A global perspective with particular reference to India

J. Sci. Trans. Environ. Technov. 10(4), 2017

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J. Sci. Trans. Environ. Technov. 2017, 10(4) : 157-165

Scientific Transactions in Environment and Technovation

Impacts of climatic change on aquatic insects and their habitats: A global perspective with particular reference to India S. Sundar1 and M. Muralidharan* 1

Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Kalapet - 605 014, Puducherry, India. (Present Address: Protect Our Environment Trust (POET), Coimbatore - 641 001, Tamil Nadu, India. *Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Alwarkurich i - 627 412, Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract Climatic system has been quite recently regulated at various levels and is said to have impact in all the ecosystems globally. The freshwater systems amongst all are the most vulnerable due to various known and unknown factors. The resultant impact on aquatic life includes declining quality of habitats, shrinking distribution extent and loss of diversity. The mounting thrust of anthropogenic pressure on freshwater resources together with the effects of direct climate change is likely to accelerate the impacts. The impact of climate change on the aquatic insect diversity through a comprehensive review of publications made for the past two decades has been evaluated. The paucity of published work on changing climate and the likely effects on aquatic insects at regional level denotes a huge gap in research and adaptation. The ecological problems and challenges and adaptive strategies to mitigate the impact of climatic interferences on insect diversity and the aquatic systems are discussed.

Keywords: Climate change, freshwater, aquatic insects, temperature, India Received : January 2017

Revised and Accepted : May 2017

system has demonstrably changed on both global and regional scales since the preindustrial era. Water temperature tends to fluctuate both spatially and temporally in relation to atmospheric changes whereby influences aquatic life. Environmental factors such as temperature, water level, nature and severity of disturbances, water chemistry, riparian vegetation and food quality may be affected (Bronmark and Hansson 2002; Malmqvist and Rundle, 2002; Zhang et al., 2010).

INTRODUCTION Aquatic insects inhabit every possible freshwater habitat. They constitute an important part in the food chain and are highly sensitive to temperature variations due to their delicate structure and the multistage metamorphic life cycle. Characteristic assemblages of benthic macroinvertebrates are vital to maintain the biotic integrity of running waters, the ability of an aquatic ecosystem to support and maintain a balanced, adaptive community of organisms having a species composition, diversity, and functional organization comparable to that of natural habitats within a region (Dudgeon, 2000a; Sivaramakrishnan et al., 2000; Muralidharan et al., 2010). Different insects contribute to the extent of organic matter in streams in different ways, and also it is the established fact that the presence or absence of one species can dramatically affect ecosystem process (eg. decomposition of organic matter in streams). Freshwater ecosystems are fragile, pose challenge to the aquatic diversity and the ecological processes (Woodword et al., 2010). Recent scientific assessments warn that the earth’s climate

Climatologists and ecologists unanimously agree that more extremes in the variability of precipitation resultant of the temperature fluctuations would characterize most of the freshwater reserves leading to numerous challenges towards conservation (Anisimov et al., 2007; Bates et al., 2008). Since climate acts as the principle driving force for all ecological functions, it is certain that changes in climate will have a broad range of impacts on ecosystems in the Indian subcontinent and worldwide (Dudgeon et al., 2006). Aquatic insects are considered successful in occupying various habitats in lotic systems because of their advantageous morphology, physiology, behaviour and life history. However, the consequential influence of changing climatic conditions would modify biotic and abiotic processes which probably could impact the existence of aquatic species already deemed vulnerable by pressing problems other than climate

*Corresponding Author : email: [email protected] P - ISSN 0973 - 9157 E - ISSN 2393 - 9249

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S. Sundar and M. Muralidharan induced changes like habitat fragmentation and alterations. In this articles the status of aquatic insect communities and their habitats in the light of the impact of climate change that could threaten their survival has been reviewed. Details on the fragile and fragmented systems, the threatened species and their behavioural and life history traits could be of use to develop region specific adaptive methodologies to enable mitigation options.


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Climate change as a potential threat Changes in climate occur as a result of internal variability of the climate system and external factors (both natural factors such as solar radiation, cloud formation, and rainfall and those resulting from human activities, including increased concentrations of greenhouse gases) in the atmosphere. Impacts of human activities also extend to other aspects of climate, including ocean warming and sea level rise, continental average temperatures, temperature extremes and wind patterns (IPCC, 2007). On the other hand changes in key physical and chemical parameters at the landscape scale are very likely to affect aquatic community and ecosystem attributes such as species richness, range and distribution of species and

consequently alter corresponding food web structures at primary and secondary production levels (Walsh et al., 2005; Callaghan et al., 2005; Prowse et al., 2006). Aquatic systems are influenced by the changing climatic conditions which in turn determine the ecological distributions of organisms(Vannote and Sweeney, 1980; Li et al., 2013). The effects of climate variations on species diversity depend on the nature of variation, whether it is predictable or unpredictable. The latter could have more complicated effects on species richness and the systems. The degree and extent of the ecological consequences of climate change in freshwater ecosystems depend largely on the rate and degree of change in three primary environmental drivers: the timing, degree and duration of the runoff regime; temperature; and alterations in water chemistry such as nutrient levels and particulate organic matter loadings (Rouse et al., 1997; Vincent and Hobbie, 2000; Poff et al., 2002). Aquatic insects are affected by alternations in temperature and hydrological regime during their entire life cycle (Chen et al., 2011; Sandin et al., 2014). Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Center (SBiK-F) established that climate change could have potential effects on intraspecific diversity on aquatic insects.

Table 1. Major aquatic insect orders and their ecological preferences Insect Order

Habitat and microhabitat

Temperature

Vulnerability

Ephemeroptera (Mayflies)

Cascades, Riffles, Pools Microhabitat: Mud, sand, gravel, cobble, boulder, bedrock, leaf litter Cascades, Riffles,Pools Microhabitat:mud, sand, gravel, cobble, boulder, bedrock, leaf litter Cascades, Riffles, Pools Microhabitat: gravel, cobble, boulder, bedrock, leaf litter Cascades, Riffles, Pools Microhabitat: mud, sand, gravel, cobble, boulder, bedrock, leaf litter Cascades, Riffles, Pools Microhabitat: mud, sand, gravel, cobble, boulder, bedrock, leaf litter Cascades, Riffles, Pools Microhabitat: mud, sand, gravel, cobble, boulder, bedrock, leaf litter All habitats

Eurytherm

Less vulnerable

Cold stenotherm

More Vulnerable

Cold stenotherm

Moderately Vulnerable

Eurytherm

Vulnerability prediction incomplete

Eurytherm


Plecoptera (Stoneflies)

Trichoptera (Caddisflies)

Odonata (Dragonflies and Damselflies) Hemiptera (Aquatic Bugs)

Coleoptera (Aquatic Beetles)

Diptera (Flies) Lepidoptera (Aquatic Moths and Caterpillars) Megaloptera (Dobsonflies and Alderflies) Orthoptera (Nemobines and Pigmy Grasshoppers) Neuroptera (Spongillaflies)

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Macrophytes (aquatic, semiaquatic), rocks Cascades, Riffles, Pools Microhabitat: mud, sand, gravel, cobble, boulder, bedrock, leaf litter and peat Banks, stream margins

On freshwater sponges

Cold stenotherm and less– moderate level Eurytherm Temperature tolerance varies Temperature tolerance varies -

Vulnerability prediction incomplete Vulnerability prediction incomplete Vulnerability prediction incomplete

-


-

Yet to be ascertained



However, the effects of climate change at the most fundamental level of biodiversity intraspecific genetic diversity remain elusive. Climate biologists opine intraspecific patterns of genetic diversity should be considered when estimating the effects of climate change on biodiversity (Bálint et al., 2011). Climate affects the genetic diversity of species and populations in different ways. To date, however, the specific effects of environmental change on the genetic diversity of species remain largely unexplored. The effects of global warming on the habitats and freshwater insects under the influence of anthropogenic disturbance are further complicated and could render loss of habitats and species extirpation (Fig. 1). Expected impacts on insect diversity and their habitats Biodiversity is influenced by a variety of factors including: the variability of regional and local climate; the nature and duration of disturbance regimes; the specialized and endemic species and their dispersal opportunities or barriers; the adaptive capacity and tolerance of individuals and populations; the quality of habitat and its connectivity within systems and adaptive capacity of the species (Pimm, 1991; IPCC, 2001; UNEP; 2003). Aquatic insects are abundant in most freshwater habitats and often exhibit high diversity. Aquatic insects form a substantial part of the biodiversity, inspite of that, they are persistently influenced by the variations in temperature and the subsequent modifications in flow. Habitat selection may tend to affect the life history of aquatic insects as the preference of a particular habitat relies on various factors viz., nature of substrate (for attachment), water current, food availability, water temperature and proportion of other species in utilizing the resources (Bunn and Arthington, 2002). Preferences of habitats vary between species, specialized forms are selective and restrict themselves to regions with specific criteria (eg. Ephemerellidae; that prefers smaller cooler streams, moderate flow, and cobble substrate) whereas the common species have wide range of selection (Table

Impacts of climatic change on aquatic insects ...... 159 1). Plecoptera as nymphs generally prefer cool and clear streams with high dissolved oxygen content and substrates that vary from leaf litter, cobbles, and rocks. However, the specific microhabitat depends on a variety of environmental factors such as the nature of the substratum, current regime, presence of other organisms, and local variations in water chemistry and temperature (Jonsson et al., 2013). Refugial habitats characteristic of thermal stability with low-nutrient and oxygen rich waters are under threat owing to the effect of the undue raise in global mean temperature (Meyer et al., 1999; Fonnesu et al., 2005). Though most of the freshwater organisms are adapted with specific traits to survive the conditions caused by naturally occurring mild to moderate climate variations, it is not always possible for certain sensitive species. Dispersal ability and rate are essential traits in adapting to environmental changes, aquatic insects are said to have dispersal rates that may be sufficient to keep up with climate change (Bohonak and Jenkins, 2003; Havel and Shurin, 2004; Macneale et al., 2005). However, the dispersal rates of many other freshwater invertebrates across drainages appear to be very slow (Strayer, 2006) almost surely too slow to keep up with the pace of climate change that current models predict. Species that are prone to the impact of changing climatic condition are those that have limited distribution, occupying high altitudes with shorter emergence period and with restricted ecological niches. Adaptability traits include the ability to move to dormancy during harsh conditions and recolonize soon after the disturbance. However, the present trend of new and stressful combinations of natural and human generated disturbances have detrimental effects on many species (Fig. 1). Adaptive strategies: Research trends at global and regional level Direct and indirect effects of temperature in addition to other factors are said to be essential to consolidate the impact caused by the vagaries of both natural and anthropogenic driven climatic instabilities. Further

Fig. 1. Effects of global warming on aquatic insects and their habitats under natural condition and anthropogenic influence P - ISSN 0973 - 9157 E - ISSN 2393 - 9249

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S. Sundar and M. Muralidharan J. Sci. Trans. Environ. Technov. 10(4), 2017 Table 2. Articles on the impact of temperature and other factors in relation to macroinvertebrates and habitat at global and regional level. 160

H a bita t C riteria

G loba l

T emp era tu re

C ou ta n t, 1 9 7 7 ; M a rka ria n , 1 9 8 0 ; Va n n ote et a l., 1 9 8 0 ; M os ley, 1 9 8 3 ; L an gford , 1 9 9 0 ; P im m , 1 9 9 1 ; Sin okrot an d S tefa n , 1 9 9 3 ; Sin okrot et a l., 1 9 9 5 ; H a w kin s et a l., 1 9 97 ; D u d geon 2 0 0 0 a, b ;

T emp era tu re in a dd ition to oth er a biotic fa c tors

R ou s e et a l., 1 9 9 7;V in s on a n d H a w kin s , 1 9 98 ; D u d geon 2 0 0 0 a, b ; S a la et a l., 2 0 0 0; V in c en t

Im p ac ts R e giona l

S p e c ie s G lob a l

D u dgeon 1 9 92 ; D u dgeon 2 0 00 a , b; S u bra m a n ia n et a l., 2 0 0 5; D in a kara n S a la et a l., 2 0 0 0; E bers ole, et a l., 20 0 3 ; A d ger et a n d A n ba la ga n , a l., 2 0 05 ; P row se et a l. 2 0 0 6 ; H aid ekker a n d 2 0 0 7; M u ra lidh a ra n et a l., 2 0 1 0 ; H erin g et a l ., 2 0 0 8 ; O ’G orm a n et a l., 20 1 2 ; S elva ku m a r et. a l., D u d geon , 2 0 1 4 ; Jon s s on et a l., 2 0 1 5; L en oir a n d 2 0 1 4; S ven n in g 2 0 1 5 D in a ka ra n a n d A n ba la ga n , 20 0 6

 A ltered flow regim es  S ed im en t tra n s port / C h a n n el A ltera tion s  N u trien t c yc lin g  Fra gm en ta tion a n d is ola tion of p ris tin e h a bita ts  R ip a rian vegeta tion  D ec lin in g d is s olved ox ygen c on ten t  S u bs tra te m od ifica tion

R e gion a l

Ch a p in et al. 2 0 0 0 ; D u d geon 20 0 0 a , b; S a la et a l., 2 0 0 0 ; Boh on a k an d

D u d geon 2 0 0 0 a , b; Su bra m a n ia n et a l., 20 0 5 ; A n ba la ga n an d D in a ka ran 2 0 0 6 ; Jen kin s 2 0 03 ; S m it an d P ilifos ova 2 0 0 3 ; Fritz et a l., D in a ka ran a n d An ba la gan , 2 0 0 6 ; 2 00 4 ; H a vel a n d S h u rin 2 00 4 ; M a cn ea le et a l., 2 0 0 5 ; D in a ka ran a n d An ba la gan , 2 0 0 7 ; R eis t et a l. 2 0 0 6 ; S tra yer , Ba la c h a n d ra n et a l., 2 00 6 ; N elson et a l., 20 0 7 ; 20 1 2 ; S elva ku m a r et. B ilotta a n d B ra z ier, 2 0 0 8 ; al., 2 0 1 4 ; CB D , 2 0 1 0; O ’G orma n et a l., 2 0 1 2 ; D u d geon , 20 1 4 ; Jon s s on et a l., 2 0 1 5

a n d H obbie, 2 0 00 , Fon s eca a n d H art 2 0 0 1 ; B ro¨n ma rk a n d H a n s s on 2 0 0 2 ; M alm qvis t an d R u n d le, 2 0 0 2 ; P off et a l., 20 0 2 ; P ostel, a n d R ic h ter 2 0 0 3 ; C alla gh a n et a l., 2 0 0 5; W a ls h et a l., 2 0 05 ; A n is imov et a l., 2 0 0 7 ;D ura n c e a n d O rm erod 2 0 0 7 ; Con n olly an d P ea rson 2 0 0 7 ; V a s c on c elos a n d M elo 2 00 8 ; H elm s et a l., 2 00 9 ; B elm a r et a l., 2 0 12 ; O ’G orm a n et a l., 2 0 1 2 ; D u d geon , 2 0 1 4 ; C on ti et a l., 2 0 1 4 ; Len oir a n d S ven n in g 2 0 1 5

specific areas of research in determining the impacts of climate change on biodiversity in freshwater will need basic data on different ecosystems and ecosystem services as well as on species. The vulnerability of species and ecosystems change in response to changing climatic conditions have been documented in temporal and tropic regions outside Southern Asia. Even the structure and dynamics of aquatic food webs under the influence of changing climate remains poorly understood at global level (Wrona et al., 2006). However developing countries including few moderately developed nations like India lag behind in terms of knowledge on species at risk, keystone and range restricted species and the impacts of climate change on species’ response. The paucity of data also extends to the number and location of freshwater ecosystems and the prevailing aquatic biodiversity, rendering it impossible to study the impacts of climate change on these ecosystems (Andrew et al., 2013). Here we reviewed articles on climate change and its impact on freshwater systems by delineating impact of temperature and other abiotic factors on aquatic habitats and insects at global and regional level for the period between 1990 and 2015, during which the levels of green house emissions have been extremely high and awareness on the trends of the impact has shown a considerable increase (Table 2). Impact of the rising temperature in the habitats which could drastically affect insects include flow modification, nutrient level change, leaching/erosional impact, Riparian/marginal vegetation alteration, and substrate/microhabitat loss (Dudgeon et al., 2006; Heino et al., 2009; Edwards et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2012). Despite the key role of temperature in ecosystem processes such as primary production and nutrient transportation ecologists are unable to define the P - ISSN 0973 - 9157 E - ISSN 2393 - 9249

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influence of temperature and the inconsistency in some ecological functions at various thermal regimes. Detailed and intensive studies are required to unveil the exact processes occurring during the litter breakdown across various geographic zones and between regions defined by temperature (Clarke, 2009; Heino, 2009; Woodward et al., 2012; Boyero et al., 2015). As climate change influences the potential distribution of organisms on the landscape, the realized effects of these changes will be determined in part by the capacity for dispersal among the habitats, including protected areas. Concerns in addressing the issues: Indian scenario India, as an agrarian country, has its economy highly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and forestry. Anomalies in climatic conditions could likely alter natural ecosystems and are expected to have substantial adverse effects on the freshwater resources. Being the second most populous country in the world, the accelerated rate of human intervention in aquatic ecosystems and their natural processes are prime issues to intensify the impacts on surface and ground water reserves. The impact of the climate change on the water resources of Indian river systems has been analysed in terms of Green House Gas scenario, which predicts severity of droughts and intensity of floods in various parts of the country (Gosain et al., 2006). Analysis of data shows that the annual mean temperature of this part of south Asian region has increased approximately to 0.5 oC during the past ten decades with trends being above normal over the last few decades. The Himalayan region has been considered as highly vulnerable to climate warming. The potential anticipated climate change would have significant impact on the natural flow regime in Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basin



like alterations in precipitation and temperature of its rivers (Kamal et al., 2013). The process of global warming has led to an increase in the frequency and intensity of climatic disasters with most disasters being water related. The mighty river systems in the northern part of the country, generously fed by the perennial inflow from the ice caped Himalayan ranges, are declared ecologically as unhealthy. Reasons behind such categorization range from their trans boundary nature, escalating human dependence towards downstream, irrigation purpose, tourism and pilgrimage activities, hydropower projects and other developmental activities. Population pressure and the devastation of natural biodiversity are the main factors that make whole stretch of the Brahmaputra valley, segments of the lower Gangetic plain falling with the precinct of the Eastern Himalayas highly sensitive to climate change (Sharma et al., 2009). Rivers in central and Southern part of India are under tremendous pressure from anthropogenic activities for numerous reasons. At a time when climate induced changes are quantified it is always essential to include human factors that influence aquatic resources, popular reasons known to be related to drought regimes are incurred demand of water through population growth and agricultural practices; modification of land use that directly influences storage conditions; and hydrological response of catchments and their vulnerability to drought (Mall et al., 2006). Extrapolation of the data for the entire country has to be considered after necessary inputs as the quantity of surface run-off due to climate change would vary across the river basins as well as sub-basins in India due to various reasons related to water utilization and conservation. Most of the works available on aquatic insects are on the species composition and their relation to environment at different gradients. Though the primary focus of those articles is on the diversity and ecology of the entomofaunal communities they donot fail to include issues related to conservation. Information on the natural resources in the Eastern Himalayas is inadequate and it has been ascertain their vulnerability to climate change (Sharma et al., 2009). The overall percentage of published work on the impacts of climate change on freshwater invertebrate diversity in southern India is scanty as compared to other impacts concentrating on anthropogenic mediated influences (Dinakaran and Anbalagan, 2007, 2010; Anbalagan et al., 2014) and impact of riparian and altered land-use (Selvakumar et al., 2014) on the diversity profiles of aquatic insects restricted to southern part of Western Ghats. The Western Ghats, one among the global hotspots of biodiversity with pristine habitats and greater proportion of endemic species, has not received due attention with regard to the climate induced impacts. The conservation efforts and habitat management P - ISSN 0973 - 9157 E - ISSN 2393 - 9249

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Impacts of climatic change on aquatic insects ...... 161 projects advocated and under practice are mostly for mega fauna like tigers and elephants, though unarguably essential, priorities for the protection of aquatic systems and ecologically significant and sensitive macroinvertebrates are greatly negligible. Given the rapidly growing economy of Asia, with urbanization and multicultural colonization inevitable would intensify the dependability on water resources eventually increasing the threats such as intrusion of invasive species (Knight, 2010; Muralidharan et al., 2015) which could be detrimental to aquatic insects as well as the ecosystem. Protecting diverse benthic communities will require more thorough understanding of long term functional relationships among these species in an ecosystem context (Sivaramakrishnan, 2016). Future studies on aquatic insect diversity with respect to climate change Raising temperature levels in aquatic systems influence the traits of insects which would virtually force a shift in their distribution ranges. Species distribution models and Community temperature index have been recently developed and are being applied in areas that are prone to rapid climate warming (Li et al., 2016). In the light of the general view, changes that took place in climate system either directly or indirectly would influence the aquatic habitats and the insects we suggest research on estimating impact of climate change should encompass i. detailed investigation on the impacts of weather and climate events on water quality and quantity on insect communities, ii. intensive explorations in fragmented regions to estimate species diversity and distribution (with priority towards range contractions and range extensions of imperiled species), iii. studies on cryptic species inhabiting refugia (focussing the ecological thrusts and evolutionary impulse), iv. assessment of aquatic insect community resilience, adaptive capacity and their response to climate change, v. probe climate induced shifts in migration and develop models to map future distribution under various climate regimes, and vi. Analysis of invasive species (estimate the trend in establishment and proliferation) CONCLUSION Impacts of Climate change are now popular worldwide in terms of the effects that it could cause to humans and his belongings. However, it has not reached to levels that could bring about abilities for adapting and mitigating in relation to the impacts to the ecosystem. According to the IPCC (2014) the warming of climate system is obvious, as evident from increases in global


S. Sundar and M. Muralidharan average air and ocean temperature and rising global mean sea level. The growing awareness among public on the likely impacts of global warming and the importance given by governments and agencies to the climate change centered research has been a respite for conservationists propagating the need for sustainable ecosystem management. Nevertheless the published works related to the impacts of changing climate on freshwater invertebrate biodiversity is considerably moderate. Countries predominantly practicing agriculture and regions dependant on highly fragmented water resources would face challenges on meeting out demands for sustenance. The hydrological changes due to pressure on the dwindling aquatic systems are likely to lead the Indian subcontinent more vulnerable to climate change. At this point of time, given the pace at which the developed countries work, our field based studies and research output are insufficient to meet the challenges that we are to face in the coming decades. The enormity of the conservation challenges posed by changing climate and landscape should prompt inquiry on the adequacy of current conservation plans to protect imperiled ecosystems and efforts in these areas might need to be intensified. 162

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The first author (S. S.) thanks SERB-Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India for financial support under Fast Track Young Scientist Scheme (F. No. SB/FT/LS-266/2012 dt.02.05.2013). The senior author (M. M) acknowledges the UGC, New Delhi for financial assistance through major research project (F. No. 39-332/2010 SR). REFERENCES Adger, W. N., A rnel la, N. W. and Tompki ns, E. L. 200 5. Successful adaptation to climate change across scales. Global Environmental Change, 15: 77–86. Anbalagan, S. and Dinakaran, S. 2006. Seasonal variation of diversity and habitat perferences of aquatic insects along the longitudinal gradient of the Gadana river ba sin, South West ghats (Indi a), Acta. Zo ologist Bulga rica, 58:253 -56 4. (Doi:10 .10 02/iroh. 201 1. 1 14 87 ) Anbalagan, S., Arunprasanna, V., Ponraman, G., Balachandran, C., D ina karan, S. and Krishna n, M. 201 4. Distributional pattern of aquatic insects in a hill resort region of South India with reference to tourism. International Journal of Research in Zoology 4(2): 36-45 Anisimov, O.A., Vaughan, D.G., Callaghan, T.V., Furgal, C., Marchant, H., Prowse, T.D., Vilhjálmsson, H. and Walsh, J.E. 2007. Polar regions (Arctic and Antarctic). Cl ima te Cha nge 20 07: Impacts, Ada pta tion a nd Vulnerabili ty. In: Parry, M.L., Canz iani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden P.J. and Hanson, C.E. (Ed.) Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel

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