Thank you to Louise Goodyer for her supportive encouragement and help ...... Sue told of the early years of the schools existence and the difficulties involved in ...
A CASE STUDY OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WHOLE LANGUAGE IN A REMEDIAL SCHOOL by
JEAN VERONICA FOURIE
MINI-DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MAGISTER EDUCATION'S in
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: DR RE SWART CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF E HENNING
APRIL 1997
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following people and institutions who made this research possible:
My sincere thanks to Dr. E. Swart and Prof. E. Henning for their advice and guidance in the compilation of this work.
I would like to thank the Transvaal Education Department for granting permission to undertake research in the remedial school which falls under their jurisdiction.
I am deeply indebted to the case study teacher for her participation in this study. Without her great insights this thesis would not have been possible.
My grateful thanks to the Principal and staff of Delta Park Remedial School for their patience and support during the study.
A very big thank you to my husband and parents for their ongoing encouragement and for the numerous sacrifices they have made.
Thank you to Louise Goodyer for her supportive encouragement and help as co-analyst in the compilation of the study .
RECOGNITION
Financial support from the Centre for Science Development (HSRC, South Africa) and the Rand Afrikaans University towards this research is gratefully acknowledged. The opinions expressed and the conclusions arrived at, are solely from the author and should not necessarily be attributed to the Centre for Science Development or the Rand Afrikaans University.
ii
"At any time in the past, people have held a view of the way the universe works, which was for them... definitive, whether it was based on myths or research.
And at any time, that view they held was sooner or later altered by changes in the body of knowledge"
(J. Burke, 1985: The day the universe changed p.9, cited by Newman, 1991:70).
iii
SYNOPSIS Traditionally schools for learning disabled pupils taught the language arts within a behaviouristic model where language was broken down into its component parts and sub-skills, which were then taught in a stepwise, sequential manner from the most simplistic towards the whole complex language. In the 1980's there was a grassroots, teacher-initiated movement away from this reductionist orientation towards the teaching of language in a meaningful, integrated manner. A variety of teaching methods developed which were consistent with this new whole language approach. The whole language approach became an inherent part of teachers, encompassing all aspects of a classroom and thus it was referred to as the whole language philosophy. This research focused on the process of a teacher changing from the behaviouristic approach towards the whole language philosophy. Although the research focused on one teacher, it had broader implications for the process of whole language implementation in all schools for learning disabled children. This process of a teacher changing towards the whole language philosophy was explored within the theoretical framework of a model described by Watson. The model presented three dimensions of philosophy formation. The dimensions were practice, theory, and beliefs which were inter-related and constantly evolving as the teacher's philosophy formed. The methodological format used to achieve the research aim was a qualitative single case study. The qualitative design allowed for the process of teacher change to unfold without constraints. It accommodated the explorative, flexible nature of the research and allowed for rich, interpretative descriptions of the process. The research was limited to a single case since the scope of the research allowed for only one teacher to be purposefully selected and educated. The researcher introduced the teacher to the whole language approach by providing suitable reading material, by building a trusting relationship with her, and consulting with her on the practical implementation in her classroom. Simultaneously with the researcher facilitating the change process in the teacher, the researcher collected data from various sources - interviews, documents and journal field notes. Data analysis was done using the content analysis procedure of open coding where manageable units of data were subjected to pre-determined criteria in order to code them into themes. The themes were then clustered into regularly occurring patterns for consolidation and interpretations were then made which led to the research conclusions. The findings of the study supported Watson's three dimensional model. Whole language philosophy formation began with the implementation of borrowed practices, which resulted in successful experiences and prompted the activation of a quest for the underlying theory. Theory activation led to the examination of previously held beliefs which altered with time towards the whole language philosophy. Added to this model, this study indicated that a teacher's whole language philosophy formation is a dynamic process. The process was facilitated by an agent of change and contextualised within the educational system where it required a supportive environment in order to develop. These findings suggested that the agent of change be added to Watson's model as the fourth dimension and that the entire process be contextualised within the educational system. iv
SINOPSIS Tradisioneel het skole vir leerlinge met leergestremdhede taalkunde binne 'n behavioristiese model onderrig, waar die taal afgebreek was in komponente en vaardighede wat dan stapsgewyse en opeenvolgend van die heel simplistiese tot die mees komplekse taalstrukture onderrig is. In die 1980's was daar 'n fundamentale, onderwyser geinisieerde beweging weg van hierdie reduksionistiese orientasie na die onderrig van taal in 'n betekenisvolle, geintegreerde manier. 'n Verskeidenheid onderrigmetodes het ontwikkel wat met die nuwe taalbenadering se beginsels gestrook het. Die geintegreerde taalbenadering het 'n inherente deel van onderwysers geword en alle aspekte van die klaskamer ingesluit. Daar word dus verwys na die geintegreerde taalfilosofie. Hierdie studie het gefokus op die proses van 'n onderwyser se verandering vanaf die behavioristiese benadering na die geIntegreerde taalfilosofie toe. Alhoewel die studie net op een onderwyser gefokus het, is daar wyer implikasies vir die implementering van die geIntegreerde taalfilosofie in alle skole vir leerlinge met leergestremdhede. Hierdie proses van die onderwyser se verandering na die geIntegreerde taalfilosofie, was ondersoek binne die teoretiese raamwerk van 'n model beslcryf deur Watson. Die model het drie dimensies van filosofie-vorming voorgestel. Die dimensies was praktyk, teorie en oortuigings, wat nou verwant is aan mekaar en wat gedurig ontvou terwyl die onderwyser se filosofie vorm. Die metodologiesie formaat gebruik om die studie se doelwitte te bereik was 'n kwalitatiewe enkelvoudige gevallestudie. Die kwalitatiewe ontwerp het die proses van die onderwyser se verandering toegelaat sonder enige beperkings. Dit het die ontdekkings en buigbare aard van die navorsing geakkomodeer, en het 'n ryk interpretasie en beskrywing van die proses toegelaat. Die studie was beperk tot 'n enkele geval omdat die omvang van die navorsing toegelaat het om slegs een onderwyser doelgerig te selekteer en op te voed. Die navorser het die geIntegreerde taalfilosofie aan die onderwyser bekend gestel deur middel van toepaslike leesmaterial, deur 'n vertrouensverhouding met haar te stig, en deur met haar te konsulteer oor die praktiese implementering in haar klaskamer. In dieselfde tyd wat die navorser die veranderingsproses in die onderwyser gefasiliteer het, het die navorser ook data versamel uit verskeie bronne - onderhoude, dokumente, en joernaal-veldnotas. Data analise was gedoen deur die gebruik van die inhoudsanalise prosedure van oop kodering waar hanteerbare data eenhede onderwerp was aan voorafgestelde kriteria om dit in temas te verdeel. Die temas was toe saam gebundel in herhalende patrone vir konsolidasie en interpretering wat tot navorsings-gevolgtrekkings gelei het. Die bevindings van die studie het Watson se drie dimensionele model ondersteun. Die vorming van 'n geintegreerde taalfilosofie begin met die uitvoering van geleende praktyke, wat lei tot suksesvolle ondervindings. Dit lei op sy beurt tot die soeke na die onderliggende teorie. Die aktivering van die teorie lei tot evaluering van vorige sienings wat met tyd verander na die geintegreerde taalfilosofie. Bykomstig tot die model, het die studie aangedui dat die onderwyser se filosofievorming 'n dinamiese proses is. Die proses was gefasiliteer deur 'n veranderingsagent en is gekontekstualiseer in die onderwyssisteem waar 'n ondersteunende omgewing nodig is vir die ontwikkeling van die filosofie. Hierdie bevindings stel voor dat die veranderingsagent as 'n vierde dimensie by Watson se model gevoeg moet word en dat die hele proses binne die onderwyssisteem gekontekstualiseer moet word.
TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO THE RESEARCH
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH 1.3 MOTIVATION 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION 1.5 AIMS OF THE STUDY 1.6 METHODOLOGICAL ORIENTATION 1.6.1 Research design 1.6.2 Study implementation 1.6.3 Data analysis 1.7 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF TERMS 1.7.1 Whole language approach 1.7.2 Learning disability 1.7.3 Teacher education 1.8 CONTEXTUAL ORIENTATION 1.9 RESEARCHER'S ASSUMPTIONS 1.10 DELIMITATION 1.11 CHAPTER DIVISIONS 1.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY CHAPTER 2: WHOLE LANGUAGE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 THE WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH 2.2.1 A philosophy 2.2.2 A view of language 2.2.2.1 The form subsystem 2.2.2.2 The content subsystem 2.2.2.3 The pragmatics subsystem 2.2.3 A view of language acquisition 2.2.4 A view of social interaction 2.3 WHOLE LANGUAGE AND THE LEARNING DISABLED PUPIL 2.3.1 The language view and the learning disabled pupil 2.3.2 The language acquisition view and the learning disabled pupil 2.3.3 The social interaction view and the learning disabled pupil 2.4 TEACHER'S FORMATION OF THE WL PHILOSOPHY 2.4.1 Watson's model 2.4.1.1 Practice 2.4.1.2 Theory 2.4.1.3 Beliefs 2.4.2 Themes that influence the model 2.4.2.1 It's a process 2.4.2.2 It takes time 2.4.2.3 It needs collaboration and trust 2.4.2.4 Teacher ownership 2.4.2.5 Provide support vi
1
1 1 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 13 14 14 15 17 17 19 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 25 26 26 26 27
2.4.2.6 Allow interaction 2.4.2.7 Encourage reflection 2.4.2.8 Awareness of systems 2.4.3 Putting it all together (a case study example) 2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
28 28 29 31 31
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS 3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN 3.3.1 Qualitative and contextual 3.3.2 Descriptive, interpretative and exploratory 3.4 RESEARCH FORMAT 3.5 SAMPLING 3.6 STUDY IMPLEMENTATION 3.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION 3.7.1 Observations 3.7.2 Semi-structured interviews 3.7.3 Documents 3.8 DATA ANALYSIS 3.9 DATA CONSOLIDATION 3.10 DATA INTERPRETATION 3.11 DATA VERIFICATION 3.11.1 Credibility 3.11.2 Transferability 3.11.3 Dependability 3.11.4 Confirmability 3.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 3.13 CHAPTER SUMMARY
32 32 32 32 32 34 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 40 40 41 42 42 42 43
CHAPTER 4: WHOLE LANGUAGE IMPLEMENTATION 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 TIME FRAME AND OUTLINE OF DATA SOURCES 4.3 PHASE 1: EXISTING STATUS 4.3.1 Summary of first interview 4.4 PHASE 2: CASE STUDY PHASE 4.5 PHASE 3: JUNIOR PRIMARY PHASE 4.5.1 Summary of the minutes of JP phase teachers meeting 4.6 PHASE 4: SENIOR PRIMARY PHASE 4.7 PHASE 5: THE WHOLE SCHOOL PHASE 4.8 SUE'S FINAL WORD 4.9 SUE LOOKING FORWARD AND PLANNING 4.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY
44 44 44 46 46 47 51 56 57 60 60 62 63
CHAPTER 5: INTERPRETATIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS . . 64 64 5.1 INTRODUCTION 64 5.2 INTERPRETATION OF THE FINAL CATEGORIES vii
5.2.1 Agent of change 5.2.2 Awareness of systems 5.2.2.1 Supportive environment required 5.2.3 Teaching practice 5.2.4 Teacher's theoretical knowledge base 5.2.5 Teacher's beliefs 5.3 CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM THE FINDINGS 5.4 VALIDATION OF THE FINDINGS 5.5 STRENGTHS OF THE STUDY 5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 5.7 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY 5.8 RECOMMENDATIONS 5.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS
65 65 67 68 69 70 71 72 74 74 75 75 76
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
Studies on whole language and learning disabled pupils Strategies used to support whole language philosophy formation Selected books used to introduce teachers to whole language Codes and themes Examples of data analysis Categories of clustered themes Dendrograms of categories of each phase FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Whole language brings together three main aspects
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Figure 2.2 Language forms and the integrated language system
13
Figure 2.3 Developing a whole language philosophy
22
Figure 2.4 Themes that influence the model
25
Figure 3.1 The research process
33
Figure 4.1 Time frame and data sources
45
Figure 5.1 Final dendrogram of emergent categories
64
Figure 5.2 Watson's modified model
72
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CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO THE RESEARCH 1.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter will provide the contextualization and orientation of the research, giving the motivation, problem statement, aims, and methodological framework. A description of the whole language approach, the researcher's paradigmatic point of departure and an outline of the following chapters' content will be presented.
1.2 BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH Traditionally the language teaching approach used in schools for the pupil with learning disabilities was based on the behaviourist model that reflects a reductionist orientation (Poplin, 1988:389; Smith-Burke, Deegan & Jaggar, 1991:58). This implied that the language was broken down into its component parts such as phonemes, graphemes and words. "Language is reduced to fragments and learning is reduced to the performance of sub-skills to- be individually mastered in a sequential way" (Smith-Burke, et al. 1991:58). These fragmented parts were then taught in a stepwise manner beginning with the most simplistic or basic and working towards more complex combinations until the entire system of language was taught. Thus the sounds were taught first, the sounds were then combined to from words, which were then combined to form sentences and later paragraphs and whole compositions. "To assure that children were acquiring the necessary basic skills... school authorities developed meticulously designed lists of skills to be taught... accompanied by elegant record-keeping systems and mandated testing programs. Teachers and children became so caught up in record keeping, completing worksheets and testing, that little time was left for instruction...and silent reading time was down to seven minutes a day" (Reutzel & Hollingsworth, 1988:406). In the 1980's there was a move away from the behaviourist model towards the teaching of language in a meaningful, whole manner, since the isolated parts of the language system are meaningless (Watson, 1989:133). "Teachers of students with learning disabilities...became dissatisfied with the behavioural approaches to teaching that have dominated the field of learning disabilities" ( Dudley-Marling, 1995a: 109). They proposed that there was a "need for a new and broader perspective on language and literacy learning" (Smith-Burke, et al. 1991:59). Research into language and language learning, particularly early written language strengthened the theoretical foundations of this movement (Edelsky, Altwerger & 1
Flores, 1991:19). This new movement came to be known as the whole language approach (WL) to teaching and a variety of teaching methods and techniques were developed to allow teaching which was consistent with the principles of the WL approach. Essentially this movement maintained language as a whole system and the component parts were taught within the context of the entire language system. The use of the WL approach in the teaching of pupils with learning disabilities was investigated by various researchers and found to be highly effective in their teaching (Smith-Burke,
et al. 1991:58 and Appendix A).
"Instruction for students with learning disabilities often focuses on remediating underlying ability deficits ... before academic learning can proceed" (Rhodes & Dudley-Marling, 1988:12). In contrast to this, advocates of the WL philosophy shifted the emphasis from a deficit approach to one capitalizing on students' strengths. Pupils were treated as "competent rather than as deficient, as readers and writers rather than as children who have not yet learned prerequisite skills" (Zucker, 1993:660). Speaking about the WL movement, Jones (1993:73) stated: "We're talking about a revolution...the battle between a traditional, textbook-dominated establishment and the revolutionaries who support the wholelanguage movement. The outcome of this battle, should the 'revolutionaries' be successful, could spell sweeping changes in the rigidity of curriculum, the power of teachers, and the measures used in assessment of student progress." The controversies continued to thrive about the different approaches and appeared to be less about the relative effectiveness of the teaching methods than about the underlying philosophies and orienting attitudes (Hynds, 1994:5957). In order for the WL approach to be widely used, teachers needed to change from the behaviourist approach to the WL approach and this change appeared to be complex. "Special education teachers ... are struggling as they make this shift from skill-based to meaning-based reading instruction ... for students with special learning needs" (Sears, Carpenter & Burstein, 1994:632). The change in the teachers' paradigm was viewed as a process which took place over time and which was influenced by a variety of factors. Some teachers adapted quickly to the change and experienced few problems in the process of change. Other teachers found it more difficult to change and experienced many problems during the process (Walmsley & Adams, 1993:272). From the literature on the change to the WL approach it appeared that teachers who implemented this approach in their classroom often faced a number of problems (Newman, 1985:181-183). They had difficulty in making the paradigm shift from the behaviourist model towards the WL approach 2
(Shepperson & Nistler, 1992:63). Difficulty was encountered with the availability of training material and WL methodology. The constraints of syllabi and existing classroom methodology posed implementation difficulties. There were problems with colleagues who did not understand that they taught from a different approach (Walmsley & Adams, 1993:272). Further problems were encountered with the school authorities and the pupil's parents who had traditional views of instruction, and who, "expressed concerns about changes in grouping patterns and phonic instruction" (Combs, 1994:203). As Strickland (1995:295) noted: "Literacy today is often coupled with uncertainty, confusion... and frustrations that teachers encounter as they seek to make changes in their literacy programs." From this brief review of the problems encountered in teachers making a shift from one teaching model to another, the researcher decided to describe the process and the problems that a teacher in a school may encounter in making that shift. This research to explore the process of WL implementation was based in a school for pupils with learning disabilities. The context of a school for pupils with learning disabilities child was carefully chosen since: •
little literature seemed available on the problems experienced by teachers in such schools in making paradigm shifts,
•
the teaching approach of the behaviourist model was widely used in LD schools (Reutzel & Hollingsworth, 1988:406), recent literature extolled the benefits of using WL in LD schools above the use of the behaviourist model (references in Appendix A), and the researcher surmised that the problems experienced by a teacher in an LD school would be of a different nature than the problems experienced by mainstream teachers and possibly those reported in the literature.
1.3 MOTIVATION This particular study was chosen for a variety of reasons. The researcher's own experience as a teacher with the stifling limitations of the behaviourist approach and an interest in teaching pupils with learning disabilities using the most effective methodology prompted a search for more meaningful teaching approaches and the WL approach appeared to provide some balance. The researcher's excitement with the WL movement as a philosophy came to govern much of the researcher's educational intervention. This prompted the researcher to motivate other teachers towards the WL philosophy. The research also required the researcher's knowledge and skills as an educational psychologist: knowledge of learning theories, motivation, and systems theory; interpersonal skills of sensitivity, empathy, reflective listening, advice giving; and facilitation of change processes. The problem further fitted into an educational 3
psychological perspective. As a consultant to teachers in methodology the researcher needed to be familiar with the process and problems of change. The researcher's role was that of a facilitator and the researcher thus needed to know the most effective ways of sharing knowledge with teachers and the problems encountered when making paradigm shifts. Research was necessary in this field for numerous reasons: • to guide educational consultants in providing an effective service to teachers and pupils, to bring South African remedial schools in line with the latest teaching methodology and thus to update their expertise and so to provide the best possible intervention for their pupils, to provide educational authorities with understanding in the process of educational reform which is so essential for the South African school systems in the current political climate of reform. Goodman (1992a) supported this and later (1992b: 198) stated, "WL is an inclusive, coherent, scientific pedagogy for a truly democratic society."
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION Considering the complexity of factors involved in a teacher changing from the behaviourist approach to the WL approach and the need to understand this process of change the following research question and sub-questions were formulated:
How does the process of teacher change towards a WL approach in a school for the learning disabled unfold? The focus of the study was thus on the dynamics involved in the process of a teacher's change towards a WL approach and the question was sub-divided into the following questions: What factors are influential in the process of a teacher changing towards the WL approach? What problems are experienced by the teacher in implementing the WL approach? What problems are experienced by the teacher from the educational system during the implementation of the WL approach?
1.5 AIMS OF THE STUDY The aim which derived from the research question was:
4
To explore the dynamics of the process of a teacher's change towards a WL approach in a school for the learning disabled. The aim was divided into the sub-aims: To describe the factors in the process of a teacher changing towards the WL approach. To describe problems experienced by the teacher in the implementation of WL. To describe problems experienced by the teacher in the educational system during WL implementation.
1.6 METHODOLOGICAL ORIENTATION A theoretical framework was constructed which included literature readings, both journal articles and relevant books, on the WL approach and its implications for the learning disabled pupil. Relevant literature on teacher training and change towards the WL approach was reviewed. This theoretical review formed the framework for the research. 1.6.1 Research design
In order to achieve the aims of the study which were explorative, descriptive and explanatory in nature, with a contextual grounding, a qualitative single case study was used as research format (Mouton & Marais, 1990:45-46; Merriam, 1991:153). The qualitative design was suitable for the research since it allowed rich descriptions of the process and the problems to be recorded as they unfolded with time. The researcher was not interested in any specific outcome or product as would be consistent with quantitative research. Within the qualitative design, the research format was limited in scope to a single case study involving one teacher within the school. The limited time and resources of the research allowed the researcher to interact and collect data with only one teacher. The implementation of WL within the entire school would have involved the training of all the staff and the collection and quantity of data was beyond the scope of this study. Thus one teacher was carefully selected from the staff and she consented to be the participant in the case study. The participant teacher was chosen with specific criteria in mind. Firstly, she was teaching in the JP phase of the school since the researcher had surmised that a teacher from that phase would need to make a greater paradigm change than a teacher from the senior primary (SP) phase. This was because the JP phase was concerned primarily with the teaching of reading and the written language which has
5
traditionally been done from a behaviourist model. Secondly, the teacher was chosen since she was in a position to make the most influential changes as the head of the JP department. The third criterium in choosing the teacher for the case study was that she was able to provide the most rich descriptions in her ability to verbalise her thoughts and experiences fluently. The teacher also needed to have been teaching in the behaviourist model for a few years so that she would then have to make a paradigm shift toward WL. And lastly the teacher needed to have suitable qualifications in remedial teaching. 1.6.2 Study implementation Given the above criteria, the teacher was chosen for the case study and the research began soon afterwards with the researcher introducing the teacher to the WL approach. The emphasis was on providing the teacher with carefully selected reading material, by speaking about WL and listening to her views and problems. In the fieldwork the researcher facilitated and monitored the process as the teacher changed towards the WL approach. The themes emergent in the process were observed and recorded. The researcher was the primary instrument for the research. Firstly as the catalyst in the process of teacher change by introducing the teacher to the WL approach and carefully guiding the teacher toward a change in her theories, practices, beliefs and philosophies. Secondly as the instrument for the collection of data by monitoring the process as it unfolded through sensitive observations and by using empathic interviewing. The researcher was involved in guiding the process using skilful consultations and well-timed interventions to maintain the participant teacher in the process of change. It was like walking a tightrope between being a researcher who is distant, objective, neutral and being a consultant who is enthusiastic, subjective and intimately involved in the process. 1.6.3 Data analysis The analysis of the data was done using content analysis procedures where units of data were coded into themes which were then clustered to find the most relevant categories for interpretation. Data was consolidated and verified to determine the reliability of the findings. Data was interpreted by finding relationships and uncovering the dynamics of the change process. The case study thus attempted to describe the experiences of the participant teacher as she implemented WL in her classroom. The researcher was interested in how she experienced the process of change both within her classroom and the school context. The research was further focused to deal specifically with the problems experienced during this process of change. Both the process of change and the problems 6
encountered were described in rich detail. After the data was analysed and interpreted, conclusions were drawn and guidelines for future educationalists wanting to implement WL in their schools were suggested.
1.7 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF TERMS Key terms related to the study were clarified in order to eliminate ambiguity and confusion. 1.7.1 Whole language approach It was difficult to arrive at one, all encompassing definition of the WL approach, which has also been referred to as "language arts," "integration," "integrated curriculum," "language across the curriculum," "language experience approach" or "the psycholinguistic approach" (Froese, 1994:3208) Essentially, WL is a philosophy (Jones, 1993:74) about using language that emphasizes the wholeness of the integrated language forms of listening, speaking, reading and writing (Edelsky, et al. 1991:9; Watson, 1989:133; Hynds, 1994:5958). Although the WL philosophy was difficult to define, the following basic characteristics form the foundation of the approach and were common to the WL literature (Edelsky, et al. 1991:9-26; Goodman, 1986; Newman, 1985):
•
The WL philosophy builds around whole learners, learning WL in whole situations. WL learning encourages respect for language, for the learner, and for the teacher. WL instruction emphasizes the meaning and not the superficial language itself, in authentic, real communication and literacy events. WL instruction encourages learners to take risks. Learners are encouraged to learn from their mistakes and errors. Teaching is directed towards complexity, and not simplification. WL instruction invites learners to use language, in all its varied functions and forms. All the varied forms of oral and written language are incorporated into every lesson where the functionality of language is encouraged. There must be the integration of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Social interaction and collaboration between children is essential.
1.7.2 Learning disability The term 'learning disability' was generally used to refer to pupils with specific learning difficulties. Researchers varied in the exact definition and classification of the group of pupils with learning problems. However the following characteristics were generalized in the various definitions (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1988:104/105; Lerner, 1993:8-14; Lovitt, 1989:3-9: Vaughn & Bos, 1993:4/5; Westman, 1990:22-23): 7
It includes a heterogeneous group of pupils who exhibit a disorder in the psychological processing of one or more of the following: memory, auditory and visual perception, and the processes which affect spoken and written language, as manifest in imperfect ability with listening, speaking, reading, spelling and mathematics. •
The pupils possess an average to above-average intellectual potential which is unrealised in the learning environment and thus there exists a discrepancy between their realized achievement and their potential. This results in underachievement. This group excludes pupils whose learning disability is primarily due to mental retardation, emotional disturbances, sensory deficits, motor handicaps and cultural or economic disadvantages.
•
The learning difficulty is intrinsic within the child and possibly related to a dysfunction of the central nervous system.
•
The educational situation at home or/and at school may exaggerate the child's problem and thus special educational methods are required to accommodate the child's problems.
Within the South African context, pupils with learning disabilities were classified under the broad term of Learners with Special Education Needs (LSEN) by the Gauteng Department of Education, and they included in their definition, those learners who had been "socially, culturally, linguistically, economically or politically disadvantaged," (Naidoo, Burden, Topham & Singh, 1996:14). This differed from the literature's criteria where these aspects were usually excluded in the characteristics of the learning disabled pupil. In this study the term learning disability was used to refer to pupils who exhibited the characteristics listed above and it excluded other learners with special educational needs. 1.7.3 Teacher education The term 'teacher education', as opposed to teacher training was used in the study. This implied "the lifelong development of pedagogical and disciplinary knowledge in relation to an understanding of theories of learning and development, the historical and philosophical contexts of education, and the ability to adapt instruction to a variety of learning situations" (Hynds, 1994:5958).
1.8 CONTEXTUAL ORIENTATION The study was placed in a broad macro-context even though the research was focused at the micro level. The physical setting was South Africa in the Gauteng province. The educational context was a remedial school for pupils with learning disabilities. The school is an urban school in a middle class residential area. The socio-economic sector in which the school functions is the middle to upper class and the pupils and 8
teachers are predominantly of the white racial group. It is a government school, thus most of the school expenses are met by the education department and the school fees are relatively low in comparison to those of private remedial schools. At the time of the research the school accommodated about 350 pupils and was thus a relatively large remedial school. The school was fairly young, only four years old at the time and thus still establishing a school climate and atmosphere. Within the school, the research was done in the JP phase or the foundation phase, which is the first three years of formal schooling, however the research carried over to the SP phase, or the next four years of formal schooling.
1.9 RESEARCHER'S ASSUMPTIONS The researcher's assumptions were stated before the research began in order to understand the researcher's background. This allowed evaluation of the participants in the study to be made without biases (Creswell, 1994: 25). The researcher assumed that WL was a worthwhile and valuable philosophy to study and to implement in a remedial school. The research was based on the assumption that WL is an effective methodology from which to teach the pupil with learning disabilities. There was ample evidence in the literature to support this assumption (Appendix A). Although one of the criteria set for the selection of the participant teacher was that she was not currently teaching from a WL perspective, this was still assumed to be the case when the research began. This allowed for the participant teacher to be potentially able to learn the WL philosophy. The researcher viewed the teacher as the key element in the pupil's intervention. The role of the teacher was seen as being one small part within the whole school system, and that there is influence of the system on the teacher and the teacher on the system, based on systems theory (Merriam, 1991:16). The world view of the researcher allowed for the researcher to be the research instrument. The researcher attempted to look at the world holistically, in totality and to see the phenomenon in its entirety. The researcher assumed the presence of personal characteristics allowing the researcher to deal with qualitative research: a tolerance for ambiguity, the lack of set procedures and of formalised structure, the ability to use discretion at all steps of the research, a sensitivity to non-verbal behaviour, overt and covert agendas, the presence of observational skills to gain insights, the analytic ability to interpret the observations and findings, the skills of empathy, rapport, questioning, listening and trusting (Merriam, 1991:37).
9
1.10 DELIMITATION The scope and complexity of the implementation of the WL philosophy in a school was potentially vast. It was thus essential to narrow the field of study to a manageable size for one researcher. Thus the WL philosophy was implemented with only one teacher and thus limited since it was not intended for the entire school system. Data was mainly gathered pertaining to the process of implementation and thus the analysis and interpretation of data was greatly curtailed. Since the WL philosophy was initially derived in mainstream schools, the limitations of the philosophy for pupils with learning disabilities was taken into account. The study was also limited largely to remedial schools and although most of the findings may be applicable to mainstream schools, this cannot be generalised.
1.11 CHAPTER DIVISIONS The chapters were planned with the following divisions. Chapter one presented the orientation to the research, contextualization of the research problem, aims and the methods to realise the aims. In chapter two the theoretical paradigm of WL as a philosophy and its implications for teaching the learning disabled pupil is presented. Theoretical aspects of the process of teacher change towards a WL philosophy is reviewed. Chapter three provides the theoretical grounding for the research design and the format of a qualitative single case study. In chapter four the process of WL implementation is described according to the data analysis. Chapter five provides interpretations of the final categories and makes recommendations.
1.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter served as an orientation towards the study. It provided the contextualization of the research within a Gauteng remedial school. The motivation and limitations of the research were given. The problem statements and research aims were stated. The methodology of the research was briefly given and key concepts were clarified. In the next chapter the theoretical basis for the study was outlined using a literature review of the applicability of the WL approach for the pupil with learning disabilities and the process which a teacher encounters during the formation of the WL philosophy.
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CHAPTER 2: WHOLE LANGUAGE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter the theoretical paradigm of the WL approach will be clarified giving its theoretical foundation and basic principles. The WL theoretical paradigm will then be applied as a philosophy for teaching the LD pupil. Lastly, a model will be presented as a framework for describing a teacher's formation of the WL philosophy and various themes and strategies in support of the process of teacher change towards a WL approach will be reviewed from the literature.
2.2 THE WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH It was difficult to provide a concise definition of the WL approach as Goodman (1986:5) stated that, "WL is clearly a lot of things to a lot of people." Nevertheless, various dimensions of the approach will be presented from selected WL authors in order to arrive at an understanding of the concept. These dimensions include: WL as a philosophy; the WL view of language; the WL view of language acquisition; the WL view of social interaction. 2.2.1 A philosophy KS Goodman, one of the WL founders, (1989:207) defined WL as, "a way of bringing together a view of language, a view of language learning, and a view of ... kids and teachers." He thus linked three important aspects of the WL approach, namely, language, language acquisition and the social interaction between pupils and teachers together (Figure 2.1). The WL view of language emphasizes wholeness and the integration of the language systems. The view of language acquisition emphasizes the natural, whole to part learning of oral and written language. The view of social interaction
Figure 2.1 Whole language brings together three main aspects
emphasizes the collaboration between learners. However, other WL authors viewed WL as more than just a 'way of bringing together' these three aspects. WL was seen as "a way of thinking and a way of living and learning," (Bird, 1987:4; in Jacobs,1987). As Watson (1994:607) stated. "This is the way I want the children I know and love to be 11
treated... and it's the way I want to be treated myself." Stating that WL was a 'way of living' implied that it was not simply another teaching approach to be implemented in a classroom. It indicated that it became an inherent part of teachers. As Farris and Kaczmarki (1988:77) noted, "the framework of WL tends to be quite abstract, dealing primarily with attitudes and beliefs." This emphasis on attitudes and beliefs was clarified by Newman (1985:1) when she stated that WL was, "a shorthand way of referring to a set of beliefs about ... everything that goes on in classrooms." The principles in the belief system are considered to be operating assumptions which are also working hypotheses, subject to refinement and modification on the basis of further observation and research (Weaver, 1991:29). This referral to 'a set of beliefs' moved WL from the realm of language teaching in a classroom to the realm of the teacher's personal views. This was a move away from the external world towards the internal world of the teacher. WL authors referred to the beliefs that are held by a WL teacher as a philosophy, "a philosophical stance" (Newman, 1985:1) or the "philosophical issue" (Pearson, 1989:232). This view of WL as a philosophy was further supported by Watson (1989:133) in her definition of WL as, "a perspective on education that is supported by beliefs about learners and learning, teachers and teaching, language and curriculum." WL, they concluded was thus "an entire philosophy" (Jones, 1993:74). The formation of this philosophy within a teacher will be discussed in Section 2.4. The WL philosophy's view of the three main aspects defined by Goodman, namely, language, language acquisition and social interaction will briefly be discussed in the following sections. 2.2.2 A view of language The WL philosophy focuses on maintaining meaningful language and learning experiences. Pupils are encouraged to use language in ways that "relate to their own lives and cultures... (and thus) students enjoy learning because they perceive that the material has meaning and relevance to their lives" (Gursky, 1991:22). The emphasis in the WL classroom is on "the rich broth of meaning... that permeates the curriculum... (and the) emphasis on personal meanings" (Oldfather, 1993:672). This emphasis on maintaining meaningful experiences in classrooms is achieved by keeping the language used in its whole and thus meaningful form. As Jones (1993:74) stated, WL, "stresses that language should be kept whole and uncontrived." In keeping the language whole, the emphasis is on maintaining and using all the language systems within meaningful language encounters. This is in contrast with the reductionist view of teaching language where it is broken into its parts which are then taught individually in a pre-determined sequential manner (Smith-Burke, et al. 1991:58). 12
The WL philosophy about language combines knowledge of the structure and function of language into an integrated language system. The language system is viewed as a "super-system composed of interdependent, inseparable subsystems" (Edelsky, et al. 1991:11). The subsystems of the language system are form, content and use according to the model developed by Bloom and Lahey (1978), which must all be present during language learning experiences. The subsystems are further divided into the components of language which must be integrated successfully for a person to be a competent language user. The subsystems of form, content and use will briefly be clarified.
2.2.2.1 The form subsystem The language subsystem of form refers to the structure of the language without specific reference to
Listening
Speaking
the content or the language use. The basic language forms which are integrated are listening, speaking, INTEGRATED LANGUAGE SYSTEM
reading and writing. The wholeness of the integrated language forms is highlighted in the WL approach (Lerner, 1993:387). The different language forms have a core language system that underlies and
Writing
Reading
integrates the forms of language (Figure 2.2). Thus experiences with each language form strengthens the
Figure 2.2 Language forms and the integrated language system (Lerner, 1993:349)
underlying language system, which in turn influences the other language forms (Edelsky, et al. 1991:11; Lerner, 1993:34). The language components of the form subsystem are phonology, the graphic and graphophonic (written language), morphology, syntax and gesture (sign language).
Phonology is the system of rules that govern sounds of oral language and their combinations. Each language has specific sounds or phonemes which are combined in specific ways according to phonological rules to form words. A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that signals a difference in meaning, for example: /b/ and /p/ are separate phonemes (Fromkin & Rodman, 1988:69-71). The counterparts of the phonological system for written language are the graphic and graphophonic systems. The graphic system specifies what shapes or graphemes will count as what letters. For example, dissimilar shapes [a,A] count as the same letters, but similar ones [b,d] are different. The graphophonic system provides rules for pronouncing the graphemes and the spelling system (orthography). Morphology is the rule system that governs the internal organisation or formation of spoken, written or signed words. Morphemes are the smallest linguistic units with meaning, for example: fun/ happy/ or /dog/s/ (Fromkin & Rodman, 13
1988:127).
Syntax is the rule system that governs the structure of sentences, the word order and
organisation of different sentence types. The rules describe parts of speech (nouns, verbs etcetera.) and sentence structure (subjects, objects, noun phrases etcetera) and thus determine which sentences will be considered 'grammatical' for a particular language (Fromkin & Rodman, 1988:162). 2.2.2.2 The content subsystem The language components of the content subsystem are semantics and the lexicon. The content of the language thus refers to meanings, concepts and the words of the communication event. Semantics is the rule system that governs the meaning of words and the links between them (Fromkin & Rodman, 1988:206). When semantic rules are violated, the language doesn't make meaningful sense. The lexicon is a particular person's mental dictionary and includes knowledge of a word's meaning, pronunciation, use in context and syntactic category or part of speech (Fromkin & Rodman, 1988:183). 2.2.2.3 The pragmatics subsystem Language use refers to how language content and form are combined to effectively communicate. This is the pragmatic system which is concerned with the connections between aspects of content (such as choice of topic) and all aspects of the language form (pronunciation, word order, spelling options etcetera). Pragmatics includes the functions or intentions of language (greetings, asking, questions etcetera) and the rules of conversation, such as turn taking and responding appropriately (Fromkin & Rodman, 1988:227). Pragmatics is based on speech-act theory which sees language use not merely as saying or writing, but also as doing (Tan, 1994:100). There must be someone who is a 'doer' (the sender, the speaker, writer, signer) and someone for whom the language act is done ( the receiver, the listener, reader). Which language act is performed depends on the sender, the receiver, their relationship and the physical context. There are social rules governing the performance of all language use. Pragmatics has become increasingly important in language assessment and intervention as there has been a move away from phonology and syntax towards a more pragmatic, contextualized model of language (Norris & Hoffman, 1993:108). For the WL approach an important aspect of pragmatics is a person's purpose for producing language (Edeisky, et al. 1991:12). For example, reading a novel for enjoyment results in a different interpretive experience than reading the same novel to perform on a test. Certain kinds of text genres or speech occasions presuppose particular purposes which influence the interpretations a receiver makes. For example, readers will approach a front page newspaper article with a different interpretive set and a 14
different purpose than they will when they read a limerick. The importance of the discussion about the language subsystems is that in real instances of communication, all the subsystems are always present and interdependent (Edelsky, et al. 1991:12). Thus for WL theory, all the language subsystems must be present and coordinated for the integrated language system to provide effective communication (Norris & Hoffman, 1993:110). "Language is inherently integrative, not disintegrative" (Watson, 1989:133). Thus if systems have been artificially removed (for example, if the syntactic system has been removed as in flash cards) or if systems don't work together (for example, if the context has been set up so that meanings are not used for appropriate purposes), then even if it looks or sounds like language in use, it isn't. Watson (1989:130) states, "teachers cannot define WL as an integrative use of the systems of language and then in practice rely heavily on phonics for reading instruction and on parsing of sentences for writing instruction." Language use never occurs in isolated sentences or tasks that separate phonology from syntax from semantics from pragmatics. 2.2.3 A view of language acquisition The WL philosophy about language acquisition is based on the belief that both oral and written language
are acquired best through natural use in authentic settings. WL advocates believe "that children should learn to read and write in the same natural way they learned to speak" (Fountas & Hannigan, 1989:134). "Reading and writing ought to be taught in a way that parallels and complements early oral language learning" (Reutzel & Hollingsworth, 1988:408). In a child's early oral language acquisition, there is "immersion from birth in a meaningful, language-rich environment (which) affords children opportunities to model the communication processes" (Fountas & Hannigan, 1989:134). In early oral language acquisition, the "language is not broken down into bits and pieces for the child to decipher (but)...it always maintains its holistic structure" (Fountas & Hannigan, 1989:134). Reutzel and Hollingsworth (1988:408) emphasize the holistic nature of oral language acquisition by describing a behaviouristic approach for illustrative comparison: "Imagine a mother dutifully leaning over an infant's crib and presenting a daily lesson on the name and sounds of the letter `a'."Although this description appears ridiculous, it is precisely what is done in the behaviouristic teaching of reading and writing. Since children do not acquire oral language in a part to whole direction, but within meaningful WL encounters, the acquisition of reading and writing should also be taught from whole, meaningful language texts. The WL philosophy stresses the maintenance of meaningful, WL environments and thus avoids the teaching of separate non-meaningful parts of language or the use of isolated exercises and drills of skills. 15
The WL philosophy maintains that teachers make language learning more difficult by breaking the whole natural language into bite-sized, abstract little pieces. Reutzel and Hollingsworth (1988:408) claim that "few children would learn language in infancy if they were taught to speak the same way they are taught to read and write in schools." The abstract little pieces of language such as graphemes and their sound-symbol relationships (phonics) of the printed language will be mastered as children learn to read and write meaningful whole messages. The language parts should not be learned in isolation but are taught within the context of children's literature and the child's expressive language. The direction of learning in the WL philosophy thus occurs from whole language encounters to parts of the language and then from the parts back to the whole. The smaller parts of language are embedded within and related to the larger wholes. Children learn language parts by using them within whole complex situations. Thus phonics, words and sentences are learnt within the context of children's books, stories and expressive writing. This key WL belief stresses that reading and writing are learned through really reading and writing and not through doing reading and writing exercises. Thus real reading and writing should be happening at school. In order to maintain real, whole, meaningful language encounters, children should be exposed to a wide variety of authentic, children's literature to learn the conventions of the written language. Drills on isolated skills or language fragments are exercises, so they don't qualify as real reading or writing. Neither do entire stories exploited for the main purpose of teaching some skill rather than for a purpose appropriate to a story. Thus genuine, authentic texts are used - children's literature, recipes, song lyrics, dictionaries etcetera (Sumara & Walker, 1991:283). Weaver (1988:44) stressed "the importance of approaching reading and writing by building upon the language and experiences of the child." The child's own language is encouraged when the experiences are relevant and meaningful to the child. Anderson (1984:616) stated that WL is, "written and oral language in connected discourse in a meaningful contextual setting." More than this, it values the student's written, oral and artistic expressions as it strives for a "condition of deep responsiveness, to the honoured voice... (and) the having of wonderful ideas" (Oldfather, 1993:672). WL allows for the provision of abundant opportunities for expressive writing. The crucial difference between really reading or writing and going through an exercise has to do with purpose and meaning. The purpose for the language event must be meaningful for the child. If the child's purpose is simply to comply with the teacher's assignment, then the work really belongs to the teacher and has no intrinsic meaning for the student, and is simply an exercise. Doing exercises is an extremely difficult way to learn language (Edelsky, et al. 1991:8).
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2.2.4 A view of social interaction The third dimension of the WL philosophy is the view of social interaction. In the WL philosophy, it is believed that learning is best achieved through social collaboration. Learning is social when it occurs as a result of interaction between participants who share a joint focus on a topic. Learning is collaborative when the participants, both pupils and teachers, must work together to achieve a common objective (Enright & McCloskey, 1985:440). In a social situation, one participant may have more information or skills related to a topic and therefore, serve to mediate learning for the less competent or knowledgeable individual, or peers with equal ability or knowledge may provide mutual support that enables problems to be solved that neither participant could solve independently. A transactive model of teaching is used where pupils learn with the help of peers and teachers, as opposed to the transmission model where teachers are at the top of the classroom hierarchy (Hynds, 1994:5959). WL teachers seek to create a community of learners in which students learn with and from each other (Chen, 1994:8). As part of a community of learners, students have regular opportunities to talk about their reading and writing. These interactions demonstrate the purposes for which people read and write with the teacher demonstrating as a role model (Froese, 1991:10; Thomas & Rinehart, 1994:83-5). They also illustrate the problem-solving processes that readers and writers use. Opportunities for social interaction allow students to engage in dialogues that form the basis for thinking (Goodman, Brooksmith, Meredith, Goodman, 1987:7). In general, if students do not have opportunities to engage in social interaction with others who offer a range of alternative viewpoints, students will have no new viewpoints to incorporate into their thinking and therefore will experience less intellectual development (DudleyMarling, 1995a: 113). Teachers who begin to use a more collaborative approach, often struggle with their new role and question how and when to share authority and power with their pupils. There is "continual tension between the control of authority... needed to retain effectiveness as a teacher" (Garan, 1994:192) and the need for pupils to accept responsibility for their own learning. A balance is required to prevent the classroom from becoming a "linguistic free-for-all" (Field & Jardine, 1994:260) with total freedom and liberation.
2.3 WHOLE LANGUAGE AND THE LEARNING DISABLED PUPIL Although many of the ideas and methods of the WL approach have been used in the mainstream classroom, their application to pupils with learning disabilities will be clarified. According to DudleyMarling (1995a: 109) "teachers of students with LD have shown increasing interest in WL theory and 17
practice as a framework for teaching reading and writing." Goodman, (1986:58) claims that, "If kids are in WL programs with WL teachers right from the beginning, there are going to be a lot fewer readers and writers in trouble." WL is beneficial to children who are language impaired and learning disabled since it compensates for those factors that often cause students with language and learning disabilities the most trouble (Zucker, 1993:669). MacInnis and Hemming (1995:535) stated clearly the suitability of the WL approach for the student with learning disabilities. WL facilitates the learning process by addressing the weaknesses of special needs students more effectively than behaviouristic models since the WL philosophy moves away from the reductionist principles that emphasize fragmented skills toward a more meaningful, integrated approach to learning subject material (Zucker, 1993:661). Various studies have been undertaken where LD pupils were taught within the WL philosophy (Appendix A). It was generally concluded that the WL philosophy was more beneficial to LD pupils than behaviouristic models for a variety of reasons: •
WL teachers believe that pupils "are always learning and they describe what students know and not their deficits" (Dudley-Marling, 1995a:110).
O
WL teachers "are effective kid-watchers who see quickly when kids are not developing" (Goodman, 1986:58) and intervene immediately.
to
WL teaching emphasizes "a developmental approach ... with individualized format" which is particularly well suited to LD pupils (Zucker, 1993:661).
•
WL teachers provide "psychologically safe environments where risk taking is non-threatening" (Thomas & Barksdale-Ladd, 1994:125).
•
WL permits multisensory language learning experiences in which reading, writing, listening and speaking are frequently done in visual, auditory and kinaesthetic channels. Learning is greatly enhanced for children with processing difficulties when it involves more than one modality (Zucker, 1993:669). WL helped pupils with weaknesses in sequencing and organization (Zucker, 1993:661). WL enabled co-ordination of various remedial support services under one thematic umbrella (Zucker, 1993:661).
O
WL teachers use errors as data that provides insights into students' knowledge and ability... and errors are used to plan lessons (Dudley-Marling, 1995a:112). In the behavioural tradition, errors are discouraged in the belief that mistakes, if practised will be learned. In WL errors are viewed as hypotheses that are crucial to children's learning. Pupils who are unwilling to risk errors may be disadvantaged. Pupils with learning disabilities often write little, for fear of making spelling errors. Avoiding writing only further delays these students' written language development.
18
Despite the above evidence expounding the benefits of WL for LD pupils various authors tag provisos onto the use of WL. They state that the WL philosophy is beneficial provided that: supplemental instruction and support is provided (Lerner, Cousin & Richek, 1992:228), "a variety of instructional techniques are employed, the intensity and duration of the services are based on the individuals needs" (Mather, 1992:87), "it is not used as a recipe to be followed but rather as a way to make the access to literacy easier for all learners" (Malicky & Norman, 1988:24), "programs employ direct instruction strategies within the context of WL philosophy... the students engage in class discussion about what has been read, read orally under the guidance of the teacher, and receive direct instruction when appropriate" (Bartley, 1993:36), "it is combined with explicit and intensive instructional support... (which) can complement WL instruction, improving the reading performance of special (learning disabled) learners" (Sears, et 1994:633), and "we build bridges between WL and more traditional approaches for the purpose of providing all children with the very best opportunities to meet their literacy potential... we need to think in terms of a continuum rather than a dichotomy... teachers will driw what works best for them from both worlds" (Spiegel, 1992:43). Considering the above provisos, the researcher concluded that the WL philosophy was appropriate for teaching LD pupils. Within this philosophical framework, the use of behaviouristic methods as tools to intervene with LD pupils who would benefit from it, should not be excluded. The WL teacher does not exclude the use of supplemental, direct and intensive instructional strategies, but uses these within the context of the WL philosophy. It seemed difficult to build bridges between the traditional approaches and WL, if one's very way of life and core beliefs were espoused within the WL philosophy which in many ways is in contrast to the behaviouristic approach. 2.3.1 The language view and the learning disabled pupil The WL approach is based on the integrated language system (section 2.2.2). Since learning disabilities researchers (Lerner, 1993:388) agree that a unifying language system underlies oral and written language, the WL approach addresses this language foundation by emphasizing the integration of the language systems. By providing learning experiences in one aspect of the integrated language system, the other aspects of the system will improve. Thus active learning experiences in say, writing, help to improve the pupil's oral language and reading (Lerner, 1993:388).
19
Children with learning disabilities thus need to be taught the parts of language within WL contexts. They need instruction in building phonemic knowledge and decoding skills while learning to read whole books and write whole stories. In contrast behaviouristic programs for students with learning disabilities tend to focus on fragmented reading and writing skills. These skills taught in isolation, are thought to be prerequisites to successful literacy development. Pupils with learning disabilities may learn these skills, but it is uncertain whether they wilLtransfer them to authentic instances of reading and writing (Edelsky & Smith, 1984:24). When they learn skills outside the context of authentic reading and writing, students with learning disabilities may make little progress toward the ultimate goal of reading instruction, which is learning to use print to fulfill a variety of purposes in a range of social contexts (Dudley-Marling, 1995a:115). Reading authentic literature is effective in improving comprehension skills not only because it provides a rich supply of words in meaningful context but because it models natural and correct language structures. It also exposes students to a wide variety of literacy forms that contain extensive, uncontrolled but age-appropriate vocabulary (Bartley, 1993:33). 2.3.2 The language acquisition view and the learning disabled pupil The WL approach is based on the belief that both oral and written language are acquired through natural
usage. Since children learn to talk without special exercises, they will learn written language through natural usage of books and writing. For the pupil with learning disabilities this implies that many opportunities should be provided for the use of natural books and writing for an authentic purpose. The WL approach emphasizes that children should be immersed in literature, both reading and writing, from their earliest days. Learning disability researchers agree that pupils need as much exposure to books, stories, poems and as many opportunities as possible for authentic writing (Lerner, 1993:390). According to Goodman (in Lerner, 1993:390), the sound-symbol relationships of the printed language (phonics) will be naturally mastered as children read and write whole meaningful messages. However, LD pupils may require more than simply the natural exposure to written language. They often exhibit underlying language difficulties and may thus require "direct instruction and intensive intervention before they can understand" (Lerner, 1993:389).This WL principle is controversial in the teaching of the learning disabled child, since researchers are concerned about pupils who will not learn phonics naturally, but require structured lessons in which these skills are taught directly (Lerner, 1993:391). The most common misconception about WL instruction is that whole-language teachers do not teach 20
phonics. Whole-language theory is however, informed by a transactional view of literacy, which recognizes that readers do use their knowledge of sound-symbol relationships in the process of reading. However, readers do more than sound out words in the context of reading. They simultaneously draw on their knowledge of language, their knowledge of the world, and their knowledge of the conventions of print, including phonics, as they construct meaning from texts. LD pupils learn how to use phonics in the process of reading only by reading whole texts. If pupils seem to be struggling with reading, the prescription includes techniques such as repeated reading, choral reading, and echo reading. This contrasts with the behaviourist practice of reducing students reading when they have reading difficulties in order to focus on skills. 2.3.3 The social interaction view and the learning disabled pupil WL teachers seek to create a community of learners in which students learn with and from each other. As part of a community of learners, LD pupils have regular opportunities to talk about their reading and writing. These interactions demonstrate the purposes for which people read and write. They also illustrate the problem solving processes that readers and writers use. LD classrooms that provide opportunities for social interaction allow students to engage in dialogues that form the basis for thinking. In general, if students do not have opportunities to engage in social interaction with others who offer a range of alternative viewpoints, students will have no new viewpoints to incorporate into their thinking and therefore will experience poor intellectual development (Dudley-Marling, 1995a:111-113). The collaborative environment where pupils learn how to work cooperatively with peers also helps to improve the "students' self esteem and it changed the student's attitudes so that they came to see themselves as readers and writers...(who were) more sociable and communicative" (Zucker, 1993:669). From the above discussion, the benefits of the WL approach for the LD pupil were evident. The problem now remains to educate teachers of LD pupils in the WL philosophy and its concurrent practices. There has been little empirical inquiry in the area of teacher education models specific to the language arts (Hynds, 1994:5959) and thus one specific model developed by Watson will briefly be presented.
2.4 TEACHER'S FORMATION OF THE WL PHILOSOPHY A WL teacher is defined by her underlying philosophy about teaching and learning and not by a common set of instructional practices. WL teachers use their philosophical knowledge in order to create their own instructional strategies on the basis of the needs of their pupils which they have determined by careful observations. Since the teachers are in the process of philosophy formation, they should be given the 21
same consideration as other learners. Teachers should thus be free to take risks and learn from their experiences and ways should be found to celebrate teacher's achievements. Teachers should be afforded opportunities to reflect on their theory and practice and be given time to discuss their experiences with colleagues (Dudley-Marling, 1995a:114). The teacher needs to be familiar with the whole language theory and practices and the philosophy should become an integral part of the teacher and so part of her beliefs. "In order for WL theory and practice to make a meaningful contribution to the education of LD students, teachers must understand the principles of WL and not just try out the WL method" (Dudley-Marling, 1995a:115). To understand the process of a teacher's change towards the WL philosophy, Watson's model (1994:603) was used as the framework and then various themes and strategies related to the process were reviewed from the literature. 2.4.1 Watson's model Watson (1994:603) described a teacher's formation towards the WL philosophy in a model where she examined three major interrelated dimensions of the process of teacher change: practice, theory making and belief formation (Figure 2.3). This model was useful for describing the teacher's professional development as she created her WL philosophy. Figure 2.3 Developing a whole language philosophy (Watson, 1994:603)
2.4.1.1
Practice
In the dimension of practice the teacher begins building a WL philosophy by 'doing' some WL strategies and then she "edges into the stimulating but sometimes disquieting discomfort zone of WL" (Watson, 1994:604). Watson noted that teachers often begin their journey into the WL philosophy with some activity that adheres to the principles. Clarke (1987:394) contends that change is best understood as it directly affects classroom practice. "Demonstrable results are perhaps the most important factor in changing teachers' instructional practices. Practices that lead to learning success are retained"(Brozo, Brobst & Moje, 1995:71). Scala (1993:229) concurs that a child's success further motivates the teacher. 22
But then teachers begin the process of change by asking questions and by collecting evidence to support their changed practices. In this way the borrowed practice becomes owned practice (Figure 2.3). The teacher may thus begin her journey by doing WL, but she then moves towards an understanding of the theory that supports the practice. 2.4.1.2 Theory Once the teacher begins to practice some WL activities, she begins to inquire about the theory that supports the activities. The theory dimension helps to prepare the way for more classroom practice and then causes the teacher to inquire further. The teacher begins to collect evidence from her practical experiences and to answer her own queries. In this way she generates more questions and her theory making becomes active (Watson, 1994:604). It is important to "ground the teacher's practice in a theoretical framework... and to move beyond practice... the easy stuff, the 'what', towards the 'why' " (Church, 1994:364). This interplay between theory and practice is supported by Russell (1988:32 in Calderhead, 1988) and by Edelslcy, Altwerger and Flores (1991:7, 26) who stated that WL is, "an explicit theory-in-practice." As such it is neither a theory divorced from the practice of teaching nor a practice that happens without a theoretical base. It thus incorporates the teacher's theoretical base and the practical character of the classroom interaction. Newman (1985:1) identified this interplay between theory and practice by noting that WL is, "a description of how some teachers... have been exploring the practical applications of recent theoretical arguments which have arisen from research." WL philosophy weaves together a theoretical view of research from a variety of related fields such as, "linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, child development, curriculum, composition, literary theory, semiotics and other fields of study" (Newman, 1985:1). WL theory also draws from earlier educational movements such as, "the language experience approach, individualized reading, and the integrated curriculum" (Goodman YM, 1989:113). WL also has, "its own view of epistemology - how we come to know what we know" (Pearson, 1989:232).The research thus forms the theoretical, knowledge base of the teacher's classroom practice. 2.4.1.3
Beliefs
Watson added a further dimension to WL when she incorporated the area of beliefs into her model. The practice and the theory both contribute towards the formation of the teachers beliefs. "Beliefs are 23
identified, high-quality ore that we have securely in our possession" (Watson, 1994:606). As Strickland (1995:297) noted, "The teacher's belief system provides the foundation for everything they do." Altwerger, Edelsky and Flores (1987:145) even define WL as "a set of beliefs, a perspective... a lens for viewing, a framework that insists that beliefs shape practice." Beliefs can be unexamined, or the teacher's own, examined, valued, and gained through her own theorizing and practising (Figure 2.3).The need for reflection on the underlying belief structures and attitudes is what empowers teachers. Searching sets teacher's free, for they are no longer victims of unexamined beliefs and assumptions. Teachers who examine their beliefs can develop more appropriate attitudes, thus enabling them and their pupils (Hanson, 1989:265). "The difficult part of becoming a WL teacher is learning to recognize the beliefs that underlie instructional decisions" (Newman & Church, 1990:24). Literature on teacher change warns against ignoring teacher's beliefs since it is the beliefs that form teacher's personal views which are required to promote change in teaching practice (Brozo, et al. 1995:70). It should also be noted that a teacher's "understandings and beliefs will continually evolve" (Church, 1994:364). Applying counselling methods may be effective strategies to change teachers' beliefs, which are usually highly resistant to change. Two strategies were suggested - clarifying processes, for their contribution to a systematic exploration of self, and bibliotherapy, for its effectiveness in the enhancement of selfawareness (Shechtman & Or, 1996:137). In order to change beliefs which meet particularly powerful needs and are integral parts of people's identity, "an environment of trust, openess and support is required... where a sense of community and intimacy can develop" (James, 1996:85). James (1996:92) suggests establishing this environment by introducing participants to the case-study narrative which depicts someone like them, enables selfdisclosure to occur and provides a link between our own sense of self and our sense of others in the world around us. This may be a useful strategy for future teacher educators to use when supporting teachers in their change towards the WL philosophy. 2.4.2 Themes that influence the model Using Watson's model as a framework, various themes (Figure 2.4) which were relevant for the process of teacher's change towards the WL philosophy were drawn from the literature. This model was used by the researcher as the facilitator in the teacher's process of change and the themes that facilitated change were kept in mind by the researcher during the teacher's philosophy formation. 24
Its a Process
It takes Time
Awareness of Systems Inactive THEORY Active
Encourage Reflection
/WHOLE LANGUAGE PHILOSOPHY
It needs Trust
Borrowed BELIEF H PRACTICE Examined Owned
Unexamined
Teacher Ownership
Allow Interaction
Provide Support
Figure 2.4 Themes that influence the model
2.4.2.1
It's a process
For the researcher and the teacher it was important to recognize the complexity of the process of philosophy formation. It was a constant process of evolution and implementation with the interplay between the teacher's theory and practice influencing her beliefs. The complexity of the process was recognized in Scala's study (1993:229) of a school implementing WL where he stated, "our transition to a WL school wasn't immediate and it didn't involve everybody, but it was the beginning of a process. Our teachers began learning about WL and living the process simultaneously." Newman and Church (1990:24) further specified that consultants needed to "recognize the complexity of the process and consider realistic time expectations." The process of changing a teacher's "philosophical stance involves the same learning processes that teachers are trying to establish for students in the classroom"(Newman & Church, 1990:24). The process of teacher philosophy formation was further explored by Brozo, et al. (1995:73) and they concluded that "the best way to integrate instructional 25
innovations in schools may be to create conditions and contexts that enable teachers to experiment with change and explore their own change processes." Thus those people involved with teacher education need to be aware of the complexity of the process of teacher philosophy formation. 2.4.2.2 It takes time Consultants needed to recognize that the process of philosophy formation takes time. They should allow teachers the time they need to learn the WL theory, to change their classroom practice, and then to examine their core beliefs. Since teachers afford their students time to grow and learn, so too should teachers be equally patient with themselves (Bird, 1991:324; in Goodman, Hood & Goodman, 1991). Teachers and consultants should be "reassured that you don't need to change everything overnight since... real change takes time." This time is essential to allow teachers to "get in touch with what they believe" (Strickland, 1995:297) and thus allow for philosophy formation. In Scala's study (1993:229) time became an important aspect of WL implementation and the teachers wrote, " now we are planning, discussing, and evaluating together, so our biggest need is regularly scheduled time! We are asking for common preparation periods and faculty meeting time...Teachers have put in the extra time and thought to make this transition work." 2.4.2.3 It needs collaboration and trust In the process of a teacher's philosophy formation, the consultant should try to convey his belief that teachers are professional educators who know what is best for their pupils. The consultant develops a relationship of collaboration by being there to learn with the teachers and not as an expert or to dictate one right way of teaching (Hynds, 1994:5960). The consultant also respects the dictum that learning entails a willingness to risk. Since it can be very threatening to have someone observe the teacher while she is teaching, the first task is to establish the consultant as a co-learner in the process of philosophy formation and so build a relationship of trust (Bird, 1991:325; in Goodman, et al. 1991). "This process is founded on trust, forged from a delicate balance of mutual respect and self-discipline. Should either the teacher or the consultant behave in such a way as to violate this trust, then the process" will revert back to the "expert-novice" relationship (Duff, Brown & Van Scoy, 1995:87). 2.4.2.4 Teacher ownership Brozo, et al. (1995:71) noted that it is important that the teacher, "initiated the change and determined 26
the pace and degree of involvement." This allowed for the teacher to maintain ownership of her process of change towards the whole language philosophy. The consultant should try to respect and listen to the teacher's own personal response to WL. Since each teacher brings to the learning experience a different level of understanding and commitment to WL, the consultant should always try to begin where the teacher is and respond to the teacher's meaning in entirely non-judgemental ways. The consultant should never impose an agenda of change on the teacher but rather be invited by her to help. The teacher should set her own goals by identifying her own needs and inviting the consultant to help her meet those needs. It is important for the consultant to follow the teacher's lead. Allow the teacher to set the pace and move in a way that is most comfortable for the teacher. In this way the teacher maintains ownership of her own philosophy formation (Bird, 1991:325; in Goodman, et al. 1991). 2.4.2.5 Provide support
During a teacher's philosophy formation the literature stresses the importance of a supportive environment in which the teacher can build theory, experiment with classroom practice and examine her beliefs. Newman and Church (1990:24) examine the " need to create many different kinds of learning situations so that everyone is supported... and teachers feel it's safe to rake risks." They assert that with a supportive environment every teacher can find his or her own way. "This security is needed as teachers are left free to teach in an unprogrammed manner...(which often causes) much uneasiness when basal readers, grammar books and teacher's manuals are left in the cupboard and the teachers must create a language arts program on their own" (Farris & Kaczmarski, 1988:81).The supportive environment often begins "with the principal's support and commitment for WL" (Scala, 1993:229). The support should also extend towards "administrators and parents who wish to change from a traditional classroom to a WL classroom" (Farris & Kaczmarski, 1988:81). A vast array of grassroots teacher support networks in the language arts is evidence of the need for teacher support (Hynds, 1994:5960). Watson (1994:606-7) credits teacher support groups as "powerful communities which have a philosophical base that evolves slowly... and supports teachers in collective reflection and powerful self-evaluation. They are places of intellectually... stimulating experiences." Clarke (1987:394) provides some guidelines for establishing supportive learning environments: "encourage team teaching and group collaboration. Encourage half-time or part-time teaching. This gives teachers time to reflect on their work, to compare notes with their colleagues, and to establish the kinds of networks that ultimately forestall 'burnout."' 27
2.4.2.6 Allow interaction The process of a teacher's philosophy formation occurs most effectively when there are ample opportunities allowed for interaction. Interaction occurs between the consultant and the teacher, and most importantly, interaction should occur amongst the teachers for significant changes to occur. Schratz and Walker (1995:176) noted that, " individuals cannot significantly improve their practice in isolation without opportunities for discussion with significant others. Educational change...can only be realised through the free association of individuals networking across the system to study their own practices." In the consultant-teacher interaction, the consultant uses a variety of strategies for interacting with the teachers. Listening is a most important strategy, since teachers often feel alone with classroom problems, they need a sympathetic listener. The consultant serves as a sounding board in helping them engage in self-evaluation and reflection. Together, they would discuss alternative strategies, share observations and suggestions. The consultant may be asked to demonstrate teaching techniques or provide books and articles to read on appropriate topics (Bird, 1991:325; in Goodman, et al. 1991). Ample opportunity needs to be allowed for teacher-teacher interaction. Since WL is a philosophy rather than a methodology, "teachers need ongoing opportunities to explore both the theory and implications for classroom practice" (Newman & Church, 1990:24). Various opportunities that allow for interaction have been suggested. Small discussion groups where teachers spend time reading, viewing, listening and reflecting on their current practices. This allows group rethinking in a non-threatening manner to establish the groundwork for major changes where teachers should work together to establish frameworks for planning and organizing instruction (Strickland, 1995:296). Morning minis and hourlong in service courses where each session was a small yet complete part of a larger whole were implemented in Scala's study: " None of us was an expert, but each of us was willing to learn and to collaborate... we learned together and we learned alone... we listened, discussed and read; we were also personally involved in the writing process" (Scala, 1993:229). The establishment of "conversation groups... functioned for change and growth... allowed teachers to study in groups... to talk concretely about relevant theories and practice... they came to see how powerful the social side of learning is for adults, and not just for children" (Combs, 1994:205-207). 2.4.2.7 Encourage reflection For a teacher's beliefs to change from unexamined to valued and owned as suggested by Watson's model 28
the teacher needs to engage in reflection. Duff, et al. (1995:83) state that "reflection, self-evaluation and self-direction are critical to the process of a teacher's professional development." Teachers need to reflect upon their own practices, and internalize professionally acceptable expectations and standards. To encourage and empower the teacher to assume greater personal responsibility for professional growth, we need to attend to the reflective activities and inner conversations taking place continually in the mind of the teacher that influence her ways of interacting with children. Teachers need to shift attention from learning how to 'do' WL to learning how to reflect on what they are doing in the light of what they understand and " believe in a never ending process" (Church, 1994:364). As one teacher stated, "The biggest change is how much more time I spend thinking about how I teach and whether the students are engaged in learning" (Brozo, et al. 1995:71). Implementing new activities, or setting aside basal reading series are merely surface changes. Real change is far more complex and involves a critical appraisal of instructional practices. Teachers won't make much progress toward developing a WL stance, unless they are willing to make themselves vulnerable and become learners too (Newman & Church, 1990:26). "Keeping a journal invites teachers to reflect, which helps to resolve professional problems... and encourages the constructive process of theory building... that emanates from their own thinking and their emergent beliefs about learning" (Surbeck, 1994:234). The consultant should also keep a reflective journal on the teacher's development, just as the teacher keeps anecdotal records in her classroom (Appendix B). This is why the researcher kept a personal diary on the case study. Everyone needs to become reflective, including administrators, for they are responsible for the tone and morale of a school (Newman & Church, 1990:26). 2.4.2.8 Awareness of systems During the formation of a teacher's WL philosophy, there should also be an awareness of the nature of systems and systems change. The systems approach in education was defined as, "conscious use of systems analysis and systems design techniques in an endeavour to identify and solve complex problems in learning or instructional systems" (Romiszowski, 1994:5895). The ability to visualize the system's structure and the internal relationships between the component subsystems makes it possible to maintain a "systems view" or "big picture" while engaged in detailed analysis of the components and their interactions. This allows for "predicting what may happen in other parts of the system if certain changes are made in a particular part" (Hynds, 1994:5895) and this appears to be vitally important for WL implementation in educational systems. An awareness of the complex forces that exist within an educational system enhances understanding of the processes of changing the system. These forces include people's background, status, power, leadership, communication, decision-making and conflict resolution 29
strategies ( Hynds, 1994:5899). KS Goodman (1989:207) considers the most successful way to implement WL is to let it emerge as grassroots, teacher-initiated change. This is supported by Schratz and Walker (1995:176) who contends that attempts to change teaching practice or organisational systems through hierarchically initiated and controlled reforms will be resisted and are likely to fail. "It is precisely because WL is this grass roots movement that teachers need to understand how their behaviour will require changes in systems beyond the classroom" (Clarke & Commins, 1993:79). "I contend that we must understand the nature of systems if we are to be successful in attempting to change the schools" (Clarke, 1987:384). Various guidelines on the nature of systems and system change with respect to WL were available (Clarke, 1987:384; Clarke & Commins, 1993:79-93; O'Hair & Odell, 1995:241; Schratz & Walker, 1995:170; Strickland, 1995:309): In the systems approach a basic premise is that everyone contributes to all of what is occurring. Everyone involved in the system contributes both to the success of educational innovation and is also part of the problems which they seek to solve. As teachers promote a WL approach they usually discover that they are viewed as the source of problems, because it is not possible to effect changes of this sort in one's classroom without having a more general impact on the educational system. Every time someone suggest an alternative way of doing something we must ask ourselves, "What will be the response of the rest of the system? What changes will have to occur in the rest of the system to protect innovation in a particular portion of the system?" (Clarke, 1987:393). Teachers need an awareness that systems strive to maintain the status quo and thus they are aware of why things persist the way they do. Since systems want to remain the same, they change slowly and innovative WL teachers should work to create small changes or disturbances and then be extremely patient with people who do not appear to be changing quickly enough. Teachers need to understand that the resistance of systems to innovation is a natural phenomenon and each era of educational innovation has provoked resistance. Any attempt to change or modify curricular approaches will meet with some natural resistance. This explains why teachers are often puzzled and frustrated by the difficulties in convincing colleagues of the merits of WL. Although the value of talking regularly with like-minded colleagues cannot be exaggerated, it is recommended that WL teachers do not isolate themselves in WL support groups. They also need to have more contact with other teachers particularly when the goal is to change the system. 30
2.4.3 Putting it all together (a case study example) WL was implemented in Fannin Elementary School in 1990-93, (Shepperson & Nistler, 1992:55-66) using carefully controlled in service sessions, designed to accommodate various principles of change as determined by the researchers. The first stage was to document current teaching practices and thus teachers kept personal journals about literacy development in their classrooms. Initially the teachers' concerns were 'self-concerns', such as anxiety about the new innovation, feeling threatened when challenged, and thus activities were designed to promote talk among the teachers. It was important for the trainers to establish and maintain an ever-increasing level of trust, which became the foundation of the change process. They ensured that teachers were always in control of their classrooms and owned their changes. The next stage was designed to establish a knowledge base among the teachers, and the emphasis in sessions shifted from the personal and concrete to the abstract and theoretical. The researchers knew that change takes time, and that it is highly personal, and that paying attention to each individual's progress can enhance the change process. Upon completion of various theoretical studies of WL, the teachers were asked to provide written responses revealing their various levels of understanding about WL. Classroom observations revealed few changes in teaching practice during the initial year. There was a shift from selfconcerns to task concerns, time, classroom management and preparation. The focus of in-service training then shifted to grade level meetings to guide individual exploration and literacy development. The researchers had identified that change is a process, not an event, which involves personal development and gradual implementation.
2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter brought together various views to arrive at clarification of the WL philosophy and its implications for teaching the LD pupil. A suitable model was then presented to describe the process of a teacher's formation of the WL philosophy. Various themes for facilitating this process were applied to the model. In the next chapter the theoretical grounding of the research methodology will be presented.
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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter the theoretical grounding of the methodology of the study will be given in terms of research design, format, data collection methods and data analysis. It will also be shown how the research design was structured to verify the reliability of the research findings.
3.2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS The research methodology followed the process outlined in figure 3.1. Prior to the case study a review of suitable literature was undertaken to provide the theoretical framework and clarity for the research question and the interpretation of the conclusions (Merriam, 1991:153). The theoretical framework provided a basis for WL theory and the process involved in teacher's changing towards a WL philosophy.
3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN The research design was characterised by its qualitative, contextual, descriptive, interpretative and exploratory nature. The design allowed for flexibility, evolving and emergent manifestations. 3.3.1 Qualitative and contextual
A qualitative approach was chosen since a holistic picture was required of the phenomenon (teacher change towards the WL approach), within the context (school system for LD children) where it occurred (Miles & Huberman, 1994:6). According to Miles and Huberman (1994:10) the qualitative researcher attempts to capture data on the perceptions of local actors 'from the inside' through a process of deep attentiveness, of empathic understanding ("Verstehen"), and of suspending or 'bracketing' preconceptions about the topics under discussion. The researcher thus attempted to ascertain the essence and fundamental substance of the phenomenon in order to gain a deep understanding (Mouton & Marais, 1990:175). The approach indicated that 'quality' is essential to the nature of things, as opposed to quantitative where `quantity' elementally an amount of something is important (Berg, 1995:3). The qualitative researcher's point of departure was that the phenomenon should manifest itself as it appears naturally and the researcher would simply register, record and attempt to understand it (Mouton & Marais, 1990:167). The researcher would thus have limited control over variables within the context of the research. 32
Figure 3.1 The research process
THE RESEARCH PROCESS THEORY FRAMEWORK
RESEARCH PROBLEM
RESEARCH DESIGN descriptive
contextual
ex loratory
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH FORMAT single case study
SAMPLING purposeful case selection
STUDY IMPLEMENTATION fieldwork
DATA COLLECTION
observations
Interviews
documents
DATA ANALYSIS content analysis
DATA CONSOLIDATION clustering
DATA VERIFICATION
triangulation
Independent researcher
member checks
DATA INTERPRETATION conclusions and recommendations
DATA PRESENTATION
33
audit tra I
•
ADDITIONAL THEORY
3.3.2 Descriptive, interpretative and exploratory
Since the research aims demanded detailed descriptions of the phenomena, the research design was descriptive in nature (Mouton & Marais, 1990:52). Through the use of detailed, rich descriptions the actions, meanings and feelings of the experience were recorded and contextualised (Denzin, 1989:101; Hamel, Dufour & Fortin, 1993:30). Descriptions of the process events also provided a measure of interpretation. The descriptions capture and recorded the implementation process determined by "interactants as the interaction unfolded" (Denzin, 1989:101). Rich descriptions formed the foundation for the research interpretation and understanding of the phenomena. Interpretation thus leads to the giving of meaning to experiences in order to truly understand them. Interpretation is the clarification of meaning. Understanding is the process of interpreting, knowing, and comprehending the meaning that is felt, intended, and expressed by another. "Interpretation preceded understanding... (which) requires that one be able to enter into, or take the point of view of, another person's experience" (Denzin, 1989:108-120). The case study thus not only describes, but also requires an application of abstract and theoretical models (Hamel, et al. 1993:31). The task was to "create an interpretation of the setting... to allow people who have not directly observed the phenomena to have a deeper understanding of them" (Feldman, 1995:1). The research design also included elements of exploration and discovery since the study was intended to elucidate and provide new insights into the phenomena (Mouton & Marais, 1990:45). Since this study may be regarded as a preliminary study towards research on WL implementation on a broader scale, the exploratory nature was emphasised. The research design allowed for categories and themes to emerge from the informants, rather than them being identified before the research began (Creswell, 1994:95). This emergence provided rich, context-bound information leading to the patterns which helped explain the phenomenon.
3.3 RESEARCH FORMAT A qualitative single case study was used as the research format. This format was chosen as the most effective means to investigate the field of study. A case is an example of a phenomenon of interest which is studied in depth. A qualitative single case study is an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a 34
single entity, phenomenon or social unit. This phenomenon is usually observed in natural settings and under natural circumstances, which allows the researcher to understand it in its context (Stake, 1988; Yin, 1989). A case is an intricate and dynamic system and it is essential that the case being studied is a bounded system (Miles & Huberman, 1994:25). Case studies are particularistic, heuristic and rely heavily on inductive reasoning through the use of multiple data sources (Merriam, 1991:16). The case was particularistic since it focused on one particular individual teacher as the unit of the study. The case study was thus microscopic as only one particular case was analysed (Hamel, et al. 1993:35). It was heuristic since it provided new understanding and discovery into the phenomenon. The case was inductive since multiple sources of data allowed for generalisations, and themes to emerge (Hamel, et al. 1993:40). It was difficult to predict the variables before the study commenced since the process unfolded with time. A case study format was thus chosen since it allowed for a deep understanding of the phenomenon (a teachers experiences in changing to a WL approach) in a holistic manner (Merriam, 1991:153).
3.5 SAMPLING The case was purposefully selected as opposed to randomly selected. Purposeful sampling or selection is based on the assumption that to discover, understand and gain the most insight, the case needs to be carefully selected as one which will yield the most knowledge (Hamel, et al. 1993: 43). In order to select the case carefully it should meet certain criteria which have previously been set by the researcher. Thus criterion - based sampling was used (Merriam, 1991:48). Criteria set for the case selection (refer to 1.6) O
Junior primary phase school teacher so that a great paradigm shift needs to be made. Teacher not familiar with WL approach and using a behaviourist model.
•
Teacher not using WL teaching methods, techniques in her classroom at start of study.
•
Teacher chosen was head of the JP and thus in a position to influence the system.
• •
Teacher who is able to articulate her point of view and her knowledge (Merriam, 1991:120). Teacher who is currently in possession of remedial education qualifications.
3.6 STUDY IMPLEMENTATION Given the above criteria, the teacher was chosen for the case study and the training began soon
35
afterwards. The teacher training was consistent with the principles of the WL approach (section 1.7). The researcher introduced the teacher to the WL approach by providing carefully selected reading material (Appendix C). The researcher maintained respect for the teacher's current practices, theory and beliefs by listening to her views and problems. This encouraged the teacher to take risks in changing her teaching practice. The researcher consulted with her on practical implementation within her classroom. The researcher built a trusting relationship with her and guided her WL philosophy formation. The researcher presented two in-service training sessions with the JP staff and led a JP phase meeting. This period of philosophy formation took place intensively over a period of eight months during which time data was collected. The initial data interpretations influenced further researcher decisions with regards facilitation of the process of teacher change. Data collection and data analysis thus occurred simultaneously as an interactive process (Merriam, 1991:119).
3.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION A vast amount of data was collected from a variety of sources over the eight months. The data collection formed the case study data base (Yin, 1989:91). The process of qualitative data analysis was based on `reduction and interpretation' (Marshall & Rossman, 1989:114). 3.7.1 Observations Observation has been described as a process whereby the researcher brings together reality with his theoretical hypotheses (Mouton & Marais, 1990:166). The researcher conducted both direct and participant observations (Yin, 1989:90). Field notes of direct, formal observations in the teacher's classroom were kept. Guy, Edgley, 'Arafat and Allen (1987:259-260) describe participant observation as "a researcher entering a setting he or she wants to study and actually participating in the very scene he or she is observing, analysing, and writing about. The researcher is at the same time actor and audience." The essence of participant observation is that the researcher places himself within a research process, without disturbing it, and so takes on the perspective of an observer. Since the researcher is actively participating in the social world which he is studying, experiences are not simply observed, but the researcher also experiences the emotional world of the participants. An advantage of participant observation is that the researcher possesses the ability to direct actions and happenings from an educational psychological view. "The manipulations will not be as precise as those in experiments, but they can produce a greater variety of situations for the purposes of collecting data" (Yin, 1989:93). As a participant the researcher acted as a facilitator in the teacher's learning process by providing selected 36
material for her to read, observing in the classroom, providing guidance with implementing WL teaching techniques, encouraging and supporting her to continue her professional learning. The researcher also participated in the school system as an intern psychologist and was associated with training the teacher in WL and thus experienced some of the happenings directed at the teacher both positive enthusiasm for WL as well as negative hostility for introducing new approaches into the system. Field notes kept in the form of a personal journal were taken, wherein the researcher's observations and experiences were recorded. Through the process of introspection daily record was kept of happenings at school, the researcher's feelings, reactions, and initial interpretations (Merriam, 1991:98). 3.7.2 Semi-structured interviews
The interview is a conversation between two people in which the researcher elicits information from the respondent. The main purpose is to obtain a special kind of information. The researcher wants to find out what is "in and on someone else's mind" (Merriam, 1989:72). The researcher is entering the other person's perspective to find out about feelings, thoughts and intentions. Interviews range from highly structured and focused to open-ended, unstructured conversations. In focused or structured interviews the interviewer follows a predetermined set of questions (Yin, 1989:89). In open-ended, unstructured interviews there are no predetermined questions and the interview is purely exploratory. In this case study semi-structured interviews (between structured and open-ended) were conducted which were guided by a list of issues to be explored so that certain topics were discussed during the interviews. This allowed the researcher to "respond to the ...emerging world view of the respondent, and to new ideas on the topic" (Merriam, 1989:74). Care was taken with the interviewer (researcher) and respondent interaction. The researcher attempted to minimise distortions by "being neutral and non-judgemental...refraining from arguing, and...being a good reflective listener" (Merriam, 1989:75). The respondent (teacher) was able to express her thoughts, feelings, opinions and her perspective on the topic. The interviews were recorded on audio tape cassettes and transcribed for data analysis. The plausibility of the respondent's information was compared to other colleagues accounts in an attempt to minimise distortions or exaggerations (Merriam, 1989:84). 3.7.3 Documents
Documents or artefacts are "ready-made sources of data easily accessible to the ...investigator" (Merriam, 37
1989:104). They are objective sources of data and unobtrusive. A variety of documents were accessible during the study such as letters, school policies and syllabi. It was important to scrutinise the validity of the documents since many inferences were made from them (Yin, 1989:85). In the final data analysis one document, a therapist's letter was valuably used towards the study aim. This document was used as part of the process of inductively building themes and categories during the data analysis (Merriam, 1989:106).
3.8 DATA ANALYSIS The interviews on the audio cassettes were transcribed. Complete transcriptions helped with the reflective interpretations of the analysis. All the data were gathered together and organised chronologically to build the case data base. The data from various sources were analysed using the content analysis procedure of open coding as described in Berg (1995:185). The following guidelines were adhered to during open coding: Data were divided into semantic units such as paragraphs, journal entries, lines or phrases. Each unit was subjected to a specific, consistent pre-determined set of questions or criteria (Berg, 1995:175). Each unit was read and initially the question was asked: "Is this relevant to the process of WL implementation? If so, how is it relevant? What is its impact?" This initial criterion was important for sifting the data since much of the content in the data, particularly the journal was of a personal nature and irrelevant to the research question. The second question asked of each paragraph was: "What themes are discussed here?" •
Initially the data were analysed minutely including many themes. These themes were recorded and a list of about a hundred themes was identified (Appendix D). The terms used for the theme names were sociological constructs which were formulated by the researcher based upon the researcher's knowledge of the field under study (Berg, 1995:177). The themes which were identified were useful units to categorize and may be defined as "a simple sentence, a string of words with a subject and a predicate" (Berg, 1995:181). The coding was frequently interrupted to write theoretical notes for later use (Merriam, 1991:131). The reflective, margin notes were used to describe and highlight the meaning of the particular unit of data (Miles & Huberman, 1994: 67,72; Morse, 1994:225).
Examples of raw data from the journal, interviews and document (remedial teacher's letter) were 38
analysed to illustrate the procedure of open coding which was used to determine the emergent themes (Appendix E). The themes were given code numbers (Appendix D) according to which the units of data were analysed.
3.9 DATA CONSOLIDATION Once open coding was complete, the data was organised into coding frames (Berg, 1995:188). The first coding frame was a chronological framework of the process and the second coding frame included the themes and categories which emerged during the five phases of the process. The emergent themes were reduced to relevant categories by clustering those themes together which were related (Appendix F). The clustering of the themes into categories was conducted in order "to understand a phenomenon better by grouping and then conceptualizing objects that have similar patterns or characteristics" (Miles & Huberman, 1994:249). The categories were constructed to be internally homogenous and thus inclusive of similar data, but they were also heterogeneous and thus the differences between categories was clear (Merriam, 1988). The categories were designed to reflect the purpose of the study, and they were exhaustive in allowing all the data to be categorised (Merriam, 1988:136). Examples of raw data, their coded themes and clustered categories were then represented by dendrogram displays (Miles & Huberman, 1994:251) for each phase in the process of WL implementation (Appendix G). The formation of dendrogram displays was a process of systematically summarising the data. The process allowed each step of data analysis to be shown, which was an integral aspect of validating the findings. The themes and categories were presented in their chronological order and thus in their natural context. The dendrograms were thus time ordered displays showing the data in time sequence (Miles & Huberman, 1994:120).
3.10 DATA INTERPRETATION This process of data consolidation organised the data and formed the basis of data interpretation (Merriam, 1988:140). Deductions were made regarding the research findings and a theoretical framework was constructed in an attempt to explain them. The categories and the process of WL implementation were then compared to the explanatory concepts constructed in the theoretical framework of the literature review (Miles & Huberman, 1994:69). Interpretations were made by looking for "relationships among the categories" (Merriam, 1988:141) and "noting patterns... to see 'what goes with what' " (Miles &
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Huberman, 1994:245). The interpretation of the assimilated data was done in a rich, holistic manner. The analytic text was presented in a descriptive, narrative format within the chronological coding frames. The process of change and the problems involved were described in a detailed account which attempted to explain and interact with the dendrogram displays (Miles & Huberman, 1994:101). Consolidated data were interpreted in order to make adequate recommendations. Care was taken with the interpretation of data since a wide variety of different material presented analytic problems. Informants' language and the researcher's writings had different intellectual origins and an attempt was made to aim for a univocal description (Hamel, et_al. 1993: 45).
3.11 DATA VERIFICATION In order to maintain the trustworthiness of the study, data were verified according to the criteria given in Lincoln and Guba's (1985) model (in LeCompte, Millroy & Preissle, 1992:650). These criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability were appropriate constructs for testing the trustworthiness of the qualitative study. Quantitative studies are evaluated using the alternative criteria of internal validity, external validity, reliability and objectivity (Krefting, 1991:215-217; Miles & Huberman, 1994:277). 3.11.1
Credibility
The truth value of the study was determined using the criterion of credibility. "It establishes how confident the researcher is with the truth of the findings based on the research design, informants, and context" (Krefting, 1991:215). Credibility was established using multiple data sources, triangulation, an independent researcher, member checks, a chain of evidence, and bracketing of assumptions. The credibility of the research findings was improved by using multiple data sources which formed the case study data base (Yin, 1989:95). Sources of data used to form the data base included, a literature overview, field notes, written observations, recorded interviews and documents. The use of multiple data sources allowed for the confirmation of the findings in a triangulation procedure (Merriam, 1991:169). Each source of data "is a different line of sight directed toward the same point... and by combining several lines of sight, researchers obtain a more substantive picture of reality" (Berg, 1995:5). The triangulated data sources were assessed against one another to cross check the data and interpretations. Conducting interviews with various colleagues of the teacher allowed for further confirmation of the themes using triangulation.
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The case study data base allowed for an independent researcher to scrutinise the data. "The data base can then be the subject of separate, secondary analysis, independent of any reports by the original investigator"(Yin, 1989:98). The data were analysed by a colleague intern psychologist who provided useful insights. The data base thus contributed to the validity of the study (Yin, 1989:99). The data interpretations were taken back to the case teacher and she was asked if the themes were plausible (Miles & Huberman, 1994:275). This continued throughout the study as the themes were emerging. Member checks are defined as " taking data and interpretations back to the people from whom they were derived and asking them if the results are plausible" (Merriam, 1991:169). These member checks contributed to the credibility of the study. Through the use of a rich description (Miles & Huberman, 1994:279) of the case study a chain of evidence was established. The goal was " to allow an external observer ... to follow the derivation of any evidence from initial research questions ultimately to the case study conclusions" (Yin, 1989:102). Negative evidence and rival explanations for the conclusions were actively considered (Miles & Huberman, 1994:279). Merriam also (1991:170) proposed that the researcher clarify the research assumptions, the researcher's biases, world view and theoretical orientation at the outset of the research. This bracketing of biases and assumptions helped to increase the research validity (Creswell, 1994:25). Refer to Section 1.9. 3.11.2 Transferability The second criterion of trustworthiness refers to the applicability of the research to other contexts and settings. Research meets the transferability criterion "when the findings fit into contexts outside the study situation that are determined by the degree of similarity or goodness of fit between the two contexts" (Krefting, 1991:216). To accommodate this criterion, Miles and Huberman's (1994:279) suggestion was used. The characteristics of the participant teacher, the school context and the processes were described fully enough to permit adequate comparisons with other cases. In qualitative research the transferability of the research findings is not so much the responsibility of the original researcher as much as that of the researcher or practitioner who wishes to apply the findings to another situation or population (Krefting, 1991:216; Jorgensen, 1989:19). The responsibility of the original researcher lies in providing a rich, dense description which will allow enough information to use in drawing comparisons.
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3.11.3 Dependability The third criterion of trustworthiness considers the consistency of data. In quantitative research reliability is used to refer to the degree to which the same results would be obtained if the study were to be repeated. However in this study the researcher and the teacher introduce a variable effect as human instruments of research (Krefting, 1991:216). Thus in qualitative research the focus is towards dependability. Dependability of the results is obtained when "outsiders get the same results, one wishes outsiders to concur that given the data collected, the results make sense - they are consistent and dependable" (Merriam, 1991:172). Henning (1995:32) noted that "Validity is generally regarded as credibility of procedures which are articulated succinctly." The researcher thus needs to leave an audit trail, describing in detail how data was collected, decisions made and categories or themes derived (Merriam, 1991:172). In this study a detailed description was given of the way data was collected and analysed. The data collected is also maintained and made available to other researchers who may wish to study the original data. This audit trail allowed the researcher to 'walk' the readers through the research process (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994:146). A clearly defined audit trail of data collection, analysis and interpretation improved the dependability of the study.
3.11.4 Confirmability The confirmability of qualitative research is founded in the neutrality of the data. If the credibility and dependability precautions are narrowly applied, then the requirements of the confirmability criterion are also met (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; in Krefting, 1991:217). Thus the methodological qualities of the case determine its confirmable value (Hamel, et al. 1993:37). The study's methods and procedures were thus described in detail, providing the audit trail leading to the conclusions. The conclusions were explicitly linked with exhibits of condensed, displayed data (Miles & Huberman, 1994:278) to emphasize the relative neutrality of the study (Appendix G).
3.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Written consent was obtained from the school authorities to conduct research in their school. Verbal consent was obtained from the teacher and she was fully informed of the consequences of the research. The researcher maintained a supportive, counselling and facilitating role for the teacher in her transition period to the WL approach. After the eight month study period was completed, support and ongoing 42
training for the teacher was implemented to help her maintain the newly learnt approach. In order to maintain and ensure the anonymity of the teachers and staff concerned no identifiable indicators were used in the study.
3.13 CHAPTER SUMMARY The theoretical foundation for the research methodology was discussed in this chapter. The qualitative research design and case study research format allowed the researcher to study the process of teacher change and to identify themes as they arose. The data collection methods, data analysis, consolidation, interpretation and presentation was discussed. It was shown how the trustworthiness of the data was verified according to the criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. The data was interpreted and presented in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER 4: WHOLE LANGUAGE IMPLEMENTATION 4.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the process of WL implementation and the themes encountered during that process in a rich, descriptive narrative consistent with qualitative research. Upon content analysis of the data sources the process of WL implementation emerged and the dynamic aspects of the process of change upon the school system were uncovered. It appeared that closely related to the process of WL change were the problem themes encountered along the way. Thus the analysis of patterns and themes of problems was linked to the phases in the process of WL implementation. Upon completion of content analysis, coding frames were established which organized the data. The first coding frame organized the process of WL implementation in a chronological framework which allowed the phases in the process to emerge. Five main phases were identified and labelled as follows: Phase 1 - Existing Status Phase 2 - Case Study Phase Phase 3 - Junior Primary Phase Phase 4 - Secondary Primary Phase Phase 5 - Whole School Phase The second coding frame concentrated on the themes which emerged during each phase and these were described within each phase's interpretative discussion. The emergent themes were then clustered together to establish categories which were compared to the literature concepts for interpretation.
4.2 TIME FRAME AND OUTLINE OF DATA SOURCES The first coding frame established was the time frame for the phases in the process of WL implementation. The data sources (given in bold) collected during these phases were briefly outlined (Figure 4.1). The phases in the process of WL implementation were then described in depth, giving transcriptions from the various data sources to illustrate the process and problems encountered during each phase. Dendrogram displays accompany each phase to provide holistic summaries of the dynamics of each phase (Appendix G). 44
Figure 4.1 Time frame and data sources TIME FRAME AND DATA SOURCES Phase 1: Existing status
DECEMBER 1994 During this month the researcher initiated the research by selecting the teacher for the case study. The first interview with Sue was conducted to ascertain her historical background and initial beliefs about language teaching.
Phase 2: Case study phase
JANUARY 1995 In this month the researcher began keeping a daily researcher's journal. This journal was kept by the researcher from the beginning of January 1995 to the end of August 1995, a total of 8 months with 46 entries and an average of 5 journal entries were made per week. Since the entries were of convenient length and dealt with matters pertaining to that day's activities, the journal entry was used as the level of the analysis with sentences or paragraphs as the smallest unit of analysis (Berg, 1995:178). The content of the journal entry units related mainly to the process and problems of WL implementation in the school as they were experienced by the researcher and the case study teacher. Although the researcher also recorded personal experiences in the journal, it was mainly confined to school discussions of that particular day.
FEBRUARY 1995 The second interview with Sue was conducted in February during the first term. It was done after a department remedial inspector had been to visit the school and he had given a talk to the staff. He provided Sue with outside, authoritative impetus to continue moving towards WL principles.
MARCH 1995 At the end of the first term, in March the third interview with Sue was conducted. Sue had only started implementing the WL approach towards the end of this term. The focus of this interview was to determine her initial experiences and the problems she had with implementing WL in her classroom in the early stages.
Phase 3: Junior primary phase
MAY 1995 In May, during the second term, an interview was conducted with one of the JP teachers, in order to clarify the implementation of WL in the JP phase.
JUNE 1995 At the end of the second term, a fourth interview was conducted with Sue to determine what the status of WI, implementation was in her classroom and in the JP department of the school. During the third phase the researcher chaired and recorded the minutes of a JP Phase teachers meeting. This meeting highlighted many aspects of the process in the third phase of WL implementation.
Phase 4: Senior primary phase JULY 1995 During the third term, one of the remedial therapists, presented the principal with a letter stating her frustrations and concerns about WL.
AUGUST 1995 In August, during the third term, an interview was conducted with one of the SP phase teachers, in order to clarify the situation with regards the overflow of WL into the Senior school phase.
DECEMBER 1995 In December, at the end of the school year, the fifth and last interview was conducted with Sue. This was to obtain her overall impression of the processes and problems which she had encountered during her first year of change towards WL teaching and to look at some of her goals for the next year.
Phase 5: Whole school phase This phase began towards the end of the 1995 year and was ongoing in the following year. Although the process of WL implementation continued in the school, data collection for the research terminated at the end of the 1995 year.
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4.3 PHASE 1: EXISTING STATUS The status of the school as perceived by Sue and the researcher, prior to WL implementation was briefly examined. Sue gave a brief history of the school and described the structure of the school system. The pre-existing beliefs and the status of the case study teacher were examined in the first interview conducted with Sue. 4.3.1 Summary of first interview Sue told of the early years of the schools existence and the difficulties involved in establishing a new school. She said, "When we opened we got (a sister school ) in and they were absolutely rigid... they said to ignore the classroom that's not perfectly arranged... We had writing lessons... There was a man to get all the files beautiful, our grade two's were experts" (First interview, line 141-146). Sue had difficulty fitting in with this extreme rigidity and she, "used to sit up at night... thinking, 'I cannot function like this.' She "clashed terribly" with her JP head of department who told her, "Sue, if you're organized you'll do it all, you're not organized or planned sufficiently." This head was, "sitting until ten o'clock at night... and then she had a nervous breakdown" (First interview, lines 152-4). With the position of head of department now vacant, Sue was approached to take on the responsibility, however she says, "I wasn't really prepared to be head, but I realized if we didn't get an English head in the JP department, then it would have disintegrated." She felt that she could not work under another "staunch" Afrikaans head. Her acceptance of the position allowed for changes to occur until "things just started improving" (First interview, lines 165-6). So, a process of change had been in progress when I arrived at the school, and according to Sue, my arrival, "only strengthened the whole issue" (First interview, line 167). The first interview with Sue was conducted prior to WL implementation in order to obtain some background information and to ascertain some of her pre-existing beliefs about teaching. Her real name was altered for ethical reasons, but some relevant information with regards qualifications and teaching experience was given. Sue attended university and obtained a JP Teaching Diploma. She taught in a variety of primary schools and later obtained a remedial diploma. She had 19 years of teaching experience, teaching in mainstream schools and in a remedial school for about 10 years. She also offered part time private remedial teaching. 46
Sue was head of the JP department in the remedial school. She was responsible for, "the entire department... of approximately 12 teachers" and she needed "to be aware of their classroom situations." Part of her responsibility was to provide the teachers with, "guidance," and opportunities for, "sharing and building other peoples strengths." She was also head of her, "standard and ... responsible for keeping (the teachers) on track" (First interview, lines 77-85). Sue's numerous years of teaching had led her to change her views from those she initially held when she started teaching. She said, "I used to believe that academic education was the 'bee all and end all,' and created great standards." She now believed that "every child has potential" (First interview, lines 30-33). Since Sue was teaching in a specialized remedial school she was aware of the problems her pupils experienced with their learning difficulties. She realised that the problems were not confined to academic spheres only but related to all aspects of the child and she maintained that, "our emotionally disturbed child is far more difficult to teach than a child with a spelling difficulty." She worked on, "overcoming weaknesses and working on their strengths" (First interview, lines 43-45). In the teaching of reading Sue appeared to use a variety of teaching approaches such as phonics and meaning based approaches depending on her view of the child. "The weaker child... relies on phonics, but (with) your brighter child... we've got to use natural rhythm and contextual reading... as long as the meaning is there" (First interview, lines 61-3). At the conclusion of this interview the researcher briefly explained the purpose of the case study research and presented Sue with selected, WL books to read during the December holidays (Appendix C). She was asked to make notes and comments about the books. The researcher set the stage for the beginning of the working and trusting relationship by candidly admitting that, "I don't have the teaching experience but I've got the theoretical background " (First interview, lines 95-6). The process of WL change was thus begun in the spirit of collaboration between the teacher and the researcher, both working together with the same purpose. The researcher concluded that, " we've got to decide together what ... we can use here" (First interview, line 101). At the start of the new school term, the implementation of the WL approach was began in ernest with the case study phase.
4.4 PHASE 2: CASE STUDY PHASE The time frame for this phase was from December 1994 to approximately the end of Term 1. This phase was concerned primarily with educating Sue in the WL approach and assisting her in implementing WL 47
methods in her classroom. The researcher initially encountered difficulty in approaching the teacher's education and deciding how to facilitate her knowledge development. For the researcher embarking on this process it was awesome as described in the journal, "How scary, and yet how exciting and risky!" (Journal, 23 January). The researcher was also concerned with the selection of suitable materials to use in teacher training. Sue was initially sceptical of the WL approach. She questioned WL's applicability to the learning disabled child and resisted implementing any of the methods described in the books. She experienced self doubt, wondering whether she could do it and how it would work with these pupils. She thus exhibited initial resistance to changing her teaching approach as she later said, "I must admit that it took me a long time to be totally convinced" (Third interview, line 28). She was also testing the credibility of the researcher. "Sue questioned my competence and intentions... it was vitally important for her to trust the skills, knowledge and integrity of the researcher" (Journal, 30 March). The researcher spoke to her daily and gave her one more book to read (Newman, 1985). Later Sue spoke of the importance of that book, "It was just that last textbook that I got that just seemed to state all my fears" (Third interview, line 29). This built the beginning of the relationship of trust between Sue and the researcher. "Sue is spontaneously coming to chat to me ... We're building up a trust relationship and she feels that she can confide in me" (Journal, 7 February). The establishing of trust with the teacher and the credibility of the researcher as consultant was of vital importance for the implementation of WL. Sue started to show initial enthusiasm about the WL approach and the researcher continued to give her support as an empathic listener and co-learner about the application of WL to the learning disabled child's classroom. Sue began to try out some WL ideas in her classroom. "She was now motivated to change her classroom interior... She was ashamed of her single, meaningless words and she collected a bookshelf of suitable reading material" (Journal, 6 February). Prior to their exposure to the WL reading approach, Sue's pupils were, " very anti reading - having failed on the basal readers and... they hated the story content" (Third interview, line 21). Then Sue herself began to change in her approach towards the teaching of reading. She said, "You have got to be enthusiastic about reading yourself' (Third interview, line 14-5). This reading enthusiasm allowed her to begin changing the way she taught reading. Then she instituted, "a very simple change" (Third interview, line 17). She began to emphasize the idea of children reading books that interested them. "She was letting the kids do a lot of reading on topics which interested them" (Journal, 1 February), such as "birds of prey"
(Journal, 6 February). Sue saw this as a route to developing a love for reading in pupils who had reading 48
difficulties and, "she was very emotional when she spoke about children developing a love for reading (Journal, 1 February). The next change in Sue's teaching was that she gave her pupils a, "tremendous choice... of reading books...(and this) gave them tremendous freedom to be able to pick up any book" (Third interview, line 18-19). She also changed in her attitude towards the pupils reading, "by taking off any pressure... and allowing them to make mistakes" (Third interview, line 32). Thus Sue was encouraging risk taking in her pupil's reading and acknowledging mistakes as an essential part of taking risks. Sue tentatively started to implement WL reading activities such as sustained silent reading and shared book experiences. "She knew about DEAR time (Drop Everything And Read) when...soft music should be played and that it is a time when everyone reads - a silent reading time" (Journal, 1 February). Sue began the fundamental move from emphasis on the superficial level of reading the text graphemes to the deep level of reading for meaning. "How will they be able to understand what they read when they are continually worrying about the superficial stuff of decoding?' she asked" (Journal, 1 February). These basic changes in her teaching resulted in reading changes in her pupils. Sue started to obtain a positive response from her pupils as their reading enthusiasm built up and, "she said that the WL approach with regards reading was working Wonderfully for some really problematic children in her class" (Journal, 6 February). She also received much positive feedback from her pupil's parents at the end of the first term about the pupils' reading. "Sue was ecstatic... parents had spontaneously expressed their delight in their children's interest and enjoyment of reading" (Journal, 25 March). There were concerns with themes, the syllabus, curriculum and schemes of work. "The theme was difficult to choose... to be suitable for everyone and ... Sue said that if she was not bound by the themes of the other standard one teachers and if they did not have to work together, then her next topic would have been birds of prey. It seems that all the teachers of one standard have to work on the same thing at the same time. This could be a major obstacle to the establishment of WL classes, where each class will evolve its own unique themes of discussion" (Journal, 6 February). The problem of co-ordinating the timing of the schemes of work and the theme emerged. "The themes ... in the scheme of work... a birthday party, or pirates...might not always be suitable timing" (Third interview, line 41). Then there was the problem of matching the themes to the curriculum objectives and syllabus where she had, "to think about a theme that will accommodate all those objectives" (Third interview, line 43). Sue was concerned about the integration of all subjects within one theme. As Sue changed in her beliefs about teaching she began to feel her isolation from the school system. "She 49
feels that she is fighting against the system and she feels weak and powerless to confront the system" (Journal, 1 February). "She said, 'I am a voice in the wilderness' " (Journal, 7 February). During this time of Sue's isolation the researcher began to take on a supportive role. "Sue vented much of her pent up feelings and she seemed to voice a lot of her frustration... I kept telling her she's quite strong - she's got the guts and the courage to be emotionally involved with her teaching... she cares deeply about the children she teaches and ... she needs my support now" (Journal, 1 February ). The trusting relationship we had initially built up was important during this time of Sue needing the researcher's support. Sue's self esteem slowly changed as she implemented more WL ideas in her classroom and felt supported by the researcher until the researcher reported, "Sue is walking around the school beaming" (Journal, 26 March). Sue was confident with WL by the second term and she was finding ways to implement WL ideas in her classroom. She was allowing children "active participation during lessons" and ensuring that "there's an audience" for their reading and writing. She was using children's "daily news as an important thing to draw on" and she was attempting to integrate the curricular subjects of maths, environmental studies and English. She was doing more practical work "such as dealing with Escom, doing experiments with batteries, and tallies in maths" (Third interview, lines 4-13). Sue was using current events and children's interests for the basis of her theme work. She said, "now we are getting birds today, so therefore we will go for birds" (Third interview, lines 18-20). The previous week a film crew had done some advertisement filming at the school and she had used the opportunity to teach her children and "it was incredible, there was a prop van, and different dollies and we went behind the scenes and it was meaningful." They interviewed some of the cast, finding out "how much are you getting paid" (Third interview, lines 39-44). When the British queen visited South Africa, Sue tried to incorporate the event into her teaching, however she still, "felt restricted by the theme planned for the week" (Journal, 20 March). She also started being aware of problems outside of the sphere of her classroom, such as the remedial department who, "concentrate oh phonics and working in isolation," and the speech department who work in, "isolation, using words and hearing and analysis and synthesis"(Third interview, line 92-95). "She felt that both departments were superfluous and that the lessons they came into the class to present were a waste of time - the kids could rather be reading. They tended to teach out of context and they gave meaningless exercises" (Journal, 1 February). Sue also complained about the use and value of the remedial therapists' evaluations of the children, "and the remedial therapist starts with 'your child's got a reading age of this, and a maths level of that' and I say that's absolutely pointless, that does not tell you that child's true potential" (Second interview, lines 43-45). 50
Once Sue began to be more confident in her WL teaching the issue of being accountable to inspectors was raised during our discussions. Although the researcher doubted the total sanctioning of WL by the inspection authorities, Sue was confident that what she was doing would be acceptable since she was,
" relying on the professionalism of (her) career and not worried about checking that everybody had done capital letters this week and full stops and done an exercise to follow through"(Third interview, lines 1278). Co-incidentally, during the first term, a remedial department inspector visited the school. He spoke intensively with the remedial therapists and the JP teachers. He also gave a lecture on reading and spelling remediation to the entire staff. Sue was particularly impressed by his ideas and felt that he was supportive in helping her to change towards WL philosophy. He provided the authoritative support that gave Sue a message of permission to continue in her process of change. She felt that she had the support from an outside, authoritative expert, "its the first time anybody has directly told me from management side that I'm on track" (Second interview, lines 31-2). This gave her the momentum to move forward and talk about WL outside of her classroom and the researcher's relationship. At this stage Sue knew enough WL techniques to implement in her classroom and she was gaining confidence to share her knowledge with other JP teachers. The process of change now took a broader perspective than that which was originally intended by the researcher. WL moved into the school system. First it influenced the JP phase teachers and then later touched the Senior teachers.
4.5 PHASE 3: JUNIOR PRIMARY PHASE The time frame for the second phase was from the second term in April to approximately June 1995. As Sue became more enthusiastic about WL she started to talk to the other JP teachers and thus introduced WL to the school system. The study started to move away from the case study teacher to the JP department and thus this phase became the JP phase. Sue offered the WL books which she had read to the JP teachers who enjoyed reading them and shared them. The researcher gave an introductory talk on WL to the JP staff during in-service training session and this helped to establish WL's credibility. Although the JP teachers had only just been exposed to the WL approach, "Sue wanted more change." She was impatient and, "she does not realize that change takes time and there will be inevitable resistance." The researcher recorded, " maybe she's forgotten that she had distrust and that she first had to apply some methods in her class and see the results before she was truly convinced" (Journal, 3 May). Sue felt that there was a lack of, " guidance and support from her superiors - the principal, the academic head and head of the remedial department" (Journal, 19 April). The school principal gave his tentative support for WL teaching and this provided permission for the 51
teachers to begin changing their teaching beliefs. The researcher organized for Sue and various other JP teachers to watch the WL video entitled, `WL a New Zealand approach' (Coote, Steven & Gerrard, 1990). The input from the books, the talk and the video facilitated the JP teacher's to become enthusiastic and start implementing WL ideas in their classrooms. This in turn led to the teachers receiving positive responses from their pupils with regards learning which further fuelled their change. Then outside help arrived from a newly appointed JP teacher, who knew much about WL and was experienced in teaching using the approach. She initiated the setting up of a JP reading room, which was consistent with WL principles. This added impetus to the change in the JP department. In discussing the reading room, she explained the reason for her enthusiasm. She said, "I visited a school ... and saw there were children reading... I just couldn't believe it ... so I phoned and asked for a job interview... and got transferred there." She admitted that prior to her teaching in the school, she was not an avid reader, "I had never read in my life, I never even read my matric set books, I only read the study guide" (JP teacher's interview, lines 61-67). She starting to teach in the school and using their reading room changed her attitude and reading habits. She says, "I got exposed to these books, and I got hooked." (JP teacher's interview, lines 68-70). She then started teaching at the remedial school and she thought, "I cannot get back to the old system of reading... it must work in a school for learning disabled children" (JP teacher's interview, line 72-73) and so she initiated the setting up of the JP phase reading room. The JP teachers started using the reading room, even in its infancy. However, there was resistance from some teachers to the idea of a reading room and their having to grade the trade books. The JP teacher felt that this resistance was, "because you've got to let the children go... and there will be slight behavioural problems where you've got to bring them back into the group, you've got to be clever, it's much, much harder to do it this way..where you're giving children choices... rather than giving them a book to read and making them read it" (JP teacher's interview, lines 162-167). One of the remedial therapists even wrote a letter of complaint to the principal. She objected to the establishment of the reading room on the grounds that: this new teacher had not used a reading room at a remedial school previously, the room could only be used by the junior pupils and, the new teacher would be, "die spreekwoordelike eenoogkoning in die land van die blindes," with her knowledge of the reading room reigning supreme since there were, "nie duidelike riglyne nie" (Remedial 52
therapists letter, lines 16-20). The guidelines and principles forming the foundation of the reading room were in opposition to the remedial therapists' beliefs about reading. Their views were stated by the remedial therapists at an inservice training session and recorded by the researchers: " they simply spoke about the technicalities of reading... decoding skills... grading of sets of basal reading books according to age... readability graphs...There was no mention of grading according to interests or what meaning the child might give the book... the recommended teachers reference books were published in 1958. They were all bottom-up books, based on skills and drill in areas where a child has been diagnosed as having a weakness" (Journal, 1 February). The resistance to the reading room gradually faded as the books in the room were increased and were used more effectively. The reading room was set up by the end of the second term even though it was sparsely furnished. Before the new JP teacher started teaching, she had the opportunity to observe her predecessor teaching the class. She said, "What I observed in the class... was a lot of work on their own... very passive worksheets, lots of filling in, dot to dots, colouring in, I never do colouring in... there was not much talking, no interaction, no real thinking" (JP teacher's interview, lines 6-10). Then she took over the classes' teaching and simply began teaching in the manner she was used to in a mainstream school and, "just threw them into the deep end." This complete contrast in teaching methods from one term to the next resulted in resistance from the pupils. She said, "I had a lot of very negative reactions from the children, saying, 'we can't, we don't know how to,' and so my teaching was very difficult" (JP teacher's interview, line 11). She then received advice from one of the school psychologists who told her that, "the children didn't know how to think, they didn't know how to go about it" (JP teacher's interview, line 12). This support was vitally important for her teaching and she began to modify her methods to suit the LD pupil by, " breaking down those stages into smaller parts and actually showing them how to think, how to listen, and to process the information." She involved her pupils in, "a lot of discussion, talking about what happened, what came before, what came after." This change in teaching emphasis allowed her pupils to, "start to learn... and they started to succeed" (JP teacher's interview, lines 12-18). For this teacher, the teaching of LD pupils was different from the teaching of mainstream children. When she taught mainstream pupils for the first time, she never encountered such resistance to thinking. With mainstream children she could discuss something and they understood the content because they had the language for comprehension. She said, "Mainstream children understood the language...and so they do 53
it immediately with no problems whatsoever, so it was a shock coming here and to see that children cannot think" (JP teacher's interview, lines 38-40). She found that with her LD pupils, "language was a big problem....and comprehension just doesn't come easily." She admitted that, " I used to take it for granted in mainstream that they could understand" (Lines 56-58). She could not do that with her LD pupils. She also experienced difficulty with pupils whose LD was compounded by emotional problems. She found that, "children with emotional problems don't want to take those risks... they will just cry and say 'I can't do it' " (JP teacher's interview, line 27-9). These pupils also had problems interacting with their peers since their language and emotional difficulties interfered with social skills. She spent much time teaching her pupils social interaction skills. When she observed the previous teacher, the pupils sat, "in their straight rows... and did no group work whatsoever" (line 120-123). Even when practical activities were planned the pupils were never allowed to become involved, "the teacher just stood in the front and she made the cottage cheese, and she did all the activities, they just watched from their tables" (line 124). ,
So she introduced group work where her pupils had, "to sit in groups so they learnt to share, to talk, and help each other with their work and to learn together" (line 126). She experienced difficulty with this since some of the children resisted the interaction and she, "had to start by teaching them how to work in a group... to vote for leaders...how that everyone had to get a job" (line 134). She commented that with her mainstream pupils, group work came naturally, and "if anyone didn't co-operate the rest of the group would have pointed it out... and that person picked up those cues and adjusted" (line 138-9). This didn't happen easily with the LD pupils who needed to be taught social skills. She had sound advice for the researcher interested in facilitating teacher change. She said, "first of all you need a lot of meetings with people who are clued up, sharing of ideas and working together.... there should be co-operation, assisting each other. As soon as you get into competition, they get secretive and don't want to discuss the problems that are going on in their classes" (line 151, 171-173). Towards the end of the second phase an interview was conducted with Sue to monitor WL implementation in her classroom, since this was ongoing, even though the WL approach had spread beyond her class. Sue was enthusiastic about the success she was achieving since she said, "I have never in my 20 years of teaching had as much success as what I am getting from them" (Fourth interview, line 104-5) and she pointed to the class of children absorbed in their reading. Sue was enthusiastic that her pupils had achieved fourth term academic levels in the second term, and that the "grade one's were writing and reading like they would be in the fourth term or early in grade two" (Fourth interview, line 168-9). She could only attribute this increased speed of learning to the teachers' use of WL principles and 54
to the introduction of individualized reading as established in the reading room. She now disagreed with the use of differentiated reading groups where children were labelled and had difficulty moving out of their current levels, since they labelled themselves as "weak readers" (Fourth interview, line 175). Sue attributed a large part of the success to her change in attitude, "because I am not rigidly sitting on edge...we are just more relaxed." She no longer worried intensely about rigidly following the timetable and making sure "my books are looking fine for the book inspection." Instead she was concerned about the quality of the learning that was taking place. She had shifted the emphasis from external trivialities to "what happens upstairs" (Fourth interview, lines 191,200-2). We discussed the upcoming executive staff meeting where Sue was required to present a summary of the status of the JP Department. She summarized their status and their future plans as follows, "We will use WL as the base with... lots of practical work...based on reading, speaking and writing. We believe in individualised reading, language across all content areas and we want to start a multi-purpose room where we can do our measuring, baking and perceptual skills... Our reading room is improving as we grade more books... We have the freedom to experiment and we are going to work hard this holiday. How we are going to monitor everything will still have to be seen, maybe we need a mind map with our daily work ... to fill in what we plan to do. That is our global approach" (Fourth interview, lines 124-141). Sue had internalized much of the WL philosophy and was integrating it into her teaching and her department policy making. Sue had firmly established her belief in WL as she said, "I realise in my heart of hearts that I am totally committed and I know that the Junior department is moving in the right direction" (Fourth interview, lines 187-9). She also understood that the LD child needed teaching methods that suited his needs and that, "you teach individually, that's exactly what I believe...individualized work, and you're going to mark it according to each child's needs and each child's progress" (Fourth interview, lines 267-269). Sue had thus integrated WL principles with the needs of the LD pupil and thus her teaching had become more effective. Sue concluded that the WL approach had resulted in greatly improved learning and that "it's been absolutely wonderful" (Fourth interview, lines 380-82). Sue thus expressed the tremendous effect that the WL approach had on the JP department. The speed with which the changes took place were most surprising to the researcher, who had expected slow changes and then only with one or two teachers, certainly not with all the JP teachers. The researcher recorded, "Sue is now blossoming and shining with enthusiasm ...it's been a long time since she's told me that she's weak and the system is too much for her 55
to fight. In fact, I'm the one whose now getting cold feet... WL is snowballing and I don't know why or how, even other schools in the area are now interested...I'm feeling the insanities of qualitative research!" (Journal, 13 May). From these initial changes that were implemented with the help of supportive people, WL "rippled to going to other teachers who got the strength and the confidence to continue... and it's just been fantastic!"(Fourth interview, line 380-82). 4.5.1 Summary of the minutes of JP phase teachers meeting In July, the researcher chaired one of the JP phase teachers meetings, and discussed WL with the teachers to determine their experiences and concerns. This highlighted some aspects that were pertinent to this phase of implementation. The first issue raised was that the teachers needed a central place where relevant books and articles could be kept on WL, LD and other relevant topics. It was suggested that the media room be used and that a system of circulating the books and discussing their content be established. The teachers were thus acknowledging their need for more knowledge and their willingness to read professional books and change their teaching approach. Secondly, they were concerned about handling discussion groups and whether children should raise their hands or not! They were also concerned about whether children using the reading room could read books at lower levels than their age-appropriate levels. The teachers were experiencing problems with parents who did not understand the WL reading strategies and were inadvertently applying behaviouristic strategies by asking their children to "sound words out and concentrate on phonics" (line 29). The parents also complained that the books their children were taking home were "too easy, or the children had read the books already" (line 28). The teachers also raised concerns about spelling. They wanted to know whether they should still teach spelling rules and how to "relate spelling rules and creative writing when no corrections are made during creative writing" (line 31-2). It was decided that LD children needed "a certain amount of drilling in spelling rules, word analysis and more consolidation" (line 33) and that we needed "to find a happy medium between creativity and drilling rules" (line 34). There were problems with teaching mathematics since the children "battled with story sums because they did not have the relevant language concepts, and they had spatial problems" (line 37). The teachers felt that more practical work should be done but that this was difficult to organise. There were concerns about 56
following the syllabus. "How rigidly should it be adhered to?" (line 39). This appeared to be a major problem in the implementation of WL since the structure of the syllabus was behaviourally constructed. The teachers worked from, "set schemes of work, planned lessons, and predetermined worksheets. These provided the teachers with a crutch and security" (Journal, 8 March). The teachers felt that since they worked in isolation all day they wanted the opportunity to observe each other's lessons and to "discuss the lesson with the teacher to reflect on the learning that has taken place and to improve their own teaching" (line 46-7). It was decided that teacher observation time would be established in the following term to allow teachers to observe in each other's classes.
4.6 PHASE 4: SENIOR PRIMARY PHASE The time frame for this phase was from approximately the third term, July 1995 until the fourth term. The SP school teachers became involved in WL when the JP teachers started talking to them. The SP teachers heard that the JP teachers were in the process of exciting change, and they start to feel left out. The study emphasised the JP phase and was never intended to extend to the whole school. The needs of the SP phase for more knowledge prompted a request that the researcher present a comprehensive talk on WL to the entire staff This provided an overview of the WL approach to the teachers, however it prompted some criticism. "There were comments from the SP phase teachers that I gave them too much theory and not enough practical advice" (Journal, 30 May). The talk also initiated resistance from many of the SP teachers and the therapists, who subsequently avoided the researcher. This resistance was manifested in the form of a letter sent to the principal by one of the remedial therapists, complaining about the implementation of WL in the school. She complained that new ideas were being initiated in the school without there having been a proper and thorough study done on the relevant literature. She wanted other people to first prove that the theory was successfully applicable in practice with the learning disabled child. "Kom ons besin deeglik voordat ons elke nuwe idee en rigting
aangryp... (en) die nodige literatuur DEEGLIK bestudeer. Laat ander mense eers bewys dat hulle teorie in praktyk sukses behaal voordat ons dit aangryp of meegesleur word... die Whole Language approach word vir my uit verband geruk" (Remedial therapist's letter, line 65-7). The resistance from the SP teachers fed back to the JP teachers and this resulted in a conflict of opinions. Whereas the JP teachers were enthusiastic about their changed teaching, the SP teachers were resistant to alter their approach and methods. This resulted in a SP / JP duality and teachers' tempers started to 57
run high, resulting in staffroom dissent. The teachers, "were not sticking together and working constructively, but were pulling apart" (Journal, 30 May). The JP teachers wanted the SP teachers to implement WL because they were concerned that, "the senior teachers would destroy all the hard work that the junior department had tried to do. They worried about what would happen to their kids when they moved up to the senior levels" (Journal, 30 May). The researcher noted that some WL teachers in the school, "were expecting change too quickly... and became impatient with teachers who were inflexible and resistant to change" (Journal, 30 May). It appeared that WL teachers went through a phase where they were intolerant of their traditional colleagues. They seemed to forget their past difficulties during their own process of change, and they became intolerant of the time that other's took to change. The researcher often told teachers to be patient since change is a process that takes time. This was evident later when Sue was complaining that the teacher's were buying pre-set worksheets. " She said that she's now looking at these things in such a different light. 'Why do they mill around and spend a fortune on worksheets when they should be spending the money on real books?' " (Journal, 7 June). To further complicate the implementation process, the SP teachers started implementing a basal reading program during this time. It had been ordered in the previous year and a plan was set up by the SP teachers to implement it in their remedial teaching lessons. This caused much strife and conflict amongst the SP teachers. Some of them were implementing WL reading principles and opposed the use of the program. Sue also voiced her opinion saying, "they've spent a lot of money on the basals... that's so sad... we now sit with all those books whereas we could have had another thousand proper books" (Journal, 7 June). In August, during the third term, an interview was conducted with one of the SP phase teachers, in order to clarify the situation with regards the overflow of WL into the Senior school phase. The focus of the interview was the implementation of the basal reading program and according to the teacher, "it's a very rigid system, each child has a basal reader and reads according to their reading age level" (SP teacher's interview, line 36-7). The teacher expressed various complaints with the program. Of primary concern was that the topics in the books were unsuitable for the children in her class, at their reading age levels. She taught eleven and twelve year old boys, whose reading ages were at eight year levels and they would thus be required to, "read about little golden cats, which doesn't work, since ... it doesn't jell with their interests" (SP teacher's interview, line 39). 58
She also objected to the categorization of the pupils into, "these little compartments with everyone reading the same basal reader at the same time which doesn't allow for ...individuality at all" (line 42). This contrasted with reading in her classroom where her pupils were, "choosing their own library books, swopping with each other, telling each other about their books and therefore motivating each other to read" (line 21-23). She had observed that her pupils read more books if they were given the freedom to choose their own library books rather than being forced to read the required basal readers, "they read about four or five of their own choice books to one basal" (SP teacher's interview, line 152). The idea of allowing pupils to choose their own reading books was strongly opposed by some of the SP teachers, who told the respondent teacher, "children are unable to choose for themselves...they have got no choice... and they quoted from the Bible...to support their belief' (line 73-78). The opposing teacher's believed that the only way to teach learning disabled pupils to read was by choosing their reading books at the appropriate reading levels for them. The chosen books were then used as the basis for teaching reading skills such as, "pronouncing the words properly and using the proper phrasing." (SP teacher's interview, line 95). After the story had been read, the pupils were required to complete the accompanying, "worksheets... to test the skill" (line 100-101). The respondent teacher voiced her reservations with the sole use of worksheets, since she allowed her pupils to participate in, "exciting" responses to books such as, "drawing, or predicting the ending, or writing another ending" (line 115-6). She combined these methods of responses with, "everything that you still do in skills" (line 114). Her reason for teaching using these methods was that she wanted to, "first instil a love for reading, and then work on the skills" (line 122). She had found that, "if they love it, are enthusiastic and doing something that they enjoy, then they will listen to pronunciations and work on skills" (SP teacher's interview, line 144). These fundamental differences in the approaches of the various SP teacher's to the teaching of reading resulted in confrontations. According to the respondent teacher, "it was dealt with very unprofessionally... and taken up on a personal level" (line 88). She said, "I felt very upset at the way I was attacked, I was told to change my attitude and come right" (line 59). The respondent teacher was told, "that that is the only way to do it" (line 66) and, "we have wasted money on it already, we don't have funds to buy more books ... just take those books" (line 69). This confrontation resulted in the respondent teacher feeling, "alone amongst colleagues" (line 50). She said, "they take away enthusiasm, they take away everything that you've got to offer...you really feel useless... I was personally hurt and then I was angry... that they wouldn't listen to my point of view" (SP teacher's interview, line 54-61). Sue was also aware of the staff conflict over their different points of view, and she understood the difficulties that the respondent SP 59
teacher faced. The respondent teacher concluded the interview by stating her wishes for the improved co-operation amongst teachers, "I'd like people to be a bit more open and not so narrow minded...and to listen to other people's point of view" (line 178-9). In order for the process of WL implementation to succeed at the school she felt that, "we need people to try it, to stick their neck out and to go against the grain" (line 186-7). An essential component of the implementation was that teachers who were willing to try out the WL approach be supported in their attempts. She said, "what's helped me to change has been the support of other people...that believe in the same things, and that's kept me going" (line 275). What was important for her was that, "I haven't been just by myself .. other people who have changed already supported me" (SP teacher's interview, line 277-8). Although WL was used by only a few of the SP teachers, the idea was beginning to take shape and to influence the school policy makers. From this phase of tentative exposure in the SP phase, the implementation proceeded to influence the entire school and the last phase was entered.
4.7 PHASE 5: THE WHOLE SCHOOL PHASE The last phase of WL implementation began towards the end of the 1995 year and is currently ongoing in the school. WL became part of the school teaching policy for the new year and it's implementation process is still happening. The SP teachers asked the researcher to present a WL workshop during the new year. The researcher provides ongoing teacher support and training using the WL principles given in the literature overview to facilitate the teacher's professional growth. However, the researcher recorded that, "I am feeling quite let down. The challenge is almost gone. The undercurrent of resistance is ebbing away. The teachers are empowered. They no longer need me to silently support their efforts at change. They are all supporting one another and all growing in their learning... I am no longer necessary" (Journal, 29 August).
4.8 SUE'S FINAL WORD In December, at the end of the school year, the fifth and final interview was conducted with Sue. This was to obtain her overall impression of the processes and problems which she had encountered during her first year of change towards the WL approach.
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When she was asked simply to look back and reflect on the year's changes, her first impression was that there had been "an explosion of knowledge where (the teachers ) had gained a lot of information...and then they wanted to know more" (line 4). It was of great interest to me that emphasis was placed on the knowledge gained by teachers rather than any other aspect of the process. It appeared that the increase in knowledge gave the teachers more power to teach differently and inspired them to take the risk of changing their teaching. Once the teachers had gained some knowledge, they took the risk and started implementing WL methods, "in a dangerous manner on only a little bit of theory" (line 10). However, "the success that they experienced was so exhilarating for them that it moved them onto feeling very positive" (line 12). This experience of success made Sue's task of convincing the teachers to change all that easier. As she said, "therefore I didn't have an enormous task after that, they were convinced in my credibility and believed in me" (line 13). Sue then expressed the importance of having support from the educational authorities. The visit from the inspector "was the cherry on the top, since he actually confirmed that our thinking was correct" (line 14). There had still been teachers who were unconvinced about the changes and who "still doubted in their heart of hearts because of the system" (line 16). However, the inspection was able to dispel their concerns. Sue felt that, "they needed somebody in authority to tell them that they were right... they needed the powers to be to confirm it" (line 19). For Sue, "that was the turning point" (line 19), which then had "a ripple effect into the Senior Department" (line 20). The success of the reading room was never far from Sue's thoughts. She saw this as the major success of the year and said that "it has been absolutely phenomenal" (line 79). She spoke of the effects of the reading room, "to see the enthusiasm of the children, to see the changed attitude, to see children actually delving into books on their own, without any form of motivation from teachers or being told 'you have to read'. It is motivation in itself th at we don't have to teach mechanical skills and that children are going to enjoy reading" (line 79-82). The success of the reading room far out shadowed the initial resistance that was experienced at the beginning of the year. Sue had "got this tremendous criticism that (the new JP teacher) was not sufficiently qualified and that she had never been involved with remedial children... and I got enormous rejection, since they (the remedial therapists) wanted the Fry's readability graph to be followed" (line 2628). The remedial therapists felt that the use of the reading room was like the teachers "clutching at straws" since it "wasn't clear cut, especially for the remedial child" (line 27-29). Sue felt that without 61
the JP teacher's confidence in the use of the reading room and my support for it's implementation, "their progress would have been much slower" (line 25). Sue stated that her teachers were now, "at an exciting stage where they were very, very keen to gain more knowledge and to start implementing far more... whatever they read to put into practice without being sceptical" (line 75-6). The JP department were thus embarked on the process of change. The key to the unlocking of the process was the enthusiasm shown by teacher's who were implementing WL methods in their classrooms, as Sue said, "our enthusiasm actually was the momentum to bring about change" (line 78). She thought that the maintenance of the implementation process depended on the enthusiasm of the teachers. When she was asked, "What do you need to keep changing?" (line 89), she replied, " we have got to be very highly motivated and we still have to show that enthusiasm all the way through" (line 90).
4.9 SUE LOOKING FORWARD AND PLANNING We then discussed Sue's goals and planning for the next year. She was fairly confident with the progress she had made with regards learning about WL reading strategies, since she stated, " I feel confident in what reading is all about" (line 91). However, she saw her greatest challenge for the new year would be "with writing, not reading which I am convinced about" (line 92). Although she had began to implement some of the writing process stages in her classroom, she had decided to concentrate on that modality in future. Referring to the current year she said, "I only had a small taste of the advantages of writing for a purpose" (line 92). She saw a "big difference" between the writing process and "the conservative old fashioned teaching where we needed perfection before children even had a draft, and where teachers wanted perfection before they had even allowed thinking and there was never any self-evaluation allowed" (line 93-6). Sue had only just begun to understand the stages in the writing process and she was able to compare it with the traditional approach to writing, which concentrates on the product and does not teach the stages in the process. Sue clearly stated her writing aims for the next year as, " allowing children to write meaningful writing... and getting children picking up their pens without any fear of describing things perfectly or correctly... and not having that tremendous fear because they can't put pen to paper and express themselves" (line 97-8). Sue thought about her future saying, "I think my growth is going to be in the writing process... it is the writing that I have to think about" (line 112).
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Sue voiced her concerns with regards writing that she had thought about this year. She said that the time involved in allowing children to work through the writing process was too much since, "We weren't having enough to show in our books" (line 106). Her concerns were deep seated and she expressed the fear of being evaluated as an incompetent teacher when she said, "that was always my fear, because, what
was I going to show the parents?" (line 107). Her previous beliefs had led her to equate competent teaching with the quantity of work covered in her pupils books. She had now began to change that belief to concentrating on the process, the individuality and the quality of the children's written work. She wanted to allow her pupils, "to individualise their writing" (line 103) and she planned to start collecting writing portfolios. She said, "our next step is to have little boxes in the classroom for their writing collections" (line 107). The assessment of children's writing was also given some attention and Sue planned to use the pupil's writing portfolios to do, "their own individual assessments allowing for individual growth and competition" (line 108). Besides working on the writing process next year, Sue also wished to concentrate more on the pupil's oral language and to, "allow children to talk to me orally, and confidently" (line 117). She also wanted to establish the link between oral language and written language, so going, "from the oral communication to being able to express themselves on paper" (line 118). Sue also planned to extend the writing process to include the use of co-operative learning in her classroom. She realized the importance of, "allowing children to share... and to tell each other of their findings" (line 119). So Sue was able to summarize the process of WL implementation in the JP phase and to highlight some important factors in the process of change. She was also able to clearly state her aims for the next year and those areas in which she wished to grow as a WL teacher.
4.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter presented a rich, holistic description of the phases in the process of WL implementation in the school. The interpretation of the final categories which emerged in the data analysis will be presented in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER 5: INTERPRETATIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter the discussion will provide an interpretation of the predominant categories of data which emerged from the investigation. The categories will be interpreted from the theoretical framework presented in the literature review and additional literature included for further explanation. The conclusions and implications resulting from this interpretation will be clarified and suitable recommendations will be given. The validity and reliability of the research findings will be discussed, and the strengths and limitations of the inquiry.
5.2 INTERPRETATION OF THE FINAL CATEGORIES
CATEGORIES
FINAL CATEGORIES
COLLABORATION TRUST
AGENT OF CHANGE
MEDIA SYSTEM SUPPORT
SYSTEM AWARENESS
LEARNING DISABILITIES REFLECTION
THEORY
KNOWLEDGE READING CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT THEME WORK
PRACTICE
WHOLE LANGUAGE PHILOSOPHY
SUCCESS EXPERIENCED BELIEFS
Figure
BELIEFS
5.1 Final dendrogram of emergent categories
The final categories in the process of WL implementation were presented (Figure 5.1). The predominant categories will be discussed on an empirical level and in relation to the theoretical framework. This integration of theory with the empirical findings allows for the construction of an argument which helps to verify the studies conclusions.
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5.2.1 Agent of change This category encompassed the researcher and the strategies used to facilitate the teacher's WL philosophy formation. Throughout all the phases the researcher used a variety of informational media: books, articles, videos, presentations, workshops and discussion groups in an attempt to facilitate the teachers' acquisition of the WL philosophy. The availability and selection of material was problematic and was altered as the teachers' needs dictated. Kremer-Hayon and Zuzovsky (1994:161) noted that teacher educators are concerned about ways to facilitate learning and making linkages between theory and practice. The media was used within the context of the relationship between the researcher, as agent of change and Sue and her colleagues. The researcher developed a relationship of collaboration and co-learning with Sue from the very beginning. The establishment of this collaborative relationship was essential to prevent the process from "reverting back to the 'expert-novice' relationship" (Duff, et al. 1995:87) which would also have prevented the teacher from maintaining ownership of her change towards the WL philosophy (Brozo, al. 1995:71). The collaborative relationship was adopted since approaches to teacher facilitation appear to be more successful when they try to enhance and expand a teacher's current repertoire of instructional strategies, rather than radically altering them (Gersten & Jiminez, 1994:438). The foundation of this relationship of collaboration was the establishment of trust between the researcher and Sue. This trust was established only after Sue had questioned and probed the credibility of the researcher during phase two. Once she had found the researcher to be trustworthy and credible the relationship of collaboration towards WL implementation was begun in ernest. The importance of trust within the collaborative relationship was emphasised by Bird (1991:325; in Goodman, et al. 1991). The implication of this interpretation was that agents of change need to be aware of the relationship of collaboration which is built on trust that takes time to establish. For lasting changes in school systems, agents of change need to take the time to establish collaborative relationships with teachers. 5.2.2 Awareness of systems The systems approach to education encourages a view which allows the structure of the school organization to be visualized while the functional relationships between components are analysed. In this study the structure of the school in terms of the various departments and the positions of the principal, teachers and supporting therapists was essential to understanding the dynamics of the process of WL 65
implementation. Teachers working within an organisation operate within the "context of an established bureaucracy, they are embedded in an organisational knowledge structure and a related network of institutional systems of control, authority, information, maintenance, and reward... hierarchical relationships and... public expectations" ( Peterson, 1996:47). Thus the existing structure and functioning of the school was analysed in phase one to provide the researcher with the systems context of the study. In phase two, the case study, the researcher viewed the teacher, Sue, as a subsystem and the researcher was aware of the propensity of systems to remain the same (Clarke & Commins, 1993). Thus the teacher's initial resistance to changing her teaching approach and her fear of implementing too much change too soon was expected and respected by the researcher. Similarly, when WL moved into phase three, the JP phase, and the reading room was implemented, JP teachers were initially resistant and slow to implement the new ideas. This resistance was difficult for Sue to respect since she had become an enthusiastic WL prophet and she was impatient with the time that other teacher's needed to make the paradigm shift. As WL moved into the SP and whole school phases, the resistance to change was far more outspoken and resulted in conflict and hostility amongst the teachers. It was in this phase that the conflict between the behaviourist and the WL knowledge bases was most evident. The SP teachers orientation was towards the behaviourist approach while the JP teachers were oriented towards the WL approach. The opposing orientations were manifested in the choice of reading methods adopted for teaching reading. The behaviourists preferring basal reading series and the WL teachers preferring authentic literature. This conflict was never clearly resolved with the teachers all adopting a shared knowledge base. Similar lack of conflict resolution was found in a study conducted by Corrie (1996). Conflict among teachers in a school was examined by looking at the process of resolution of a clash of knowledge. Either staff changed their knowledge so that it aligned with knowledge articulated by the head teacher, or they left the school. The study found no evidence of the joint construction of shared knowledge, or of radical teachers' knowledge being accommodated and this raised concerns about the collaboration of teachers. Similarly in this study, one teacher left the school rather than be aligned with the WL approach and a SP teacher moved into the JP phase where her approach was accommodated. Corrie (1996:246) warned that despite apparent educational reform, teachers may be contained in their previous positions and thus the true impact of WL reform in the whole school remains difficult to assess. "WL advocates have underestimated the demanding nature of making the transition to WL" (Pieronek, 1994:250). Since the participant teacher in the case study was embedded within the school organization, any changes 66
she brought about inevitably impacted on the entire organization. Essentially Sue initiated the changes in the system, and thus WL implementation emerged as a grassroots change. This direction of change, from teacher towards the rest of the system, was supported by KS Goodman (1989:207) and by Schratz and Walker (1995:176), who contended that hierarchically initiated and controlled reforms are resisted and likely to fail. The implications of this discussion are important. A view of organisations as systems is essential for teacher educators wishing to bring about changes in schools. Understanding the structure and function of systems helps to initiate changes in the system that will be lasting and self-perpetuating. Teacher educators should see themselves as agents of change, both within individual teachers and school systems. Teacher educators and authority figures in schools should have some understanding of conflict resolution in schools. Establishing a stance of tolerance of divergent views may be necessary. The ability to see and maintain the conflict as divergent knowledge orientations and not as personal conflict between the individuals should be established. It is also necessary for teachers to have an understanding of their schools as systems so they can understand the impact that they might have in both helping and hindering change. WL teachers should have a awareness of systems to 'allow them to be patient and tolerant of colleagues with different perspectives and to understand the difficulties involved in changing a person's paradigm. Systems awareness allows respect for resistance to change and allows teachers to predict the responses in the rest of the system when changes are introduced. Thus systems theory may be introduced in teacher education courses and presented in supplement to any WL education. 5.2.2.1 Supportive environment required During a teacher's WL philosophy formation a supportive environment appears to be necessary. This implies that the school system needs to create an atmosphere where teacher's feel it's safe to take risks, build theory and experiment with practice (Church, 1994:362). WL teachers need opportunities to question prevailing practices and explore alternative strategies. In this study Sue was initially supported by the researcher in her first risks at implementing WL in her classroom and during a period of isolation from her colleagues when she was practising different methods. The researcher's support, however, was brief and gave way to the importance of support required from the educational system. It appeared that Sue and her colleagues required the educational authority figures 67
to provide guidance and permission for the changes that they were implementing. For principals to take risks and provide the teachers' with support is particularly difficult since principals, like teachers are embedded in the organizational system and subject to its fears and expectations (Peterson, 1996:47). Nevertheless, once the principal and inspectors in this study had given their approval, the teachers were openly enthusiastic about implementing WL. This necessity for support from authority figures was noted by Scala (1993:229) and implied that although WL implementation should be initiated at a grassroots, teacher level, it is more likely to be successful when supported by authority figures in the system, who simply need to give a nod of approval and very little further involvement. It appeared that the supportive environment necessary for WL philosophy formation could be developed by teacher's forming support groups (Watson, 1994:606). Sue and her JP teachers developed into an informal support group, where they discussed relevant issues, shared ideas, observed each other's teaching and learnt from one another. This support in the form of group collaboration was noted to reduce teacher stress and forestall 'burnout' (Clarke, 1987:394). 5.2.3 Teaching practice
This category corresponded with Watson's dimension of practice in her model of WL philosophy formation. Watson (1994:604) noted that teacher's who begin building a WL philosophy often do so by implementing some practical aspects of WL even before they have explored the underlying theory. This happened to Sue when she altered the classroom interior to accommodate social collaboration and introduced authentic children's literature into the room in phase two. It also applied to the JP teacher's in phase threee when they started setting up the reading room in preparation for teaching according to WL principles, even though they didn't understand the theory. As Sue confirmed, "We did it in a dangerous manner on only a little bit of theory" (5th interview, line 10). The teacher's had thus implemented "borrowed practice" which only becomes "owned practice" (Watson, 1994:604) once the theory and belief in WL has been established to support the practice. Borrowed practices that lead to demonstrable results and learning successes are an important factor in changing towards the WL philosophy (Brozo, et al. 1991:71; Scala, 1993:229). When Sue received positive responses from her pupils and their parents with regards improved reading she was further motivated to implement WL practices. Similarly, the JP teacher's began to experience success with the reading room and this success empowered the teacher's to explore more WL. Sue confirmed this, "The success that we experienced was so exhilarating that it moved us to feeling very positive" (5th interview, line 12). 68
A component of the practical dimension was the sub-category of theme work. This highlighted various problems involved in the practical implementation of WL. Difficulties were encountered with the choice of themes, co-ordination with all the classes, the scheme of work, the prescribed syllabus and the integration of all subjects within one theme. The teachers' enthusiasm for WL, however, allowed them to overcome these difficulties and incorporate WL into the existing classroom routines. As Sue stated, "Our enthusiasm actually was the momentum to bring about change" (5th interview, line 78). Once the teacher's had began implementing borrowed practices and experiencing success with them, they began to move towards an understanding of the theory supporting the practices. Dudley-Marling, (1995a:115) emphasizes that "teachers must understand the principles of WL and not just try out the WL method." This interpretation implies that teachers need to feel free enough to take the risk of implementing some WL practices even though they do not understand the theory. The implementation of these borrowed practices must lead to demonstrable success if the teacher is to be further motivated to understand WL theory.
5.2.4 Teacher's theoretical knowledge base This category of theory corresponded with the theory dimension of Watson's model where the practical experiences generate queries which the teacher then begins to answer. This process of questioning and exploring the theory which underlies the practice allows the teacher's theory base to become active (Watson, 1994:604). The researcher concurred with Kremer-Hayon and Zuzovsky (1995:162) that the acquisition and construction of this knowledge base was a dynamic process compounded with difficulties. In this study this process was initiated when the teachers read relevant WL books, attended the researcher's presentations, and watched the WL video presented. These sources of theoretical knowledge were presented as the need for them arose and so the teacher's were active in constructing their own knowledge bases. As Sue confirmed, "There was an explosion of knowledge where we gained a lot of information... and then wanted to know more" (5th interview, line 4). The process of questioning in order to activate the theory base of WL was clearly evident in the study. The teachers raised concerns about the specialization of teaching methods required for LD pupils and they queried the applicability of WL with LD pupils. These uncertainties were raised by Sue in phase two and by the teachers and therapists during phase three. Pupils weak language abilities, thought processes, emotional and social difficulties compounded the implementation of WL and forced teachers to delve into 69
the theory in greater depth to answer their queries. Dudley-Marling (1995b:252) points out that teachers who are learners always have a degree of uncertainty about what they are doing. This uncertainty provides the motivation for further inquiry and ensures that "with the aid of deliberate, theoretically informed reflection (teacher's are)... always in the process of becoming" (Dudley-Marling, 1995b:257). This ensures that teachers become "life-long learners" (Short & Kauffmann, 1994:14) in a "never ending process" (Church, 1994:364). It was this uncertainty and questioning by the teachers in the study which demonstrated their reflection on WL theory and practice. Reflection is prompted when the mind is in a state of doubt, hesitation and perplexity about a situation (James, 1996:81). As Sue stated, "It was that last book that I got that just seemed to state all my fears" (3rd interview, line 29). The implication of this interpretation is that in order to activate the teacher's WL theory base, the teacher needs to be uncertain and questioning of WL. This uncertainty encourages reflection which is "critical to the process of a teacher's professional development" (Duff, et al. 1995:83). 5.2.5 Teacher's beliefs This category corresponded with the third dimension in Watson's model (Watson, 1994:606). The importance of the belief system as the foundation for WL theory and practice was emphasized (Strickland, 1995:297; Altwerger, et al. 1987:145; Newman & Church, 1990:24; Brozo, et al. 1995:70). Understanding the belief system of teachers is essential to improving their teaching practice, since it may require alteration of a belief set (Shechtman & Or, 1996:137) and this alteration "outlines the beginning stage of a paradigm shift" (Rich, 1985:717). This alteration of beliefs required the change of beliefs from unexamined to examined (Watson, 1994:606; Hanson, 1989:265). In this study the change of Sue's belief system was evident. At the beginning of phase two she was questioning her unexamined beliefs as was evident in her self doubt. "She kept excusing herself for her perceived weakness" (Journal, 1 February). She then attempted to reconcile her old beliefs with her new WL beliefs, and slowly her WL beliefs dominated. This took time as she said, "I must admit that it took me a long time to be totally convinced" (3rd interview, line 28). By phase three, Sue was comfortable enough in her WL beliefs to incorporate WL into the JP department's teaching policies. Her beliefs had changed from unexamined to examined.
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Peterson (1996:45) notes that it is necessary for WL teachers to clearly and confidently articulate their beliefs about literacy learning and this requires the formation of a personal understanding of WL theory. Sue was able to clearly articulate her WL beliefs particularly in her written policy documents and this was evidence that she had formed a personal understanding of the WL theory and practice. The activation of Sue's personal WL theory, taken in conjunction with her owned WL practice and her examined beliefs, drew together to form her WL philosophy. The strength of this philosophy impacts on teacher professionalism, which in turn advances pupil development (Lovitt, 1990:43). WL philosophy formation also empowers teachers to " gain a more potent and efficacious sense of self,... a more functional use of strategies and resources" (James, 1996:81). This sense of professionalism and empowerment was evident in Sue and her JP teachers by phase four. This discussion implied that the examination of a teacher's existing belief system causes doubt and this reflective process takes time. Once a teacher has examined her beliefs, they become personal and the teacher is then able to articulate them to others. The conjunction of owned practice, activated theory and examined beliefs forms the teacher's WL philosophy.
5.3 CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM THE FINDINGS Several conclusions were drawn from the interpreted findings in an attempt to answer the research question and aim. The research aimed to describe the factors involved in the dynamics of the process of WL implementation. From the final category interpretations, the factors involved in the dynamic process were concluded. The contextualization of the process within an educational system, an awareness of systems theory and the functioning of systems was essential. The propensity of the system to remain the same and resist change implies that change from the bottom of the hierarchy is most effective and long lasting. This change requires a supportive environment from the agent of change, educational authorities and peer teachers. Within the systems context, the process of changing towards a WL philosophy requires an agent of change who uses a variety of teaching strategies and establishes a collaborative relationship built on trust. WL philosophy formation may begin with the implementation of borrowed practices which result in successful experiences with pupils and this prompts the activation of the underlying theory. Theory is activated when uncertainty and questioning lead to reflection and the quest for knowledge to support the practice. This uncertainty and doubt results in the examination of previously held beliefs which may alter 71
with time towards the WL philosophy. Once the teacher has formed a personal understanding of the WL philosophy, articulation of the philosophy occurs. From the concluding factors in the dynamics of the implementation process, a modified version of Watson's model was presented where a fourth dimension, the agent of change was added and the process was contextualised within the system in which it occurs (Figure 5.2). The qualitative researcher contributed to the developing knowledge base of this field by being "a constructivist social scientist who constructs new knowledge on the basis of existing knowledge, or theory frameworks" (Henning, 1995:31).
Figure 5.2 Watson's modified model
5.4 VALIDATION OF THE FINDINGS Miles and Huberman (1994:263-280) provide clear guidelines on the verification of research findings. These guidelines apply both to the research findings and the entire research process. Checking for representativeness Checking to determine just how representative findings in a study are ensures that particulars of the study are not generalized unrealistically. The participant teacher in the study was representative of the population of teachers of LD pupils and thus it can be assumed that the WL implementation process would be similar for other teachers who meet the same criteria used in the purposeful case selection. The pitfall of using only one case as the basis for making generalizations was lessened by including another JP and SP teacher in the investigation.
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Checking for researcher effects The effect that the researcher may exert on the case by simply being there as an outsider who influences the internal social behaviour was irrelevant in this study. It was imperative that the researcher exert an influence on the case as the agent of change in facilitating the formation of the WL philosophy. This researcher effect was analysed as objectively as possible and some biases were avoided by being on-site, fully informing the participant of the study and conducting interviews off-site. The effect of the case on the researcher such as losing perspective and becoming too involved in minutiae was more serious. This effect was partly overcome by continually thinking conceptually, translating conversations into theory, keeping the research question firmly in mind and preventing alluring leads from interfering. Triangulation Triangulation by using various sources of data (teachers, meetings and researcher) and methods of collection (interviews, documents and observations) was done as outlined in section 3.10.1. This allowed for verification of the final categories by analysing multiple instances of their occurrence in various sources by using different methods. Weighting the evidence Conclusions drawn in a study may be based on data that is strong and valid or weaker and less valid. In this study the data that was weighted most strongly were the final categories that emerged from the consolidation procedure. These categories were based on strong data, such as firsthand observations by the researcher, collected during daily contact and meticulously recorded in field notes. Strong data was also obtained from the teachers during privately conducted interviews and from personal correspondence used as documentation. Looking for negative evidence No instances were found in this study which refuted the findings, however further research into the conclusions would be necessary for rigorous confirmation. Replicating a finding The final categories were validated using triangulation which ensured that the findings were replicated within the study. Replicating the findings in a new context and with multiple cases in future research would improve their transferability (section 3.10.2).
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Checking out rival explanations This tactic was used to ensure that the selected explanation provided the best fit to the data. Possible, rival explanations were discarded as they proved to be unfeasible. Getting feedback from informants This tactic was invaluable for providing validation of the final categories which emerged. These member checks (section 3.10.1) were done throughout the study as the data was analysed and the emergent themes were verified with the participants. The last interview with Sue was conducted to verify the final categories of WL practice, knowledge base and supportive environment.
5.5 STRENGTHS OF THE STUDY The qualitative study design was the major strength of the study, since this design allowed the study to broaden in scope from the original case study format where one teacher was the unit of analysis to a study of the implementation of WL in an entire school. Had the study been of a quantitative nature, it would have been restricted to the boundaries of the selected case and this would not have permitted the researcher to look further at the entire school . A further strength of the qualitative design was that it allowed for the dynamics of the process of WL implementation to unfold with time, rather than requiring active researcher interference. The themes, categories and phases presented in the study emerged naturally as they occurred in their contextual setting. The study was further strengthened by the steps taken to argue the findings systematically and to clearly illustrate the procedures of data analysis, consolidation and interpretation. The validity and reliability of the study were maximized by using a variety of procedures which were rigorously applied to the data to extend the strength of the research findings.
5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Although the study is of importance in understanding educational changes, there are various limitations. Since the format of the research was a single case study involving one teacher, the results cannot be generalised to other teachers. However, if the study were replicated under similar conditions, the results would probably be duplicated closely. Another limitation of the study, was the researcher's active involvement in the school as an intern psychologist. Although this provided the researcher with daily interaction with the case study teacher, it also restricted the researcher to remain within the role of `trainee' or novice. The researcher was thus not perceived as a expert consultant within the field of WL or remedial education and this was an added obstacle to the process of WL implementation. The research
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was further limited in that no previous studies of a similar nature had been undertaken within South African schools for the learning disabled. This restricted the guidance and support that other research may have provided in allowing the study to build upon previous research in this area.
5.7 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY FOR FURTHER RESEARCH The conclusions drawn in the study have presented a modified version of Watson's model. This model may be used as the basis for further research into the field of WL implementation. The model should be subjected to rigorous enquiry and validation, as suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994:270-4) by using extreme cases, looking for negative evidence and replicating the findings in other case studies. The model should be further modified as new research is done.
FOR EDUCATIONAL REFORM Educationalists wishing to bring about reforms within the educational system should be aware that reforms take place within the systems context. They should thus be aware of systems theory and the ways to introduce reform into educational systems. The impact of reforms on educational systems, such as initial resistance and conflict should be anticipated. Strategies should be devised to help educationalists understand these impacts on the system and to provide supportive environments in which teachers can take risks while implementing new ideas. Anyone wishing to bring about reform in the system, from junior teachers through to policy makers, is considered to be an agent of change. Agents of change should use a variety of strategies to introduce their new ideas and it is important that they build up a collaborative relationship with the teachers involved. They need to understand that "change is not an event but a process... which is an essential ingredient of successful educational change" (Rennie & Treagust, 1994:23). In bringing about any change to a teacher the agent of change should address the practical, theoretical and belief systems involved in the reformations.
5.8 RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations for educationalists wishing to implement WL changes. •
Be aware of the systems context. The entire system's response to WL implementation should be anticipated. Have conflict resolution strategies prepared.
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Realize that WL implementation is a complex process. Provide enough time for the complexity of the process to take shape. Realize that each teacher within the system will develop at a different pace and direction. Appoint an agent of change who acts as a facilitator in the process. The agent of change needs to collaborate with the teachers. Allow opportunities for teacher interaction. Obtain support from educational authorities within the system who sanction the process. Work with theory, practice and teacher beliefs to build WL philosophy.
5.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS This chapter provided the interpretation of the final emergent categories and presented a model on which to base future WL implementation processes. Recommendations were made to facilitate the WL implementation process in other similar schools. In conclusion, the final thought is contained in this anecdote where teachers may be compared to children learning to read: "When Prince John in "Poor Roop" asks a teacher whose students are enjoying learning what her secret is, she replies, " None, poor man, you see, I don't teach a method. I teach a child. I use whatever means it takes to teach children to read. There are as many ways to teach reading as there are children. Learning to read is something like climbing a ladder. Some children climb a rung at a time. Others are able to skip rungs and rush to the top. Some never reach the top. Each climber climbs in his own way and at his own rate" (Waterman, 1991:118). It should thus be remembered that we educate teachers, rather than espouse a particular methodology. We should use many ways and appreciate that every teacher is climbing the ladder in her own way and at her own rate.
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APPENDICES
Studies on whole language and learning disabled pupils Strategies used to support whole language philosophy formation Selected books used to introduce teachers to whole language Codes and themes Examples of data analysis Categories of clustered themes Dendrograms of categories of each phase
APPENDIX A
STUDIES ON WHOLE LANGUAGE AND LD PUPILS BARTLEY, N 1993: Literature-Based Integrated Language Instruction and the LanguageDeficient Student. Reading Research and Instruction, 32(2), 1993:31-37. "Reading comprehension scores of language-deficient students significantly improved after 25 weeks of WL instruction. The effectiveness of WL instruction may be enhanced with the use of strategies such as class discussion, oral reading, and direct instruction," (Bartley, 1993:31) DUDLEY-MARLING, C 1995: Whole Language: it's a matter of principles. Reading and Writing Quarterley: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 11(1), 1995:109-117. Describes the principles underlying whole language theory and practice to help teachers of students with learning disabilities-provide rich literacy learning experiences for their students. FREPPON, PA 1994: Understanding the nature of reading and writing difficulties: An alternative view. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 10(3), 1994:227-238. "A case study of a 9 year old boys' reading and writing difficulties. Instruction grounded in sociopsycholinguistics -WL helped the learner overcome his difficulties." (Freppon, 994:227). HOLLINGSWORTH, PM & REUTZEL, DR 1988: Whole language with learning disabled children. Academic Therapy, 23, 1988:477-488. Describes WL strategies for learning disabled pupils. MACINNES, C & HEMMING, H 1995: Linking the needs of students with learning disabilities to a whole language curriculum. Journal of Learning disabilities, 28(9), November 1995:535-544. This article presented a rationale for how the WL approach provides the type of environment that is particularly suitable for learning disabled pupils. MATHER, N 1992: Whole Language reading instruction for students with learning disabilities: caught in the cross fire. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 7(2), 1992:87-95. Students with severe learning disabilities may learn to read in a whole language classroom given supplemental instruction. MALICK, G & NORMAN, C 1988: Whole Language: Applications to special education. Canadian Journal of English Language Arts, 11(3), 1988:19-25. Examines three children in remedial contexts to show how WL principles can be used to guide diagnosis and instruction for special needs children. Notes that remedial programs should embed instruction in meaningful events in the students lives, rather than focusing on component parts in reading and writing. SCALA, MA 1993: What whole language in the mainstream means for children with learning
disabilities. The Reading Teacher, 47(3), 1993:222-229. "Not long ago we saw these children with learning disabilities in special classes or roaming the halls , but times are changing. Now we see them bent over their work beside their mainstream peers. Once, they were task avoiders; now they are becoming academic risk takers" (Scala, 1993:223). SMITH-BURKE, TM; DEEGAN, D & JAGGAR, AM 1991: Whole language: A viable alternative for special and remedial education? Topics in Language Disorders, 11(3), 1991:58-68. Students in the WL classroom performed statistically significantly better on all tasks than did their counterparts. They demonstrated reading progress on a standardized measure superior to their counterparts in traditional settings. "These studies substantiate the theoretical claims that WL provides a viable program for at-risk learners" (Smith-Burke et al., 1991:64). STIRES, S 1991: With promise: redefining reading and writing needs for 'special' students. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. WL was used successfully with students with special needs. THAMES, DG & REEVES, CK 1994: Poor readers' attitudes: Effects of using interests and trade books in an integrated language arts approach. Reading Research and Instruction, 33(4), 1994:293-308. "The study shows that attitudes of poor readers may be positively influenced through tutorial instruction that includes trade books related to students' interests in an integrated language arts approach. Significant effects for attitudes toward listening, reading, self-perceptions as learners, and overall attitude. High interest in reading material results in a greater desire to read and increased comprehension. Improvement in students' attitudes took place in a relatively short period of time, approximately 12 weeks" (Thames & Reeves, 1994:293-301). THOMAS, KF & BARKSDALE-LADD, MA 1994: Using Whole Language with children we have failed to teach to read. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 10(2), 1994:125-142. Delineates how WL instruction offers a set of beliefs and practices that addressees the needs of remedial readers. Four WL programs that successfully remediated students and returned them to regular classrooms were discussed. WESTBY, CE & COSTLOW, MS 1991: Implementing a whole language program in a special education class. Topics in Language Disorders, 11(3), 1991:69-84. Describes a program for language learning-disabled students that used WL philosophy to structure contexts that developed students' pragmatic, semantic, syntactic, graphophonemic, and metacognitive abilities that underlie speaking, listening, reading, and writing language competencies. Several students were main streamed into regular classes. ZUCKER, C 1993: Using whole language with students who have language and learning disabilities. The Reading Teacher, 46(8), 1993:660-670. Provides the benefits of using WL with special needs pupils. Describes the value of using WL with language and learning impaired children.
APPENDIX B STRATEGIES USED TO SUPPORT WL PHILOSOPHY FORMATION Strategies that worked to support teachers in their change to WL (adapted from Bird, 1991:328).
Journals Having teachers keep their own dialogue journals as part of a teachers professional development process.
Professional Library The consultant needs to constantly update a professional library that will support teachers in their WL philosophy formation. Both books and articles placed conveniently so that teachers can easily copy those that look most useful. Helpful instructional strategies and thematic units they've designed should also be available to borrow and use.
Include videos in the library material: `Making meaning: Integrated Language Arts Series' (1992) `Whole Language: A Way of Thinking' (1988) reviewed by Hittleman (1993:129-132). "Whole Language: A New Zealand Approach" (Coote, Steven & Gerrard, 1990).
Meetings Time for talking and reflection needs to be built into the monthly schedule, where teachers meet for sharing their concerns, questions, breakthroughs and triumphs. This open time for sharing and reflection is so necessary that it's important not to impose too much structure. The meetings seem to work best when teachers bring in samples of student work to share and to evaluate, or simply talk about their most pressing issues. `Go with the flow' is the motto for the meetings.
In-service sessions In-service sessions that are "too warm and fuzzy... did not encourage teachers to examine their own assumptions about learning and teaching... they did not pose hard questions... trainers need to create situations in which teachers have the opportunity to work through new ideas or practices themselves - the only way to truly make them their own... we need to facilitate staff development experiences based upon WL principles... teachers need to belong to collaborative learning communities... be prepared for the argument, debate, and dissension that is part of the messy and difficult process of collaboration... initiate more open dialogue with colleagues... develop a flexible set of experiences that seem to generate useful and relevant discussion among teachers... I'm no longer the one with the right answers but someone who can work along with them. I have expertise to offer, but I'm not the expert," (Church, 1994:366-368). Traditional in-service sessions where the lecture format is used is not a recommended strategy. There is no substitute for first hand experience in workshops and hands on activities. In-service sessions are most useful when time is built in for teachers to share with each other in small groups. Also works well for in-service training, share meaty articles, give teachers time to read them, divide into small groups, discuss what has been learnt, liked, questioned, how to use the information in the classroom, end with 15 minutes for written reflection and answer questions on what I learnt that was useful for me. Teachers organise their own in-service and give it.
Writer's workshop Teacher's were encouraged to write a book for other classroom teachers who were interested in learning about WL. They had the opportunity to write, to share their writing, and to experience what is demanded of children when they are expected to write.
Visitor's guides As one of the last projects, the consultant asks the teacher's to make a 'visitor's guide' for his classroom. The visitor's guide, conveniently stored in a pocket near the front class door, provides the visitor to the classroom with an explanation of the activities they are likely to observe in the classroom, the daily schedule, a classroom map of the various activity centres, and the teacher's educational philosophy. This provides the teacher with an incentive to think about, reflect upon, and examine through writing what they really believe about teaching and learning.
Observation in each other's classrooms Arrangements were made to provide the teacher's with the opportunity to see alternative ways of organising the learning environment and relating to students. The more aware the teacher is of the alternatives, the easier it becomes to design a classroom that works best for you and your pupils.
Video and audio taping Teachers who have been taped teaching and then viewed the tapes privately, or allowed the tapes to be discussed at grade level meetings. To examine and reflect on what seems to work and what doesn't, and then to revise instructional strategies accordingly.
APPENDIX C
SELECTED BOOKS USED TO INTRODUCE TEACHERS TO WL
ACKERMAN, D & MOUNT, H 1991. Literacy for all: A 'whole language approach' to the English National Curriculum for pupils with severe and complex learning difficulties. London: David Fulton Publishers Ltd. ATWELL, Ned. 1990. Coming to know: Writing to learn in the intermediate grades. Portsmouth: Heinemann. BORBA, M & UNGARO, D 1982. Bookends: Activities, centres, contracts, and ideas galore to enhance children's literature. USA: Good Apple. COOTE, P; STEVEN, R & GERRARD, S 1990: Whole language - A New Zealand approach. New Zealand: Christchurch College of Education. Video cassette. EDELSKY, C; ALTWERGER, B & FLORES 1991. Whole language, what's the difference? Portsmouth: Heinemann FISHER, B 1991. Joyful learning: A Whole Language kindergarten. Portsmouth: Heinemann. GOODMAN, KS 1986. What's whole in whole language? Portsmouth: Heinemann. GOODMAN, YM; HOOD, WJ & GOODMAN, KS eds . 1991. Organising for Whole Language. Portsmouth: Heinemann. GRINDALL, K 1993. Strategies and activities for building literacy: For teachers & students who are growing in Whole Language. USA: Scholastic Inc. MURPHY, S & SMITH, MA 1991. Writing portfolios : A bridge from teaching to assessment. Ontario: Pippin Publishing Limited. NEWMAN, JM td. 1985. Whole Language: Theory in use. Portsmouth: Heinemann. RAINES, SC & CANADY, RJ 1990. The Whole language kindergarten. New York: Teachers College Press.
APPENDIX D
CODES AND THEMES List of the codes and themes that emerged during the data analysis
Phase 1: Existing status themes Difficulty establishing a new school Rigid functioning, organization, planning Slow changes Responsibilities of the JP Head Of Department Specialized teaching for LD pupils Emotional problems compound LD Varied teaching approaches used with LD pupils Teacher reads WL books Teacher and researcher collaborate on WL implementation
Phase 2: Case study phase themes Researcher as facilitator of teacher training Researcher's problem - Suitable materials to use in teacher training Teacher questions WL applicability to LD pupils Teacher's initial resistance to change in her teaching approach Teacher questions credibility of researcher Teacher Self doubt - Can I do it on my own? Will it work with these children? Researcher and teacher build a trusting relationship Researcher supports teacher during her initial risk taking Teacher changes classroom interior Teacher becomes enthusiastic about WL reading Teacher allows pupils to read in their interest fields Teacher gives pupils a choice of reading material Teacher encourages pupils to take risks WL reading methods implemented Teacher shifts focus to the meaning of reading material Teacher receives positive responses from pupils and parents Teacher reconciles old and new WL beliefs Teacher fears too much change too soon Difficulty choosing suitable themes that are relevant for the children Co-ordinating all standards themes to work on the same theme at the same time Difficulty co-ordinating themes with scheme of work, syllabus, curriculum Concerns about theme work and integration of all subjects within one theme Teacher isolation from colleagues Teacher concern with workload Researcher provides support during isolation Teacher feels empowered Teacher implements WL methods on her own
Teacher enthusiastic about WL Teachers attitude changes respect for children Concerns about the effectiveness of the Speech and Remedial departments Concerns about inspections Inspectors provide authoritative support for WL Teacher shares knowledge with colleagues Teacher needs support during the change process
Phase 3: Junior primary phase themes JP teachers read WL books JP teachers see WL video JP teachers presented with WL talk JP teachers concerned about WL applicability for LD pupils Sue impatient with slow change of JP teachers Lack of guidance from school heads Reading Room initiated Resistance to grading of reading room books Resistance to principles on which reading room is based Reading room contradicts remedial therapists view on teaching reading Reading room functional Teachers receive positive feedback about pupils reading Teachers attitude changes to more flexibility WL integrated into JP teaching policies WL effective for remedial teaching environment Individualized reading policy in JP department Teacher's beliefs in WL JP teachers implement WL methods Researcher feels insecure with fast WL changes Pupils taught with traditional methods, resist WL thinking demands JP teachers supported in changing resistant pupils Pupils weak language abilities compound difficulty in WL teaching Pupils emotional problems compound WL teaching LD Pupils need explicit social skills training for WL group work JP teachers want discussion time without competition JP teachers need teacher reading centre with relevant books JP teachers concerned about group work JP teachers concerned with use of the reading room Reading room use negated by parents teaching in traditional approach Teachers difficulty integrating spelling rule teaching and WL Difficulty integrating mathematics and WL with LD pupils Concern with use of the syllabus Teachers need time to observe each others teaching
Phase 4: Senior primary phase themes JP teachers talk to SP teachers about WL SP teachers need more knowledge on WL Researcher presents WL talk to staff Resistance to WL from some SP teachers
Remedial therapists resist WL approach to teaching LD pupils Conflict between JP and SP teachers JP teachers concern for pupils moving from the JP to the S P phase WL teachers impatient with traditional teachers slow change Basal reading program (basal readers) implemented in SP phase Basal readers conflict with WL reading principles Basal reading program causes teacher conflict with WL teachers Basal topics unsuitable for pupils interests at their reading age levels WL teachers object to grouping of children into reading groups for basal readers Use of basal readers compulsory, children given no choice in reading material WL teachers object to use of basal reader's worksheets to test skills WL teachers and traditional teachers confrontation Staffi-oom atmosphere hostile WL teachers need support in their risk taking
Phase 5: Whole school phase themes Researcher continues to train teachers WL books available for teachers to read Researcher presents a WL workshop to the staff Researcher continues to support WL teachers WL teachers support one another Researcher's role diminished WL supported by authority figures Support by headmaster, heads of departments, executive staff, inspectors
Themes from Sue's final word Increase in teachers knowledge initiates change towards WL approach Teachers take risks in implementing some WL Practices Success with initial implementation convinces teachers of WL approach Teachers implement more WL methods in their classes Teachers need support from educational authorities The inspectors approval of WL gave the permission to continue implementation Reading room success added weight to WL approach Initial criticism of reading room over-shadowed by it's success Teacher enthusiasm for WL is vital for its implementation in the classroom Teachers keen for more theory to substantiate the practical implementation WL reading strategies implemented with confidence and success WL writing process and use of co-operative learning, challenge for next year's implementation
APPENDIX E
EXAMPLES OF DATA ANALYSIS Excerpts of data from the multiple data sources: journal, document, and interviews were presented to illustrate the content analysis procedure of open coding. Semantic units of data were coded according to their emergent themes.
Journal data Example of raw data from the researcher's journal, dated 1 February, 1995.
CODE: THEME
SEMANTIC UNIT Sue said that the WL approach was working wonderfully for some really problematic children in her class.
She was letting the kids do a lot of reading on topics which interested them.
She could not see how she could bore them with pure phonic exercises all day.
She was very emotional when she spoke about children developing a love for reading.
She asked if I'd be at school next year and she was disappointed that I could not give her a definite answer.
WL reading methods implemented. 20: pupils read in their interest field.
meaning of reading material. 19: teacher enthusiasm for WI, reading. 15: teacher's self doubt.
She needs my support now.
17: researcher support during risk taking.
I think she'll be strong enough and have more support from the staff by the end of the year.
99: WL teacher's support one another.
Document data Example of raw data from remedial teacher's letter to principal, dated 3 June 1995.
SEMANTIC UNIT "Hierdie memorandum moet nie beskou word as 'n poging om my siening oor 'n saak to probeer afdwing nie. Ek probeer net om nugter to kyk na nuwe idees was dalk kan veroorsaak dat elkeen in sy eie rigting hardloop.
Ek voel dat elke nuwe idee aangegryp word voordat die nodige literatuur DEEGLIK bestudeer is ens. Die Whole Language Approach word vir my uit verband geruk. Kom ons besin deeglik voordat ons elke nuwe idee en rigting aangryp. Laat ander mense eers bewys dat hulle teorie in praktyk in die remedierende opset sukses behaal voordat ons dit aangryp of meegesleur word."
CODE: THEME
82: conflict between teachers.
80: resistance to WL from colleagues.
Interview data
Example of raw data from the 5th interview with Sue, 11 December 1995. SEMANTIC UNIT
CODE: THEME
Researcher: This is an interview with Sue at the end of the fourth term. I'd like us to think back on the year and see how we have changed, what happened during the year, what sort of stages did we go through? Sue: Well, there was definitely an explosion of knowledge where we gained a lot of information
103: knowledge base increases
and I think our enthusiasm actually was the momentum to bring about change. From whom? From you via me got the teachers very interested and inquisitive about what was happening.
37: teacher enthusiasm about WI, •
And then what happened? And then teachers were stimulated on their own to start to follow suit. And so then there was quite an explosion of information and they wanted to know more,
knowledge base increases
so they did start doing WL in a dangerous manner on only a little bit of theory,
risks taken in WL practice
and then the success that they experienced was so exhilarating for them that it move them onto feeling very positive,
success experienced
so therefore I didn't have an enormous task after that. They were convinced in what I was saying, they believed it for the first time, and your encouragement was necessary
60: teacher's belief in WI, 43: teachers support
and then also having that inspection was the cherry on the top. He actually confirmed that our thinking was correct.
41: inspector provides authoritative support
They felt very empowered
35: teacher empowerment
and very motivated that we were on track and that we were ahead of thinking,
37: teacher enthusiasm about WL
which I think they still doubted in their heart of hearts
60: teacher's beliefs
because of the system. They needed somebody in authority to tell them we were right,
107: teacher support from authorities
and then of course the praise and encouragement rolled from everyone, but they needed the powers to be to confirm it, which is crazy, but that was the turning point,
107: teacher support from authorities
and then that of course had a rippling effect into the Senior department. Whereas up until now we were an enormous threat, they could hardly face us, and then when they realised that we were actually on track, they realised that they needed to change attitude, and then somehow the ice was broken and then my attitude changed and I had the confidence to believe in what we were doing.
82: conflict between teachers
60: teachers beliefs
APPENDIX F
CATEGORIES OF CLUSTERED THEMES Category: Awareness of systems Phase 1 Difficulty establishing a new school Rigid functioning, organization, planning Slow changes
Phase 2 13. Teacher's initial resistance to change in her teaching approach 27. Teacher fears too much change too soon. 32. Teacher isolation from colleagues Concerns about the effectiveness of Speech and Remedial departments Concerns about inspections
Phase 3 48. Sue impatient with slow changes of JP teachers Resistance to grading of reading room books Resistance to principles of which reading room is based 62. Researcher feels insecure with fast. WL changes 72. Reading room use negated by parents teaching in traditional approach
Phase 4 Resistance to WL from SP teachers Resistance to WL from remedial therapists Conflict between JP and SP teachers 84. WL teachers impatient with traditional teahcers slow change 87. Basal reading program causes teacher conflict with WL teachers 89. WL teachers object to grouping of children into reading groups for basal readers WL teachers and traditional teachers confrontation Staffroom atmosphere hostile
Category: WL and the LD pupil Phase 1 Specialized teaching for LD pupils Emotional problems compound LD Varied teaching approaches used with LD pupils
Phase 2 12. Teacher questions WL applicability to LD pupils
Phase 3 47. JP teachers concerned about WL applicability for LD pupils 58. WL effective for Remedial teaching environment 63. Pupils taught with traditional methods, resist WL thinking demands Pupils weak language abilities compound difficulty in WL teaching Pupils emotional problems compound WL teaching LD pupils need explicit social skills training for WL group work
Category: Teacher's theoretical knowledge base Phase 1 Teacher reads WL books Teacher and researcher collaborate on WL implementation
Phase 2 Researcher as facilitator of teacher training Researcher's problem- Suitable materials to use in teacher training 14. Teacher questions credibility of researcher 16. Researcher and teacher build a trusting relationship 42. Teacher shares knowledge with colleagues
Phase 3 JP teachers read WL books JP teachers see WL video JP teachers presented with WL talk 68. JP teachers want discussion time without competition
Phase 4 JP teachers talk to SP teachers about WL SP teachers need more knowledge on WL Researcher presents WL talk to staff
Phase 5 Researcher continues to train teachers WL books available for teachers to read Researcher presents a WL workshop to the staff
Category: Teaching practice Phase 2 18. Teacher changes classroom interior 22. Teacher encourages pupils to take risks 33. Teacher concern with workload 36. Teacher implements WL methods on her own
Phase 3 61. JP teachers implement WL methods 70. JP teachers concerned about group work Teachers difficulty integrating spelling rule teaching and WL Difficulty integrating mathematics and WL with LD pupils Concern with use of the syllabus
Phase 4 Basal reading program implemented in SP phase Basal readers conflict with WL reading principles Use of basal readers compulsory, children given no choice in reading material WL teaher object to use of basal reader's worksheets to test skills
Category: WL reading Phase 2 19. Teacher becomes enthusiastic about WL reading 20. Teacher allows pupils to read in their interest field 21. Teacher gives pupils a choice of reading material 23. WL reading methods implemented 24. Teacher shifts focus to the meaning of reading material
Phase 3 Reading room initiated Resistance to grading of reading room books Resistance to principles on which reading room is based Reading room contradicts remedial therapists view on teaching reading
54. Reading room functional 55. Teachers receive positive feedback about pupils reading 59. Individualized reading policy in JP department 71. JP teachers concemed with use of the reading room
Category: Themework Phase 2 Difficulty choosing suitable themes that are relevant for the children Co-ordinating all standards themes to work on the same theme at the same time Difficulty co-ordinating themes with scheme of work, syllabus, curriculum Concerns about theme work and integration of all subjects within one theme
Category: Teacher's beliefs Phase 2 15. Teacher's self doubt - Can I do it on my own? 26. Teacher reconciles old and new WL beliefs Teacher enthusiastic about WL Teacher's attitude changes to respect for children
Phase 3 56. Teacher's attitude changes to more flexibility 57. WI integrated into JP teaching policies 60. Teachers belief in WL firmly establised
Category: Success experienced Phase 2 25. Teacher receives positive responses from pupils and parents 35. Teacher feels empowered 105. Success with initial implementation convinces teachers of WL approach Reading room success added weight to WL approach 111. Teacher enthusiasm for WL is vital for its implementation in the classroom 113. WL reading strategies implemented with confidence and success
Category: Support required Phase 2 17. Researcher supports teacher during her initial risk taking 34. Researcher provides support during teacher's isolation 41. Inspector's provide authoritative support for WL 43. Teacher supported during the change process
Phase 3 49. Lack of guidance from school authority figures 64. JP teachers supported in changing resistance pupils 68. JP teachers want discussion time without competition 76. Teachers need time to observe each other's teaching
Phase 4 94. WL teachers supported in their risk taking
-
Phase 5 Researcher continues to support WL teachers WL teachers support one another Researcher's role diminishes WL openly supported by authority figures WL supported by headmaster Teacher's need support from educational authorities Inspector's approval gave the permission to continue implementation
APPENDIX G
DENDROGRAMS OF CATEGORIES OF EACH PHASE
Phase 1: Existing status Phase 2: Case study phase Phase 3: Junior primary phase Phase 4: Senior primary phase Phase 5: Whole school phase
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