As Mr Mudemi, one-time CAMPFIRE Officer for. Beitbridge Rural District Council in Zimbabwe, once remarked to one of us. (DHMC), âThe problem is that cattle ...
9
Land- and naturalresourcebasedlivelihoodopportunities in TFCAs DavidH.M. Cumrning,Vupenyu DzingiraiandMichelde GarineIl/ichatits lq,
Introduction The xrca relativelyrccentphcnomenon. pxrksin SouthernAfticar Tnnsboundary Naiional Park and fie Kgalagadi Park in South Aftca Gemsbok Nattunal Kalahari in Bolswanasharcda commonboundaryfor 40 yean befb.ebcingformally mcrged Parkin May 2000.ManaPoolsNationalPark into the KgalagadiTransiionLier andthe SouthemZambeziNationalParkin Zarnbiahaveshareda in Zin1bab\{e boundrryfor 27 yeaN.and Krugerand LimpoPoNailonalParkshave shared Therccentmoveto llnk a rungcof ar intematbnalboundaryfor about10 yeal-s. thri na-\'beneareachotherbuldonotnecessrrilv areas, differentrypcsofproiected is indeeda lery ncw initiati\'e.Theconceptbeganto sharccornmonboundades, receiveseions altentionin Southcm,^fricain the l990s From a consewriion ponpective.harsliontierco senationdfcas(TFCAS)promiseto link protected countncs. bothwilhin andbetween areasofvadoustypesacrosslargelandscapes, otherwise by proaidlnganinieneningmatrixin $'hichaninalscm nove behveen ofpeopleliring on isolatedprotecledislands'.Fromiheperspcctive ecologically prolected areas,' c. on the ofnationajparksin fie natrix beFveen theboundaries 'lhe edge',dnd rvifiin a T!'CA, a wide rangeof impdctson iheir livelihoods impactshavebecncxploredin thecarherchapters emergc.These,oftennegative. ihe opportunilies availableto peoplelivng chapter examines book. This oflhis TFCAS in Soxthern Afiica. cdge and \\ ithin on thc useopironsthatnay we nean thelandandnanualrcsource By opportunities, gercrale andinprcved wealth mighrno$,, or in dre tuturc. 'vitlin TFCAS that exist valy considef These opportunirics living widrln these areas. for thos€ livelihoods policy frame ard the legal aDd tLc country, rhe resouroc base delending on ably, depend on rcsounes. They also goveming to. and nse of. natural access works (soclal and resources and Lhe social and econonic popllxlion densitles. human TFCAS. ph]'sicalcatltal)in fte respectivc in SouthenAlrica TFCAS underactivedevelopmenl xrc now some 13 Thefe andpolit'cal development (Figuc 9.1).Theyarec\pcctedlo meetconscn'ation, goalsGee Chapt.r2). Widr rapidly growinghurran populaiionshcreasingl)
164 Cunming et a.l. occupyingmarginalareasthe Fessur€son naturalresourcesaremountinsbv the ddy.Thereicatrrgenrfleed toerlabh.h rhepo.ic) ald ilcenrirefiame*orks:cros the region that will al1owTFCAS io meet both the needsof DeoDleand the consen drionot nnru-al 'c.ources Jrd biooi\eFiD. The boundariesof TFCAS,and the areasthey encompass,are, in conrast to national parks, still mostly ill-d€fined. They vary in size ftom rhe Kavanso ZarbezriorLA/A lfCAro{,.400.000kJtrt\drsu.addle. fi\e coutrries ro rhe KasurguLulusuziTICA in Zambia-Malawi ofc.2,316kmr. TIis chapterdeah wnh rhe centralquestionof why, for the mosl par, peopte living within TFCASarenot reapingtheporentialbenefitsof wildlife andother naturalresoxrcesin their arcas.We first oudinethe landrenureandenvironmental characienstics ofthe TFCASbeingdevelopedin SouthemAfrica to p.ovideabroad contexttu rvhichenterprises basedon irdigenousfaunaanditom maybe developed to sustainlivelihoods for thoseliviry on rhe edge.The major tourist atlractions and enterpnseoppornmiriesin relation to the l3 SouihemAirican TFCAS are briefly sxnnarised and discussedbeforeprovidins sevcmrspecificexarnplesof existng natuml resourcebaseddevelopmentswithin TFCAS in South Ajlica. ZinbaowcJnd\drnrbir.Ha\Ingprovioed rhebroddconrer.tor rarurat re.ourccbased enterprisedevelopmentand some specific current examples.we then cols dcf the -oleof IeBalandpolicycon.Lrain-s rlur inh.bI rnproredbeneF. sreamrro Jloie livingo.rtheeJge.rogehefwirhsomespecifice\amplesoj iL,e.v porenr a,re1]rrsfr^n CBt\RV.Theporenrat iJLquenc. ot,.,.., n". i..lr.;.,rrna cultural exchangesaffoss intemationalboundadesis briefiy examined.In conclusion,we considerthe necessarycorditions for moving lron opportunities to implemenfationand outline four strategiesthat may contdbuteto improved naturJre,ource mandgemenl andthcfloqoJoenefil,lo rt-oteIi!ingonrh; edge. ds$ell acroconse^arronof IneregioD . bro ver.iry Land tenure alrd enviroDmental features ofsoutherl African TFCAs Size,land tenurc andfrdgtfientatiotl Fonnal tr€atiesbetweencountriesin SouthemAfrica have been sisned for rhe esrdb i(hmenr of rrec ransronncr nariond Ai-A,.Ricbten\etd Frkr I Kgatrgadi. and Great Limpopo). Memorandaof Unde.standing(MOUt have beensisned fbr the developmentof s€venTFCAS,and the MOUSfor a turther threeTFCAS are under development.In terms of the areasof land involved. thee veff tarse | | '^ As.ez(h co\enlg more|ndr80.00rr tan . urebeingccreloped.a runnerdTie cover between20,000 and 40,000 km,, and the rmainins eisht TFCAS val.r' ber$een 2.000and tJ.000km, i tabteq.tl. Ore o-rtre tiCql. rhet89r. -*6:23!EE-?
J
x: l-j
leEi2iil1E2:= J z - g: i a i < 6,: z g
42.4
t
'6
e 3
E E
.! n
E ; 'E
E :
I
8A
! :
j
!
\
E
-? :
=9
3 a
: -
? E
e
!
.a_
s
,F
9 E
€6 I .9
lz= bi9
6o
>4
.E 3
+
rz E
= €
:a {
6i
l'74
Clltji1tiig
c\ al.
imolane\rofms' (Sracker a/.,
2003)ard e\cn charcoalfor erporr lioln lusn encroachcd arcas$'hefegfazirunccdsto be re-eslablished. ln dddition1lrihe raturalrcsources endo\rmcntofTFCAs. i frastrucltrirand fieprovjsionofassocjated seniccs!lay animportanr rolciDihepolenlialfor these afeas1oprovidedcvclopment andlivelihoodoptodunitieslbr ftosc livnrgon the edge.Becausc mosl'lFCASaresiluarcdin theperiphemlzoncs of rheifrespective counlrics(seeChaprers 6 andl). theinfiaslructure aDdsenicesafenosrlypoofly dcvcbp.d andgreallycorstraindelelopmenloptrcns(Table9.2).Therers also an inherentconillcl b.hr.ceDinffasfxcurc dclelopmenrand fie continuing prorisionol arLraclile wilderness erpcricnces for rounsls.For cumple Krxger \alionalPark(K,\P)hasa well dcveloped inllaslruct'rcbolh\1,ithjn dreparkand on rtspefjpheryandis .tbleto atmct a nillion of mofeioxrisisa ]crr. bul in the perceprion ol mxnyn doesnorprolidcarue wildemess expcicncc.On rheother hand,Gonarczhou Nadonallark is poo y developedallraclsfc$,crihaD10.000 lisilors a yearb r providesa scnseof$ilde essthatattractsa diffefenrcategorv of tourist.The plan 1br tbe Gonarezhou NationaLfark seeksro nrrnnainirs wildemess cha|acter. Legishttkrhortl sociatcapitll Natioral lcgislation and pollcics 1or corllnruniry bascd narlLralresoxrce management conlxrnmanycommorelemcntsacrossthereglon,strchassuppod lo lhc lustainablexse ofrarurrlresources andforconrnunities ro benefiidirecrlv ,.,", ldli,e, i.' oee,1,^...",r.200S. 2009rCirelll andMorgcr.t2010).Horvever. rcsouceaccess rightsvarybet\!ccn courtriesa\ docsthe exrentio nhich conuruniliescanenlcrifio joint venrures. pn!ale scclorparnlefships andcommcroial exploitation of thcifrcsoufces. Forthe mon taft, centralandlocalgolcnmentsexactconsidcnbletaaeson thererums thaicornmnilicsdeive fromtheconmcrcialuseofiheir$ild naLuralrcsources. This ilsueis discxssed laLcrin this chapler. Socralcatlai $ithiDconxnnnities liyiDgon theedgevanesgrcaLlyrcrossthe rcgionandhasbeennrfluenccd, amongolhers,by rhe.xtcDfto$hich colonialand postcotonialpmcrices (c.g.forceddisplacenenLs). harcnnpac!ed socjalcohesn)n by the natureand duralioDof civjl x'ars md thc nrovements of retugees. and the exrenrio which nationalboLrndaLles h.t!c ftagmentedco]n unilics (see a-haprcrs I and1). Natural resource-basedcnterprise opportunities Thenrajorfocus olTN'Pud-frCA delelopncnthas beenonrourjsldeletopncnts ccntrcdonSouthernAlhca s charisnratic large anmallaune,pafticulady the'big ln e . and$,ildafeas(Table9.3). Rclrtcdfactofsat$acdng lorcign,highfee,pa,vjng lounstsafe$ edands. peltcivcdivilderness qxalirics. biodiversii,v andaccessililrry. Hotels.lodges,crmtmg facilitiesand guidcd tBils ha\'ebeen,and can bc. develoledin all TFCASNndT\Ps (Table9.i). LafgeareasofrnostTFC,{Slack
Livelihood opportunities in TFCA|
1'71
the scenery,habitat, large mammal populations and infrastructure to attract andsupporta high throughputofnon-consumptive(gameviewing/photographic) toxrism. However,mary ofthese lessathactiveareascan and do suppot viable tophy hnding opemtions.In somecountrieshrmtjngby citizens,as opposedto hjgh fee-payingvisitor, is permitted and where gamepopulationscan support it, animalsare croppedto provide gamemeat for local and urban narkets. T]rc provision of ecosystemselvices and pa]4neDtsto local corDmunitiesfor these servic€s(e.g. water supplies and nood mitigation, carbon sequestrationand biodivenity) hashardly beenexplorcd. Despiie the many existing constraints to the developmentof viable and sustainablecommunityenterpdsesfor thoseliving on the edge,ihere ar€ some examplesin the region thatFovide a basison which to firfiher explorelivelihood opportunitiesfor thoseliving in TFCAS.Selectedexamplesftom the regioDare bdefly outlinedin ihis sectionbeforc consideringthe opportunitiesthat might be developed,givetr appropriat€policesandincentiv€structuresExanples of opponunitiesbeins developed Comnuni| land and \ril.Clife-basedtowism in Zinbabwe Ilr many cormllmal lands on the edgeof Fotected arcas,there is land that has remainedunsettledandlittle usedfo. $azing livestockbecauseof a lack of water andits remoteor ruggednature.This hasthe potentialto provide wildlife-related benefitsto conmunities. Oneof the earliestexanplesof a community private s€ctortourism initiative 'on the edge',andonethatprecededthe of8cial startofzimbabwe's CAMPFIRE, involvedtheMahenyecommndtyon thenorth-eastem boundaryofthe Gonar€zhou NationalPark (GNP).A Dumberofhouseholdsofthe Mahenyecornmuity were displacedin the I 960sfiom the Lundi fuver areathat is now within the GNP Gee Chapier3). Somehouseholds,however,renained settledon an islandof -5 km'z in ihe lower SaveRiver. The settlementwas ftequently subjectedto crop laiding by elephantsand a local safari operator,well-known and rcspectedby the comnunity, suggestedthat th€y move off the isbrd anduso it as a safari,or irophy hmting area.This they did in 1982/83andthe areahassirce beenusedfor trophy hunting.By I 987 the pmceedsfrom hunting were usedto build the tust prjmary school in the ward and a grinding mill (Pererson,1991).Fulher developments followed in the early 1990s.I-and was leasedto SouthemSun Hot€ls to build two luury lodges:MahenyeLodge on an island in the SaveRiver and Chilo Lodge on the eastembant of rhe Savetuver adjacenito the GNP, togeiherwith the establishmentof a funher wildlife arcawithin tlre MahenyeWard (Murpfuee, 1995). Despite many problems in govemanceand the distribution of benefits (Rihoy et da, 2004)the Mahenyeconmuniry continuesto plannew developments basedon their wildlife resources(Stockil, personalconmunication,2010). Onthe oppositesideofGNP, theNaivashaareaofapproximately300kmr (paxt ofMatibi No. 2 CommunalLand) was set asideas a wildlife areaand enclosed
l'72 Cunniig et al. within th€ GNP wh€n xhepark was fencedas a Foot and Mouth Disease(FMD) control measxre(Chapter3). The ChiredziRxral District Comcil ieasesthe area as a hunting conc€ssion.The Malipati SafariArea was initially designatedas a gamercservewithin the Matibi Colnmllllal Land in 1968and managedby what was then Ministry of Internal Affairs, with ihe exFess purposeof Foviding benefitsto the surounding commmio,. The areawas inco$omkd into the Parks and Wildlife Estateafter lndependencein i980 and gazettedas a Safari Area. R€verue derived ftorn the leaseof hunting was reiumed to the Chiredzi Rural District Counciluntil the mid-1980sandthereafterwasrerainedby NationalParks. Later still the areawas leasedto the Rural Distdct Cormcil(RDC), which in tum could leaseout the huntingnghts. Communiryrights to the benefitsgeneraredby the Malipati areahavestill to be reinstated. The Kanruha Ward of 354 krn'z,in fte Mid-ZambeziValley of Zimbabwe, is wedgedbetweenthe Cheworeand DandeSafariAreas.The great€rproportion of the ward is occupied by the Zambezi escarpmentand is unsuitable for agriculture.Settlementis confned to .ich alluvial areasalong the Angwa River at Masoka.The areafalls withjn the tsetsebelt, which precludesthe keepingof catile. The Masoka commuity, at the onsetof CAMPFIRE in 1991,opted to enclosethei village within a fencedareaof 20 km, ard io use the rcmainder oftheir ward for wildlife. Theyrcgardedtheir wildlife astheir catdeandproce€ds fiom safadhunting haveallow€dthem to weatherperiodsofdrought whetrffops faile4 io build aprimaryanda secondaryschool,to purchaseandmaintaina tractor to till their fields,andin someyemsto pay a househoiddividend(Figure9.2).The communiryhas,overa periodoftwenty years,grown ftom 65 to >160households and ihey have extendedtheir enclosedsettledar€abut taken carc to maintain a viablewildlife area.As in thecaseofMahenye,they havefacedgovemanceissues and plobl€ms with hunan wildlife coniict but continueXoderive substantial bercfitsfton a wildlif€-basedeconomythat is lin]{edto then€ighboxringprotected areasadjoiningtheir ward. Land clains a
co tractuolparks in SourhAJrin
Before 1994tle SouthAfiican govenment developedcontractualarrangements betweenprivatelandownersandihe statefor thejoint manag€ment ofconservation areason privateland ibat abuttedexistiq or newly creatednationalparks.During the 1980s,movesby the NationalParksBoardto developa confiactualpark with the Richlersveld communiry were initiated. This r€sulted in the Richtersveld NationalPa* of 1,624kmz beingestablishedin 1991following a coun actionby the cornmuniq,to enforce the signing of an ageement that better met their objectives(GrossmanandHolden,2009).The park adjoinsthe Ais-Ais National Park in Namibia ajrd now forms part of the Ais-Ais,ry.ichtenveldTransftontier Park. Following the new dispensationin 1994,the Makulekeconrmunityfled a land claim for the ,rea betweenille Liruru and Limpopo Riven from whicb 3,000 n,Ienbersof the clar were evicted in I 969. Their claim was successfuland thar
Ltuelihoodopportunitiesin TFCA| 173
Figure9.2 Chjef l
