spawning grounds and wintering places of Coregonus peled, C. lavaretus pidschian, and C. nasus are located and the largest C. tugun population in the Ob' ...
Russian Journal of Ecology, Vol. 34, No. 1, 2003, pp. 1–9. Translated from Ekologiya, No. 1, 2003, pp. 3–11. Original Russian Text Copyright © 2003 by Zhigal’skii, Magomedova, Dobrinskii, Bogdanov, Monakhov, Morozova.
A Rationale for a Regional Network of Ecologically Valuable Areas O. A. Zhigal’skii, M. A. Magomedova, L. N. Dobrinskii, V. D. Bogdanov, V. G. Monakhov, and L. M. Morozova Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology, Ural Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Vos’mogo Marta 202, Yekaterinburg, 620144 Russia Received January 10, 2002
Abstract—Several ecologically valuable objects identified on the basis of complex assessment and differentiation of the region are proposed for establishing a regional network of specially protected areas. To identify these objects, characteristics of the plant cover, soils, faunistic and hydrobiological associations, and landscapes have been analyzed using a 1 : 1000000 vegetation map. Five classes of ecologically valuable areas are distinguished according to the need for integrated protection of landscapes and their components or botanical and zoological objects. The concept has been realized using an example of the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area, Western Siberia. Key words: biological resources, specially protected areas, regional network of ecologically valuable areas.
As follows from the concept of sustainable development, the strategic purpose of all efforts in nature conservation and optimization of natural resource management is to ensure ecological safety of the human population without exhausting natural resources (the latter condition is mandatory). To accomplish this purpose, it is considered important to expand the network of specially protected areas (SPAs) (Sokolov et al., 1997). Moreover, it is only possible to maintain ecological balance by organizing the regional networks of ecologically valuable areas (Reimers and Shtil’mark, 1978). However, examples of such networks are virtually nonexistent, and the principles of their formation have not yet been developed. Only a few attempts at ecological planning have been made in some areas (Reimers, 1992). There are neither official guidelines in this field nor even the methodological basis for developing them. The purpose of this study was to develop the principles and methods for developing a regional network of ecologically valuable areas using the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area as an example. This rapidly developing industrial region is rich in natural resources, including those of vital importance for the indigenous population. Its natural conditions are diverse, with the prevalence of vulnerable ecological systems formed on frozen ground and in high mountains. Today, SPAs in the region account for 6% of its total area, including 1.6% occupied by nature reserves (O sostoyanii…, 1998). Measures to expand these areas are necessary because of the permanently growing range and rate of technogenic transformation and deterioration of the environment and the indigenous people’s
demand for the allocation of tribal lands for traditional nature management. A correctly formed network of ecologically valuable and protected natural areas should aid in the conservation and maintenance of unique natural complexes and objects, whose area is now decreasing due to industrial and agricultural activities; typical zonal natural complexes that are least affected by human activities; plant and animal diversity; the entire variety of natural resources; and resources for traditional nature management in the interests of indigenous nations. STUDY REGION The Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area is located between 58° and 66° north latitude and between 59° and 86° east longitude, which corresponds to approximately 800 and 1400 km, respectively (Fig. 1); the area of the region is 534800 km2, and the total length of its borders is 4750 km. The borders run mostly along major watersheds. The largest part of the region is on the Western Siberian Plain. Its relief combines depressions and relatively elevated lands. Wide river valleys grade into waterlogged interfluves. The widths of the Ob and Irtysh valleys range from 20 to 120 km. The Ob floodplain occupies 5% of the region (27 000 km2). In the west, the region covers the eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains. The absolute elevation drop is up to 1894 m in the Urals and 7 m in the Ob floodplain. The climate
1067-4136/03/3401-0001$25.00 © 2003 MAIK “Nauka /Interperiodica”
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(a)
1 4 5 2
9
6 3
8
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Fig. 1. (a) Geographic location of the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area and the northern regions of reindeer breeding in the Russian Federation and (b) ecologically valuable areas in the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area: (––––) landscape areas requiring integrated protection, (– – – –) botanical–zoological areas, (…….) botanical areas, (-.-.-.-) zoological areas, (////////) ichthyological areas. For names of the areas designated by figures, see Table 4.
is sharply continental. The annual average air temperature varies from –1.1 to –3.8°C in different parts of the region. The annual precipitation is 450–800 mm. The duration of the growing period averages 100–150 days, and the period of stable snow cover is 180–200 days. The region is in the taiga zone. Excessive moistening determines extensive bog formation. Bogs and forests occupy 43 and 30% of the region, respectively. The forests are mostly pine, spruce, and birch. Alpine forests, sparse subgoltsy forests, and goltsy are common on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains. The Ob floodplain is characterized by highly productive meadows alternating with open woodland. The fauna is typical of taiga. Commercial hunting has always been practiced on a large scale. As early as in the 17th century, the numbers of game animals in the region decreased to such an extent that the sable, beaver, and wild reindeer were on the verge of extinction (Ekologiya…, 1997). The Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area is known to be among the main oil-producing regions of Russia. Other important industries are gas production, power engineering, lumbering, and woodworking. According to official data (O sostoyanii…, 1998), built-up areas and deteriorated lands occupy less than 1% of the region; however, the zones of slight and profound tech-
nogenic transformation are clearly distinguished in these areas (Ekologiya…, 1997). Farmlands cover 19% of the region, including 11% used as reindeer grazing grounds. The total area of grazing grounds is 60870 km2; 84% of them belong to reindeer-breading state farms, and 16%, to private owners. The grazing grounds belonging to state farms can provide food for 40000 reindeer, whereas the actual reindeer stock is 34000. In the case of private owners, the stock of reindeer and their food supply are unknown (O sostoyanii…, 1998). A unique herd of 4000 wild taiga reindeer lives in the region (Novikov, 1996). The human population of the region is 1357400, including 22000 representatives of northern nations with small total populations, such as Khanty, Mansi, and Komi (O sostoyanii…, 1998). The main occupations of the indigenous population are reindeer breading, hunting, and fishing. Almost all people in the region store berries, mushrooms, and fish in season. MATERIALS AND METHODS A network of ecologically valuable natural areas is formed on the basis of the integrated assessment and differentiation of areas in the region. We identified the areas of high ecological significance by analyzing the characteristics of their plant cover, soils, faunistic and
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hydrobiological associations, and landscapes with the use of a 1 : 1000000 vegetation map (Magomedova et al., 1998). To differentiate the territory with respect to these characteristics and identify the areas of high ecological value, we used the results of long-term studies on natural complexes, their resource potential, and anthropogenic transformation (Ekologiya…, 1997). The plant complexes of the region were assessed with respect to their landscape and resource significance, capacity for recovering after mechanical damage, and resistance to pollution with oil and airborne substances. To develop the corresponding scales and perform the assessment, we used the results of our long-term studies and published data (Ekologiya…, 1997; Il’ina et al., 1976, 1985). The biological uniqueness of animal populations and communities, their socioeconomic and recreational importance, and resistance to anthropogenic factors served as criteria for identifying the areas with ecologically valuable fauna. The suitability of these areas as habitats of game and rare animals, including wild reindeer, was estimated from the state of food resources and availability of shelters. The types of vegetation shown on the geobotanical map were selected according to Danilov et al. (1966) taking into account our own experience (Monakhov, 2000, 2000a, 2001; Shiryaev et al., 1983). According to the estimated values, all vegetation types were grouped into five conventional quality classes (Zhigal’skii et al., 1998). The ecological values of aquatic ecosystems were estimated from the importance of water bodies for the reproduction, wintering, and feeding of commercially important species of sturgeon (Acipenseridae), whitefish (Coregonidae), salmon (Salmonidae), and other objects of fishery, such as cyprinids (Cyprinidae), percids (Percidae), and burbot (Lota lota). We developed the scales and evaluated aquatic ecosystems using the results of our long-term studies and published data. Then, we used the vegetation map as a basis for drawing valuation maps according to the previously developed scales. The ecologically valuable areas were detected by superimposing different valuation maps and the maps of the distribution of rare plant and animal species. The estimations of technogenic deterioration of natural complexes in ecologically valuable and other areas were shown on a separate map (Tamplon, 1998). When delimiting the ecologically valuable areas, we took into account the following data: in the taiga zone, specially protected and extensively used natural complexes of ecological significance should occupy approximately 80% of the total area (Reimers and Shtil’mark, 1978); the area for identifying a specific flora in the forest zone should be 300–350 km2 (Malyshev, 1992); an ichthyological SPA should cover the catchment area; however, it is admissible to include in it only watercourses and lakes with water-conservation zone; RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY
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the size of the area necessary for the conservation of reindeer, moose, bear, and sable should correspond to the minimum population size (Sokolov et al., 1997); the size of an SPA in the taiga zone should be at least 2500 km2 (in the mountains, 150–5000 km2) (Sokolov et al., 1997); the shape of an SPA should be close to circular in order to minimize the length of its boundary and, hence, the edge effect (Laurence and Yensen, 1991); and the ecological value of an area depends on its landscape structure, mainly, on the sizes of landscape units and boundaries of catchment basins, because the latter form a functionally organized geosystem that is most stable and independent of external factors (Reimers and Shtil’mark, 1978). When delimiting the ecologically valuable areas, we also took into account that water-conservation zones, shelter belts, and urban green belts are already protected by law. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Estimation and Differentiation of Areas with Respect to the Structure of Plant Cover The ecologically valuable areas were delimited by analyzing the structure of vegetation. The legend of the geobotanical map contained 80 structural units (formations and plant associations). When estimating the resource value of each contour, we took into account the presence of lichens and herbs that can be used as food for reindeer and the stocks of berries, medicinal and industrially important plants, and pine nuts. Communities with diverse and abundant resources of the ground vegetation layer (food and medicinal plants and berries) were assigned grade 5; this group included, in particular, Siberian stone pine forests. Communities abounding in more than two types of resources and all communities dominated by lichens were assigned grade 4. Communities abounding in two types and one type of resources received grades 3 and 2, respectively; and communities relatively or markedly poor in all resources were assigned grade 1. The significance of plant associations for landscapes was estimated from their roles in the regulation of hydrological and thermal conditions, substrate fixation, and permafrost conservation. For example, plant associations on sands deserve special attention in this respect: their disturbance stimulates erosion, and recovery after disturbance proceeds slowly. By this criterion, plant associations were graded as follows: grade 5, mountain vegetation, forests growing in floodplains and water-conservation zones, bogs with a high filtration capacity, and forests growing in the industrial and suburban zones; grade 4, forests growing on sandy soils; grade 3, all other forests, and complex and lowland bogs; grade 2, meadow associations and secondary postanthropogenic communities; and grade 1, disturbed 2003
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Table 1. Assessment of the plant cover in some ecologically valuable areas, grades Ecologically valuable area Highland Urals Northern Sos’va Kazym Mouth Amnya–Nazym interfluve Upper Vakh
Landscape significance
Resource potential
5 5 5–4 5 4–5
5 5 5 5–3 4
communities at the initial stages of progressive succession. We also estimated the resistance of natural complexes and their components to industrial factors. It is obvious that the least stable and least restorable associations are the first to be protected. Plant associations were distributed with respect to their tolerance for mechanical damage and potential for recovery. Forests: grade 5, unstable forests with a low potential for recovery (pine and larch forests with a lichen ground cover on sandy soils); grade 4, forests with low stability and potential for recovery (Siberian stone pine forests); grade 3, relatively stable forests that recover through the change of tree stands (all dark coniferous forests, larch forests with an admixture of dark conifers, and moss pine forests); grade 2, relatively stable, rapidly recovering herb–dwarf shrub birch–pine (secondary) forests; and grade 1, stable, rapidly recovering forests (all small-leaved forests with a grass–dwarf shrub ground cover). Bog ecosystems were divided into three groups according to their tolerance for mechanical damage: grade 5, unstable bogs with a low restoration potential (large-hummock bogs); grade 4, relatively stable, slowly recovering bogs (flat-hummock, ridge–hollow bogs); and grade 1, unstable bogs with a high restoration potential (lowland grass–moss bogs). The floodplain vegetation was assessed as follows: grade 4, stable vegetation with a relatively low restoration potential (coniferous forests); grade 3, relatively stable and rapidly recovering vegetation (shrubs and mixed herb–grass dry meadows); and grade 1, stable and rapidly recovering vegetation (moist or wet sedge and grass meadows). Tolerance for air pollution was estimated with respect to nitrogen and sulfur oxides, the main pollutants in the region. By this criterion, the following groups were distinguished: grade 5, extremely sensitive (lichen and dwarf shrub–lichen pine forests); grade 4, highly sensitive (light coniferous forests and complex lichen bogs); grade 3, sensitive (dark coniferous forests and sphagnum bogs); grade 2, relatively tolerant (larch forests and lowland bogs); and grade 1, tolerant (floodplain meadows, shrubs, and herb–moss bogs).
Tolerance for mechanical damage
for pollution with oil
for air pollution
5 5 5–2 5–2 4
5–3 5–3 5–4 4 5–3
5 5–3 5–4 4 5–3
With respect to tolerance for oil pollution, plant communities were distributed as follows: grade 5, very unstable and very slowly recovering communities (lichen–moss–dwarf shrub and dwarf shrub–green moss–lichen larch and spruce–larch forests with an admixture of Siberian stone pine); grade 4, unstable and slowly recovering communities (larch–spruce, spruce, larch–spruce–Siberian stone pine, pine–larch, larch–pine, and pine forests with a lichen–dwarf shrub– moss ground cover and flat- and large-hummock bogs dominated by lichens); grade 3, relatively stable and rapidly recovering communities (dark and light coniferous forests with a green moss–dwarf shrub ground cover, secondary birch forests with an admixture of conifers and a dwarf shrub–green moss ground cover containing lichens and sphagnum); grade 3, stable and rapidly recovering communities (moist small-leaved forests, polytric–sphagnum pine and birch–pine forests, and lowland bogs); and grade 1, stable, rapidly recovering communities with increasing productivity, such as meadow–bog–sor and shrub–birch series of floodplains with flush moistening (the term “sor” refers to the underwater portion of a partially submerged floodplain). Superimposing the five evaluation maps, we identified 30 areas with plant communities assigned grades 4 or 5 by all or several criteria. Landscape significance and resource potential were priorities. By collating and totaling the aforementioned estimations, we created the basis for delimiting the areas that are ecologically valuable in terms of diversity and resource potential (in the broad sense; Magomedova and Morozova, 2001) of the plant cover (Table 1). These estimations were supplemented with information on the spread and concentration of rare and endangered species and the proportions of all structural units in the plant cover. Differentiation of Areas with Respect to Terrestrial Animal Communities Similarly valuable types of vegetation were grouped into conventional quality classes, which served as the basis for evaluating the corresponding areas as animal habitats (with emphasis on valuable game animals).
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The resulting classification was as follows: grade 5, dark and mixed taiga forests (the most valuable habitats); grade 4, dark coniferous forests with an admixture of deciduous trees; grade 3, light coniferous forests with an admixture of dark coniferous and deciduous trees; grade 2, deciduous forests with an admixture of dark and light conifers; and grade 1, deciduous and open light coniferous forests and habitats near floodplains and in bogs. The compositions of the groups of abundant, common, and rare species varied depending on the type of habitat. For example, in the areas classified as grade 5, squirrels, wood grouses (Tetrao urogallus), hazel grouses (Tetrasstes bonasia), chipmunks, and sables were abundant; bears, moose, martens, and black grouses (Lyrurus tetrix) were common; and lynxes, wolverines, ermines, and Siberian weasels were rare. In the areas that received grade 1, ermines, minks, muskrats, foxes, and hares were abundant; ptarmigans, black grouses, Siberian weasels, weasels, squirrels, and wolves were common; and sables, wolverines, and moose were rare. Wild reindeer were found in the areas graded 5, 3, 2, and 1 (a rare species in all these areas). Table 2 briefly describes the typological characteristics of these areas. The results of assessment are also shown in the map of the areas valuable as habitats for game animals (Fig. 1). Taking into account their location, we detected 27 areas that, in our opinion, undoubtedly need special protection. Note that this map is a result of generalization of expert estimations and, hence, is not regarded as complete or comprehensive; it may be supplemented and edited. Differentiation of Aquatic Ecosystems Ichthyological SPAs may differ in their status and mode of nature management (from a specialized reserve to an ethnic park). This is explained by the fact that the significance of individual water bodies for the functioning of valuable fish populations varies with season. For example, the protective status of wintering places of a rare fish species does not exclude fishing (with some limitations) for other species, less valuable but abundant, in another season (Vyshegorodtsev et al., 1997). We believe that the tasks and conditions of state ichthyological reserves, which are intended for the conservation and restoration of valuable fish species and aquatic ecosystems as a whole, best meet the requirements of fish protection in the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area. We recommend organizing 12 ichthyological reserves. It is especially important to establish the reserves in the areas that are important for the reproduction of whitefish, because the numbers of some whitefish species have been decreasing since the late 1990s. Ichthyologically valuable areas detected in our study are located mainly within the borders of protected areas containing unique landscapes, valuable ecosystems, or animal and plant species that need conservaRUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY
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tion. The mode of fish resource management in these areas would help in developing an integrated approach to the conservation of natural objects. For example, some valuable fish species living in the region are found only in the basins of small rivers, whereas others are found throughout the lower and middle reaches of the Ob. The former group of species includes the taimen (Hucho taimen) and grayling (Thymallus arcticus), which are rare in the region and occur mainly in mountain rivers. Their populations are restored slowly because of the relatively low fertility and late sexual maturation of these fish. Both species rarely migrate over long distances; therefore, if a population disappears due to habitat degradation or overfishing, its spontaneous recovery may be impossible. The numbers of taimen and grayling in water bodies of the Khanty– Mansi Autonomous Area are gradually decreasing, and their populations need special protection. The conservation of ecosystems and the cessation of fishing can prevent these populations from further decline. The wintering and feeding areas of sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus) should also be protected, because uncontrolled fishing and industrial pollution in places of sterlet concentration threatens the existence of the population. The second group includes some whitefish, cyprinid, and percid species, as well as the pike (Esox lucius) and burbot. Most water bodies that are important for their reproduction are in the Severnaya Sos’va basin, the Ob floodplain, and some large lakes. The spawning grounds and wintering places of Coregonus peled, C. lavaretus pidschian, and C. nasus are located and the largest C. tugun population in the Ob’ basin lives in the Severnaya Sos’va. Water bodies in the Ob floodplain, mainly in the northern part of the region, serve as feeding grounds for young whitefish and whitefish preparing for reproduction. Lake Endyr’ in the Irtysh basin harbors a C. peled brood stock used for fish farming. Pollution of spawning grounds, wintering places, and floodplain feeding grounds (sors) with wastes of the mining industry and poaching in the spawning season may lead to a serious decrease in fish population sizes. The establishment of SPAs in the main areas of fish concentration on spawning grounds and in the upper reaches of the Ob and Irtysh tributaries, where fish always have enough oxygen, would promote the reproduction and maintenance of valuable fish stocks in the Ob basin. We propose a five-grade scale for classifying water bodies of the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area with respect to their importance for fish feeding, reproduction, and wintering: grade 5, water bodies used for spawning and wintering by whitefish and sterlet and inhabited by taimen and grayling; grade 4, water bodies used as feeding grounds by sturgeon and whitefish species and as spawning grounds by cyprinids, percids, and pike; grade 3, water bodies used for wintering by cyprinids, percids, and pike; grade 2, water bodies used 2003
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Table 2. Game animal complexes in the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area Species of game animals
Quality class and plant communities
abundant
common
rare
1, dark (>5 units) and mixed Squirrel, wood grouse, hazel Brown bear, moose, marten, taiga (the most valuable areas) grouse, chipmunk, sable black grouse
Lynx, wolverine, ermine, Siberian weasel, hare, weasel, flying squirrel 2, dark coniferous forests with Squirrel, wood grouse, hazel Brown bear, sable, marten, black Ermine, Siberian weasel, an admixture of deciduous grouse, chipmunk grouse hare, weasel, lynx species 3, light coniferous forests with Ermine, hare, chipmunk, Sable, marten, Siberian weasel, Lynx, wolverine, brown admixtures of dark coniferous muskrat, water vole, mink weasel, fox, squirrel, wolf, bear, reindeer, otter and deciduous species moose, wood grouse, black grouse, hazel grouse 4, deciduous forests (>5 units) Chipmunk, hare, mink, water Willow ptarmigan, black grouse, Brown bear, moose, wolwith an admixture of dark and vole sable, ermine, Siberian weasel, verine, wolf, reindeer light coniferous species squirrel, wood grouse, hazel grouse 5, deciduous forests (>5 units) Ermine, mink, water vole, Willow ptarmigan, black grouse, Sable, wolverine, moose, with an admixture of dark and muskrat, fox, hare Siberian weasel, weasel, squirrel, reindeer, otter light coniferous species wolf Table 3. Number and size of ecologically valuable areas identified as a basis for the regional network of specially protected areas in the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Area Ecologically valuable areas Parameter
integrated (landscape)
total Number
botanical and zoological
botanical
zoological
ichthyological
33
8
12
7
5
1
km2
250000
120000
75000
35000
18000
600
>20000
2
2
10000–20000
5
3
2
5000–10000
10
2
4
3
1
–
2000–5000
14
1
6
4
3
–
Size,
