Framework, concepts, and methods of Environmental Management Planning (EMP) are discussed. A land- ..... in the field of environmental management must be.
Landscape Ecology vol. 3 no. 1 pp 53-63 (1989) SPB Academic Publishing bv, The Hague
A framework for environmental management planning A landscape-ecological approach Kazuhiko Takeuchi and Dong-Kun Lee Laboratory of Landscape Architecture and Science, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan Keywords: environmental management planning, environmental resources, environmental data base, environmental indices, environmental modeling, process-oriented planning, landscape ecology
Abstract
Framework, concepts, and methods of Environmental Management Planning (EMP) are discussed. A landscape-ecological approach was taken to integrate the environmental indices. EMP focuses on regional factors - natural, social, amenity related - and becomes more sensitive as the scale of study increases. The processes of EMP include a vertical aspect, dealing with pollution, conservation, and amenities, and a more general horizontal component which involves zoning and land use planning. Environmental impacts may be assessed by modeling exercises using all available data and considering all land use options. To keep up with the rapid change of environment and its perception, EMP should be process-oriented rather than purpose-oriented. The concepts of EMP were applied to the middle basin of the Tamagawa River and it was shown that multivariate analysis is useful for the regional subdivision and environmental modeling.
The significance of Environmental Management Planning (EMP) and the role of landscape science
During the 1970s Japanese environmental policy concentrated on ‘pollution control’. This focus was diversified by incorporating methods for ‘creating amenities’ in the 1980s. This trend in diversification appears most obviously in a form of planning called ‘Environmental Management Planning (EMP)’ . In this type of planning, importance is placed not only on environmental conservation but on how to create an ‘amenity environment’. The purpose of this paper is (1) to present an idealized framework for EMP, and (2) to explain the concepts and methods of EMP. EMP has been used in Japan for the conservation of the natural environment and the creation of amenity environments in Japan (Utsunomiya 1987). EMP is formally called ‘Regional Environ-
mental Management Planning’. People’s expectations of EMP are changing and this is a major factor supporting recent Japanese environmental policy. A feature of EMP is that regions are identified as a core, from which to take countermeasures against various environmental problems. The name ‘Regional Environmental Management Planning’ implies that regions are the focus of this planning method (Takeuchi Kei 1987). At the stage of the actual decision-making process, as the name of each region is added, different EMP schemes have emerged, such as ‘Tokyo Metropolis Environmental Management Planning (TMEMP)’ and ‘Koshigaya City Environmental Management Planning’. The area subject to EMP is mostly an administrative area, but may also include natural regions such as river basins, lakes, marshes or seashores, which could involve different prefectures, cities, or towns.
As EMP sounds somewhat stiff-mannered, a name that people feel more comfortable with is often used. For example, Kanagawa Prefecture uses the name ‘Kanagawa Environmental Plan’ (Himi 1987) while Shiga Prefecture uses the name ‘Lake Country Environmental Plan’ (Okajima 1987). Tokyo Metropolitan Government softens the overall tone by using ‘For the creation of an amenity environment’ as the main title and the name ‘TMEMP’ as a subtitle for planning documents. As regions have become the focus, it has become impossible to separate the areas covered by discussions. For example, the problem of ‘pollution’ cannot be addressed simply for cities and the problem of ‘natural environmental conservation’ should not be analyzed solely for national parks. It is required that all environmental problems are considered on a regional basis. It is expected that problems should not only be considered on the same level but also more comprehensive solutions to problems should be sought by integrating them (Drdos 1983). Landscape planners relate to this EMP by taking the position of ‘conservation of natural environment’ and ‘creation of green and open spaces’ (Takeuchi 1987). Conservation and creation have previously been considered to be different subjects in landscape planning and sometimes each has been discussed independently. Therefore, making regions the core for EMP suggests the possibility of integration of conservation and creation (landscaping) in landscape planning, resulting in a unified presentation of the problems that have confronted landscape planners. With this presentation, the quality of EMP is enhanced and a more desirable solution may be reached. Landscape ecologists and planners should play a role as coordinators for EMP. This is because landscape ecology and planning covers a wide area, from the natural environment to the social environment, and allows the comprehensive discussion of subjects from the conservation of a natural environment to the creation of an amenity environment. The idea of landscape ecology developed since it ‘arose from the effort of scientists to call more attention to the synthetic views of spatial phenomena in our epoch of scientific specialization
(Troll 1968). In addition, landscape planning allows thorough discussions from the analysis to planning of natural and social phenomena (Ide 1975; Takeuchi 1987). As the importance of landscaping and the necessity of conserving are recognized for the creation of an amenity environment and for the conservation of the natural environment, the role of landscape science becomes more important (Shimada et al. 1985).
Concept of the environment and EMP
For the promotion of EMP it is necessary to clarify our basic concepts concerning the environment (Takeuchi Kei 1987; Weichhart 1979). The environment viewed from a landscape-ecological aspect means the external conditions related to living things. Human beings exist not only through controlling the natural environment but also by forming a social environment through culture and technology. As such, understanding the environmental structure through the comprehension of the processes required for its constituent elements to exist is more important than a discussion about why the environment is in a particular condition. On the other hand, human beings are at the center of EMP thinking: the environment to be dealt with is a human environment. This human environment can be divided into a social environment that is close to human life and production and a natural environment that supports human society and economic activities. Since EMP is administrative planning, it is necessary to clarify what is a desirable regional environment. Based on the above environmental concepts, the aim of EMP can be expressed as follows. EMP is ‘a planning process to arrange an environment allowing human beings and other living things to live continuously and perform production’. The purpose of EMP is the total organization of environmental management. Control of the environment as an entity through the control of various processes and the creation and maintenance of a sound and more comfortable environment are the main motives (Ayala 1987).
55 Purpose of EMP
Conservation of natural environment Creation of amenity environment
- Environmental
resources
Environmental management system
Amenity environmental resources
-
Nqtural environmental resources I
1
I
Social environmental resources
1
I
+-
Natural environmental resources
Social environmental resources
1. Geosphere (geology, topography, soil)
1. Population
2. Atmosphere (climate, weather)
2. Industry
3. Hydrosphere (seas, rivers, ground water)
3. Transportation
4. Biosphere (plants, vegetation, animals, aquatic life)
4. Water-usage
Amenity environmental resources 1. Citizens' awareness and citizens' organization
5. Landuse and regulations
Minus side Pollution, etc.
2. History and culture 3. Water and "greenery" 4. Recreation
Fig. 1. Conceptual framework of EMP.
Concept of environmental resources As a background to EMP, there is the 'concept of environmental resources'. This is the idea that all environmental elements should be understood as resources, and their optimum use should be considered as they are limited (Aoyama 1987; Holdgate and White 1976). According to this idea, 'land' itself is a resource (Cooke 1974) and conducting research about how to use it effectively is an important topic in EMP. Environmental resources are classified into three categories (Fig. 1). These are natural environmental resources, social environmental resources and amenity environmental resources. Pollution, that is very often considered in EMP, is treated here as a
negative aspect of social environmental resources. Among these categories, the most important subject in EMP is amenity environmental resources. It has been clearly recognized since 1977, when an OECD report (Environmental Policies in Japan) criticized Japanese environmental policy, that Japan has succeeded in pollution control but not in securing environmental amenities. Amenities have increased in the importance given to them by the Japanese environmental administration. The problems of scenery and townscapes which had not been discussed much up to that time became important in environmental administration in connection with amenities (Itoga 1986; Suzuki et al. 1986). To preserve and create amenities, the establishment of a new policy as well as the positive efforts
56 Environmental management planning 0
Comprehensive planning
__
Main people in deciding the plan
---
I
Municipal corporation, citizens
0
Selection of the environmental purpose --- Citizens
0
Support system --- Groups o f experts
Land use-related planning
Development-related planning Pollution
environmenta
Amenity creation plan
-I
Others
Fig. 2. Vertical and horizontal role of EMP.
of residents in affected regions is required. EMP should have the character of comprehensive planning having both social and physical aspects for the creation of an amenity environment, as well as the conservation of the natural, production, and living environments. At this stage, it is necessary to move in the direction towards creating a better environment positively from the passive position of the present environment (Mazurski 1987; Takeuchi 1987).
Role of EMP On the one hand, EMP is used as a general tool to support comprehensive planning and other sectional planning from the environmental point of view, which is called its horizontal role. On the other hand, it is used as a sectional planning instrument performing pollution control, the conservation of the natural environment and the creation of an amenity environment, which is called its vertical role (Fig. 2, Kiemstedt et al. 1976). That is, EMP functions as a higher-level plan by strengthening the total plan from the environmental aspect as well as the conservation of regional environments through a series of sectional plans (natural environmental conservation plan and amenity creation plan, etc.). In landscape planning, the formation of plan frames based on this concept has already been performed (Takeuchi 1983) and now it is necessary
to make further progress in methodological and case studies of EMP. EMP has performed well up to now in several specialized areas such as pollution control, environmental assessment and development of environmental data bases. According to Abe (1987), the total planning environment will become the basic concept underlying planning of all types. This shows that EMP has advantages over sectional planning and is being developed for comprehensive environmental planning so it can play a role in higher-level planning. This trend must be evaluated. The spatial level of EMP application is mainly at the level of metropolitan regions and prefectures. As the formation of planning advances, this level will extend down to provincial municipalities. The environment is discussed, very often in concrete terms, in municipalities, but the details are different from that of prefectures, where they are discussed abstractly. Planning in municipalities is urgently required so that EMP functions effectively at a regional level. If EMP is executed at the level of cities, towns and villages, then the number of people willing to employ EMP in environment assessment (Duinker and Beanlands 1986) will increase. But because of the difference of scale, it is impossible to accurately apply EMP to individual plans and projects as a method of assessing technology and evaluating environmental effects.
57 Procedure of EMP
The most general purposes of EMP are (1) pollution control; (2) natural environment conservation, and (3) the creation of an amenity environment (Aoyama 1987; Himi 1987). For EMP up to now, the ‘vision’ showing a desirable regional environmental image (environmental management goal), the ‘scenario’ to realize this vision (environmental management policy) and ‘program’ to undertake the measures based on the scenario are its basic structural elements (Aoyama 1987). To make the perspective more clear, the clarification of the subdivisions of a region according to the homogeneity of environmental characteristics and understanding of the regional environmental characteristics on which these are based are indispensable (Isobe et al. 1975, 1977). It is also necessary to discuss who should promote what activity. For example, the main people involved in determining an EMP should be citizens responsible for environmental management and the staff of municipal organizations whose job is to implement the intentions of the citizens. The selection of goals should be performed by citizens. The establishment of the EMP support system (production of a data base and control of environmental information) should be performed by a group of experts. As such, a partial change of roles will be necessary (Fig. 2, Hushon 1987). The important thing in determining an EMP is the ecological approach based on the biological principles. An ecological point of view is indispensable for EMP (Gregory and Walling 1979). In this sense, EMP should have characteristics close to those of ecological planning (Bartkowski and Zimowski 1984; Isobe et al. 1975, 1977; Stanrowe and Sheard 1981; Steiner and Brooks l y l ) . When looking at the process of determining the EMP, even though many mutually related environmental factors are handled, it cannot be said that it employs a method which involves total analysis of the factors and division of them into several types. For this, a concept of landscape ecology is required. To establish an ‘environment system’ on an ecological basis, the use of an environmental data base involving a geographical information system (GIS)
is required (Koeppel and Arnold 1981; Sokolik 1986; Kubo 1986). Assuming the use of environmental data bases which are expected to be provided more widely in the near future, the understanding of the environment system by the multivariate analysis methods (Berry 1987; Kurasawa (ed.) 1986; Petak 1980) and the development of methods to apply this to EMP will be advanced (Griffith 1980). With these method, the elucidation of mutual relations between various environmental elements (White et al. 1986) will become possible and technique to subdivide the regional environment into classes will be clarified. In this way, a more general way to determine the EMP will be achieved. Before implementing EMP, it is important to understand the regional environmental characteristics (Lant and Paine 1982; Leser 1983, 1984; Takeuchi 1982, 1984). In deciding on the TMEMP, the regional environmental characteristics in classes were understood using a data base called Planner’s Environmental and Geographical Total System (PLANET) of the Tokyo Metropolitan Research Institute of Environmental Protection as a core and the items taken into consideration for the environmental management were examined based on these results. Much environmental information changes as time passes, so, it is desirable to understand it dynamically as a map of the dynamic environment, for example. It is necessary to determine the environmental system as movement, to which time is added as a variable. To extract the environmental management system precisely from the various groups of elements, the selection of environmental indices is important (Naito et al. 1986; Smith and Theberge 1986). There are two kinds of environmental index: a physical environmental indices and a mental environmental index which is represented by the environmental perception (Morita et al. 1985; Petak 1981). For EMP, first the physical index is used to clarify the environmental system. The structure of the environment consisting of various environmental factors should be understood first, then the dynamics of the environment showing the changes in the structure should be understood and anticipated. To understand the environmental structure and its changes, various methods have been developed
58 Environmental data base
3 Main environmental factors
(Geology, landform, soils, actual vegetation, land use and population) Category score matrix
Hayashi’s quantification theory 111
I Sample score matrix
I
I
I Clustering
I
1
Clustering
Modeling of environmental structure
f
f
Regional subdivision process and the understanding of regional environmental characteristics for environmental management
Fig. 3. Example of environmental modeling (structure model) using environmental data base.
(Harasawa and Nishioka (ed.) 1987). We feel that models of environmental management (Roberts et al. 1979) based on the environmental data base are needed to understand the structure of environment and to predict the change of environment (Fig. 1). When applying this idea to the actual environment (Amoros et al. 1987; Duinker and Baskerville 1986) by using biological models (Simmons 1979) and mathematical models (White et al. 1986), the plan will make good use of the environmental data base. Figure 3 shows an example of analyzing the environmental structure using Hayashi’s quantification theory 111, which quantifies both respondents and items at the same time so that maximum correlations may be obtained between them (Hayashi and Suzuki 1975; Maruyama et al. 1981), and the regional subdivision process. Figure 4 shows an example of an environmental structure model following this procedure. The subject area is the middle basin of the Tamagawa River and consists of parts of Tokyo Metropolis and Kanagawa Prefecture. The attempt to understand the environmental structure was performed using Hayashi’s quantification theory I11 for geology, landform, soils, actual vege-
tation, land use and population. As a result of the analysis, two factors were extracted as useful. The first factor emphasizes mountainous categories, while the second factor emphasizes lowland-related categories. In the various categories of environmental factors, there were six mutually connected groups. When expressing these groups spatially, the regional subdivision shown in Fig. 5 is obtained. The environmental changes for each region should be anticipated to find an environmental image that can exist. It is important to understand what the desirable environment is by researching the environmental awareness of citizens. Study of structural awareness based on questionnaires and an understanding of the relation of awareness to the physical environmental index are necessary (Morita et al. 1985). By using these results, it is possible to determine the physical environment desired by the citizens. The timing of the implementation of planning is necessary for any EMP. But, EMP should be ‘process-oriented planning’ rather than ‘purposeoriented planning’. This can be said especially for EMP at the level of municipalities. The citizens’ recognition of the environment and the social con-
59
Geology
G1:Consolidated sediments G2:Semi-consolidated sediments G3:Kanto Loam (Tephra) G4:Gravel G5:Sand and/or mud
Landform
T1:Mountains T2:Hills T3.Uplands Upper and middle) T4IUplands [Lower) T5:Lowlands Valley plain) TS:Lowlands [Dry river-bed) S1:Cambisols S2:Andosols S3:Fluvisols S4:Gleysols V1:Natural forest V2:Coppice forest V3:Cryptomeria-Chamaecyparis plantation V4:Grassland community V5:Field weed community V6:Residential .district with many trees V7:Urban district with a few trees L 1:Woodland L2:Dry and paddy field L3:Residential area L4:Industrial and commercial area L5:Tublic facility P L6: 1:3Others 1999 & y o n s / k m 2 )
Soils
I
Vegetation
I I Landuse
---
/@
-+- - - -
I
Population
P2:2000-59 P3:6000-9999 P4: 10000-13999 P5:14000 or more
--
- - ---
I
Group 5
Fig. 4. Distribution of sample scores of categories on the axes of factor 1 and 2, and six mutually connected groups obtained by clustering of scores.
Fig. 5. Map showing the distribution of environmental groups in the middle basin of the Tama River.
61 ment, which is detailed in environmental conservation, landscaping and the creation of amenity environment. For environmental arrangement, the conservation and creation of open spaces are very effective measures (Tashiro and Kobayashi 1985; Kaneko 1986). For example, Tokyo has a program to double the green area in the lower-level EMP plan. Executing such an action program is an important step in creating an amenity environment. As for measures to create a town by utilizing EMP, there is the planning of ‘amenity towns’, for example. In development of such a town it is important to stress the creation of a natural environment. Attempts to bring back nature into a city and restore the original quality of the water and open spaces will be part of an EMP action program in the future (Inoue 1987; Hiwatashi 1987). To enhance the practical effects of EMP, the establishment of municipal regulations having legal binding force is effective (Ryan 1982). In Koshigaya City, environmental conservation regulations have been established in connection with EMP (Kihara 1987; Utsunomiya 1987). The legal binding force at the national level of city planning regulations or agriculture promotion regulations cannot be expected for EMP. Therefore, each municipal body has to enact environmental management legislation to enhance the practical effects of the plan. At the same time, it is necessary to promote the total environmental administration by harmonizing related systems. For this purpose, EMP should be examined from a wide perspective, and not be dealt with simply by the pollution and environmental departments but also involving the departments of planning, construction and agriculture and forestry.
Concluding remarks The framework of EMP is as follows; 1 . EMP through its focus on the region integrates environmental factors and allows for the establishment of a unified management system. As the level of management extends down to the local level, management becomes more sensitive to the particular attributes of the region. It is at this local level
where the future direction of EMP is most important. 2. Prior t o the development of EMP, planning was based on the concept of environmental resources. These can be divided into three categories; natural, social and amenity related environmental resources. An environmental data base can be developed and utilized in the planning process. We have provided a catalogue of these resources. 3. The process of EMP is twofold; vertical and horizontal. The vertical role provides a sectional planning tool for pollution control, the conservation of physical and biotic resources, and the creation of an amenity environment. Horizontal role is more general; it is useful for comprehensive planning, land use planning and development planning, and shows how resource planning should be incorporated into and guide the overall planning process. 4. EMP should be based on environmental modeling and the management system which results should be firmly based on the model. Such a structural model can characterize the subdivision of the project area. A predictive model based on the structural model then allows for assessment of environmental impacts. Such models should be an integral part of EMP, based on the environmental data base and incorporating multivariate analysis. 5. The ordinary citizen’s perception of the environment is changing dramatically as social circumstances change. To keep up with this rapid change and to allow citizens to select the most suitable environmental goals, EMP should be processoriented rather than purpose-oriented. 6. To put EMP into practice, it can first be used in basic planning such as land use zoning. Secondly, it can be used to provide ongoing project assessment in order to maintain environmental quality. Such assessment creates the conditions for the most appropriate decisions concerning the project’s capability for the affected site. Thirdly, EMP allows for readjustment in the creation of an environment emphasizing such amenities as conservation and landscape values. EMP leads to the creation of space in which amenities receive full consideration, yet is flexible enough to allow for changing environmental perceptions as society changes. If the poten-
62 tial of EMP is to be fully achieved, then legislation in the field of environmental management must be enacted.
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