A Preliminary Investigation Into the Effect of Yoga ...

The Sport Psychologist, 2013, 27, 349-359 © 2013 Human Kinetics, Inc.

www.TSP-Journal.com APPLIED RESEARCH

A Preliminary Investigation Into the Effect of Yoga Practice on Mindfulness and Flow in Elite Youth Swimmers Richard M.H. Briegel-Jones, Zoe Knowles, and Martin R. Eubank Liverpool John Moores University

Katie Giannoulatos Yoga Inspiration

Diane Elliot Amateur Swimming Association Research has indicated positive effects of mindfulness training as a performance-based intervention and of yoga on mindfulness. This study examined the effects of a 10-week yoga intervention on mindfulness and dispositional flow of elite youth swimmers using a mixed methods design. No significant changes in mindfulness and dispositional flow were identified. Qualitative data suggested that the 10-week yoga intervention had a positive impact on a range of physiological, cognitive, and performance parameters that included elements of mindfulness and flow. Methodological considerations for future research are discussed. Keywords: mixed methods, performance based intervention The discipline of yoga originates from Southeast Asia and consists of a number of facets as depicted in Patanjali’s concepts of the Eight Limbs of Yoga including physical postures (asanas), breathing exercises (pranayama), and meditation (dhyana). The practice of yoga is designed to bring balance and health to the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual dimensions of the individual (Ross & Thomas, 2010). The cited benefits of yoga include increased flexibility and agility (Bal & Kaur, 2009); enhanced strength steadiness and control (Hart & Tracy, 2008); improved cardiorespiratory performance and well-being (Harinath et al., 2004); enhanced mood and anxiety alleviation (Streeter et al., 2010) as well as a reduction in perceived stress (Hartfiel, Havenhand, Khalsa, Clarke, & Krayer, 2011). While commonly employed in clinical domains, yoga has also been used as an intervention to enhance well-being and resilience to stress in the workplace (e.g., Hartfiel et al., 2011) and to alleviate-performance anxiety and mood disturbance among music professionals (Khalsa, Shorter, Cope, Wyshak, & Sklar, 2009). Briegel-Jones, Knowles, and Eubank are with the Research Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK. Giannoulatos is with Yoga Inspiration, Manchester, UK. Elliot is with the Amateur Swimming Association, Loughborough, UK.

In contrast to intense physical activity, or even “fitness yoga,” which involves elevated activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), low intensity yoga practices elicit the “relaxation response” with decreases in heart rate, oxygen consumption, respiration, and skeletal muscle activity helping to reduce anxiety and arousal levels and focus attention (Benson, 1975, 1983; Cox, 2007). The daily practice of yoga is thought to bring equilibrium into the body and mind (i.e., balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system) while slow and deep yogic breathing encourages the actions of the parasympathetic nervous system and allows relaxation and healing to occur. Recent findings suggest that 10 weekly 1-hour Hatha yoga sessions prove just as effective as progressive muscle relaxation classes in reducing stress, anxiety, and improving mental health in a sample of participants with mild to moderate levels of stress (Smith, Hancock, Blake-Mortimer, & Eckert, 2007). More recently, athletes and sport psychology consultants have started to integrate yoga practice within a more holistic approach to training and competition to facilitate a state of relaxed concentration, improved flexibility, and increased body awareness (e.g., Anderson, Ferreira, & Ferretti, 2010; Ravizza, 2002). Beyond these effects, yoga practice has also been shown to enhance mindfulness (Brisbon & Lowery, 2011), defined by Kabat-Zinn (2003, p. 145) as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on

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purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment.” As noted by Gardner and Moore (2004), mindfulness practice is founded on the basis that cognitive, affective, and sensory experiences should be considered as naturally occurring events that regularly come and go as normal and expected features of human existence. Recently, researchers have demonstrated that other psychological techniques aimed at controlling, eliminating, or suppressing negative cognitions and images may actually have paradoxical effects. For example, thought suppression triggers a meta-cognitive scanning process whereby the mind searches for signs of the unwanted instruction and brings it to awareness when detected (Aherne, Moran, & Lonsdale, 2011). Increased awareness of such thoughts can potentially hinder sport performance (Beilock, Afremow, Rabe, & Carr, 2001; Binsch, Oudejeans, Bakker, & Savelsbergh, 2009; Wegner, 1994; Wegner, Ansfield, & Pilloff, 1998; Woodman & Davis, 2008). Initial evidence, therefore, suggests yoga can enhance mindfulness and is promising for the sport domain where a growing body of research has indicated the positive performance effects of mindfulness training interventions (e.g., Bernier, Thienot, Codron, & Fournier, 2009; Gardner & Moore, 2004; Gooding & Gardner, 2009; Kaufman, Glass, & Arnkoff 2009; Thompson, Kaufman, De Petrillo, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2011). Gardner and Moore’s (2004) Mindfulness-AcceptanceCommitment (MAC) approach to sport performance includes yoga as one of its key intervention techniques and subsequent evidence of the positive impact of yoga and mindfulness on performance has begun to emerge. Lutkenhouse, Gardner, and Moore (2007) found athletes who undertook a MAC based protocol subsequently achieved significantly better posttest coach ratings of performance compared with athletes who completed a traditional psychological skills training intervention. According to Salmon, Lush, Jablonski, and Sephton, (2009) yoga has been shown to be a suitable practice for athletes looking to improve their self-regulated present moment attention by actively encouraging the practice of mindfulness through a state of relaxed concentration. The concept of mindful yoga integrates both meditation and hatha yoga techniques which, unlike other forms of yoga, creates both a simultaneous and seamless experience of their virtues and develop greater awareness of the unity of mind and body. Thompson et al.’s (2011) research investigating the effect of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) practices included mindful yoga and revealed significant increases in overall trait mindfulness and the ability to act with awareness. Thompson et al. used the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS; Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004) coupled with a reduction in task-related worries and task-irrelevant cognitions measured using the Thought Occurrence Questionnaire for Sport (TOQS; Hatzigeorgiadis & Biddle, 2000). Following these initial positive findings from mindfulness-based interventions for sport performance, researchers in sport psychology have begun to

explore the links between athletes’ mindfulness and peak performance, in particular the associated peak experience of flow due to their parallel characteristics. Flow refers to an optimal psychological state involving a complete absorption in the task or activity at hand and is associated with nine experiential characteristics presented as different conceptual dimensions: 1 challenge-skill balance; 2. concentration on task at hand; 3. merging of action and awareness; 4. clear goals; 5. unambiguous feedback; 6.sense of total control; 7. time transformation; 8. loss of self-consciousness and 9. autotelic experience (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). The relationship between flow and performance draws on the notion that instances of peak performance are underpinned by athletes being in flow (Jackson & Roberts, 1992). According to Jackson (2000) the optimal mental functioning required in such performance moments is associated with some or all of the nine characteristics presented in Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) original conceptualization of flow. Research investigating mindfulness and flow such as that of Kee and Wang (2008) suggests athletes with higher mindfulness scores (measured using 13 of the 21 items from Bodner & Langer [2001] mindfulness/mindlessness scale) were more likely to experience the flow state. In addition, elite swimmers have reported being particularly aware and accepting of their bodily sensations during flow experiences reflecting a mindfulness and acceptance state (Bernier et al., 2009). Following on from these preliminary studies, it is logical to assume that participation in yoga has the potential to enhance mindfulness and may also have a beneficial effect on athletes’ flow dispositions and, subsequently, performance. Indeed, as noted by Csikszentmihalyi, “it is not unreasonable to regard yoga as one of the oldest and most systematic methods of producing the flow experience” (1990; p. 106). The initial evidence regarding mindfulness based training programs for sports based performance enhancement is promising. However, it is difficult to assess the specific effect of yoga practice on outcome measures when mindful yoga training has generally been integrated within a broader program of exercises. Furthermore, there is no qualitative research exploring the perceived impact and contribution of yoga on the development of optimal psychological state for sport performance. Recent examples of effective mindfulness-based interventions adapted for use with children and adolescents have emerged (Greco & Hayes, 2008), however, there remains a lack of mindfulness-based research among youth populations within sport. The present study aimed to explore the effect of a 10-week yoga intervention on elite youth swimmers’ mindfulness and dispositional flow using mixed methods. It was hypothesized that swimmers who participated in the yoga program would report greater mindfulness and dispositional flow than they did before the intervention. It was also hypothesized that swimmers’ in the experimental group would report greater mindfulness and dispositional flow postintervention compared with the control group that did not

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participate in the yoga program. It was predicted that the qualitative data would provide a complimentary insight into the research questions through subjective accounts regarding the perceived effects of yoga practice as well as identifying emerging themes beyond the mindfulness and flow constructs.

Method Design A mixed-methods triangulated design was used for this study with both quantitative and qualitative data collected to obtain different but complementary data on the same topic. A convergence model was employed whereby quantitative and qualitative data were collected separately, with the findings from each being converged during the interpretation phase to provide a comprehensive understanding as regards the effects of yoga. More specifically, the quantitative psychometric data provided a statistical measure of the effect of yoga on swimmers’ mindfulness and dispositional flow, while the periodic collection of qualitative data throughout the intervention program provided an insight into the subjective experiences regarding the perceived effects of yoga practice.

Participants The participants were 21 elite youth swimmers (10 males, 11 females; M age = 13.24 years, SD = 1.51 years) selected from two affiliated national training sites of the Amateur Swimming Association in the UK. One training site was used for the experimental group (3 males, 7 females; M age = 14.2 years, SD = 1.48 years) and the other site for the control group (7 males, 4 females; M age = 12.36 years, SD = 0.92 years). Swimmers from the experimental group had participated for an average of 8.6 years (SD = 2.62) compared with the control group’s 8.27 years (SD = 2.14). Five swimmers reported missing one yoga session during the 10-week intervention phase due to injury and/or illness.

Data Collection Measurements and Protocols Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM).  This 10-item self-report instrument assesses

mindfulness skills in youths over the ages of nine years (Greco, Baer, & Smith, 2011). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (never true) to 4 (always true), to assess present-moment awareness as well as (non) judgmental and (non) accepting responses to thoughts and feelings. A total mindfulness score is generated by reverse scoring the 10 negatively worded items, yielding a possible range in scores from 0 to 40. Higher scores indicate greater levels of acceptance and mindfulness. Greco et al.’s (2011) preliminary research demonstrated adequate reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .81) and validity (validity coefficients for the CAMM

using bivariate and partial correlations with relevant variables were significant). Despite these preliminary findings, the CAMM (Greco et al., 2011) is a relatively new psychometric and the only existing mindfulness tool validated for use with children and adolescents. For this reason, there exists only one article demonstrating the initial validation for the measure. Future research regarding the CAMM is therefore necessary to expand on the preliminary findings. Indeed, Greco et al. (2011) highlighted a number of limitations associated with the development and validation of the CAMM, including the use of a homogenous sample as well as the potential problems of reverse-scored items (Reise & Waller, 2009). The Short Dispositional Flow Scale 2 (DFS-2).  This

nine item (one item for each of the nine flow dimensions) self-report measure (Jackson, Martin, & Eklund, 2008) is an abbreviated version of the long DFS-2. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always), to measure the frequency with which the flow characteristics are experienced. A total dispositional flow score is generated by summing the item responses, yielding a possible range in scores from 9 to 45. Higher scores indicate greater levels of dispositional flow. Preliminary research has demonstrated that the short scale provides a good representation of the previously validated longer version, suggesting it is an appropriate and reliable empirical measure of dispositional flow (Jackson et al., 2008). Coefficient alpha estimates of reliability for the DFS-2 ranged from .74 to .81, with acceptable goodness of fit indices, showing the DFS-2 to be a suitable short measure of flow. Despite these initial findings, only 25% of the 1,653 participants sampled for the measurement’s validation were classified as in late adolescence (less than 20 years of age) and it is unknown what percentage of these were young teenagers similar to the sample in this study.

Qualitative Survey.  Designed specifically for this study, the survey asked participants to provide detailed descriptions about how the yoga practice impacted facets of mindfulness, including their concentration, cognitive related thoughts, and physiology related feelings (e.g., Could you describe in as much detail as possible how the yoga sessions have influenced your daily thoughts and feelings?). The survey also explored the perceived influence of the yoga intervention on swimming preparation, performance, and recovery and to gain feedback on the program as it was being delivered. The survey questions were generated by the research team informed by the items from the CAMM and so included questions exploring awareness and acceptance of salient thoughts and feeling related to mindfulness. Findings from this data were used to inform the focus group questions, with selected quotes represented in the pen profiles. Focus Group Protocol.  The focus group represented an

end point to the qualitative data collection and was used

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to compliment and consolidate the questionnaire findings (Vaughn, Schumm, & Sinagub, 1996). Consistent with the qualitative questionnaires, the focus group was broadly structured into the following sections; (a) feedback on the yoga program and its constituent parts; (b) impact on mindfulness facets; and (c) impact on swimming preparation, performance, and recovery. Following suggestions regarding ideal group size with older children (e.g., Gibson, 2007), five participants were selected to take part in the focus group but due to unforeseen withdrawal due to illness, only four swimmers participated. The focus group lasted no longer than 45 min to maintain participants focus and concentration (Gibson, 2007).

Procedure Ethical clearance was gained from Liverpool John Moores University Research Ethics Committee. Following approval, the Amateur Swimming Association invited age group swimmers (aged between 12 and 18 years) from the two affiliated national training sites to participate in the study. Twenty-one swimmers provided informed consent to voluntarily participate in the study, with consent also being obtained from a parent/guardian. Swimmers were selected on the basis that they were injury free and available for the duration of the study. Participants were assured that all information would be kept confidential and that they could withdraw from the study at any time. The swimmers in both groups completed the same training program throughout the intervention period and were within the regional competition phase (linked to qualification for national events) of their annual periodized training program when participating in the study. The entire study was conducted within this period. One week before the 10-week yoga intervention, participants in both the experimental and control group were asked to complete two questionnaires namely the child and adolescent mindfulness measure (CAMM Greco et al., 2011) and the Dispositional Flow Short Scale 2 (DFS-2 Jackson et al., 2008). The experimental group subsequently participated in a weekly 1-hour yoga session immediately following swimming training for 10 weeks. In Weeks 4 and 7 of the yoga program, the experimental group completed a qualitative questionnaire immediately following the yoga session, recording participants’ thoughts and feelings regarding the yoga and its perceived impact. In contrast, the control group continued with their normal training program over the 10-week period. Participants were not provided with an explanation of mindfulness at any point during the program or asked to complete mindfulness exercises outside of the yoga practice. Immediately following completion of the intervention, participants in the experimental and control groups completed the CAMM and DFS-2 again. Data from the quantitative and qualitative questionnaires were then used to purposely sample participants from the experimental group to take part in a focus group to further explore the psychological impact of the intervention.

The Sivananda Yoga Program Hatha yoga is often practiced in a slow-paced gentle session to provide an introduction to the basic yoga poses. Sivananda Yoga is a nonproprietary form of hatha yoga which focuses on preserving the health and wellness of the individual. Sivananda training revolves around frequent relaxation, and emphasizes full, yogic breathing. A session typically commences with the participant resting in relaxation and beginning with breathing exercises, preceding with sun salutations, basic asanas/ postures, and ending with relaxation. Sivananda yoga is an international practice form which follows the same structure worldwide. Derived from Swami Sivananda’s interpretation of the four paths of yoga, the yogic teachings of Sivananda Yoga are outlined in Vishnudevananda’s (1995) five principles: 1. proper exercise (Asana, posture); 2. proper breathing (Pranayama, breathing); 3. proper relaxation (Savasana, relaxation pose); 4. proper diet (vegetarian); 5. positive thinking (Vedanta), and 6. meditation (Dhyana). Consistent with the theory and philosophy of Sivananda Yoga, the weekly yoga sessions included a range of breathing exercises, relaxation poses, and postures. Participants in the experimental group were also encouraged to eat simple, healthy, vegetarian foods; however, doing so was not compulsory or controlled for due to the associated practical difficulties of implementation. Weekly yoga sessions typically followed the same structure, starting with relaxation poses, followed by abdominal breathing, a series of postures, poses, and exercises and finishing with relaxation poses (for a sample lesson see appendix 1).

Data Analysis With regard to quantitative data analysis, a 2 × 2 ANOVA was employed with time (two levels of treatment: pre and post) as the within-subject factor and group (two levels of treatment: experimental and control) as the betweensubject factor, and the CAMM (mindfulness) or DFS-2 (flow) as the dependent variables. The qualitative survey data underwent an initial deductive content analysis utilizing preidentified themes from the mindfulness and flow literature to organize quotes and generate a frequency count of common themes (Patton, 2002). These themes were used to inform the focus group questions from which data underwent an initial deductive analysis utilizing preidentified themes from the mindfulness and flow literature and that elicited from the qualitative questionnaires to organize quotes and generate a frequency count of common themes. An inductive data analysis then took place to identify any new emergent themes. The qualitative survey and focus group analysis was represented in the form of pen profiles and participants’ verbatim quotes. Pen profiles provided a diagram of composite key emergent themes from the content analysis, frequency data, and corresponding examples from the verbatim transcripts. Within the discussion section further illustrations are offered through the use of verbatim quotes. Pen

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profiles present findings in a manner that is accessible to researchers who have an affinity with both quantitative and qualitative backgrounds and has been used across a range of sport and exercise domains (e.g., Knowles, Ridgers, Parnell, & Stratton, 2013; Mackintosh, Knowles, Ridgers, & Fairclough, 2011; Ridgers, Knowles, & Sayers, 2012). Trustworthiness, in the form of triangulation of the identified themes quotes for illustration was established between members of the research team using a reverse tracking mechanism from profile to transcript.

Results A priori exploratory data analysis, utilizing the Kolmogorv-Smirnov distribution test suggested that the data for all participants was normally distributed.

CAMM scores. The 2 × 2 ANOVA showed no significant main effect of time (F[1,19] = 0.07, p = .936) or group, (F[1,19] = 0.15, p = .701). In addition, there was no significant interaction effect between time and group (F[1,19] = 0.44, p = .837).

DFS-2 scores The 2 × 2 ANOVA showed no significant main effect of time (F[1,19] = 4.06, p = .058) or group (F[1,19] = 1.82, p = .193). In addition, there was no significant interaction effect between time and group (F[1,19] = 3.41, p = .08).

Pen Profiles Cognitive related themes.  A number of cognitive

related themes were identified from the participants’ data (Figure 1). Participants reported being more mentally relaxed (n = 19) in general throughout the yoga program:

I’d say I don’t worry as much as well, I’m a big worrier but it has really helped ... I know how to relax myself and the breathing really helps as well. (Participant 3, focus group) Participants also perceived improvements in their concentration (n = 19) both in school lessons and in swimming (e.g., Participant 1). It was also reported that Table 1  Mean and Standard Deviation Scores on the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure and Dispositional Flow Short Scale 2 for the Experimental and Control Groups Pre and Post-Yoga Intervention Group Measure

Test

Experimental

Control

CAMM

Pre

12.4 (7.12)

12.8 (5.12)

Post

12.2 (5.33)

13.3 (4.94)

Pre

33.7 (4.45)

34.1 (4.01)

Post

29.5 (5.3)

33.9 (5.22)

DFS-2

Figure 1 — Cognitive-related themes identified from participants’ data with supporting examples from verbatim quotes.

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some participants could concentrate for a longer amount of time when involved in an activity (e.g., Participant 6) as well as concentrate more effectively on task-relevant information (e.g., Participant 7). An increase in awareness (n = 6) following yoga practice was another cognitive related theme, which included a greater awareness regarding thoughts and feelings:

techniques which consequently helped swimmers to think more positively in all aspects of life (e.g., Participant 1). Participants also reported being able to control (n = 3) their thoughts and feelings:

... if for an hour after the session you forgot all about what happened yesterday, you think more about what’s happening now and what’s happening in the future which is a good thing ... everything in the past has happened, you need to think ... ahead. (Participant 1, focus group)

Improvements in confidence (n = 2) were also perceived, positively influencing competition-related thoughts:

Yoga has helped ... get rid of thoughts that aren’t needed. (Participant 7, qualitative survey Week 7)

... it (yoga) has, in my opinion, strengthened my thoughts in a race and how I will be able to swim it. (Participant 8, qualitative survey Week 7)

One swimmer (Participant 10) stated they had become more aware of their body. Participants also perceived improvements in motivation (n = 5) with regard to determination and positivity toward swimming:

Lastly, there were perceived improvements in learning (n = 2) ability, facilitating a greater understanding of school subjects:

I am feeling more positive about swimming in general and look forward to coming to training. (Participant 4, qualitative survey week 7)

... a lot better marks and near full marks, whereas before it was like 10 marks off full marks so now it’s getting closer, it was quite, quite sudden. (Participant 1, focus group)

In addition, there were perceived enhancements in well-being (n = 5), with participants reporting to be “happier” (e.g., Participant 7) and “feeling good” (e.g., Participant 3): ... it’s helped me ... day to day because I used to care a lot about what other people thought about me but now I’m a bit more chilled out and basically, I’ll be in the mindset that ... I’m myself. (Participant 4, focus group) There were perceived improvements in the ability to focus (n = 4) both at school and at swimming (e.g., Participant 4) as well as reframing (n = 3) negative thoughts through the application of the yoga relaxation

Performance-Related Themes.  In addition to the

physiological and cognitive related themes, three performance related themes were identified from the participants’ data (Figure 2). Participants reported performance (n = 6) enhancements following the yoga practice in both training and competition: . . . before I did my yoga I was probably about 15 in the country basically, like fly, but now I’ve like come to the end of the yoga sessions and got . . . better at my breathing and . . . flexibility, like stretching my arms, I’m . . . 3rd in the country now. (Participant 2, focus group)

Figure 2 — Performance-related themes identified from participants’ data with supporting examples from verbatim quotes.

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As highlighted here, the performance improvements were attributed to a number of the physiology and cognitive related themes. One participant (Participant 4) also suggested that the practice of yoga before competition would prove beneficial with regards to flexibility and looseness. Since starting the yoga, two participants also reported being able to ignore distractions from other competitors when talking about what times they’ve achieved: ... now you just ignore that and you’re like, no it’s my time, just ignore them.(Participant 4, focus group) In addition to performance influences there were also perceived improvements in swimming technique (n = 5): ... well I get quite nervous before my race so the breathing will help me relax a bit and if I’m more relaxed then I’ll be more focused and I’ll remember more things that I need to do ... I’ll remember what to do in my turns and my dive and stuff, so it’s really help with my technique when I’m racing. (Participant 4, focus group) Lastly, one participant reported applying elements of yoga in preparation (n = 1) for both competition and performance: I’ve used the shoulder stand ... just when I’m, just in the living room because I find it really comfortable before I go to bed and if I had a gala I’d use it the night before and then I’d think about my race and visualize it when I’m in posture. (Participant 4, focus group) Physiology-Related Themes.  A series of physiology

related themes were identified from the participants’ data (Figure 3). Of these, feeling relaxed (n = 25) was most frequently cited supporting previous research showing yoga practice to elicit the “relaxation response” (Salmon

et al., 2009). Participants also reported improvements in breathing (n = 7) with regard to being able to control and hold their breath more efficiently while swimming (e.g., Participant 6). It was suggested by one participant that these breathing improvements impacted positively on their performance: ... it’s helped me with, I can get further underwater. The breathing with my fly kicks, because we do (a set distance), and I can do more than before I get tired. (Participant 4, focus group) One participant also reported applying the breathing learned from the yoga sessions into her preperformance routine: I’ve used the breathing ... I like tense up before races and relax ... sometimes in a race, I get in and I’m a bit too tense. And then you, if you’re too tense you just don’t swim as well so I do tense up and then relax, relax in a race and I do the breathing. (Participant 1, focus group) Improvements in strength (n = 5) were reported by participants, including upper and lower body strength as well as core strength: Yoga has toned up my upper but mostly lower body strength, so I gain strength and feel stronger whilst swimming. (Participant 5, qualitative survey Week 4) Participants also revealed improvements in their quality of sleep (n = 4) through application of the breathing and relaxation techniques learned from yoga practice: I’ve been doing some of the exercises where you’re tensing your muscles before bed ... then I get in bed and feel nice and relaxed. Then, about 5 minutes I’ll just go to sleep, but normally I used to go for about... I used to go about 30 minutes later to sleep. (Participant 2, focus group)

Figure 3 — Physiology-related themes identified from participants’ data with supporting examples from verbatim quotes.

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Other physiology related themes included a perceived increase in flexibility (n = 2), which was suggested to be beneficial to swimming performance: It (yoga) improves your flexibility; so, therefore in your swimming you can rotate faster in your turns and you can dive a bit more ... I’m a 1500 swimmer and ... you’ve got to do 30 turns, so therefore if you’re improving each turn by a second because your more flexible to get round. That’s 30 seconds of 1500, so it makes a big difference. (Participant 1, focus group) Yoga also impacted on recovery (n = 2), where some participants reported using elements of yoga practice in a posttraining and postperformance routine: You can, after the session you can do ... stretching to loosen your muscles off for tomorrow and yoga’s introduced a few more different stretches that you can do and in different ways and it gets blood flow a bit more round the body. You can loosen up a bit more, so I think that’s benefited the stretching ... after training. (Participant 1, focus group) Finally, one participant also perceived benefits to an ongoing back injury (n = 1) through the practice of yoga: I do have quite a bad back, and it’s not as bad. It does really help and the exercises that we do ... I’ll take the exercises away and do them at home ... it does really help. (Participant 3, focus group)

Discussion The aim of this present study was to examine the effect of a 10-week yoga intervention on elite youth swimmers’ mindfulness and dispositional flow and to explore in detail the subjective experiences regarding the perceived effects of yoga practice. No statistically significant changes in mindfulness and dispositional flow were identified in the intervention group but individuals did report perceived improvements in mindfulness and flow. Moreover, the qualitative data suggested that the 10-week yoga intervention had a positive impact on a range of cognitive, performance, and physiological aspects that included elements of mindfulness and flow. The present study was novel in light of previous research thus a number of methodological and procedural considerations for future research are discussed. With regard to mindfulness, the qualitative data suggested that on completion of the yoga program participants became more aware of internal sensations, such as thoughts and feelings. There was also evidence of participants acting with greater awareness when engaged in an activity, including swimming training and competition. Although not taught per se within the yoga program, participants also reported improvements in the ability to reframe negative thoughts through the application of the yoga relaxation techniques. In addition, improvements in flow disposition dimensions were suggested including

enhanced concentration and greater sense of control when involved both in swimming and also that these has transferred to that of school related activities. These improvements, coupled with reduced worry, enhanced well-being, motivation improvements, and performance enhancements are broadly similar to the positive outcomes of previous mindfulness-based interventions (e.g., Aherne et al., 2011; Bernier et al., 2009; Gardner & Moore, 2004; Schwanhausser, 2009; Thompson et al., 2011). Participants also reported using components of the yoga training, such as breathing and poses, within their pre performance routines. Further research is required to explore further these initial positive and meaningful findings to examine yoga as an intervention in sport and its utility within preperformance routines. In line with previous research, participants also identified a series of physiology related benefits from the yoga sessions. For example, five participants reported improvements in strength, supporting Hart and Tracy’s (2008) findings regarding leg strength improvements in young adults following a short-term Bikram yoga program. Furthermore, two participants reported perceived increases in flexibility as a result of the yoga practice, providing some support for Bal and Kaur’s (2009) findings demonstrating significant increases in flexibility in male students following a 6-week yoga program, that included performing selected asanas in hatha yoga. The temporal qualitative surveys used for this study provided useful insights into the effects of yoga within the 10-week period rather than simply by assessment at post- intervention although these in themselves were not analyzed. In addition, the focus group conducted at the end of the intervention proved valuable in clarifying, validating, and expanding on the participant data collected from the qualitative surveys which in turn informed the focus group questions. The pen profiles as a means of representation following content analysis proved efficient in analysis and efficient as regards wordage/space within a results section. The use of this protocol may be considered in future studies where inclusion of verbatim quotations is considered important by way of illustration or “presence” of the participants through their own “voices.”

Methodological Considerations, Limitations, and Future Research The relatively small sample size, coupled with absenteeism from yoga sessions due to unforeseen circumstances may have contributed to the nonsignificant quantitative findings. It is also possible that a longer period of yoga practice (i.e., an increased dose response) is required to establish statistically significant changes in mindfulness and flow when assessed quantitatively. Furthermore, while the program provided other benefits as reported by the swimmers, it might not have provided a sufficient level of mindfulness and flow disposition development on its own. Future research should therefore consider utilizing larger sample sizes, longer intervention periods, designed packages including yoga, as well as diverse ath-

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lete populations to compare yoga effects across different sports. Due to practical limitations a nonrandomized control design was used for this study whereby participants’ were purposely selected from two different training sites. Randomized control designs should therefore be used in future research to provide greater reliability regarding outcome effects between groups. Finally, while the two psychometric measures used for this study demonstrate preliminary adequate reliability and validity for use with youth populations, it remains possible that the relative young ages of the participants affected their ability to comprehend and then report changes to their mindfulness and flow disposition. In summary, the results from this preliminary study suggest that yoga training can have a positive impact on a range of physiological, cognitive, and performance aspects that include facets of mindfulness and flow. Extending from these initial and promising findings, further research attention is warranted examining the use of yoga as an intervention in sport and the applied use of yoga in preperformance routines. Future research is required to address the lack of previous research conducted with younger populations to develop more effective approaches to mindfulness measurement and development. Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) interventions have proved successful with adult athletes (e.g., Thompson et al., 2011) and warrant further investigation with youth sport populations. However, the ability of young performers to understand the target of the intervention, and how this translates into an awareness of its cognitive, physiological and performance impact is an important consideration for any intervention design.

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Appendix 1 Sivananda Yoga Program: Sample Lesson Plan 1. Relaxation pose: Lie on your back, legs about 2ft apart, let feet, knees, and thighs fall to the sides, arms at the sides of the body, with palms facing up. Neck in line with spine and chin slightly in toward the chest. Close your eyes and relax. (5 min) 2. Abdominal breathing in relaxation pose: Place right hand onto the abdomen (tummy), When you inhale breathe into your hand . . . the belly rises, as you exhale you belly falls toward the floor. (5 min) 3. Sun salutes: (1) Inhale—exhale palms at the chest. Standing straight with feet together, weight spread evenly. (2) Inhale—reach forward with the arms arch the back. (3) Exhale—arms and spine stretch out, bending from the hip, fingers in line with the toes and palms flat as you come down. Head in toward the knees. (4) Inhale—Right leg/left leg far back, bring knee down, foot flat. (5) Hold the breathe—Plank position. (6) Exhale—knees, chest, forehead down. (7) Inhale—torso forward, elbows tucked in slight arch in the back. (8) Exhale—inverted V, push away with palms, lift sitting bones, bring heels down as much as possible. (9) Inhale—right foot forward in between the hands, palms flat and fingers in line with the toes. (10) Exhale—both feet together, head in toward the knees, extend knees little further. (11) Inhale—reach forward with the arms and arch the back. (12) Exhale—arms gently down by the sides. (15 min) 4. Single leg raises: Lying on your back, legs together, pointing toes toward the head and knees pressing to the floor, palms flat at the side of the body, inhale raise right leg to a 90-degree angle, exhale lower leg with control up and down. (5 min) 5. Double leg raises: Lying on you back, legs together, pointing the toes toward the head and press knees to the floor. Place palms under the buttocks palms down, squeeze lower back into the floor. Inhale, raise both legs to 90 degrees. Lower and raise with control, Exhale, lower slowly with control. (5 min)

6. Bridge pose: Lying on your back, bend your knees with feet, hip distance apart and toes facing forward. Palms flat at the side of the body. Begin to peel spine off the floor, lifting hips and buttocks up. Bring hands to support the back fingers in line with the spine and thumbs on the waist side. To release out of pose, slowly bring the spine down with control, engaging the core muscles. (5 min) 7. Forward bend: Sitting up with legs together and extended, raise up arms to straighten spine, then bend from hip to begin to feel a stretching sensation at the back of the legs. Place your hands down onto the legs once you feel some tension. As you inhale breathe into any tension and exhale and begin to release the tension, fold deeper into the stretch. To come out, straighten arms and spine to come to sitting position. (5 min) 8. Back exercises: Starting on the front of the body, legs and heels together, fingers in line with the shoulders, elbows in toward the waist. Place forehead on the floor and raise up chest and hands off the floor engaging in the back muscles. Then slowly lower the chest and forehead to the floor. (5 min) 9. Triangle: In triangle start position with arms out at shoulder level, twist to right and bend down, bringing your foot and palm down on the outside of the right foot. Now stretch right arm up and look up to the hand. Repeat on other side. (2 min) 10. Standing forward bend: Standing with feet together, stretch arms above the head and lengthen spine. Bend from your hips and fold over as far as possible as rest upper body, arms, spine, and neck. Then curl spine up slowly with each vertebrae and raising heads up finally. (1 min) 11. Relaxation pose: Lie on your back, legs about 2ft apart, let feet, knees, and thighs fall to the sides, arms at the sides of the body, with palms facing up. Neck in line with spine and chin slightly in toward the chest. Close your eyes and relax. (7 min)