A DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM Author(s): James P. Connell and Richard M. Ryan Source: Teacher Education Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 4, Developmental Psychology: Implications for Teacher Education (AUTUMN 1984), pp. 64-77 Published by: Caddo Gap Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23474551 . Accessed: 20/02/2015 10:26 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
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A DEVELOPMENTAL
James
P.
THEORY
IN
MOTIVATION
and
Cormell
OF
CLASSROOM
THE
Richard
James
Précis:
of
University
Connell
Richard of members Ryan are in Education and Psy faculty ef In this discuss the paper they on the of both contexts development motivation. discuss
on focus They the development inter progressive
a process of were external. They originally moti of extrinsic developmental stages of for other their aspects implications
values
that
four
discuss
and
the"self-system"
and
as
motivation
and
vation
and
activities
related
of nalization also describe
Ryan
Rochester
^the chology respectively. of interpersonal fects and extrinsic intrinsic achievementof extrinsic
M.
for
classroom
practice.
OVERVIEW
tion
Recent
theoretical
Research
Group
and at
the
work
empirical
of
University
by the Rochester
Motiva Human on focused
has
in of school-aqed "self-system" functioning have of the interrelated self-system processes with regard to achievement-related and assessed under and control self-evaluation, coping anxiety,
the development children. Four been identified behavior: and standing, our assumptions
After processes. briefly describing these and the defining regarding self-system of the we will our theoretical views present processes, dis In this and extrinsic motivation. of intrinsic on two we present theoretical compatible perspectives
component
motivational
development cussion, of the development distinctions between discuss
the
intrinsic intrinsic of
development
internalization progressive We will external. nally describe of dimensions
draw we then motivation; and extrinsic motivation; as a motivation extrinsic
of
values use
then
individual
conceptual we next of process
and
were that origi goals to theory developmental differences in children's be to achievement-related
this
with regard styles" "self-regulatory these between and obtained havior, report relationships briefly We will and other differences individual self-system processes. views on to include our theoretical then our discussion expand the cess. work
effects
of
Finally, for teacher
interpersonal we present
context
what
we
on
see
the
as
the
internalization
implications
pro of our
education.
SELF-SYSTEM
PROCESSES
SCHOOL-AGED
CHILDREN
IN
ELEMENTARY
of phenomenologically is a semi-open The system self-system that interrelated action, regulate processes dynamically are both conscious and emotion. thought processes Self-system and organized is fueled and unconscious. The self-system by the and its need to synthesize integrate organism's psychological and
64
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into
experience
of
the
a coherent
incorporates affect its
processes which may
which have
self-system we will first influences, used to describe we have found valuable. heuristically
that
in
these
theory,
these action for analytic
Our
framework.
developmental functioninq. are interrelated,
processes purposes,
account contextual
and
of self-system influences
how aspects discussing and affected by organized variables some define important and of the self-system aspects We do so with the recognition in but are indissociable, often Before
can
they
be
distinguished.
Self-evaluation of from the is drawn "self-evaluation" writings work recent more Harter's and from Susan (1892) William on children's and in press) "perceived 1983, 1982, (Harter, involve processes "self-esteem." Self-evaluation and competence" and of her own abilities evaluation child's both the performance more and her domains within competencies) (perceived particular of herself as a person (self-esteem). evaluation general of
view
Our
James
Control
Understanding
domains. viable
to myself others people (powerful achieve how to not know just in press)? (Connell, control) Do
failures:
I
look
(internal
Other
and
Anxiety
These processes self-system. and with potential
are How
(Tero
These
processes
goal-directed the distinction is)
It
refers
control" to the
perceptions my goals
of perceptions of control)? (unknown
control)? Or do
I of
perception
of
functions of and maintenance warning and then deal child the experience fail to the "insults" self-system—e.g., threats or other interpersonal autonomy, the
does
& Connell,
1984)?
Processes
Motivational
draw
real
loss
ure, rejection, to self esteem
child
of
"locus
Coping
the
both
the
(1954).
controls the of what lack thereof) (or and in different in general failures and the includes the This strategies process and her avoiding for goals achieving
understanding of successes
considers
child
of
adaptation by Rotter
introduced
first
occurrence behavioral
an
is
construct
This construct child's
and
involve
the
and
task-involved between level
orientation
the child) (Harter, 1981; and the interest primary that factors and processes
activity. of motivation of
or
type Harter
focus
and
initiation
of
sustenance
At the (how
motivation
outset, motivated
of we a
motivates
(what
Our recent & Connell, 1984). are those the paper present course of over child the the
motivate activities (Connell in achievement-related to engage development We will our in press). & DecL, & Ryan, Connell begin 1984; Ryan, of theoretical review a brief with of this discussion question motivation. of intrinsic work on the development THE
DEVELOPMENT Originally
White
(1959),
OF
INTRINSIC
introduced "effectance
MOTIVATION as a developmental motivation" (the
construct theoretical
by Robert forerunner
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drive towards as an innate was defined intrinsic motivation) fueled of efficacy follow that by the feelinqs competency, compe meant White with the environment. tent interaction clearly effectance motivation to hold an independent and equal conceptual of
to
status
la
sexual
Freud's about
hypotheses the course
what
drives. would
also
He
or
strengthen and transform
of development of psychosexual stages
Freud's
some
formulated
weaken
this drive or structure
focus
its
early over (a
Harter (1978, development). of White's a devel in her elaborations 1981), thinkinq, proposed model in which evaluations environ opmental by the socializing influence the level of effectance ment would motiva indirectly tion other Harter processes. through self-system Specifically, that feedback lack of accep negative and/or persistent proposed tance
of
children
result
in
negative in which,
standing the particular their mastery the
face
based
of
their
Deci
(1975) motivation
their
would
turn,
activity. efforts while
of
reduce
for
rewarding warmth and
expressing
this
to
added the
effectance
Conversely,
control
notion
and,
to
would under for
motivation children
for
acceptance should result
in in
self-esteem, the level
of
Harter, maintenance of increase thus,
activity.
White's that
outcomes control
performance and external
failures, according of competence and
higher perceptions internal perceptions effectance motivation
tance
on
self-evaluations
definition original self-determination
is
of
effec
an
essen
that in addi of intrinsically motivated behavior; component to striving for competence, human also have an innate beings in their actions. Like drive to be choiceful (self-determined) and Ryan in press) Harter Deci as an (1980, (1981), hypothesize, the of of their evaluation that nature "cognitive theory," aspect tial tion
the feedback children given other self-system processes intrinsic motivation. While
following mastery these and, through not proposing an
influences
attempts
affects
processes,
explicitly two self-related
develop fac
do cite these mental investigators theory, tors which should the affect level of intrinsic moti positively or agency and of the vation: autonomy perceived experience Absence of either of these factors should in result competence. and in intrinsic Deci decreases motivation. Cornell (in Ryan, stress that in different situations and perhaps at differ press) be more in development one of these factors ent points may salient than the in its other influence on intrinsic motivation. in and evidence exists Considerable experimental psychometric of support motivation
the
and
(Harter, 1981), & Connell, 198
competence Harter
press; agency review). motivation other
relations hypothesized other self-system
(cf., At
Connell, Ryan, this it point, effectance (a.k.a.
self-system
between
control understanding and 4), experiences and in press, Deci, is
clear
that
motivation)
of
levels such
processes
as of
is
in
and autonomy a recent for
level
the
intrinsic
perceived (Connell,
of
intrinsic tied
closely
to
processes.
Two cautionary before must be made our points summarizing of extrinsic while both motivation. First, developmental theory of these theoretical on intrinsic motivation can be perspectives in a "developmental" cast research the framework, spawned by these views has not tested the developmental hypotheses yet Harter has A cross-sectional (1981) longitudinally. study by shown in children's decreases over intrin the school-aged years sic
versus
extrinsic
orientation
toward
classroom
activities;
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we
however, of
not
have
yet either
evidence empirical or decrease over
increase
for
motivation
intrinsic these
that
(b) ses
do
children
average, level
a
are
changes
on that, in their
(a) time
school-related activities of the proces self-system
function
or
and Ryan. while Deci Second, and/or by Harter hypothesized intrinsic around motivation, has centered discussion previous as such the construct of the questionnaire ope rationalizations both often in Harter*s used (1981) incorporate measure study, dimension. in one and extrinsic motivation intrinsic bipolar we are whether not clear it is in Harter's (1981) study, Thus, the
extrinsic
the
of
level or
motivation,
intrinsic
motivation,
both.
EXTRINSIC
VERSUS
INTRINSIC
in
differences
grade seeing of level the
MOTIVATION a
As
has con motivation intrinsic construct, of literatures research the psychology fuel motivation extent is intrinsic to what Whereas life? in everyday human activity
theoretical
in
siderable visibility education. But and
of breadth ing the is so motivation intrinsic in the of the zeal infant, even in the recreational yes, so
not
spaces, central
our
in
administrative
achievement, extrinsic goals. tables not multiplication the teacher to keep cards not because
report
or
important, to parents' because but
just
In fact, education—for
call
of
many
the
student,
not inherently interesting of our Much motivated. intrinsically to in order is done and its application drill for A student example, may,
learning, achieve rather
of halls,
study offices.
the exploratory child, and, young is it often adults, work our teacher
the
not
thus
and
enjoyable
in
present of
we and important activities and administrator alike—are
teacher, or
manifest
clearly or our
clearly
fantasy play activities
to
out off it it
get not
of his
interest back.
is
but fun, over with.
it because complaints her to keep it helps job. are but motivated, just they tainly it is that We postulate primarily
or challenge, A teacher may fill thinks because she
but out
it's will listen principal her effectiveness, are cer behaviors
A
sharpens These
motivated. intrinsically that motivation extrinsic other and all and these maintains, goal initiates, regulates the our developmental now present activities. We will directed and recent then summarize of extrinsic motivation findings ory demain. in the academic motivation of extrinsic studies from our zation
Interna1i
the
At
center is
motivation nalization. tion zation brics
of
our
the
process and Hartmann
developmental we and which Lowenstein
of
theory refer
others
as
inter
internaliza
defined
(1962)
extrinsic
to
transform individuals regulation by whereby forces. Internali internal into by regulation the ru under sometimes has been discussed extensively, our moti of socialization and moral however, development;
as
external
not
the
process sources
account vational of internalization attributional Lepper,
1980)
(1981)
and,
of
the sets
accounts and from
and the origins view our apart of this process more
cognitive
196 7). The approaches Kohlberg, (e.g., are the of own our ego psychologies particularly,
Loevinger
developmental from more
progression behavioral and
Aronfreed, (e.g., accounts structural most conceptually
1968; as akin
Meissner
Schafer
(1968), (1976).
well to
From
our
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motivational the
taking internalization,
of
regulation extrinsic
motivation
forms
different
as
behavior
intrinsic
into
not
transformed, refer to as
is
internalization
perspective,
on
becomes
self-regulation. role important
an extremely does play we hypothesize in fact, process, is the nalization organism's process and self-determination. for competence vation
but
motivation,
of
the of process own. Through
one's
in what
that
tion
progressively what into
we
moti Intrinsic internaliza the fuels
inter
the
needs psychological it In this however, case, is focus behavior that the
innate
of s elf-regulation in and inherent the i.e., mastery enjoyment it is Said than regulated. differently, being "done to the person" of internalization not a matter by the being the but rather environment intrinsically person being socializing own of his/her the to take on and integrate motivated regulation is of
the progressive these needs, rather regulating
environment. with the interaction socializing through of self-regula that the development our model such, suggests from heteronomy to move (or tendencies show the dual will tion to and from less and toward control forces) autonomy, by external demands. with external in dealing and competence more coherence behavior
As
our
In cess
initial
(Chandler
children,
aged them
motivates or ting
empirical Cornell, to 5 to 13, &
do
to
study 3), us tell 198
that
things)
of
the
internalization
we
asked
why are
they not
approximately do things (i.e., intrinsically
pro 120 what motiva
as their such room, cleaning interesting spontaneously classification a reliable etc. bed on time, to Using level of internalization to assess the that we developed system with decrease a significant we found of the children's responses, external of the number in totally responses emphasizing age and if I don't, Ill significant punished get e.g., regulation, and self-determined in more internalized increase regulation, or because find I clean 1^ my things, e.g., my room so that J can at least for extrinsically like it that This that, way. suggests tend to progres do children in the behaviors motivated home,
going
internalize sively that the also found the child personally it seems, requires, worth.
the more
regulation internalized the
valued an
of
these
behaviors.
the
regulation, To intermlize
outcome. sense
increased
its
of
It
importance
was more
the a
goal and
and other from this sources, empirical/theoretical Drawing and of self-regulation our assessment further elaborated have internalization. of progressive a dimension motivation along also is but it definition, is dimension This by developmental we
useful
of self in the style differences individual describing of course the that We have developmental argued is marked styles--extrin by four self-regulatory four These and identification, integrated. introjected, & Ryan, elsewhere discussed (Gonnell have been extensively a so we will in press), & Deci, Connell present only Ryan, these of each, and of how we have overview ope rationalized in
regulation. internalization sic, styles 1984; brief
dimensions Levels
with
of
Internalization
The is
to
educationally
relevant
behaviors.
and
Styles
Self-Regulatory
havior
regard
earliest extrinsic.
self-regulatory child The
style behaves
for or
non-spcntaneous behavior inhibits
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be in
order
to
commonly dually, external
■ or from adults rewards avoid get punishments and in the form of adults' disapproval). approval in or introjects a representation the child takes The íntrojected regulators. to the exterral regulators is inside voice disapproving
similarly ing and in the rather than external, will, Successes has been internalized. so child's own the self-esteem,
regulation that except the
(most Gra of
functions
the very
the approv if you skin, environment. It to now linked are now
child's
interpersonal failures and
are no that controls external This a given needed to activity. regulate invariably the and appropriate is first we believe, during apparent style, form of third adolescence. A and childhood of middle early years move further which is identification represents self-regulatien identification With of internalization. course ment the along as the external individual the regulation formerly experiences longer
now
being sarily
in
the
linked
of ings vidual
he
that
and
1981),
own
his/her
is
to
willfully
choosing
neces
not
value
own
approval
self-worth
general senses
(DeCharms,
or goal, or to their person's as a person. and goodness or she is the "locus of
of
service another
to
feel indi
The
causality" in
engage
the
activity. distinctions have these We (Connell & Ryan, 1984) applied self and children's motivation of to the study directly These various for school-related activities. styles regulation and interview children to in the of are evidenced responses when we ask, measures. For example, "Why do you do questionnaire of the with identified a child who has homework?" goals your answer "Because I want to under and achievement might learning that the child a sense includes the The response stand subject." in it and is in the of the believes engaging importance activity
internalized a less In contrast, response repre in trouble." is "So I don't an extrinsic get regulation senting of the or valuing of choicefulness is no expression there Here was in the that example. Responses implicit previous activity feel bad of the "I'd are form, introjected reflecting regulation choicefully.
lack an empha do it." These responses but of the extrinsic response regulators means to also the of the as an important acceptance activity is "enforced" the a fully internalized Rather, regulation goal. emotional consequences. by internal, about sis
myself direct
if
final
The
(1984) Ryan into hierarchies
I
level is
of
internalization proposed where identifications
integration which allow
of
For
functioning. rate identifications she
"friendship,"
didn't
external
upon lack
can
example, with make
for
by are
maximal
integrated and autonomy her sepa
flexibility woman integrates of "achievement" values the her actions choices regarding when
a
and
Cornell
and
in
both
values. In short, both of these are informed by above internalization the continuum, development along involves and identification, higher-order progressively beyond of the of identification, representing synthesis multiple systems of more ever coordination and hierarchic integration reciprocal an fundamental within the self-system. Obviously, processes an extremely mature represents self-regulatory style integrated spheres further
and
that
advanced
higher possible,
level
levels
of
certainly,
of
functioning and
cognitive in the
and
one
emotional
elementary
school
that
will
depend than
processes years.
Thus
on
are
in our
69
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with
research internalized
children, have been
younger
regulation
SELF-REGULATORY SELF-SYSTEM
the our
first
central
three
of
styles
concern.
AND OTHER
STYLES
PROCESSES
As a starting for our of how motivational point analysis relate to other in educational processes self-system processes we have directed our efforts at measuring contexts, what moti children to engage vates in achievement-related behaviors. We refer to individual differences in these motivational orienta tions as "self-regulatory Over the three we styles." past years
have
a self-report (extrinsic, domain
developed
based
assessment
of
the
three
self
and identification) introjected, for thirdchil through sixth-grade dren. This measure also the level questionnaire separately taps of children's intrinsic motivation for achievement behaviors. A and school version of the measure is in the junior high high as is a structured interview for use with children works, younger regulatory within the
than
styles academic
third
measure
is
The
grade.
presented the measure
briefly, school
achievement
psychometric elsewhere of
consists do (Why behaviors
of the school saga elementary & Ryan, (Oonnell but 1984), four questions "why" regarding
want to do well in schcxil?) and you achievement-related and answering (classwork, homework, in class). Each is followed of questions question by a series the three and in representing responses styles self-regulatory trinsic motivation. Children indicate their of endorsement level for each on a four-point scale. The scale has been response administered to over children in third 1,500 sixth through grade and has shown internal structure and More good consistency. importantly,
a
findings discussing
clear
of
between of the each within the self-system processes We will now briefly summarize these for each of the three levels of internalization before our current theoretical views of how interpersonal
self-regulatory academic domain
pattern and styles has emerged.
contexts classroom) (e.g., a whole and particularly Extrinsic
relationships
other
may affect self-system the internalization process.
functioning
as
Regulation
Children
who score dimension of extrinsic high on our regu I do my homework because I will in trouble if I (e.g., get less don't) intrinsic motivation report (not less surprisingly), of school, lower of competence and self liking perceptions and more unknown and esteem, external of control, perceptions and levels of poorer coping strategies higher Thus, anxiety. this extrinsic in this has reverbera regulatory style age group lation
tions
the
reverberations which self-system, negative these children's academic and performance their we have theorized adjustment ratings by teachers. Although that extrinsic is a "natural" for the regulation starting point of extrinsically motivated it is clear regulation that behaviors, school children for whom extrinsic upper elementary regulation also
throughout
remains ically,
affect
adversely
a
but
salient also
motivational in terms of
set
their
sure
at
risk,
psychosocial
not
only
well-being.
70
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academ
Introjected
Regulation is characterized endors by children because 111 feel ashamed my homework scores on with this I don't." Children high that to the internalized the regulation point they for their achievement-related being responsible
Introjected ing of
such
responses
myself dimension see
if have
themselves
and behavior we expected
for
control of
regulation
this self-regulatory outcomes performance esteem due to the ever children
at of
lowering
holds
predicrtion
of
these
behaviors.
these
Thus, internal
show
children high
greater of levels
anxiety.
responsibility enforce guilt
perceived
and anxiety that We also expected on self-esteem of specific hinging of self in level produce instability
behavior; children.
style would
faced contexts self-evaluative by changing of the We also expected instability in a moderate on average would result processes have evidence we that this self-esteem; general these
self-evaluative
the
in
responsibility
these
by accompanied the child's
reflects
control
the
this
outcomes
liable for the and found that of
perceptions Internal
regulation as "I do
ages.
as
well.
Identification is
Identification
achievement.
to
related
as
in order to regulate show relatively high
more
appears child the
and positive that through is
freed
are
reprisals OF
salient
neither in
INTERPERSONAL
MOTIVATION
the
of
understand
who
high relatively these children
these levels
more
to
Children
to place having behaviors. of general strategies with the
œping identification
to
endorsements
actively
engage
as
such
subject." with regard regulation,
or
score
negatively on this
high of
levels internal take responsibility self-esteem on the In fact, self-esteem when values his/her
or externally consciousness. child's
CONTEXT
items the
self-responsibility or introjected either unrelated
active
because
experiences
EFFECTS
been
have
anxiety. do show however, of control. Thus but without actions,
dimension,
line dren
and
school
to
perceptions for their
want
I
extrinsic
Unlike scores
identification
in
evidenced
because "I do my homework it reflects Thus both valuing
these
chil well
as fail.
It
they of education educational
internally
based
ON
DEVELOPMENT
we presented section, findings preceding regarding of internali of the various levels concomitants domain. we are the academic Currently investigat which of these self-system processes may ing longitudinally advance or forestall the internalization continuum along progress In
the
the
self-system zation within
to these & Deci, In addition 1984). developmental Ryan a dissertation of relations among self-system processes, research associates, Grolnick, Wendy by one of our graduate study is aimed at identifying environmental factors that or facilitate (Cannell, studies
inhibit related
with to achievement regard process of this work is that guiding assumption with social surround are the his/her the "environment" will have its on effect
the internalization behaviors. The
child's interactions the which medium through
motivation and of both intrinsic and extrinsic the development other Earlier in this we briefly self-system processes. report views on how environmental events discussed two theoretical may
71
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effect change We will tion. our theoretical development As
in
the of intrinsic function motiva developmental further and then elaborate these views present on how interpersonal contexts affect the position of extrinsic motivation. now
stated
environments
previously, (Harter, & Ryan,
challenged optimally determination (Deci intrinsic motivation these interpersonal
in
while
1981),
which
child
the
is
self
afforded
being
in press) should facilitate 1980, to activities. We refer particular contexts as "autonomy Environ supportive." ments which consistently seek to con feedback, provide negative trol and suppress choiceful behavior emotional (including expres link
sion), and/or al outcomes texts
that
are are
for
and acceptance termed "control
experienced to inhibit
hypothesized within particular evidence within
child
recent
behavior
specific
con are
Interpersonal control oriented
as
levels
depress In a
domains.
to
oriented."
the
by or
affection
of
intrinsic motivation of the empirical Connell and Deci (in Ryan, in multiple this hypothesis review
the academic domain, considerable for found press) support and classroom studies of the laboratory on context intrinsic motivation (Deci, Bernieri 1981; Koestner, Ryan, Ryan, 198 4). Grolnick,
effects
of
Schwartz, & Holt,
interpersonal Scheinman 1984;
& &
Ryan
contexts which facilitate or Identifying interpersonal of extrinsic motivation internaliza the (i.e., development is a relatively recent endeavor research by our group
hibit tion)
remains,
at this point, on this is topic
somewhat
initial
Our
speculative. consistent with
in and
theo
and the theoretical quite work motiva on interpersonal contexts and intrinsic empirical tion. an additional of considerations set is However, relevant in the of extrinsic motivation of its development by virtue different The internalization intrin origins. (unlike process rizing
and
induced by initially who seek to elicit
motivated is behavior) in the child's environment
sically others
then
have
the
child
initiate
(or
behavior. undesirable) child's life an added carry of extrinsic motivation. sense
of
Thus, burden In
self-determination that socially
set are
of and
regarding them and
and
not
for
these meeting the information
provides internalize behavior
the
environment.
provided
addition
to
the child's we behavior, a is also to move process
supporting his/her "structure"
regulating communicated
forms
information how to meet
inhibit) (or socially the others in the significant to the development with regard
in
hypothesize condition necessary toward more mature
the of
internalization self-regulation. what the (a) what
(b)
the are.
expectations through of
significant (or inhibit) desirable
which
This
structure
societal
consequences This structure
the
child
is
a
expectations of meeting
can
then
potentially motivated
his/her regulation extrinsically it's communicated within an autonomy-supportive
A hypothetical illuminate at least some of example may help these theoretical are Children points. expected by their parents and teachers to practice their number facts. we would Eventually child of this of that the would internalize the value type hope and himself around it. activity regulate however, Initially, and teachers this behav will need to externally parents regulate will need to "motivate" the child to do it. Our view ior; they is
that
certain
ways
of
doing
so
will
promote
the
eventual
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and
more
of
internalization
speedy
strategies
enting/teaching the provide
this
structure.
autonomy
necessary around this
options, feedback
regarding perhaps to in response
activity
i.e.,
regulation,
are
that
autonomy
supportive the child's
Supporting could involve:
time
giving
using and
par also of
sense the
child
and
positive providing place; to child the express allowing about the activity; and, feelings of number of time the on-task,
effort;
and negative) his/her (positive amounts not linking particular with behavioral outcomes or other specific completed problems ex or with or worthiness, of the child's evaluations goodness a child as or for the affection of parental feelings pressions structure or dumb smart or necessary Providing bad, person. good would
involve
the
letting
right many problems number memorizing the fit with rationale last
accomplish
made
time? of
a number
suggesting ful at the
task
more
requires
(What
know
child
in
How for
facts?); child's What
does
it
was
(How long? expected rationale ( What is the and this expectation child did the (What
why
making capacities will the
alternative
interesting?); it it (Will
what
) and
a row?
take
child
strategies to do the
providing if 1 hold
out get for being
of it?); success
How can it be task? child when the assistance flash and, cards?); up the to can child the expect
help if anything, what, infor of the drill or lack thereof. This completion upon child's minimizes the in a way that needs to be provided mation of being controlled (How can by these contingencies experience him to These for do?). this is let him know that important and calibrated be understandable to the child must contingencies in
as
clear
being occur
their
child's
to
the for of the activity significance by the be it would in this So, probably example, for a new child with reward the to bicycle him play after school or to deny his math facts of use excessive Either the month if he doesn't.
magnitude well-being.
counterproductive simply practicing for the rest of and punishments rewards as
highly
development From interpersonal task. easy which may
controlling of more this
example, contexts
or consequences experienced by the child with the interfere we predict, would, domain. in this autonomous self-regulation it in
be clear should which internalization
of creation is no promoted contexts interpersonal that
the
is
other On the hand, creating or even internalization inhibit forestall We
simple.
I
can
extrinsic provide will ments which can the permit
either
just incentives
guarantee child to
tell such
the .as
compliance whatever do
child
to
do
is the
drills
quite and
or punish rewards/approvals or we (control oriented), she wishes (uninvolved).
of of both these theoretical view, strategies point and term costs vis a vis the child's adjust learning long and of choice ment. context It is only in the (autonomy) support to understand will come and information children that (structure) and will are that activities these exper eventually important indicate and others' as their own. ience Our data the regulation From
our
entail
as control contexts experienced by children interpersonal or permissive in Dewey's or uninvolved, traditional (1938) ling and in the self-system effects terms, throughout produce negative and we children's achievement. In the final section learning for teacher educa of these views will discuss the implications tion of on the motivational specifically focusing development themselves. teachers that
73
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our
In
teacher
for
implications EDUCATION
and
workshops
extremely gratified the classroom. In been
to
exposed
sional
with
but
also
cult
resonate
more
We
difficult? Heckmans earlier
the
(1984) of
a
social
practices teachers
we
understanding are aware fully conclusion that it
teachers with our
Recent students dardized
This
work
that
compete achievement
mance.
for
continue."
to
sole
of
part
with:
and to
and a
It's
to
talk
have
profes as we all
But,
Our
practice. ideas
is
not
these
principles is extremely diffi structured environ toward
gravitate
Why reflected education
either is
it in
so
Paul in an
He argued that archaic class education, view is also shared by many of a broader contextual perspective and remediate eventually help QUARTERLY.
debates
classrooms
and
on the
quality with
concern
in the
achievement scores and college
which
so
ad
learning. of
American
the
ability
marketplace.
students' judging too not probably outrageous is becoming obsessed with and instruments victims of
culture (adult) both are the
been work in
teacher
feverish
for
criteria
of
to
their
the
approaches. reason is of teacher
the
insightful analysis TEACHER EDUCATION
reports stirred
have
that
we
programs. translate into
understand fully and in our neglect our students' motivation
affect
versely
the
development
have
ideas in
principles
necessarily is that
context
to necessary traditionalism
tion
not
put these all teachers
theoretical
not
think
issue
"without
is
if
we
teachers,
to
to create (a) autonomy supportive in their classrooms and not (b) control oriented or uninvolved
ments
room
with
desire
most
teachers
Many
discussions
their
staff
does
exposure
experience the problem.
the
and
training
know,
by fact, related
educa of
Higher
our
stan
to be acceptances appear and teachers' perfor to claim that our achievement. Teachers
this obsession we and, suffer the motivational believe, even they consequences perhaps more than do their students. In our work with teachers, directly we hear of being excited and motivated frequent reports initially to teach and students. These motives challenge can, however, turn sour. Tales of how "teacher-proof" com quickly curricula, and unrealistic have petency robbed teach testing, expectations ers of their intrinsic motivation to teach are and pervasive, to be analogous to the control-oriented appear classroom environ ments that often lead to declines in students' intrinsic motiva tion to learn. Not so long we attempted to illustrate this ago, in an experiment which modeled the experience of pressure dynamic toward which our specific teachers face. objectives In a study with we found that when students, are college college subjects asked to "teach" other students academic material and then told that are "they to standards" and ling, they
for the students' responsible performance these "teachers" were more significantly and their students felt more pressure
such
activity mandate
interest
in
the
criterion
than
(Deci,
1982). Thus, appears orient
both that
from
our
educational
teachers
which are externally as to how these
toward
a
comparison
Spiegel,
anecdotal contexts
Ryan,
and that
that group Koestner
being up control and less
received
evidence, experimental are paressureful,
producing specific and evaluated, imposed are to be goals met,
achievement and that will
no
& Kauffman,
it that
outcomes limit choice
decrease
74
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teachers'
of s elf-determination reduce and, their accordingly, experience and for interest, self-regulatory capacities own excitement, of self-determina lack this activities. Furthermore, teaching strate in less eventuate will teaching autonomy-supportive tion be to achieve will short-term of teaching focus the since gies, in most cases, are by traditional/control that expedited, goals as such Furthermore, simply raising oriented goals strategies. the the princi keeping day, achievement through scores, getting lessons the and at finishing required and/or bay, parents pal environ to creating learning are unrelated optimal undoubtedly for
ments
How experiences Heckman
the
students. can
then
refocused
to
Again, of teacher
we
be
education
teacher
self-determination? of greater and of schools that the culture
of
toward
participation ongoing greater and professional development, training cultural and social to attention
change--change own in their
facilitate with
agree education
must
teachers
toward change which factors critical for teaching alternative militate and strategies against promote differentiated a more toward and teacher education, and change for such In order education. for quality changes of criteria set armed must come to the fore, educators teacher to occur, however, to local, a clear and and message with data, present theory The constituents. their and makers federal and policy state, and it is clear we believe but work is not new, from our message than is more education far-reaching of mission if the timely: self-motivated embraces if it also achievement student se, per and ideals cultural self-reflection critical upon scholarship, in and effective self-determined more and participation values, envi educational create we must then institutions, our cultural not to experience and students educators which ronments permit in regulating structure and choice also but responsibility oily in foment current the of view, From our activities. their point teacher educators, teachers, circles educational provides policy of increased the to break an opportunity researchers cycle and of the profession teaching and bureaucratic external regulation that and implementing carry information programs by disseminating this message. more
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