their ability to use a mouse.
4.1.11 Hidden features In keeping with the decision to make the children’s experience of the programs as simple and textfree as possible, all complex features that did not require children’s input were collected together and placed in one of two panels: 1. The Teacher panel, which could only be opened using a special set of modifier keys. This worked well, as we found that most children did not know how to find these. All of the program preferences would be housed here.
Figure 12: The teacher panel 2. Song Settings panel. This has settings that allow the user to use a variety of musical keys and metres in their song. This feature was important to teachers as it allowed children to create music based on multiple musical frameworks, rather than the “easy” framework provided by default. It was best that teachers should choose whether this feature should be used, and so it was made accessible only via modifier keys that are held down when a new song is created.
4.2 Adult appeal and cultural issues Initial responses to the three Groovy programs have shown interesting differences in perception between adults and children.
4.2.1 What is a game? Importantly, it has been observed that adults do not often see the Explore mode, with its interactive quizzes, as a game. Rather, adults simply see this, as a ‘academic’ learning mode and it is not as interesting to them as the Create mode. Children, on the other hand, most often prefer to spend more of their time with what they see as the Explore mode “game”. To them, Create mode appears at first to be simply an extension to the Explore game. It was noted that this perception changed quickly once children saw that they were able to share their songs competitively online at GroovyMusic.com.
4.2.2 Cultural issues It is intended that Groovy be used in many countries, so the consideration of cultural sensitivities in the program was a very important part of the design. Avatar designs were especially important, and these evolved continually as we tested adult and children’s responses to them before settling on the versions found in the final product, where 2 of each of the 8 avatars are Black, White, Asian and Hispanic.
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Michael Avery Other issues with avatar designs emerged in some regions that that were taken very seriously by adults. This included issues such as the colour of clothing or avatars lips, the amount of bare skin an avatar showed, and any suggestion of genitalia or sexual features. The voice expressions associated with each character were also of concern. While we were very careful in our initial design of the avatars, we still found ourselves having to make several expensive changes in order that users in all regions would not be offended.
4.3 Further research 4.3.1 Linking Groovy with an online community In late 2007, a community website, GroovyMusic.com, was developed to allow children to share their Groovy Songs online. As with the Groovy software, the website was field-tested with approximately 60 children before it was officially launched. Children could post their songs on the site, and then vote for their favourite songs. In this way, a “Groovy top 10” was formed. During these field tests, it was observed that the great majority of children found the idea of creating their own song and uploading it for competitive comparison at least, if not more, exciting than receiving rewards through the quiz game learning content. Children found online sharing and voting for songs is in this way to be more than just a game, and indeed more like a competitive sport!
4.3.2 Exploring further links between games and music within Groovy As mentioned, we have observed that children think of Groovy’s Explore mode as a game, whereas adults see Explore as more of an academic learning mode. We were curious to see what happened if we replaced the Explore mode with other types of game interactions. One idea was to integrate some classic arcade games within Groovy, such that musical shapes for use in create mode could be generated by playing games such as, pong, asteroids, or space invaders. In 2007 a new Groovy Prototype was created where musical versions of these games were created in Flash, and then linked to Groovy’s musical engine. Response to the prototype was enthusiastic, but not perceived as a suitable offering for future educational versions of the product. The classic arcade games, while fun, do not seem to offer any additional advantages to music learning over the existing Explore mode with its simple underlying game design of increasing challenge and reward. This seems the most useful model as it can absorb almost any learning content, and provides a simple vehicle for the delivery of new material in future versions of the products.
5. Conclusion Groovy Products have been very popular, and are now in use by thousands of children in schools worldwide. We attribute this success largely to our research focused design and iterative adjustment during product development. We have received many reports of children being able to use the software intuitively and with no assistance, and of even younger children’s attention being held for up to an hour at a time. We are very pleased that find that children repeatedly want to return to the program as they enjoy the learning interactions and creative outcomes so much. We are sure that our decision to remodel features according to children’s feedback during field-testing has greatly contributed to this success. What has surprised us most was just how much children think of Groovy as a game. While we originally set out only to develop an interactive learning environment that children would enjoy learning from, we found that by following their needs, we established a the classic game model in our design for the content delivery– the aforementioned system of constantly increasing challenge with reward.Groovy has shown us that games based learning can be applied to children’s learning even in an abstract field such as music, without compromising the integrity of the music topics being taught. The game model inherent in Groovy’s design should be applicable to interactive learning in almost any field. © Sibelius Software, a part of Avid
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Effects of Two Types of Sudoku Puzzles on Students’ Logical Thinking Youngkyun Baek1, Bokyeong Kim2, Seongchul Yun1, Donguk Cheong1 1 Korea National University of Education, South Korea 2 Department of Instructional Technology, University of Virginia, USA
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Abstract: This study aims to investigate the effects of Sudoku on students' logical thinking. Specifically, the author wants to measure the effects of playing a number-based Sudoku and a symbol-based version on player’s logical thinking, especially in terms of their cognitive developmental stages. The subjects for this study were 121 third and sixth graders in H Elementary School in Korea. Two classes were randomly selected from nine third grade classes and the other two classes from eight sixth grade classes. One of two classes in each grade received the number-based puzzle and the other class the symbol-based version. Thus a total of two classes, one for third grade and another one for sixth grade, received the number-based version. The other two classes received the symbol-based puzzle. The collected data were analyzed using the SPSS t-test procedure. The data analysis shows that the symbol-based puzzle has a significant effect on the logical thinking of students in the dimensional stage of cognitive development. The number-based puzzle has a significant effect on the logical thinking of students in the vectorial stage of cognitive development. This result leads us to the conclusion that a graphics puzzle and a number puzzle game may have better effects for the learning of students in the dimensional stage and the vectorial stage, respectively. This may have implications for developing and using games for students of those ages. Keywords: Logical thinking, Sudoku, puzzle, cognitive development stage
1. Introduction As many educators are showing interest in using games in classroom teaching, there have been studies focusing on the effects of game based learning. Among these effects, problem solving, decision-making, motivation, and the attitude of students have been main topics of concern. Specifically, the motivational aspects of game usage in the classroom have been the main rationale behind adopting games into teaching and learning. Motivating students in math class is a particular concern not only for teachers but also parents because of society’s generally accepted poor attitudes towards mathematical success (Kloosterman & Gorman, 1990). People remember difficulties and an impenetrability associated with mathematics. The widespread dislike of mathematics is easily communicated from non-teacher adults to children (Bragg, 2007). Thus, game use in math class for motivating students has become increasingly popular. Puzzles have long been used as a tool for promoting students’ interest in specific topics such as math. The puzzle game Sudoku is known for its contribution to improving logical thinking, attention, and reasoning of players. The number-based version of Sudoku is known as a game that helps students’ logical and inferential thinking, concentration, and immersion (Mepham, 2005). This study aims to investigate the effects of Sudoku on students' logical thinking. Specifically, the author wants to measure the effects of playing number-based Sudoku and a symbol-based variant on players’ logical thinking in terms of their cognitive developmental stages.
2. Effects of digital gaming on mathematics learning This study approaches game play in mathematics as a main activity for players’ learning, even though gaming can be seen as a reward or a supplement. Digital games have been used in mathematics learning since the start of the computer age. As an early study, the Plato project from 1973 yields positive results in relation to using computer games for math, and these results support initiation of further research into the field. When we have calculators and computers to do most of our math in everyday life, the learning model from a book and/or blackboard is not appropriate. This is clear when it comes to learning alternative and everyday arithmetic.
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Youngkyun Baek et al. Bragg (2006) explored games as a pedagogical approach to enhance mathematical learning. He assumed that a novel pedagogical approach, such as game play, might have a positive effect on students’ classroom engagement and attitudes towards mathematics. However, gaming benefits in mathematics were examined mostly in terms of learning concepts and strategies. Some examples are graphing (Dugdale, 1981) and transformational geometry (Edwards, 1991). These studies also reported positive results. Saxe and Bermudez (1996) examined children’s learning of mathematical concepts and strategies while playing games. While the benefits of playing educational games received some research attention, arithmetic practice through games is also recommended to help teachers deal with individual differences in children’s motivation levels and mathematical abilities. Johnson (2000) advocates using mathematical games with gifted children, who tend to invent new rules or increase the difficulty of games on their own. Researchers such as Wolpert (1996) also support games or other play to encourage automaticity of arithmetic skills by learning-disabled children. Several authors have written about the use of games to improve children’s basic number skills and enhance their motivation during mathematics learning (Bragg, 2003; Cutler, Gilkerson, Parrott, & Bowne, 2003; Gerdes, 2001). For example, dice games have been used to develop children’s counting skills and have produced significant improvement in enumeration and the construction of collections. Peters (1998) found that 5-year-olds who played math games in small groups supervised by parents made greater improvements in enumeration, knowledge of number sequence, and recognition of number patterns than children who did not play games. Games have potential advantages over other means of instruction in that they are highly motivating and they occur within a meaningful social context (Bragg, 2003). Most of the early mathematical computer games focused on drill and practice of simple number operations and concepts. Playing such games is an effective and motivating method of increasing fluency for many students. However, drill and practice is only one of many components of mathematics learning and can also be achieved via a variety of non computer-based methods (Klawe, 1998). However, drill exercises aim primarily at building fact and operation skills. Using games to practice number skills also greatly reduced the need for worksheets. Besides basic concepts and skills (Bahr & Rieth, 1989; Inkpen, 1994), motivational appeal and multiple representations of learning materials were factors on which studies focused computer games as powerful mathematical learning tools (Moreno, 2002; Quinn, 1994). Randel et al. (1992) reviewed that the most successful learning outcome is achieved in games with very specific required skills. This implies that it may be relevant to revisit games for learning more specific skills, for example in algebra on other such similar fields. Klawe (1998) stresses that computer games should be used for math activities that are otherwise hard to introduce in a classroom. These activities may include visualization, manipulation, symbolic representations, adaptive sequencing, feedback and meaningful, contextualized activities. Many researchers have also noted the logical thinking and social and computer literacy skills that game playing can support. For example, Higgins (2000) found that games, via their trial and error approach to overcoming challenges or obstacles, can support logical thinking. In this context, the Logical Journey of the Zoombinis showed another way for learning math through computer games (Hancock & Osterweil, 1996). The developers of this game share this ambition with other research projects in this area. Math is an integrated part of playing Logical Journey of the Zoombinis and encourages math-related reflection, thinking and discussion (Murray et al., 1998; Rubin et al., 1997). The Logical Journey of the Zoombinis is an adventure game that is bestowed with the ability to increase problemsolving as a basic part of its puzzle-based structure. The success criteria in adventure games are often identified as logical thinking and puzzle-solving (Cavallari et al., 1992; Egenfeldt-Nielsen & Smith, 2000). Games are often characterized by a trial-and-error approach to overcoming challenges or obstacles and commentators have suggested that these games can support the development of logical thinking and problem solving skills (Higgins, 2000). Games with this trait are mostly ‘strategy or adventure games’, which encourage students in exploratory quest-like scenarios with a high degree of control over their progress (Malone 1983; Russell 1990).
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Youngkyun Baek et al. Gaming is not always favored by children. Some children who enjoy individual work and the intellectual stimulus of traditional classroom instruction may dislike the collective interactions and time-demand of game play as an alternative medium for learning. One possible explanation for this discrepancy might be that the children’s previous familiarity with mathematics games as a pre-lesson warm-up activity or as a post-lesson reward may have undermined the effectiveness of games used as the main instructional focus (Bragg, 2006). However, in Ainley’s (1988) assertion, the most effective mathematical games are those in which the structure and rules of the game are based on mathematical ideas, and where winning the game is directly related to understanding these ideas. Another comment on this discrepancy is that games which focus exclusively on learning often have less focus on amusement and therefore may be less entertaining and less interesting to some students.
3. Methods The subjects for this study were 121 third and sixth graders in H Elementary School in South Korea. Two classes were randomly selected from nine third grade classes and the other two classes from eight sixth grade classes. One of the two classes from each grade received the number-based puzzle and the other class received the symbol-based version. Thus, two classes in total, one from third grade and another from sixth grade, received the number-based puzzle. The other two classes received the symbol-based puzzle. The collected data were analyzed using the SPSS t-test procedure.
3.1 Sudoku puzzle “Su” means number in Japanese. “Doku” refers to the single place on the puzzle board that each number can fit into. While the nine by nine Sudoku is the most common form of Sudoku, there are many variants of the game. Four by four Sudoku with two by two subsections is simpler, fun for younger audiences. Sudoku puzzles using letters and symbols, some even spelling words in their final solutions are also available. Other variants require computational skills. The first thing to do in tackling a Sudoku puzzle is to scan the rows and columns to see where a certain number might go, given the three constraints listed above.
Figure 1: Number-based Sudoku for beginners However, options for boxes are often not that easy to deduce. Another technique is to "pencil in" possibilities and then to follow the possible solutions that emerge until a conflict is found. Often these conflicts appear after two or three numbers are penciled in, and one can return to the start and try the next option until something clicks. The great thing about Sudoku is that every step makes the next step easier by narrowing possibilities. Every solved box makes filling the next box a little bit easier. The author transformed number-based Sudoku into symbol-based Sudoku using the following Figure 2.
Figure 2: Transformation table: Number to visual version
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Youngkyun Baek et al. Thus, a symbol-based Sudoku for this study has been set up as follows:
Figure 3: Symbol-based Sudoku for beginners
3.2 Test of logical thinking The subjects were administered the TOLT (Test of Logical Thinking) by Tobin and Capie (1981). TOLT-A was administered before the treatment and TOLT-B was administered after the treatment. The reliability coefficient was γ=80 (coefficient Alpha for Form A = .79; Form B = .83). The correlation between the two was .80. The number of items in TOLT-A and TOLT-B are 38 each. Both item number nine and ten has two points, resulting in a total score of 40.
3.3 Procedure One third grade class with students who are in the dimensional stage of development was treated with the number-based Sudoku and the other class was treated with the symbol-based Sudoku. This treatment was also applied to the two sixth grade classes. They played Sudoku three hours a week for five weeks. TOLT-A was administered before Sudoku play and TOLT-B after play. Three levels of Sudoku were applied. The beginner’s level is easy and included help. The intermediate level was more difficult and only included help from friends. The advanced puzzle was the most difficult and was self guided.
3.4 Data analysis The difference between the pre-test (TOLT-A) and the post-test (TOLT-B) was calculated. The mean of changed scores for each group of number-based and symbol-based Sudoku was t-tested in order to find the difference between the players’ dimensional stage and vectorial stage.
4. Results The t-test procedure of SPSS was applied to test the difference of the logical thinking between the number-based and the symbol-based Sudoku for players in the dimensional stage of cognitive development. The result of analysis is presented in Table 1. Table 1: t-test for the mean of the difference between two types of Sudoku for players in the dimensional stage of cognitive development Number
N 29
M 1.67
SD 2.00
Symbol
31
3.43
3.78
t
p
2.23
.030
According to Table 1, the logical thinking of players in the dimensional stages of cognitive development was more affected by the symbol-based rather than the number-based Sudoku. The mean of increase in logical thinking of players who played the number-based Sudoku is 1.67, whereas that of players who played the symbol-based Sudoku is 3.43. This difference is significant at
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Youngkyun Baek et al. the level of .05. This result shows that the symbol-based Sudoku is effective for the players in the dimensional stage of cognitive development. The same t-test procedure was applied to test the difference of the logical thinking between the number-based and the symbol-based Sudoku for players in the vectorial stage of cognitive development. The result of analysis is presented in Table 2. Table 2: t-test for the mean of the difference between two types of Sudoku for players in the vectorial stage of cognitive development Number Symbol
N 30 31
M 2.94 .44
SD 3.90 5.51
t
p
2.76
.008
According to Table 2, the logical thinking of players in the vectorial stages of cognitive development was more affected by the number-based rather than the symbol-based Sudoku. The mean of increase in logical thinking of players who played the number-based Sudoku is 2.94, whereas that of players who played the symbol-based Sudoku is .44. This difference is significant at the level of .01. This result shows that the number-based Sudoku is effective for the players in the vectorial stage of cognitive development.
5. Discussion and conclusion The symbol-based puzzle has a significant effect on the logical thinking of players in the dimensional stage of cognitive development. The number-based puzzle has a significant effect on the logical thinking of players in the vectorial stage of cognitive development. The results indicate that while the symbol-based puzzle is effective in enhancing the logical thinking of students in the dimensional stage of cognitive development, the number-based puzzle is effective in enhancing the logical thinking of students in the vectorial stage of cognitive development. This result leads us to the conclusion that a symbol-based puzzle and a number-based puzzle may have better effects for the learning of students in the dimensional stage and the vectorial stage, respectively. This may have implications for developing and using games for students of those ages. This result corresponds with that of Kim’s (2003) study stating that mathematical puzzles help students improve their thinking ability. In the dimensional stage, children are not accustomed to solving logical problems. However, they can solve them when given realistic objects so that they can apply logical operations to them. This period is between pre-operational and logical thinking, as Piaget (1988) mentioned. This stage is explained by Bruner (1964) as iconic representation stage in which cognition develops according to audio-visual mental images. In the vectorial stage, children can apply their abstract reasoning and understanding. They can do symbolic representation. They can think of invisible objects through verbal and/or symbolic expression. Also, they can manipulate objects in words. Thus, they are in abstract reasoning. The puzzles used in this study are number-based and symbol-based. When symbols are replaced with real images such as apples or attractive objects, the result may be different.
References Ainley, J. (1989). Playing games and real mathematics. Mathematics, Teachers and Children, Hodder and Stoughton, London, pp 239-248. Baek, Youngkyun, Kim, Bokyeong, Yun, Seongchul, & Cheong, Donguk (2008). Effects of two types of Sudoku Puzzles on Students' Logical Thinking, Paper presented at 2nd European Conference on Games Based Learning, 16-17 October 2008, Barcelona, Spain. Bahr, C. & Rieth, H. (1989). The effects of instructional computers games and drill and practice software on learning disabled students’ mathematics achievement. Computers in the Schools, Vol. 6, pp 3-4, 87101. Bragg, L. (2007). Students’ Conflicting Attitudes Towards Games as a Vehicle for Learning Mathematics: A Methodological Dilemma. Mathematics Education Research Journa, Vol. 19, No. 1, p 16. Bragg, L. A. (2003). Children’s perspectives on mathematics and game playing. In L. Bragg, C. Campbell, G. Herbert, & J. Mousley (Eds.), MERINO: Mathematics education research: Innovation, networking, th opportunity (Proceedings of the 26 annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 160-167). Geelong, Vic., 6-10 July. Bragg, L. A. (2006). Students’ impressions of the value of games for the learning of mathematics. In J. Novotná, H. Moraová, M. Krátká, & N. Stehlíková (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th annual conference of the
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Youngkyun Baek et al. International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 2, pp. 217-224). Prague, Czech Republic: PME. Bragg, L. A. (2006). The impact of mathematical games on learning, attitudes, and behaviours. Unpublished doctoral thesis, La Trobe University, Melbourne. Bruner, J. (1964). Some Theorems on instruction illustrated with reference to mathematics. In E. Hilgard (Ed.), Theories of learning and instruction, (pp. 306-335). Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education. Cavallari, J., Hedberg, J., & Harper, B. (1992). Adventure games in education: A review. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp 172-184. Cutler, K. M., Gilkerson, D., Parrott, S., & Bowne, M. T. (2003). Developing Math Games Based on Children’s Literature. Young Children, Vol. 58, No. 1, pp 22-27. Dugdale, S. (1981). Green globs: A microcomputer application for graphing of equations. CERL Report E-21, University of Illinois, Urbana. Edwards, L. (1991). Children’s Learning in a Computer Microworld for Transformation Geometry. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp 122-137. Egenfeldt-Nielsen, S., & Smith, J. H. (2000). Den digitale leg - om børn og computerspil. Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels Forlag. Gerdes, P. (2001). Exploring the game of “Julirde”: A mathematical-educational game played by Fulbe children in Cameroon. Teaching Children Mathematics, Vol. 7, pp 321-327. Hancock, C., & Osterweil, S. (1996). Zoombinis and the Art of Mathematical Play. Hands On!, 19(1). Higgins, S (2000). The logical zoombinis. Teaching Thinking, Vol. 1, No. 1. Inkpen, K. (1994). We have never-forgetful flowers in our garden”: girls’ responses to electronic games. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp 383-403. Johnson, E.W. (2000). “Time Engineers: A Multimedia Program for Secondary School Students,” in Proceedings of the 2000 ASEE National Conference. Kim, Y. S., & Kang, B. G. (2003). “Personal Characteristics and Design-Related Performances in a Creative Engineering Design Course”. Paper presented at the 6th Asian Design Conference. Tsukuba, Japan. Klawe, M. M. (1998). “When Does The Use Of Computer Games And Other Interactive Multimedia Software Help Students Learn Mathematics?” In NCTM Standards 2000 Technology Conference. Arlingtonm, VA. Unpublished manuscript. Kloosterman, P., & Gorman, J. (1990). Building motivation in the elementary mathematics classroom. School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 90, No. 5, pp 375-382. Malone, T (1983). Guidelines for designing educational computer programs. Childhood Education, Vol. 59, pp 241- 247. Mepham, M. (2005). The Penguin books of sudoku: The ultimate set. Toronto: Penguin. Moreno, R. (2002). “Who learns best with multiple representations? Cognitive theory implications for individual differences in multimedia learning”, Paper presented at World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia, & Telecommunications. Denver, CO. Murray, M., Mokros, J., & Rubin, A. (1999). Where's the Math in Computer Games? Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Peters, S. (1998). Playing games and learning mathematics: The results of two intervention studies. International Journal of Early Years Education, Vol. 6, pp 49-58. Piaget, J. (1988). Das Weltbild des Kindes. München: dtv (Original erschienen 1926: La représentation du monde chez l’enfant. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France) Quinn, C. N. (1994). Designing educational computer games. In K. Beattie, C. McNaught & S. Wills (Eds), Interactive multimedia in university education: Designing for change in teaching and learning, pp 4557,Amsterdam: Elsevier. Randel, J. M., Morris, B. A., Wetzel, C. D., & Whitehill, B. V. (1992). The Effectiveness of Games for Educational Purposes: A Review of Recent Research. Simulation & Gaming, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp 261-276. Rubin, A., O'Neil, K., Murray, M., & Ashley, J. (1997). What Kind of Educational Computer Games Would Girls Like? Paper presented at the AERA. Russell, G (1990). Computer Adventure Games and Education. Unpublished Med thesis. Monash University, Melbourne. Saxe, G. B. and Bermudez, T. (1996). Emergent mathematical environments in children’s games. In P. Nesher, L. D. Steffe, P. Cobb, B. Goldin and B. Greer (Eds), Theories of Mathematical Learning (pp. 51-68). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wolpert, G. (1996). Graduate Student Use of Technology to Assess and Tutor At-Risk Children. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, Vol. 18, No. 2.
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Funchal 500 years: Learning Through Role Play Games Ricardo Baptista1 and Carlos Vaz de Carvalho2 1 Escola da APEL, Funchal, Portugal 2 Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal
[email protected] [email protected]
Abstract: It is commonly accepted that the educational environment has been undergoing considerable change due to the use of the Information and Communication tools. But learning depends upon actions such as experimenting, comprehending, visualizing, abstracting and demonstrating, by means of which the learner succeeds in constructing his own knowledge. It is not always easy to achieve these actions through current distance learning approaches. Since we live in a society that demands creativity, globalization, responsibility, autonomy and the ability to deal with virtuality and new technologies, Role Playing Games (RPG) may well develop such capacities. The creation of an interactive computer game with RPG characteristics, about the 500th anniversary of the city of Funchal, the capital of Madeira Island, is invested with compelling educational/pedagogical implications, aiming clearly at teaching history and social relations through playing. By incorporating the concept “games to teach”, players will interpret different characters in different settings/scenarios, experiencing adventures, meeting challenges and reaching multiple and simultaneous goals in the areas of education, entertainment and social integration along the first 150 years of the history of Funchal. Through this process they will live and understand all the social and historical factors of that age.
Keywords: Historical environment, interactive game, learning, role play game
1. Introduction Currently, any reflection on education and training systems should be based on an analysis of the changes imposed by the use of the computer without forgetting the influence of all technologies related to cyberspace and virtual environments (Rosini, 2007). These technologies have various types of influences on human cognitive functions, such as memory, imagination, perception and reasoning. However there is still the need to prepare formal education for the use of these new generations of learning tools, but also to develop them for learner autonomy, cooperation, creativity and critical analysis. Learning with these tools should emphasize viewing, hearing, feeling, experimenting and interpreting (Tobaldini, 2003).
2. Computer games and learning The definition of computer game combines the more comprehensive concept of “game” with the use of computers. The “game” concept represents a structured or semi-structured activity with goals that players try to achieve and set of rules governing its operation (Game, n.d.). The associated concept of "play" relates to the interaction with the game itself. A game can be instantiated for learning, entertainment or recreation as it involves mental (and sometimes physical) stimulation and develop practical skills – games forces, much more than books, movies or music, to decide, to choose and to define priorities. In games, the rewards are a major part of the universe, whether be it translated in game entities (more life power, access to new levels, obtains spells and equipment, etc.) or even as a neurological impulse. Comparatively, in real life, humans do not achieve so easily the rewards obtained in the complex world of games. Another important aspect in the game concept is the notion of the conceptual space where the action takes place. This means that any of the various actions in the game have a meaning that may not have logic outside this context (Dodig-Crnkovic, 2005). Computer games that began to be based solely on text description, without any image, have steadily developed evolving aesthetics and environment design that come ever closer to real or pseudo-real contexts. Furthermore, the computer game today is mostly supported by networked operations (Mealha, 2002). Games are now part of modern culture. (Oblinger, 2006)
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Ricardo Baptista and Carlos Vaz de Carvalho The use of computers games for learning is beneficial because children and youngsters learn new concepts, are encouraged to improve skills through competition and are taught basic decision-making and problem-solving skills. Nevertheless, it requires that stakeholders have the creativity, autonomy, responsibility, and ability to deal with virtuality and new technologies but also to develop skills related to the game context and play. The games and play may be effective environments, not because they are fun but because they are immersive, require the player to make frequent, important decisions, have clear goals, adapt to each player individually, and involve a social network (Van Eck, 2006). The games have several included attributes that are associated with the way the apprenticeship is carried out. These attributes place the player immersed in effective environments of apprenticeship such as (Oblinger, 2006):
Social: games are often social environments, sometimes involving large distributed communities.
Research: those who play digital games are often required to read and seek out information to master the game.
Problem solving: knowing what information or techniques to apply in which situations enables greater success, specifically, problem solving.
Transfer: games require transfer of learning form other venues, life, school, or others games.
Experiential: games are inherently experiential, where who play games engage multiple senses. For each action, there is a reaction. Feedback is swift. Hypotheses are tested, and users learn from results.
Role Play Games (RPG) is characterized by action strategy and specific contexts of representation where each player takes on a specific role according to rules set by the master. The example of a RPG presented in Tobaldini (2003) contextualizes three major components: the environment (context where the story unfolds), the history (the set of predefined or open actions) and the systems of rules. This interaction between the player and the game, frequently open and defined only during the game, presents the RPG as a cultural interaction mean, where actions and decisions happen through the environmental and cultural assimilation. The interaction of the players is based on a spirit of discovery / learning.
3. Funchal - 1508 by RPG We’ve created a computer game, with RPG features, representing the 500 years of the setup of the city of Funchal, the capital of Madeira Island. This game took a strong educational aspect searching for a reinforcement of thinking and creativity on learners/players. Players interpret different characters in historical scenarios, living adventures, overcoming challenges and achieving multiple and simultaneous objectives. Players achieve progress by applying their knowledge (and acquiring new one) crossing several topics, such as History, Geography and Economics. This multidisciplinarity is embedded in the scenario and challenges as players must relate with other actors, understand the logic of social and hierarchical relationships, explore natural and imported resources, develop trading skills (according to the time of the play) and become aware of dangers (pirates, for instance) and rewards (festivities, for instance) of the epoch. This RPG game, as a socio-cultural and knowledge tool, can be potentially explored by school communities (students and teachers) of various levels of education, more concretely for the young persons of the secondary teaching. But it is also being driven and supported by a technology platform (www.500anos.com) that was setup as part of the celebration of the fifth century of the setup of the city. Not only teachers and students can benefit from the Funchal RPG but any interested person can explore the reality of that epoch. Furthermore there is the possibility of providing further development to the RPG through thematic forums and blogs (commenting incorrect historic statements, for instance) and uploading files and photos relating to the city development over time. These collaborations are moderated and validated by a group of teachers that was formed and that led to the creation of a school club called APEL 500 years. In the short term, the development of this technological project envisages the construction of a prototype of the history of Funchal referring to the first 150 years of existence, successively extending the period of history in the following years.
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Ricardo Baptista and Carlos Vaz de Carvalho This period is identified by the beginning of the colonization of the land discovered in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, the Madeira Island, with the inherent difficulties of the mountainous orography and of an uninhabited land but rich in natural resources that could be enjoyed by the first colonists. With a strong presence of the catholic church, with priests and others religious orders, the city started by small settlements on the slope of the bay of the Funchal and gradually was developed until, in 1508 it gained the royal letter, like recognition of his social greatness and wealth in the commerce of the sugar. With the help of the Kingdom parliament, structures of government of the new overseas lands were created, with the figure of the Main Captain (in Portuguese: “Capitão Donatário”), administrator and representative of the crown. This character in this boarded period was one of the navigators who discovered the land, and his children were the heirs of this title in the next centuries. The politics and strategy of the island depended very much on these men who were allying to the wish of carrying out the kingdom in the Atlantic. At that time the survival and resource development depended also on the establishment of secure routes for national and international commerce (as example: cereals, sugar and wine). The character elements of the RPG are Player Character (PC), game master, rules’s system, scenery, characters, woof and Non-Player Characters (NPC) [Tobaldini2006] e [Bolzan2003]. The PC is “Capitão Donatário”, element that connects with everything and controls other characters. The NPCs will be the colonists, peasants, fishermen, slaves, blacksmiths, merchants, sailors, soldiers, riders, warriors, priests, friars, nuns, and other necessary elements to the development of the city. Another element of the RPGs is the narrator. He reports the evolution carried out by the characters and presents an important moment (reports and historical videos), "cut-scenes". This historical mark fitted in the context of teaching apprenticeship that is the play must be assumed like a pedagogic mark. At that moment, a video will report (teaches) important facts. Therefore the player loses temporarily the control of the play, continuing it subsequently. The appearance of this pedagogic marks means that players (pupils) have reached the objectives defined. Another relevant aspect in RPG is that the play is not linear (there is only the requirement to reach some objectives) so the game will never be the same every time one plays. However when considering the construction of this type of play, a difficulty factor was included so that players have the sensation that he could perform better any task (100% level). Therefore he is attracted to repeating and trying other forms of reaching the objectives. The sceneries of the play can be open or closed. In the first ones the location is the token of characterization in the map of the world, the historical period, altitudes, bio-geographical aspects, flora, types of lands and references (images) like forests, mountains and deserts. The second ones contain a bigger detail of the scenery and of the architecture, with the characterization of the location, historical period, type of construction, inhabitants, description of the construction, architectural details, and altitudes references. We have, for instance: temples, cities, castles, palaces. The space of interaction of the players a panoramic sight of Funchal. Here are presented the main zones of, as well as the remaining events as the play unrolls (for instance, the movement of ships, sea constructions and fires, storms, etc.). The construction of several buildings and other elements referring to concrete locations will be available for placement by the player. However, to close up to the historical reality, the more correct locations will give the player more advantages in several powers. Player interaction with the available objects (unities) is fundamental to acquire new skills in an evolving process throughout the play. Therefore, the main funcionalidades of the play will be centered in the objects / unities created. Another important aspect relates to the player being able to build the principal points while the narrator, through artificial intelligence of the game, builds the involving context. All the tasks carried out with success in the play will have a reward reverted in something significant for the evolution of the.
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Ricardo Baptista and Carlos Vaz de Carvalho The player also will have a set of secondary objectives that have no influence on achieving the main objectives, those that produce the newspaper commentaries stages. The skills of the player are associated to these secondary objectives for a process of gaining rewards. An inventory allows and displays the skills accumulated of a certain type. This set of skills will be important in determined moments of the play when there will be need of going round some more negative or compromising situation regarding the success of the objectives, or even reaching determined punctuation to achieve evaluative jumps. Another very important characteristic in the context of the RPG is the tutorial. In the initial phase of apprenticeship of the characteristics and functions of the game, the players can tutorials to learn step by step, how the game works. This tutorial shortens the initial feeling that the player does not know anything about the play. This initial tutorial provides a basic example where it is not taken into account the consequences of his options. When advancing in the game, players will have to apply this knowledged. The design of the tutorial interface takes also into account where to put the most important things for an efficient game play. The tutorial uses another RPG base concept that are the Campaigns, which follow a connecting thread (history) with concrete objectives to achieve the newspaper commentaries. The introductory videos of the history allow to a player to have the notion of the real facts and assume the control of the pretended evolution. Each character can have his avatar, graphic representation of user in virtual fact that can vary from a sophisticated model 3D up to a simple image, which means in the context of the play a personalization of the player.
4. Interactive itinerary of the play When the design document was carried out it was necessary to think about the limitations that the play will be have in relation to the needed creativity and art for constructing the itineraries. This analysis of the limitations in what it refers to the implementation of the design is a major phase of the implementation of the play. The “itinerary for the new media is more than a task, it is a process of great consequence, that was still made more intricate having in mind the infinite variables in the realization of a hypermedia work, with the volume of content” (GOSCIOLA, 2003). The itinerary of the RPG was defined with five possible campaigns that include 150 years, between 1420 to 1570. Each one represents a time of the island colonization, with different intervenients and factors that influenced the evolution of the town. The campaigns are defined in harmony with the historical analysis, always with the character hero, “Capitão Donatário”, commanding the destinies of the space of the play. Objectives are defined in each campaign, for instance, in the first campaign the main objective is the construction of the essential unities for survival (house of the captain and of the colonists, the religious chapels and sea port). For the construction of these unities it is important that the main character acquires several available resources, for instance, through forest cutting and gathering ores (iron, stone) or land exploration. Simultaneously, agriculture and livestock provide resources for the consumption of the population. Initially, the arrival of a ship to the port of shelter was the principal source of supply, since it was the King’s support (material, human and financial) to the process of colonization of the island. There is the establishment of several professions: blacksmiths, merchants, farmers, and others that were established near the sea. Along the campaigns the main character was able to acquire several items and skills that made possible his survival and of the group it is responsible for. He must face hunger, thirst, acquisition of foods (from fishing, creation of animals, harvesting), exchange and trade, and create wells. The next campaigns face the great times of production and commerce of the wheat and of the sugar (second, third, and fourth campaigns) and finally the necessity to defend the coast from pirate' attacks
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Ricardo Baptista and Carlos Vaz de Carvalho (fifth campaign). Along these campaigns other objectives are connected with the mercantile commerce, the finances, the taxes and the imports and exports of products sea road. Achieving these objectives leads the great transformation of the settlement that led to his elevation to the city in 1508. The main character also depends on NPCs that will follow his orders for realization of tasks. Since secondary objectives defined during the development of the play will have credit with the discovery of the medicinal existent flowers in the flora original from the island and other intrinsic aspects. These objectives aim at the increase in value of the capacities and experience of the character itself and not of the community that he leads. For the player the realization of the tutorial campaign is very important: it provides the principal indications of the mechanics of construction of chapels, of the creation of the buildings and of new houses and the main way to increase the population. To detail the dynamic of the construction process we can exemplify: the construction of a chapel / church / cathedral needs an area of construction (settlement) and the correct or approximate location (face to his true location) will give added points and other benefits. To build this religious building will be necessary a definite number of priests or missionaries and will allow a certain number of other generic buildings. The first house of the colonist has the same characteristic, that is, it allows the construction of other buildings turn. The construction of dwellings / constructions has a cost: construction (many people) and (hard-working) pedestrians who will be associated. The rule of percentage of wealth (collection on produced, sold and exported products) can be defined by the captain recipient or under influence of the Parliament of the King or by his emissaries.
5. Development game Technologically, the RPG is based on the RPG Maker VX. This is a 2D game engine that enables you to create your original role playing game without any special knowledge. The choice of engine tool into account the fact that is the simple process to improvement, first, creates a map which becomes the stage of your adventure. Secondly, to setup the players, Non Person Characters (NPCs), items, magic and all the things we need to play the RPG. Finally, we can complete our very own RPG by creating the events and placing them around the map. The language support is Ruby, Object Oriented Programming (OOP), with specified classes for games, Ruby Game Scripting System (RGSS). There for this tool not free, this support the possibility of to burn it on to a disc and give it or distribute it over the internet for other gamers. This possibility is very important on learning context, because the targets of this work are younger of schools, and not all. The work is based on software developer process Rapid application development (RAD). The methodology involves iterative development, and the construction of prototypes (RAD, 2008). The development is iterative with three phases: Design Game, development and testing prototype. This “modus operandi” is perfect for construction this game, because it´s evolution depends of the properties of various elements like: players, scenarios, actions and evolution of them, which we can charge every moment and obtain the result. This tool, RPG Maker VX, also permits integrate different media as video, wave and image, that are important to input some information, tutorial of something interesting for learning.
6. Conclusions This RPG game objective is to demonstrate how to use the games on learning like a social-cultural and knowledge tool. The learning must be centered in the pupil, when the intervenient principal is making it into his way itself of formation and acquisition of knowledge. This active form of construction of the knowledge is projected well in the play RPG, because the principal character, hero, builds his history with the acquired knowledge and with the experience also acquired with the feedback of the interaction with play and the contexts where it will play.
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Ricardo Baptista and Carlos Vaz de Carvalho In multidiscipline context of themes that has the play RPG Funchal - 1508, his addressees, young persons of the secondary teaching, will be able to increase his competences and knowledge on the history of his city, valuing his citizenship and connection to his roots, knowing his history. The use of computer´s games is not a fun way of learning, but well an effective environment of learning that player take decisions have objectives, adaptation to the individuality of each one, as well as it wraps also the social aspect that is to be tied to the net.
References Bolzan, R. F. F. A. (2003). O aprendizado na Internet Utilizando Estratégias de Roleplaying Game (RPG). Unpublished Doutoramento, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis. Dodig-Crnkovic G. Larsson & T.(2005). “Game Ethics - Homo Ludens as a Computer Game Designer and Consumer”. International Review of Information Ethics. Vol. 4 (12/2005). pp. 19-23. Van Eck Richard (2006). “Digital Game-Based Learning: It´s Not Just the digital Natives Who are Restless”. EDUCAUSE Review, vol. 41, nº 2 (March/April 2006). http://www.educase.edu/LibraryDetailPage/666?ID=ERM0620. Game. (n.d). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:24, September 02 2006 from http://pt.wikipedia.pt/jogo Gosciola Vicente (2003). Roteiro para Novas Mídias – Do Game à TV Interactiva. Senac editora. São Paulo. Mealha O. (2002). Ludicidade and New Technologies. In: 9 th International Conference Ludoteca. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. Lisbon. Oblinger D. (2006).Simulations, Games, and Learning. Retrieved 12:00, March 19, 2008 from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI3004.pdf. Rapid application development. (2008, March 21). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:47, March 24, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rapid_application_development&oldid=199777300. Rosini A. M. (2007). The New Technologies of Information and the Distance Education, Thomson Learning. Tobaldini Michele A. Brancher Jacques & D. (2003). An RPG Computadorizado and Educational Missions Contextualizadas with their environments. In: XV Computer Seminar, San Francisco.
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Open Source Portals for Online Simulation Games? The Computer-Supported Business Game “Go4C” for Realistic IT and Business Management Training Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar Technische Universität München, Garching b. München, Germany
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Abstract: The education and training of IT in interrelation to business management at universities is seen more and more critical in the last years because of often delivered ‘inactive’ knowledge and the lack of reference to reality. By contrast surveys of companies and management executives disclose a strong need for IT managers with a wide range of knowledge and skills: Holistic competencies for analysis of business values, (strategic) decision making in strong time restrictions, thinking in processes, and in particular the ability for communication, discussion and presention. One effective way for the instruction of sustainable and future-oriented decision making is the work with computer-supported business games. Realistic web-based business games for IT and management training, however, can reach a high complexity and in most of the cases demand various elements like user administration, authorization, community tools and a dynamic business model of the simulated company. Hence, a ‘from scratch’ development of an online platform for business games is a very laborious and time-consuming process. Existent open source portals can provide a powerful basis for the online business game development. Portals deliver a solution for the aggregation of content and individual applications and moreover offer a single point of contact, customized views and even collaboration features via an easy-to-use web interface. Because of the disclosed source code of open source portal projects, the portal features can be enhanced with the requirements of a business game like the business model or the specific views on business ratio systems or game management tools. These applications are plugged into the portal as so called portlets or portlet applications. On the basis of academic research the chair for information systems of Prof. Helmut Krcmar at the TU München in cooperation with the management consultancy Accenture designed, implemented and evaluated a web-based, computer-supported business game for IT management training for students and entrants in IT management. The current online version of the business game is totally integrated into an open source portal structure. “Go4C” regards a holistic approach for the strategic and operational IT- and business planning, controlling and monitoring. The fundamental training aims are derived from current studies and interviews with executives of the first and second leadership level in different industries in connection with learning theory, didactical principles and multimedia integration. In our paper we give insights into the conceptual and technical framework of the business game “Go4C” on the basis of the “Liferay” open source portal. Moreover the paper delivers an overview of the different game concepts and the didactical framework behind the business game. Finally we present first evaluation results of the practical trainings with students and executives in IT strategy. Keywords: Computer-supported business game, open source portals
1. Introduction The education and training of IT and business management at universities is seen more and more critical in the last years. Empiric studies and statements of IT consultants confirm this development. Moreover surveys of companies and management executives disclose a strong need for IT managers with a wide range of knowledge and skills: holistic competencies for analysis of business values, (strategic) decision making in strong time restrictions, thinking in processes, and in particular the ability for communication, discussion and presention (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2007; Tagliavini et al., 2003; Murphy, 2000; Feeny/Willcocks, 1998). Educational institutions, however, in many cases still insist on passive learning forms such as lectures or presentations. Traditional learning scenarios provide the learner with necessary expert knowledge, however they mostly lack in the impartation of understanding the complexity of companies and their
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar organizational structures or specific decision training for problem solving (Reinmann-Rothmeier and Mandl, 1999). Also the knowledge transfer to real life situations only seldom succeeds (Mandl, Gerstenmaier and Bangerter, 2000). One effective way for the instruction of sustainable and future-oriented decision making is the work with realistic business games. These types of strategic game follow the constructivist paradigm with ideas like problem complexity, linked learning contents and a generated learning format, which are suggested to create meaningful learning environments (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University, 1992). The learners become part of a simulated company environment and learn how to deal with highly complex processes and systems. By this means they get enabled to prove more efficient communication and organization structures and enhance or sharpen their social competence through modified social patterns of behavior (Kriz, 2001). Business games – originally used for the prearrangement of warlike operations (Kern, 2003) – have established themselves very much also for the training of decision making in the context of business management during the last decades. Zack (Zack, 1998) notes that reaching a practical level of knowledge about systems integration requires a sufficiently complex real-world environment. In his opinion simulations of the real world are a good choice, because sending students to the field offers realism, but lacks of control over content, context and timing of the experience. This often results in problems. With the help of simulations the students learn not only about the technical material but also human relationships, communication and collaboration skills. Business games and computer-supported simulation games look back on a long historical evolution. The Indian combat game “Chaturango” which has been developed about 1000 b.c. as well as the game “Chess” from Persia are considered to be the ancestor of all business games (Geilhardt/Mühlbradt, 1995). Two important characteristics of these games can still be seen as the fundament for the use of business games: Making decisions without any material risk and Delivering a better understanding of the real world After Kern (2003) the first economic business games date back to the beginning of the 20th century and have their roots in the case studies method, developed at the Harvard Business School (Kern, 2003). Instead of case studies, however, business games particularly with regard to strategic planning deliver a higher sense of realism because of the permanently dynamic change of the situation (Arentzen, 1997). Since a few decades business games are supported with computers to cope with the often very high complexity of business models. In the view of several authors three elements built the prerequisites for computerized business management games: Ratio systems in business economics Findings in operations research and systems theory and Improvements in electronic data processing (cf. (Geilhardt/Mühlbradt, 1995; Kern, 2003)). Whereas a board game in many cases can be implemented comparatively fast and easy as soon as the game concept has been created, a computer-supported business game, however, often requires an interdisciplinary team for the different fields of content and technical implementation, like e.g. business understanding, knowledge about business games, simulation modeling, user interface design, programming or administration. Even more features have to be taken into consideration for an over-all online available and administrated business game. These are features like user administration, rights management, creation and management of the web pages and communication and collaboration tools. Because of this the development process of online simulation games often turns out to be conceptually and technically demanding, time consuming and expensive. Hence, the development of an online game from scratch is barely practicable with an overseeable amount of finances and human resources.
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar For the computer-supported business game „Go4C“ we used open source software to reduce the time and effort for the game development process. Existing open source portals therefore deliver a huge amount of tools and functions to meet the requirements of an online game environment.
2. Open source portals Portals in brief can be described as “Web-enabled applications that integrate and deliver information” (Richardson, 2004).They provide a solution for aggregating content and applications from various systems for the presentation to the user. The users benefit of the single point of access via a web interface to the information and applications they need and use (Gurzki et al., 2004; Linwood/Minter, 2004). A portal typically provides content for individual users or groups of users and allows them to customize their user interface by including or removing information or applications to be displayed on their portal page (Klaene, 2004). Abdelnur and Hepper (2003) summarize their view of a portal as follows: “A portal is a Web-based application that commonly provides personalization, single sign-on, and content aggregation from different sources, and it hosts the presentation layer of information systems. Aggregation is the action of integrating content from different sources within a Web page. A portal may have sophisticated personalization features to provide customized content to users. Portal pages may have different sets of portlets creating content for different users.” (Abdelnur/Hepper, 2003)
Present.
The so called “portlets” or “portlet applications” use basic services such as layout management, security management, integration and transaction management, etc. provided by the portal software (Figure 1). Portlets in the technical view are individual Java classes, managed by a portlet container, that processes requests from a user and generate dynamic content for display inside a portal (Abdelnur/Hepper, 2003; Linwood/Minter, 2004). Portlet applications are standard J2EE web applications or web components which include portlet classes, templates (JSPs, Velocity templates, etc.), business logic in form of Java Beans or Enterprise Java Beans (EJBs), the portlet.xml portlet deployment descriptor, the web.xml web application deployment descriptor and other required resources such as additional Java libraries, images, etc. (Gurzki/Hinderer, 2003) End devices Web browser
WAP browser
Other
Application server Access services HTTP server Portal software
Layout management Personalization
Portlet applications Portlet API
Application
Portal basic services
Custom portlet application Custom portlet application
Content management Search and Navigation Collaboration Other services
Custom portlet application
Security management Single sign-on Transaction services
Data
Integration services
Back-end system
External Data sources
External User mgmt
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Figure 1: Reference architecture for portal software. Source: Gurzki/Hinderer (2003)
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar Typically, a single portlet generates only a markup fragment of the entire portal page for the user. A portal usually adds a title, control buttons and other decorations to the markup fragment generated by the portlet. This new fragment is called a portlet window. The portal aggregates portlet windows into a complete portal page (Abdelnur/Hepper, 2003). Elements of a portal page are depicted in Figure 2. Decorations and controls
M m H
M m H
M m H
Portal page
Portlet fragment Portlet window
Figure 2: Elements of a portal page. Source: Abdelnur/Hepper (2003) Users access a portal by using a client device such as a web browser or a web-enabled mobile phone. Upon receiving the request, the portal determines the list of portlets that need to be executed to satisfy the request. The portal invokes the portlets through the portlet container. The portal creates the portal page with the fragments generated by the portlets and the page is returned to the client where it is presented to the user (Abdelnur/Hepper, 2003). The portal server is responsible for taking the content from the portal container, building a portal page with the content generated by the portlets and sending it to the client device (e.g. a web browser) where it is displayed to the user. Moreover the portal server handles the layout, aggregation of portlets, personalization and security (Abdelnur/Hepper, 2003; Linwood/Minter, 2004). Due to proprietary APIs for portlets in the past years, the interoperability between portals and portlets was very limited. In order to overcome this disadvantage, the JSR (Java Specification Request) 168 standard was introduced by the Java Community Process (JCP) group within Sun Microsystems (JCP, 2005). The JSR 168 standard is specified in the Java Portlet Specification in order to enable interoperability between portlets and portals (Abdelnur/Hepper, 2003). These facts underline the importance of portlet development as a part of web engineering nowadays. An overview of portal software, currently existing on the market, is provided for example by Vlachakis et.al. (2005).
3. Liferay enterprise portal
Liferay Enterprise Portal (LEP) is an open source portal, that helps organizations to collaborate more efficiently by providing a consolidated view of diverse applications (Liferay, 2007). It “is the world's leading open source portal platform now going on its eighth year of development” (Alexander, 2005). LEP is designed to deploy portlets that adhere to the portlet API according to JSR 168 (Abdelnur/Hepper, 2003). It is built upon J2EE technology (Singh/Stearns/Johnson, 2002) and provides a number of useful features:JSR 168 (Portlet API) Compliant. Any JSR 168 compliant portlet can be deployed within LEP. Content Management System (CMS). LEP provides out-of-the-box content management functionality. This is realized by a set CMS portlets, giving the organization a flexible templating tool, built on top of XSLT technologies (Tidwell, 2001). Themes. LEP provides a hot deployable theme architecture allowing changing the look-and-feel on the entire portal (not only CMS pages) on the fly without modifying the code. Single Sign-on (SSO). LEP provides a built in connector for Central Authentication Service (CAS). This enables writing custom hooks to integrate other SSO engines.
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar
Application Server Agnostic. This means LEP is not dependent on a specific application server. LEP works also on lightweight servlet containers like Jetty and Tomcat or on J2EE compliant servers like Borland ES, JBoss+Jetty/Tomcat, JRun, OracleAS or WebSphere. Platform independent. As a Java application, LEP is independent on a specific operating system and runs on BSD, Linux, Solaris, Mac OS X and Windows. Database Agnostic. LEP uses Hibernate (Bauer/King, 2004) as the object-relational mapping tool for the persistence layer which enables pluggable databases (DB2, Firebird, Hypersonic, InterBase, JDataStore, MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL, SAP, SQL Server). Internationalization. LEP can display and receive input in multiple languages like Chinese, Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Italian or Japanese. Personalization. Portlets can be rearranged to the unique preferences of a user or a community as well as move things up, down and all around. Administration. LEP allows administrators to manage users, groups, and roles through a user interface. Roles signify permissions that a group or a user can be bound to. Out-of-the-Box Portlets. LEP provides many useful portlets: Blogs, Calendar, Document Library, Journal, Image Gallery, Mail, Message Boards, Polls, RSS, and Wiki. Community Based Portlets. Many of the bundled portlets are community aware. For example, if a calendar event is added to the “HR community”, then the users of “Marketing Community” would not be aware of it.
4. Liferay Enterprise Portal as environment for a business game The business game “Go4C” was realized as a web application in the Liferay Enterprise Portal environment. It implements the client-server (Tanenbaum, 2003) three-tier architecture (Buschmann et al., 1996; Yang, 2001). Game users like seminar members or seminar managers access the business game with a standard web browser (e.g MS Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, etc.). The client (web browser) belongs to the presentation tier of the three-tier architecture: The application (business) tier of the IT Management Business Game is represented by: Liferay Enterprise Portal (LEP) powered by JBoss J2EE application server. Powersim Software Development Kit (SDK) as simulation engine for the simulation of systemdynamics models; .NET Powersim Connector providing the web service interface to the Powersim SDK. LEP provides the web application framework for building the web based IT Management Business Game. The game functionality is realized as a number of JSR-168 compliant portlets deployed and running inside of LEP container. The Powersim SDK enables performing business simulations based on a Powersim game model. As the SDK is available only for Microsoft environment and does not provide a reliable integration to J2EE platform, a middleware solution is needed for achieving connectivity. That solution became the .NET Powersim Connector that enables integration of Powersim SDK and LEP via the web service (Apel, 2005) interface. The data tier of the IT Management Business Game is represented by the ralational MySQL database (http://www.mysql.com). The communication of LEP with the database is realized via JDBC and the communication of the .NET Powersim connector via ODBC interface. Figure 4 illustrates the predetermined system environment of the business game “Go4C”.
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s Baume, Yuriy Tarano ovych and Helmut Krcm mar Matthias
Figure 4: 4 System en nvironment of o the IT Man nagement Bu usiness Game. Source: Taranovych (2 2007)
5. The e business s game “G Go4C” The bussiness game "Go4C" is a strategic ga ame which deals d with the e complex in nterrelationsh hips of IT decision ns and corp porate strate egy. The ga ame represe ents a way to realize the aforem mentioned challeng ges for the CIO in the enttire companyy in a didactic cal context.
5.1 Co onceptual framework f of the business game The bussiness game links the diffferent conten nt areas and decision ran nges into an entire game concept. Figure 5 illustrates th he different components c ess games´ conceptual c frramework. of the busine on “Improved IT Management Train ning” marks the goal forr the business game On the top the visio ach the goall, requiremen nts and conttent are need ded. The content is derived from development. To rea anagement theory and re esearch worrk about the CIO and his field of acctivities. As didactical d both ma method a business game with a realistic story s and a learning sce enario was identified be ecause a e of the market situation s resu ulted in a lac ck for IT orien nted businesss games. former evaluation Vision Imp proved IT Management Training T
Re equirements and Content
pla n
CIO Sim. communicate
CIO Concept & Research
te ua al ev
te era op
build
Management Theory
Didactics
Story & Learning Scenario Technical Infrastructure / System m Dynamics
Figure 5: 5 The conce eptual framew work for “Go4C”
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar In the centre of the conceptual framework the abstract action plan for the management team is concentrated in five consecutive process steps: Evaluate: In every game round the participants analyze the actual state of their company with business ratios and diagrams in their individual management information system (MIS). Plan: From the understandings of their company analysis they derive their next steps and concrete their decisions. Communicate: The decisions have to be discussed in the management team Build: After the discussion and decision making the goals for the medium-term and long-term planning and continuation of the company have to be set. Operate: Moreover short-term decisions for the functional management have to be concreted and realized. The business model was designed and implemented in “System Dynamics” (more information in (Sterman, 2000; Forrester, 1989, 1991)) and actually includes more than 2000 dynamic calculated variables.
5.2 Organization and products in the game Go4C enables the student group to immerse into the role of the corporate management of a car bank. The modeled company, the TechniCar Autobank is based on the constitution and organizational structure of a real car bank. The representation of an enterprise-internal IT development and support department within the entire company as well as the presentation of the medium-term and long-term effects of IT on its valueadded processes enable the participants to learn and analyze connections and interrelations between cause and effect of strategic IT and business planning as a holistic horizon. Figure 6 presents a screenshot of the games´ user interface.
Figure 6: The homepage of the business game The four players of one group make their decisions in an interval of (virtual) six months respectively for the next planning period. The bank deals with two different products: Car Financing: the customers can finance their new car at the TechniCar Autobank Customer Savings: the bank offers the possibility for private customers to bank their money at the car bank
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar Both products are processed internally each with three different process steps: Sales & Marketing offers information and consulting to potential customers. Possible later contracts are also prepared in this step. The Origination department is responsible for the contract settlement. Contract customers are handled in the process step Servicing. The finance department concentrates on planning of the financial statement and the cash management. Because of the six-months time gap between the game rounds the CFO has to manage a very foresighted strategy and budget all alterations of the company’s financial situation in the future. Also very considerable is the planning of the cash: If a large quantity of cash remains in the company during one game period, possible interest profit disappears. Otherwise – an insufficient cash situation results in the borrowing of money from the central bank with a high payment of interest. The marketing department is responsible for the management of general and product-related marketing campaigns. Moreover - and in conformance with the financial department – the interest rates for the products have to be set. In the current market of the game twenty car banks are represented in total. The TechniCar Autobank is the only one actively modified by real players. Alterations of interest rates or marketing budget however have an impact on potential new customers through different ratios between TechniCar and its competitors. The IT department includes the centralized (e.g. server) and de-centralized (e.g. PCs) information systems (IS) as well as the IT staff. Every organizational unit is supported intensively by IS. Whereas the servers and the required system software are utilized for the entire bank, the business applications, desktops and office software are treated separately for every part of the company. According to the individual circumstances and the project situation every IT component works more or less effective and efficient. Additionally the age and variety of the IT components are considered in the game. The implementation of IT-supported projects and the maintenance of the hard and software components are also tasks of the IT department. Depending on the allocation of resources from the responsible game role the performance and availability of the entire system runs stable or declines as consequence of an undersupply.
5.3 Learning targets Go4C regards a holistic approach for the strategic and operational IT- and business planning, controlling and monitoring. The fundamental training aims are derived from studies and interviews with executives of the first and second leadership level in different industries. Superordinate goals of “Go4C” are: Holistic view of an enterprise with a high IT penetration in analysis, planning, controlling and evaluation Multidimensional assessment of every role through a balanced scorecard Evaluation of the company with ratio systems as well as a performance measurement to illustrate the development of management ratios in the long-term planning process Different decision dimensions by the use of projects and single management ratios Encouragement of the communication between the learners with a role concept of the management team with role reversal Promotion of motivation, identification and enthusiasm for the subject area CIO by a business game without any material economic risk Active learning in a social context From these superordinate goals several concrete training aims for the work with the simulation can be derived: IT and business management on strategic and operational level by practical methods and tools Strategy planning of IT- and enterprise strategy Decision training both in a team and individually for the accounted division Project management with project-portfolio analysis and planning Analysis and planning with ratio systems
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar
Presentation, communication and discussion of budgets, strategies, decisions and enterprise development
5.4 Training concept for Go4C The chair for information systems uses a training concept, which was substantiated from experiences of several workshops with the business game. As exemplary illustrated in Table 1 the theoretical modules are directly integrated into the progress of the gaming activities. During the game most of the theoretical background content is elaborated and presented by the student groups. Directly after the presentation, the teams prepare a realistic use case example by analyzing and planning their own company development. Table 1: An exemplary training concept for Go4C Activities
Content / Presentation
To Do (Students)
Theoretical Background Introduction of the game
CIO – Role and fields of activity Introduction into Bank Management Introduction about the CIO Simulation Strategic Situation Analysis Building a Vision Strategic Development & Strategic Concepts, Balanced Scorecard Project Management Business Process Management HR Management Disaster Management Corporate Reporting Company Evaluation Award of the most successful team
Study the Board Members Guide (Handbook)
Game round 1 Game round 2 Game round 3 Game round 4 Game round 5 Final presentation
Company analysis of TechniCar Bank Strategy paper Project portfolio overview
Company evaluation Presentation of the results
6. Evaluation results Since the beginning of the project in 2005 more than eighty students have evaluated Go4C after the end of each seminar. All of the participants were in a higher semester of their education program or attended post-graduated studies. Table 2: Participants for the evaluation study Year 2007 2007 2007 2006 2006 Total
Partiticipants 15 11 14 18 23 82
As evaluation instrument we used an online questionnaire with about forty items. Because of the complexity of the learning targets and the low number of master students we decided not to realize a pre-post test and measure a “change” in learning. Instead of this we created a more explorative questionnaire design to obtain information about the students` estimation of superordinate aspects of the business game. For the clarification of the learners´ preconditions information about the game level was very supporting. Most of the students (≈ 89 %) rated “Go4C” with an “adequate” or “high” level of difficulty. Only 9 of them rated the level as “low” or “very high” (Table 2).
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar Level of the CIO-Simulation 45
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40 31
Participants
35
very low
30
low
25
adequate
20
high
15
very high 7
10
2
5
0
0 N=81
Figure 7: Level of the CIO - Business Game The evaluation of the different activities during the total gaming time identified the “discussion of decisions” as the highest rated time factor (26,3 %) followed by the “familiarization” with the game (18,3 %) and the “planning and calculation” of the company development (18,0 %). Only eleven percent of the total gaming time was needed for the understanding of problems (Figure 7). Partitioning of the total gaming time 30,0
26,3 Familiarization
25,0 Discussion of decisions
18,3
20,0
18,0 Planning and calculation
%
13,6 15,0
11,6
Elaboration of materials
11,3
10,0
Team coordination Discussion of understanding problems
5,0 0,0 N=81
Figure 8: Partitioning of the total gaming time Compared with a traditional lecture at the university a great part of the polled students rated the Go4C higher, particularly for the so-called soft skills (Figure 8). The best result for “more” and “much more” reached the item “interesting” (71 %) followed by “communicative” (68 %). Comparison with trad. lecture: (1) interesting, (2) fascinating, (3) communikative, (4) integrative and (5) helpful for learning 100% 90%
9
6
26
17
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11
12
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70% 60%
29 46
50%
34
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more 29
30% 20%
partly...partly
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25
23
24
much less less
44
18
much more
12
0% N=81
N=81
N=81
N=81
N=81
Figure 10: Comparison of Go4C with a traditional lecture
7. Summary and outlook In the paper we presented the computer-supported business game “Go4C” as an online simulation game based on the open source portal Liferay Enterprise Portal. After an introduction about the
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar historical roots of business games the article described in detail the technical portal infrastructure of the game. The conceptual framework gave insights into the theoretical background and the didactics of the game. Experiences with the business game in education and first results of the formative evaluations overall show a positive tendency so far. In our view the game represents an efficient and effective way in order to teach necessary IT management skills and their practical training. In contrast to the Excel-based version of “Go4C” which has been implemented as the first version a few years ago, the current version is integrated into an online portal and therefore can be used and accessed much easier than before. Furthermore the portal environment enables the handling of essential processes like user management, rights management, content presentation or database access. For the future work the implementation of other industrial sectors or branches is planned, so that our students get in contact with a broader spectrum of IT and management decisions. A further supposable approach could be to use the simulation core of the game for carrying out simulation experiments in order to generate new hypotheses and models.
References Abdelnur, A.; Hepper, S. (2003): Java Portlet Specification (1). Sun Microsystems, Inc., 2003. Alexander, S. (2005): Portale: Open Source im Anmarsch. In: Computerwoche, Vol. 42 (2005). Apel, H. (2005): E-Lernen: Hybride Lernformen, Online-Communities, Spiele - Teil I (Vol. Heft 92), Berlin. Arentzen, U. (1997): Gabler Wirtschafts-Lexikon. (14., vollst. überarb. und erw. Aufl. Aufl.), Gabler, Wiesbaden. Bauer, C.; King, G. (2004): Hibernate in Action, Manning. Buschmann, F.; Meunier, R.; Rohnert, H.; Sommerlad, P. (1996): A System of Patterns. Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture, John Wiley and Sons. Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University (1992) Technology and the design of generative learning environments, in Duffy & Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, New Jersey. Economist Intelligence Unit (2007): The means to compete: Benchmarking IT industry competitiveness, The Economist, London et al. Feeny, D.F.; Willcocks, L.P. (1998): Core IS capabilities for exploiting information technology. In: Sloan Management Review, Vol. 39/3 (1998), S. 9-22. Forrester, J.W. (1989): The Beginning of System Dynamics. http://sysdyn.clexchange.org/sdep/papers/D-41651.pdf, accessed on 28.09.2007. Forrester, J.W. (1991): System Dynamics and the Lessons of 35 Years. http://sysdyn.clexchange.org/sdep/papers/D-4224-4.pdf, accessed on 28.09.2007. Geilhardt, T.; Mühlbradt, T. (1995): Planspiele im Personal- und Organisationsmanagement, Verl. für Angewandte Psychologie, Göttingen. Gurzki, T.; Hinderer, H. (2003): Eine Referenzarchitektur für Software zur Realisierung von Unternehmensportalen. In: Tagungsband Wissensmanagement 2003. Hrsg. Luzern. Gurzki, T.; Hinderer, H.; Kirchhof, A.; Vlachakis, J. (2004): Was ist ein Portal? Definition und Einsatz von Unternehmensportalen. Fraunhofer IAO. JCP (2005): Java Community Process Group. http://www.jcp.org/, accessed on 05.05.2005. Kern, M. (2003): Planspiele im Internet - Netzbasierte Lernarragements zur Vermittlung betriebswirtschaftlicher Kompetenz, DUV, Wiesbaden. Klaene, M. (2004): Understanding the Java Portlet Specification. http://www.developer.com/java/web/article.php/3366111, accessed on 19.05.2008. Kriz, C. K. (2001) Systemkompetenz spielend erlernen - ein innovatives Trainingsprogramm in der universitären Lehre, in Heinz Mandl and Berufliche Fortbildungszentren der Bayerischen Wirtschaft (Eds.) Planspiele im Internet : Konzepte und Praxisbeispiele für den Einsatz in Aus- und Weiterbildung, Bertelsmann, Bielefeld. Liferay (2007): Liferay Enterprise Portal. http://www.liferay.com, accessed on 28.02.2007. Linwood, J.; Minter, D. (2004): Building Portals with the Java Portlet API, Apress, New York. Mandl, H., Gerstenmaier, J. and Bangerter, A. (2000) Die Kluft zwischen Wissen und Handeln : empirische und theoretische Lösungsansätze, Hogrefe, Göttingen. Murphy, C. (2000): Reinventing The CIO: Tomorrow's IT leaders will have to be part general, part maestro, and part evangelist. http://www.informationweek.com/768/cio.htm, accessed on 05.07.2007. Reinmann-Rothmeier, G. and Mandl, H. (1999) Instruktion, in Christoph Perleth and Albert Ziegler (Eds.) Pädagogische Psychologie : Grundlagen und Anwendungsfelder, Huber, Bern et al., 207-215. Richardson, W.C. (2004): Professional portal development with open source tools : Java Portlet API, Lucene, James, Slide, Wiley, Indianapolis, Ind.
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Matthias Baume, Yuriy Taranovych and Helmut Krcmar Singh, I.; Stearns, B.; Johnson, M. (2002): Designing Enterprise Applications with the J2EE Platform. (2nd Aufl.), Addison-Wesley, Boston et.al. Sterman, J.D. (2000): Business dynamics : systems thinking and modeling for a complex world, Irwin/McGrawHill, Boston. Tagliavini, M.; Moro, J.; Ravarini, A.; Guimaraes, T. (2003): Shaping CIO's competencies and activities to improve company performance: an empirical study. Paper presented at the European Conference of Information Systems, Neapel, Italien, S. 1-15. Tanenbaum, A.S. (2003): Computer Networks. (4th Aufl.), Prentice Hall. Taranovych, Y. (2007): Design and Implementation of the Administration Component for a Computer Supported IT Management Business Game based on Liferay Enterprise Portal. Master Thesis, TU München. Tidwell, D. (2001): XSLT, O'Reilly. Vlachakis, J.; Kirchhof, A.; Gurzki, T. (2005): Marktübersicht Portalsoftware 2005. Fraunhofer-Institut für Arbeitswirtschaft und Organisation IAO. Yang, B. (2001): E++: A pattern language for J2EE applications: Build better J2EE applications with a high-level pattern language. http://www.javaworld.com/jw-04-2001/jw-0420-eplus.html, accessed on 25.11.2005. Zack, M. H. (1998) An MIS course integrating information technology and organizational issues, The DATA BASE for advances in Information Systems, 29, 73-87.
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Play it Seriously: Juxtaposing AR and RW Crises Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson and Paula Rusnak The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
Abstract: Recently, “serious games,” especially those promoting sociopolitical change, have garnered increased attention. A number of projects and special interest groups that facilitate the development and study of these games have emerged (e.g., Social Impact Games, the Serious Games Initiative, the Alternate Gaming Network, and the Games for Change Conference). Of the recent serious games projects, World Without Oil (WWO), “the alternate reality game with a heart of gold” (ARGNet, 2008), has received much attention, attaining, among other accolades, a SXSW (South by Southwest) Web Award for activism. The game has been promoted by Ken Eklund (Creative Director) and Jane McGonigal (Participation Architect) as a storied place in which players might imagine the impact of a future oil crisis with a view to making real-world change. In describing the game, promoters and players move back and forth between the inherent rhetorical extremes of serious gaming: the game is about crisis, but it is also “fun.” This paper will examine the tension between these modes of experience by juxtaposing players’ narratives and imaginings around the WWO simulation (as evidenced in the extant online WWO digital artifacts) with the reality of the oil crisis as experienced by the first author in war-torn Serbia in the early 1990s, when power and oil shortages were a reality that challenged people’s ability to attain the basic necessities of living for themselves and their children on a daily basis. Since games are generally designed, developed, and played by those who have money and access, the question is whether they truly have the potential to move beyond a purely literary exercise. As Fulford (1999) observes, “Narrative gives us a way to feel empathy for others. But it can work in the other direction, too. Narrative can make us smug by persuading us that we understand more than we actually do” (p.152). While we regard games such as WWO as important spaces to examine social issues, we also wish to explore the paradox that is inherent in such games in order to attain a better understanding of their affordances for education. Keywords: Serious games, social change, narratives, storytelling, collective intelligence, real-world crisis
1. Introduction World Without Oil was an Alternate Reality Game played between April 30th and June 1st 2007 in which participants were invited to imagine a global oil crisis. The game, one of the first of its kind, lasted for 32 days, each day representing one week of oil crisis. WWO game developers opened a virtual game space, enabling players to express their ideas through contributing artifacts such as blogs, images, video, oral commentary, and so on. Participants constructed narratives, interacted with one other, and engaged in collaborative problem solving. Reflecting on the results of the game, the designers claimed that, “more than mere raising awareness, WWO made the issues real, and this in turn led to real engagement and real change in people's lives” (McGonigal, 2007). The game was described as “a serious game for the public good,” a life-learning lesson that was nevertheless “compellingly fun” (Olsen, 2007). “Welcome to World Without Oil” (WWO, 2007b) is the seven-minute video clip published on WWO site that serves as a brief introduction to this Alternate Reality game (AR). It is a compilation of participants’ reflections on their experiences and comments by the game creators and publicists. Speakers in this video emphasize the game’s global reach and impact, remarking, among other things, that participants contributed “from all corners of the world” (Aguilar, 2007). The event of which they speak, imagined global oil crisis, is described as having been situated in the possible future, and the motto of the game is articulated as “play it before you live it” (Figure 1). According to game developer Ken Eklund, the goal of WWO was for people to think about the “common future” and to deal with the possible real consequences of living in an unsustainable fashion. Participant Architect Jane McGonigal states that players used collective wisdom to look for solutions and, based on that, to change their real life practices. She claims that the uniqueness of this game was in the fact that the “gamers” engaged in RL actions for change as a direct result of their experiences in the game.
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Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson, Paula Rusnak
Figure 1: A screenshot of the WWO video clip The WWO site is still available at the time of the writing this paper. Browsers may access a “Q&A” section, quotations from the participants, press releases, articles about the game, and archives of player contributions.
2. Theoretical framework The value of using games for learning is still a matter of debate. Same theorists emphasize the potential negative effects on players, such as addiction, disconnectedness from reality and the related loss of sound judgment, or antisocial behaviour and violence (Carll, 2007; Carnagey, Anderson & Bartholow, 2007; Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007; Unsworth, Devilly & Ward, 2007). Other researchers contemplate how and for what purposes the games could be used (Ferguson, 2007; Gee, 2003; 2005, Kafai, 2006). Such individuals advocate using gaming environments not only for learning about a specific subject matter, but also for promoting social justice, health or environmental issues (Flanagan, 2006; Flanagan & Nissenbaum, 2007). Gee (2003) focuses on the potential of games for literacy development, arguing that literacy does not refer only to the ability to read and write, but to making meaning in many semiotic domains. People, he suggests, move from one semiotic domain to another throughout their lives and their learning approaches will necessarily alter as they do so. The notion of understanding concepts in a variety of representations has been reinforced by the emergence of the Web, which, as literacy researchers have pointed out, has become rich in modalities (e.g., New London Group, 1996). The multimodal aspect of gameworlds, especially MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games), offers an ideal opportunity for learning, some suggest, because it requires players to master the content thorough complex interaction with others and diverse social practice (Gee, 2003; Thomas & Brown, 2007). For a person to engage and actively participate in any type of learning activity (games or otherwise), he or she needs to be both extrinsically and intrinsically motivated. Lee, Cheung and Chen (2005) have examined the issues of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation for online learning, coming to the conclusion that both perceived enjoyment and perceived usefulness play an important role in affecting student attitude. To fulfill both of these conditions, they offer four guidelines for design. To design an enjoyable learning environment, they suggest full employment of the potentials of rich media to vary the presented content, as well as the inclusion of tasks that will instill a sense that the learning experience is pleasant, or “fun.” To design a useful learning environment, they suggest the importance of immediate feedback and interaction, both among learners, and between learners and instructors/facilitators. According to Pivec (2007), the primary reason for playing games is to have fun. Numerous educators and researchers have pointed out that although fun is potentially a great motivator for learning, it is not enough (Eglesz, Fekete, Kiss, &. Izsó, 2005). Fun activities that lack a sense of exploration, quest or challenge turn easily into boring activities (Badke, 2007). Corti (2008), in opposition to the notion of “fun” as a primary motivator for learning, suggests that the focus should more properly be on encouraging problem solving rather than entertainment. He argues that a requirement for commercially successful serious games is linking to the audience and understanding audience
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Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson, Paula Rusnak practices. Corti suggests finding solutions is more rewarding for the participants than entertainment. Games created with this in mind, according to Corti, result in increased awareness, increased productivity and deeper understanding of complex processes. Active participation of players in the game is viewed as crucial by many game theorists. Jenkins (2006), for example, identifies a number of forms of participatory culture, including building online communities, engaging in collaborative tasks, and creating new products. Kafai (2006) calls for a reexamination of the tendency in game development simply to attach content to games, rather than allowing students to construct games on their own. She cautions about the tendency to see games only as means to make learning easier and more entertaining. Kafai (2006) and de Castell, Jenson and Tyler (2007) argue that a constructionist approach to gaming has more value than the instructionist model, advocating for production over content. WWO employs a similar approach, requiring participants to shape the game through their own contributions. Another of Kafai’s observations is related to a demand for high-tech games. She claims that rich media and highly technical and visual solutions for virtual spaces are not necessarily the essential conditions for a quality game. Low-tech designs can be equally engaging, and can create rich opportunities for learning. Following this line of thinking, WWO was a technically simple and userfriendly game, in which participants interacted mainly through text-based or video contributions. So, if there is practically no pre-designed virtual space, if the superb graphic is not present, if there are no existing characters whose identity the players must assume, if the content is serious rather than entertaining, what is it that will attract people to participate? What feature makes serious low-tech games motivational? In WWO the players were invited to tell their own stories. Storytelling is an essential human practice. People tell stories in order to make meaning of life and the world around them, to learn from the experiences of others, and to teach. Fulford (1999) writes, “humanity clings to narrative.” Furthermore, he finds the reason for the survival of story throughout history is the human need to recognize the familiar and re-consider the significant. Telling a story is more than an exercise of imagination. Consciously or subconsciously people explain and justify their experiences through narrative (Richardson, 1997). They talk about the present or the future, but they are actually viewing the past and building upon it. As Ryan (2005) points out, gaming is fast becoming the dominant mode of narrative for young audiences, replacing books and even television. Players negotiate story in an interactive fashion by making choices that influence the direction of the plot and the sorts of characters that might be encountered. In the case of online multiplayer role-playing games, wherein players assume identities and interact with other players, the scenario becomes even more complex: participants actually write a series of interconnecting stories as they inhabit an immersive gameworld. Richardson highlights the importance of storytelling for taking an active stand. She remarks, Social and generational cohesion, as well as social change, depend upon this ability to empathize with the life stories of others. Social interaction depends on actors making sense of others' actions and motivations from the point of view of the others, from their biographical perspective. Social cooperation relies upon this human capability, a capability grounded in narrative. [...] Narrative makes possible the understanding of people who are not present. Narrative creates the possibility of history beyond the personal. (p. 31) Ultimately, many scholars conclude that games stimulate creativity and provide a space in which students may explore the tension between fiction and reality—all in an immersive, engaging and active environment (Ohler, 2006; Schaafsma, 1989). In the next section of this paper we will consider specifically the case of WWO, a low-tech AR game that relied heavily on players’ willingness to engage in storytelling through a variety of social software applications. The game legacy has been promoted as an excellent source for educators, with lesson plans in place to encourage educators to involve their own students in similar activities (WWO, 2007a). In the context of the following discussion we employ--fittingly for discussion of a storied game space--a narrative approach, focusing in particular on one learner’s significant experience with the game. The reflections of this learner point to the need for mindfulness in employing AR games that simulate traumatic events in classroom settings.
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Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson, Paula Rusnak
3. Playing the game It is reported on the World Without Oil site that there were about 60000 observers of the game in the 32 days of its duration. Developers state that there were about 1800 players from 12 countries (WWO, 2007b). In their last blog posts, or in the context of the after-game comments, some players reflected on their experiences. The general sense implied by these comments is that players found the game highly enjoyable and compelling, in spite of its low-tech demeanor. One player, who selfidentified as “mtalon,” enthusiastically observed the following: “WWO’s greatest success may be: it was engrossingly, breathtakingly fun” [sic]. “climate_progress” likewise agreed that the game was “fun for the whole family, in a Mad Max sort of way!!“ And “cu_sith_mythology” wrote, “WWO is mythology: literally untrue but reflecting deep figurative truths.” As we commenced examination of this game as an example of a promising and motivational AR learning environment, however, our research team faced a significant challenge. Our first task was to examine the existing legacy of WWO artifacts and to document noteworthy themes and issues. Almost immediately upon commencement of this task, however, a problem emerged. The lead author of this article, a survivor of the Serbian war, found the game space unbearably traumatic and had to cease work on the project for a period of time. The team contemplated aborting the project; however, through a series of discussions concluded that a paper documenting this experience would add an important perspective to the literature on games for learning. With that perspective in mind, the lead author documented her initial experiences with WWO. A section of her account follows.
3.1 Reflections on the first visit I was curious to tap into the personal narratives, to see how stories had emerged from the participants’ imaginations and how they evolved over the period of 32 days. I left the blogs for last, some bedtime science fiction reading. I plunged in, starting with “miawithoutoil”. This blog is “a live journal of Mia, a young girl in Bristol, England as oil prices soar and society creaks under the strain.” (miawitoutoil, 2007) I went to the first post. The lines about the expensive food, prices going up, and crowded buses became entangled. The more I read the more it sounded familiar. This was not a science fiction; this was my past. The memories started pouring like winter rains. At the beginning of the 1990s, Serbia experienced high inflation, the economy was in crisis, fuel was rare and precious, and every day was worse than the previous one. On top of all that, I faced a personal tragedy: I lost my husband in a car accident and struggled on my own with a two-year old boy and a baby girl. The only way to survive was to convert dinars into German Deutsche Marks (DM) the moment you got them, before they slid even farther in value. My mother, in her 50s and retired, with three salaries in her hands (my fathers, my brother’s and mine), was in particular danger when approaching illegal dealers, who were as likely to rob and kill you in dark lanes as to exchange your money. We laughed then at some of her stories about how she used her wit to escape danger and secure money to buy food for her children and her grandchildren. Now, though, I don’t laugh: I shiver. We all relied on her for our very existence.
Figure 2: A banknote from former Yugoslavia in the period of hyperinflation (1993/4) To me WWO was neither a game nor an alternate reality. It was my reality. It was painful to think about those times. I didn’t want to re-live them again. My level of enthusiasm for the game dropped considerably. My reading became hectic. I jumped to another post. Reading it brought back the familiar feeling of indignation, anguish, helplessness, and humiliation. I skipped to the next blog, “Everything Falls Apart” (fallingintosin, 2007) What struck me immediately as I opened the page was the blog design: a pink page with a kitten’s head on the top right corner. How could someone go through those dark moments and represent their experience in this way? During the crisis I kept my
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Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson, Paula Rusnak diary, every day. I couldn’t sleep, so I wrote for hours, but I had no wish to decorate my journal. There was no space for “pink.” Reading about how the participants played WWO was becoming more and more upsetting. The “pink girl” talked about her jeep, which she even named “Roxy”, as if it were a living thing. I just couldn’t continue. I was thinking about the new car that we got at the beginning of the 90s. It was my husband’s dream, but it arrived right after his death and sat unused on the street. My limit was ten litres per month, which I tried to stretch as long as possible. The gas stations were mainly empty and so fuel was difficult to get. I would usually go at night to a suspicious garage or a warehouse to pay a smuggler dearly for a dirty 10 litre canister of fuel. Other times, we would hear rumors that gas would be available at a particular station the next day. My parents would take the children the night before. No matter how early I got there, the line up was already huge, having been started through the night. We couldn’t afford to keep the engines running to keep warm, so we sat in our cold cars. I waited for hours, hoping that they wouldn’t run out of gas before my turn came, thinking of going home, and calculating when it would be our turn again for an 8-hour power shortage. My final attempt to read through the narratives took me to a blog by a player from Iraq. I hoped for a different perspective, but the blog belonged to a US citizen “finishing up 4 years in Iraq as a private security operator” (lead_tag, 2007). A blurry image showed a man in camouflage carrying a weapon. This time I didn’t go to the beginning. Instead, I read the last comment. He wrote, Hope everyone who read and wrote in the WWO community took something away from the experiment, I certainly did. I truly enjoyed reading what everyone contributed. Many of you are incredible writers and reminded me of why I should stick to pulling triggers for a living. (lead_tag, 2007) I shut down my computer. I desperately needed to talk to someone. The night was terrible. I couldn’t sleep because I thought about the country we had, the life we lived, and what became of us-dispersed around the world and losing contact with each other. The heavy stone that had pressed on my chest for years was back, choking me again, stopping my breath.
4. Discussion What statements might we make in consideration of this response to the WWO artifacts? First, we wish to be clear that we see great value in AR games of this nature and have elsewhere documented their benefits for learning (Rusnak, Dobson & Boskic, under review). That said, we are education researchers working in a highly multicultural locale—a supposedly English-speaking region wherein many major urban school boards nevertheless report that over 60% of their students speak languages other than English at home and more than 100 languages are represented within the student population (e.g., VSB, 2008). Many students are themselves immigrants or are the children of recent immigrants, and some are refugees. In such an environment—indeed, in any learning environment— students bring a wide range of personal experience to their learning and it is necessary always to remain mindful of their different perspectives. A frequent claim made for AR games dealing with serious topics is that they allow learners to contemplate and experience on an imaginative level difficult issues to which they might otherwise not have access. This is an admirable educational objective. The challenge comes, however, when we consider how individuals who have in fact had personal experience with these issues view these games. Optimistic educators might envision a rich opportunity for student discussion, perhaps drawing on the experience of the “class expert.” Clearly, however, such a scenario can only be successful if the student in question is comfortable with that role. In our case, the class expert experienced the game as traumatic, suffering, among other things, sleeplessness and anxiety following engagement with the game. Far from sharing her experiences with others examining the artifacts, her desire was to withdraw from the game and any conversation about the game, instead garnering support from friends and family who had shared similar real-life experiences. These initial sentiments were replaced after a number of days by indignation. In subsequent examinations of the WWO artifacts, she began to experience the game as voyeuristic and in some ways insulting, most particularly because of incessant remarks by WWO participants about how much “fun” it was to play. The scenario highlighted the rhetorical tension in the name by which these environments have come to be called: serious games. As discussed earlier, one merit of games for education is that personal enjoyment, or “fun,” serves as a strong motivator for learning. This may be so; however, as anyone
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Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson, Paula Rusnak who has experienced a catastrophic event firsthand will attest, in reality life-threatening crises are far from fun. When we consider that having fun dominated players’ recollection of their experience, we may be inclined to wonder to what degree these individuals comprehended the gravity of the subject matter at hand. Again, this is not to say that the game is without merit--only that the tension between crisis and entertainment brought into play by games like WWO is worthy of exploration. A second concern has to do with the ethics of “playing” with other people’s disasters. WWO is supposedly positioned in the “possible future.” The possible future depicted in the game, however, is the traumatic past or harsh present for many. Obviously on a global scale there are many populations that do without oil and the luxuries it affords on a daily basis. Oil, after all, is a commodity of privilege, as is the technology with which one accesses games about living without oil. Although the WWO site advertises that the game attracted participants from around the world, the player population was in fact situated squarely in the west, and primarily in the United States. Indeed, only 12 countries outside the US were represented among contributors, and some participants from these places were US travelers. Most of the non-US players came from Canada, Australia and developed European nations. Certainly the perspective was broader than what one might encounter in a traditional classroom, but it was by no means diverse on a global scale. For the most part, players appeared to have little real-life experience to guide their imaginations, as the first author’s frustration in another portion of her response reveals: The WWO player romanticism of blackouts and power shortages showed lack of real understanding of the situation. There is nothing romantic about infants and small children enduring cold winter nights, hospitals with no medical supplies, or disabled elders imprisoned in their unheated apartments for days because the elevators don’t work. . . . I wonder what would have happened if someone who had actually experienced an “oil shock” had been playing and had pointed out the inconsistencies. Would have that ruined the game, the fun? The divide between the developers/players of these games and the crises and peoples about which they attempt to educate gives pause for thought. Certainly it is necessary to educate about challenging world issues; however, it is also necessary to be ethical and pedagogically sensitive about that process. While the objectives of games like WWO or, say, Darfur is Dying (2008), is admirable, the means of education will necessarily be viewed as a mockery by some. This is a justifiable response, not to be dismissed as nay saying. As Swain (2007: 806) argues, “solutions to social issues are difficult to craft because well-meaning actions typically offend at least one set of stakeholders. Thus trying to solve a social problem often creates additional, potentially more entrenched problems.” As we contemplate the merits of games for learning, it is important to keep such issues at the centre of the debate, not allowing them to be swept aside in the excitement of the game-based learning movement.
5. Conclusion The intent of this paper has not been to denounce WWO as a failed experiment. On the contrary, there is much that is laudable in this game. (The collaborative, constructivist learning format, for example, appears to be an ideal design for education about sustainability, as we argue elsewhere [Rusnak, Dobson, and Boskic, in press].) Our intent in this paper has been to advocate for mindfulness in the application of these games in formal educational settings, particularly those with diverse student populations from mixed socio-economic, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds. As Corti (2008) observes, designers of learning environments need to pay particular attention to audience. This is so whether the learning environment is digital or physical, and whether the audience is dispersed or localized. Contemplating the needs of Internet-based, dispersed audiences is a seemingly impossible task. Ultimately, however, if we agree that games are an innovative and promising way to educate about challenging social issues, then we need to continue to ask challenging questions about how we can make them educational and meaningful for a wide range of potential audiences.
References Aguilar, C. (2007) Welcome to a world without oil, [Online], Available: http://worldwithoutoil.org/metavideo.htm [1 March 2008]. ARGNet, (2008) ‘World Without Oil nominated for SXSW Web Award’ [Online], Available: http://www.argn.com/archive/000697world_without_oil_nominated_for_sxsw_web_award.php [1 March 2008]
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Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson, Paula Rusnak Badke, W. (2007) ‘Blind co-browsing, teachable moments, and the power of gaming’, Online, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 43-46. Carll, E. (2007) ‘Violent video games: Rehearsing aggression’, Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 53, no. 45, pp. B12-55. Carnagey, N., Anderson, C. and Bartholow, B. D. (2007) ‘Media violence and social neuroscience: New questions and new opportunities’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 178-182. Corti, K. (2008) ‘Serious thinking’. E.learning Age [Electronic], March, pp. 20-22, Available: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1456362501&Fmt=4&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName =PQD& de Castell, S., Jenson, J. and Taylor, N. (2007) ‘Digital games for education: When meanings play’, Situated Play - Conference Proceedings, DiGRA 2007 conference, Tokyo. Darfur is dying (2008) [Online], Available: http://www.darfurisdying.com/ [14 May 2008]. Eglesz, D., Fekete, I., Kiss, O. E. and Izsó, L. (2005) ‘Computer games are fun? On professional games and players’ motivation’. Educational Media International, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 117-124. Ferguson, C. (2007) ‘Video games: The latest scapegoat for violence’. Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 53, no. 42, pp. B20-B20. Flanagan, M. (2006) ‘Making games for social change’. AI & Society, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 493-505. fallingintosin (2007) Oily Rambles, [Online], Available: http://fallingintosin.livejournal.com/?skip=40 [1 March 2008]. Flanagan, M. and Nissenbaum, H. (2007) ‘A game design methodology to incorporate activist themes’, Conference Proceedings, The CHI Conference, San Jose: California. Fulford, R. (1999) The triumph of narrative: Storytelling in the age of mass culture, Toronto: Anansi. Gee, J. P. (2003) What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J. P. (2005) Why video games are good for your soul: pleasure and learning, Melbourne, Vic.: Common Ground Publishing. Ivory J, D. and Kalyanaraman, S. (2007) ‘The effects of technological advancement and violent content in video games on players’ feelings of presence, involvement, physiological arousal, and aggression’. Journal of Communication, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 532-555. Jenkins, H. (2006) An occasional paper on digital media and learning: Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Building the Field of Digital Media and Learning, [Online], Available: http://www.digitallearning.macfound.org/atf/cf/%7B7E45C7E0-A3E0-4B89AC9C-E807E1B0AE4E%7D/JENKINS_WHITE_PAPER.PDF [15 Oct 2007]. Kafai, Y. B. (2006) ‘Playing and making games for learning: Instructionist and constructionist perspectives for game studies’. Games and Culture, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 36-40. lead_tag (2007) end of the WWO, [Online], Available: http://lead-tag.livejournal.com/9864.html [1 March 2008] Lee, M. K. O., Cheung, C. M. K. and Chen, Z. (2005) ‘Acceptance of internet-based learning medium: The role of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation’. Information and Management, vol. 42, pp. 1095-1104. McGonigal, J. (2007) Welcome to a world without oil, [Online], Available: http://worldwithoutoil.org/metavideo.htm [1 March 2008]. miawithoutoil (2007) the first time I noticed, [Online], Available: http://miawithoutoil.livejournal.com/626.html [1 March 2008]. New London Group, (1996) ‘A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures’. Harvard Educational Review, vol. 66, no. 1. [Online], Available: http://wwwstatic.kern.org/filer/blogWrite44ManilaWebsite/paul/articles/A_Pedagogy_of_Multiliteracies_Desig ning_Social_Futures.htm [1 March 2008] Ohler, J. (2006) ‘The world of digital storytelling’. Educational Leadership, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 44-47. Olsen, S. (2007) If you want to change the future, play with it first, [Online], Available: http://worldwithoutoil.org/metaabout.htm [1 March 2008]. Pivec, M. (2007) ‘Play and learn: Potential of game-based learning’. British Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 387-393. Richardson, L. (1997) Fields of play: Constructing an academic life, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. Rusnak, P., Dobson, T. and Boskic, N. (under review) ‘Articulation of Ecological Values in Alternate Reality Gaming: A Case Study of World Without Oil’, The Electronic Journal of eLearning, pp. 1-10. Ryan, M.L. (2005) ‘Narrative and the split condition of digital textuality’. Dichtung-Digital - Journal für Digitale Asthetik, [Online], Available: http://www.brown.edu/Research/dichtung-digital/2005/1/Ryan/ [8 Sep 2007]. Schaafsma, D. (1989) ‘Research in the classroom: Gilbert's and Dave's stories: Narrative and knowing. The English Journal, vol. 78, no. 7, pp. 89-91. Swain, C. (2007) ‘Designing games to effect social change’, Situated Play - Conference Proceedings, DiGRA 2007 conference, Tokyo, pp. 805-809. Thomas, D. and Brown, J. S. (2007) ‘The play of imagination: Extending the literary mind’. Games and Culture, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 149-172. Unsworth, G., Devilly, G. and Ward, T. (2007) ‘The effect of playing violent video games on adolescents: Should parents be quaking in their boots’? Psychology, Crime & Law, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 383-394. Vancouver School Board (VSB). (2008) About ESL, [Online], Available: http://www.vsb.bc.ca/vsbprograms/kto12/ESL/AboutESL.htm [14 May 2008].
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Natasha Boskic, Teresa Dobson, Paula Rusnak World Without Oil (2007a) Lesson plans, [Online], Available: http://worldwithoutoil.org/metateachers.htm [1 Mar 2008] World Without Oil (2007b) Welcome to a world without oil, [Online], Available: http://worldwithoutoil.org/metavideo.htm [1 March 2008].
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The Impact of Mind Game Playing on Children’s Reasoning Abilities: Reflections from an Experience Rosa Maria Bottino, Michela Ott and Mauro Tavella Istituto Tecnologie Didattiche Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Genova, Italy
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
Abstract: The paper aims at contributing to the understanding of whether digital games can be considered suitable and effective tools for enhancing learning. It thus aims at providing grounds for reflecting if their school use can provide a significant added value with respect to traditional school activities. The paper draws on a longterm research experience carried out in primary schools with the specific aim of studying the impact of the use of mind games (puzzles, brain teasers…) on children’s reasoning abilities and problem solving skills. Early activities in this field at primary school level, appear to be particularly important since reasoning and problem solving abilities are universally acknowledged to be “key skills”, transversal to any kind of learning and there are grounds for believing that improving such abilities will impact on the global school achievement. The hypothesis that a teacher driven and well focused use of carefully selected mind games can have a positive impact on students’ reasoning abilities is put forward. A number of reflections and observations are outlined, based on both the analysis of the quantitative results of students’ performance and on the teachers’ opinion on the impact of the experimental activities on pupils’ school achievement. From a quantitative point of view, the results of a standardized test carried out at national level, revealed, in fact, that students who had undergone three years of experimental activities with games, performed better at the mathematics test (which also included logic items) with respect to those of two matched classes. Such results also showed that high achiever students seemed to have benefited from the work with games more than low achievers. Beside the encouraging test results, from a more qualitative standpoint, personal opinions and individual findings of the school teachers involved in the project seem to confirm that, following the extensive use of logical games, positive effects were observed both on the students’ attitude towards learning and on their global school performance. Keywords: Games based learning, mind games, reasoning abilities, primary school.
1. Introduction The research field of games based education appears to be promising: many authors acknowledge, in fact, that games have a great potential to foster learning (Kirriemuir & McFarlane 2004; Mitchell & Savill-Smith 2004; de Freitas 2006). Nevertheless, the assumption that games can have a potential for enhancing learning, taken as such, is much generalized and more in-depth analyses seem to be required. Many different types of digital games, in fact, exist and, what is more, they can be used for a number of different educational purposes (Pivec 2007). In order to analyze the educational potential of games, specific studies are required to assess if and to what extent clearly identified educational objectives can be attained through the use of games and which types of games best serve such objectives. In this paper we consider the use of those games that are usually defined as “mainstream” in that they are explicitly designed for entertainment and not for training or for instruction (Garris et Al. 2002, Dondi & Moretti 2007). In particular, the use of mainstream games for developing reasoning abilities in primary school children is addressed. More specifically, those games that are usually called mind games, puzzle games or brainteasers (Mitchell & Savill-Smith 2004) are considered. The use of mainstream mind games is studied from the point of view of their potential for supporting students’ reasoning abilities and problem solving skills in clearly identified tasks. There is a debate among researchers whether and how reasoning and problem solving skills can be enhanced by specific instructional methods, since there is a lack of empirical evidence at this regard (Wolcott et Al. 2002). Nevertheless, many authors point out the importance of improving the design of research studies and intervention methods in this field (Cotton 1991) in order to enhance students’ abilities and to elicit complex thinking patterns (Lohman 2005). Early activities in this field at primary school level appear to be particularly important and there are grounds for believing that improving such abilities will impact on global school achievement, and on results in traditional subjects such as mathematics. The research question whether mind games can be considered as suitable tools for
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Rosa Maria Bottino, Michela Ott and Mauro Tavella supporting reasoning abilities has not been yet fully addressed. As a matter of fact, if, from one hand, the fact that logical and reasoning skills can be developed by playing games is generally accepted (see, for example, Mc Farlane et Al. 2002; Kiili 2007), from the other hand, very few research studies explicitly focus on the use of mind games to this end. In the same way, mind games are not frequently studied from the point of view of the learning outcomes (Facer et Al. 2007), even if it has been farback recognized that they can be used in schools to foster learning (Griffiths 1996). In the following, drawing on a small-scale, long–term research project focused on the use of mind games with primary school students, considerations are proposed as to the suitability of such tools to enhance reasoning and problem solving skills. The discussion of some data collected during the project complements these considerations.
2. The research project 2.1 Aims The research project was carried out over the last five years in Italian primary school classrooms. The project was primarily aimed at fostering students’ strategic and reasoning abilities by introducing systematic use of a number of selected computer-based mind games in classroom activities. The basic idea underpinning the project was that of investigating, from a qualitative point of view, which games and methods are better suited for developing children’s reasoning abilities (outside the development of disciplinary content and knowledge). Aims of the project were to identify a number of suitable mind games, to analyse which specific reasoning abilities are supported by the use of such games and to understand which software characteristics and functions better support students in the enactment of their reasoning and problem solving strategies. In (Bottino & Ott 2006) we have analyzed some of the cognitive abilities involved with the use of a selection of mind games used during classroom experiments while in (Bottino et Al. in progress) we have discussed mind games’ interface and design characteristics that make them more or less fruitful for educational purposes. In this paper we provide some indications on the possible impact of mind game playing on children’s scholastic performance drawing on data collected during classrooms activities. The study of the impact of mind games use on students’ general scholastic performance was not an explicit objective of the project. Nevertheless, since the school in which the project was run was included in a national assessment plan, we had the opportunity to analyze the results of such assessment as to the students of the two fourth grade classes involved in the project and to compare these with the results obtained by the other two fourth grade classes of the school which had not taken part in the experimental games activities. As a matter of fact, the school had four fourth-grade classes following the same curriculum implemented by the same team of teachers, but attending a slightly different number of weekly school hours. The two experimental classes were those that followed the longer weekly timetable, no significant difference among the four classes was pointed out by the teachers, in particular as far as curricular results are concerned. In this paper we present data on such comparison and make some initial considerations regarding the results obtained. Preliminary to this, we also briefly describe the main features of the first phase of the project, the work methodology adopted and the type of games used. The project was carried out by a group of researchers involving educational technology researchers (from ITD-CNR), psychologists from Genoa ASL 3 (Local Health Authority) and primary school teachers. It is subdivided into two phases. In the first phase two classes (involving around 40 children) of the primary school Dante Alighieri in the Genoa district used mind games in computer sessions carried out during school hours. The second phase of the project, which is still in progress, involves a larger sample of children (around 300 pupils) belonging to different primary schools and districts. In the following, we mainly refer to the first phase of the project where approximately the same children (with a few new arrivals and withdraws each year, in each class) were followed over a period of four years, from the second grade (age 7-8) to the fifth grade (age 10-11).
2.2 Working methodology A number of different games were selected taking into account the different abilities required by each game, its general appropriateness with respect to children’s age, and the its specific interface features. This means that during the whole duration of the project each child played individually with a
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Rosa Maria Bottino, Michela Ott and Mauro Tavella significant number of different games. As said above, around 40 children (belonging to two fourth level classes of the same school) participated to the experiment. The students were divided into three groups (high, medium and low) according to a general evaluation of their school achievement made by teachers. Each group (composed of 5-6 pupils) attended in turns a computer session of approximately one hour per week, during a six month period for each school year. The computer sessions were carried out in the school computer laboratory during normal class hours. At the outset of each session, one of the researchers explained the game at hand to the whole class. Each pupil had a computer at his/her disposal and played with the game individually. The pupils played with the same game for the duration of the session and each game was used by the same child for at least two sessions. The children were, thus, engaged in repetitive play over time, thus tackling each game according to a multi-trial and multi-level approach. This approach was important because it allowed involvement of the pupils in a game cycle in which the recurring judgment-behaviour-feedback loops can lead to better acquisition of target skills (Garris et Al. 2002). During the work, each pupil was followed individually by a member of the research team, whose task was that of monitoring his/her activity, intervening where necessary, and completing observation sheets after each session. The observations sheets included both quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the child performance and of his/her behaviour. The quantitative data were different for each game but, generally speaking, accounted for the score obtained (if any), the difficulty level reached, the number of attempts made. The qualitative data included evaluations (made on the basis of a Likert scale) of child’s autonomy (in playing the software game), attitude (interest, attention, motivation), and of the number and kind of hints received. The observation sheets also reported the researcher’s observations on the specific difficulties/abilities demonstrated by each pupil, the solution strategies used, and the ability to verbalize the undertaken solution procedure.
2.3 The games used The choice of the games to be used can be considered one of the key aspects of the project. In principle, the basic idea underpinning the project was that of employing tools requiring the user to genuinely exercise reasoning skills and to design/enact solution strategies in order to solve specific problems (Muller & Pearlmutter 1985). As to the type of games to be used, mainstream mind games were chosen, that is software not specifically designed for educational purposes, and deeply involving reasoning skills. Among the products selected, were versions of well-known mainstream games such as Mastermind, Minefield, Battleship, Domino, Labyrinths, etc.. Such games are classified by Mitchell & Savill-Smith (2004) as brainteasers or puzzlers. In particular, those games were considered that Prensky (2005) calls “minigames”, (namely, “games that take less than an hour to complete (often far less), and whose content is simple and one-noted”). These characteristics are, in fact, important when the use of games takes place during school hours. Other types of games can require a substantial and prolonged time investment which stretches play well beyond the span of a typical single-class unit (Becker 2007). Globally, more than one hundred mind games (mainly freeware, shareware and open source products) have been analyzed for the project and about half of these were actually used by the children. The selection process also required a careful analysis of software interfaces and contents. Although belonging to the same category (that of mainstream mind games), the games examined, in fact, presented significant differences as to the type of activities in which they engage pupils, the type of user interface, the modalities of interaction and the type/level of cognitive abilities required to perform the proposed tasks. Since it is unquestionable (Bottino et Al. in progress) that some intrinsic features (related both to the way in which the computer game has been designed and to the way in which the interface is implemented) can support and foster students’ cognitive effort while others can hinder or slow down the cognitive process, only games presenting a number of characteristics that make them more suited for educational purposes have been chosen. The possibility of graduating the required cognitive effort, the availability of hints aimed at concretely supporting cognitive effort and the lack of elements potentially producing interferences with the main cognitive activity, were all considered important features together with the presence of facilities orienting the cognitive effort towards verification activities and fostering users’ performance self-evaluation. Attention has also been given to select games appropriate for the target population, clearly understandable for new players and offering a
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Rosa Maria Bottino, Michela Ott and Mauro Tavella reasonable degree of challenge (Ang et Al. 2006) where users do not perceive the role of luck as predominating over their own effort (Dondi & Moretti 2007).
3. Reflections from the experience An analysis of the cognitive skills required to “solve” the selected games was performed during the project (Bottino et Al. 2007; Bottino & Ott 2006). We cannot provide account here of such detailed analysis since, to describe the specific abilities involved, it is necessary to explain the way in which each game works, and this it is not possible for space reasons. Nevertheless, in Table 1, we have summarized some general cognitive abilities and skills that are subsumed by the use of the chosen mind games. Table 1: Some reasoning and problem solving skills that can be fostered by the use of mind games Analysing given data to reach a goal understanding the goal of the game and its rules (how it is to be played) individuating peculiar or specific cases that can be used to reduce the complexity of the task matching available information and constraints in order to make inferences. Adapting to different situations according to changing data and constraints learning to rearrange previously conceived strategies according to changing data and constraints. Formulating and verifying a hypothesis making inferences on the basis of a hypothesis/validation process reformulating a conjecture on the basis of the result of the validation process enacted Looking forward and anticipating taking different possibilities into consideration mentally anticipating the consequences of a move by considering not only the current data setting but also possible future configurations evaluating the role played by a single move in the general frame, that is, learning to go beyond the contingent and, where possible, optimise efforts in view of the expected result. Conceiving a solution strategy going beyond trial and errors strategies generalizing from concrete and specific cases understanding that working at random, even when playing, is unproductive understanding that in order to solve a problem it is necessary to establish a working strategy and to apply it correctly, even though this activity might be quite demanding in terms of attention and effort. Using the feedback provided reasoning backward, and considering all the feedback already obtained in order to identify if any incongruence has occurred. Revising the work done developing attitude to reconsider and modify the work done identifying the key points to be revised Orienteering in the space and discriminating visual stimuli mentally manipulating two or three dimensions figures perceiving and individuating visual patterns and clues
It is worth noting that the development of reasoning and problem solving abilities is also affected by behavioural, affective and emotional factors: attention, concentration, motivation, anxiety, tiredness, need for continuous confirmation from adults, etc. In addition to these, our experience points to the role played by other factors related to the student’s personal skills and attitudes (Felder & Soloman 2004), such as the need for order, the wish to attain good local results even to the detriment of global performance, concern for aesthetics, the degree of familiarity with the computer, the tendency to underestimate or overrate the task, etc. The analysis of the cognitive skills involved in the use of games and of related factors led to the definition of models and methods for choosing the most effective mind games (Bottino et Al. in progress) and making the best possible use of them for supporting reasoning abilities.
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Rosa Maria Bottino, Michela Ott and Mauro Tavella This type of in-depth analysis proved useful for highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each child involved in the study and made it possible to set highly personalized tasks for extending and reenforcing their abilities. Consequently, over the duration of the project, it was possible to develop personalized support to foster those abilities that the children lacked or were weak in. During the project lifespan, the idea emerged that a teacher driven, well focused and structured use of mind games can have a positive impact on students’ reasoning capabilities; even so, it is not yet possible to give a definitive answer to the question (which was outside the scope of the project) whether and to what extent mind games can be considered suitable tools for supporting reasoning skills, but some significant steps in this direction have been done. The hypothesis that the experimental work carried out in the framework of the research project had a positive impact on children’s abilities and on their overall school achievement was supported by both the results of a national assessment study and by on-field observations made by the teachers involved in the project.
3.1 Results of a national assessment study In the last year of the first phase of the project (2004), the school in which the project was run, was included in a national assessment plan in which individual students from each class were tested using the same set of tests. This plan was carried out by INVALSI (www.invalsi.it), the Italian National Evaluation Institute of the Ministry of Education, and, in 2004, it involved more than 71,000 classes and approximately 1,400,000 students. Specific tests were administered for language, science and mathematics (including logical reasoning items). The results were processed by INVALSI and made available in normalized form. We considered the results obtained in the INVALSI tests by students in the two fourth grade classes in our project (in the following, “experimental classes”, which had undergone three years of experimental activity) and compared these with the results obtained by the other two fourth grade classes at the same school having the same teachers. Looking in detail at the scores in the mathematics test of the four fourth grade classes (Table 2), we can see that the experimental classes show better average results than the other two classes. Table 2: INVALSI Mathematics test - Normalized scores for each fourth grade class of the considered school. Class Class A (experimental) Class B Class C Class D (experimental)
Mean 72.80 53.57 56.55 63.03
Standard dev. 15.87 16.86 18.99 21.43
Min. score 32.14 35.71 25.00 21.43
Max score 92.86 82.14 89.29 92.86
Table 3 shows the INVALSI data by students divided into four ranks according to the scores obtained (Low rank: 0
