A Self-Determination Perspective - Semantic Scholar

Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 2012, 20, 215-230 © 2012 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Aging and Well-Being in French Older Adults Regularly Practicing Physical Activity: A Self-Determination Perspective Claude Ferrand, Sandra Nasarre, Christophe Hautier, and Marc Bonnefoy The purpose of this study was to identify the motivational profiles of physically active older adults and to achieve a better understanding of their perceived motives to explain their regular physical activity behavior in relation to self-determination theory (SDT). To address these aims, this study used quantitative and qualitative approaches. Older adults (n = 92; M = 74.95, SD = 4.6) completed the French version of the Sport Motivational Scale. A cluster analysis showed two motivational profiles with differential motivational patterns. The first was named the high combined profile, with high scores on intrinsic motivation and introjected regulation and low levels of external regulation. The second profile was the low to moderate motivational profile, with low scores on intrinsic motivation and moderate scores on introjected regulation. The qualitative study’s results demonstrate the usefulness of SDT in explaining the relationship between these motivational profiles and the intertwining of the three basic psychological needs. Keywords: self-determination theory, motivational profiles, qualitative study

There has been a significant increase in longevity and life expectancy in contemporary life. In France, the population age 60 years and older will increase from 14 million in 2010 to 17 million in 2020 (Philippe, 1997). Many people are now living a longer life with less disability than previous generations and enjoy for a large part improved health, particularly people in their 70s and 80s (Inserm, 2008). Rowe and Kahn (1998) indicated that successful aging is the balance of three components: low probability of disease and disease-related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and active engagement with life. So, in the context of aging populations, gaining a better understanding of individuals who are more motivated to behave in ways that improve their health and quality of life is a pertinent study topic. A recent meta-analysis supports the positive contribution of regular physical activity participation on health and psychological well-being among older adults (Netz, Wu, Becker, & Tenenbaum, 2005). Indeed, Ferrand is with the Research Team of Psychology of Ages of Life, François Rabelais University, Tours, France. Nasarre and Hautier are with the Center for Research and Innovation in Sport, University de Lyon, Villeurbanne, France. Bonnefoy is with the Geriatric Medicine Service, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Lyon, France. 215

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physical activity is considered one of the main determinants of successful aging, and an abundance of research on physical activity suggests that when people are autonomously motivated to exercise, they are most likely to do so (e.g., Dishman, Sallis, & Orenstein, 1985; Ingledew, Markland, & Medley, 1998). Thus, the purpose of this study was to seek a better understanding of older adults’ motivation for maintaining an active lifestyle and engaging in physical activity programs.

Self-Determination Theory Commensurate with contemporary research in physical activity settings, the current research is guided by the theoretical tenets of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan 1985, 2002; Ryan & Deci 2000). According to SDT, behaviors such as physical activity are regulated by motives that lie along a self-determination continuum anchored at the extremes by controlling (e.g., to please other people, satisfy contingent self-esteem) and autonomous (e.g., personal importance of the behavior, enjoyment of the activity, social relationships) reasons for participation (Deci & Ryan 1985, 2002). Research using this framework supports the view that individuals show different motivations for a given context and that they can be, to a certain extent, intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated, or amotivated (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000; Vallerand, 1997). According to Deci and Ryan (1991), intrinsic motivation and identified regulation represent increasingly autonomous, self-determined forms of motivation because they refer to behaviors performed by choice. Conversely, introjected regulation, external regulation, and amotivation are viewed as increasingly controlling, non-self-determined motivational states because they refer to situations in which the individual lacks a sense of autonomy and choice. Moreover, some researchers have proposed that individuals could report both self-determined and undetermined forms of motivation for a given domain (Fairchild, Horst, Finney, & Barron, 2005; Vallerand, 1997), and distinct motivational profiles identifying homogeneous groups of individuals who share similar motivational characteristics would provide insights into the complexity of motivation (Pelletier & Sarrazin, 2007). To date, few researchers have identified the motivational profiles of older adults involved in physical activity programs (e.g., Stephan, Boiché, & Le Scanff, 2010). Understanding distinctive combinations of motivations of older adults practicing a regular physical activity program would be an important step to gain insight on successful aging. Finally, SDT provides a comprehensive theoretical framework through which to understand motivated behavior by addressing needs for autonomy and relatedness, as well as the need for competence (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). Simply feeling competent is not sufficient to promote optimal motivation. The basic premise of SDT is that human behavior is directed by the primary psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991, 2000, 2002). Autonomy reflects the need to engage in behaviors with a sense of choice or personal endorsement. Competence represents the need to feel optimally challenged and capable of achieving goals and desired outcomes. Relatedness reflects the degree to which an individual feels connected to and understood by others. Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) have shown that optimal outcomes are attained when all three needs are balanced (i.e., equally satisfied), and according to SDT, the environment in terms of supporting people’s psychological needs would allow

Aging and Well-Being in French Older Adults 217

individuals to experience greater autonomous motivation, persistence, quality of efforts, and psychological well-being (Patrick & Canevello, 2010). Considering the SDT propositions, identifying the motives of self-determined older adults practicing a regular physical activity program is an important line of inquiry for a better understanding of successful aging. In line with this, there were two purposes of the current research. First, using cluster analysis, we sought to identify the motivational profiles of physically active older adults. We hypothesized that older adults engaging regularly in physical activity would present self-determined profiles. We expected that the dimensions of intrinsic motivation and identified regulation would be significant predictors of persistence and satisfaction in physical activity practice. Nevertheless, previous research has indicated that older adults are driven by preventive goals aimed at maintaining health and decreasing health risks (Kolt, Driver, & Giles, 2004; Renner, Spivak, Kwon, & Schwartzer, 2007; Wilcox, Tudor-Locke, & Ainsworth, 2002; Williams, Pham-Kanter, & Leitsch, 2009). So we expected that participants of this study might also participate in physical activity because they felt pressured to do so by significant others, and introjected regulation would be an important motivational variable modifying the nature of motivational profiles toward physical activity. A second purpose was to achieve, through qualitative methods, a better understanding of perceived motives of some older adults included in these motivational profiles for explaining their regular physical activity behavior in relation to SDT. Interest and enjoyment (characteristics of autonomous motivation and self-regulation), as well as competence motives, positively predict motivation and more specifically the number of hours per week spent exercising (Frederick, 1991; Frederick & Ryan, 1993). Edmunds, Ntoumanis, and Duda (2006) recently found that individuals who experienced greater need of support for physical activity evidenced greater autonomous self-regulation for physical activity. So understanding the underlying reasons why some older adults feel more or less self-determined and controlled requires further examination.

Method Participants Participants were French older adults belonging to the Departmental Committee for Physical Activity and Sporting Retirement, which organizes physical activity for retired people over 50 years of age. This association proposes physical activity programs throughout the week, often managed by older adults themselves or sometimes supervised by educators. This program offers different activities such as gymnastics, swimming, dance, stretching, fitness, or endurance activities (skiing, cycling, and hiking). This structure is centered on the participants’ responsibility and autonomy, creating a community group promoting the benefits of physical activity. Participants were selected randomly from those who had indicated a willingness to participate (N = 92; mean age 74.95 years, SD = 4.6; age range 63–89 years; 56 women and 36 men). All of them gave informed consent and were guaranteed confidentiality. The sample included subjects living in an urban area with no medical problems who regularly participated in organized physical programs in this association. Most (52%) were married and 66% were living in a

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flat. With respect to participants’ education level, 8 had reached elementary school level (8.7%), 38 had reached high school level (41.3%), and 46 individuals were university graduates (50%).

Measures Motivation for Physical Activity. The French version of the Sport Motivation Scale (Brière, Vallerand, Blais, & Pelletier, 1995) was used to assess older adults’ reasons for participating in the physical activity program and regularly practicing sporting activities. This scale measures seven types of motivation (four items each). Three subscales assessed intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (e.g., “for the excitement I feel when I am really involved in the activity”), to know (e.g., “for the pleasure that I feel while learning training techniques that I have never tried before”), and to experience mastery (e.g., “for the pleasure I feel while I am perfecting my abilities”). Scores for each subscale were combined to form a single intrinsic-motivation score (Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002). Three subscales assessed identified regulation (e.g., “because, in my opinion, it is one of the best ways to meet people”), introjected regulation (e.g., “because I must do sports regularly”), external regulation (e.g., “to show others how good I am at this sport”), and amotivation (e.g., “it is not clear to me anymore; I really don’t think my place is in sport”). Participants were asked to respond to each item on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s alphas were .90, .86, .82, .77, .80, .80, and .50 for intrinsic motivation, identified motivation, introjected motivation, external regulation, and amotivation, respectively. Different research has confirmed the validity of the Sport Motivation Scale with older adult samples (Jackson, Kimiecik, Ford, & Marsh, 1998; Stephan et al., 2010). Sporting Activity. In line with the American College of Sports Medicine

guidelines (Pate et al., 1995), participants were asked to report their average weekly participation time in the Departmental Committee for Physical Activity and Sporting Retirement’s physical activity program, as well as the duration of each session. For older people, it is easier to think in terms of time devoted to physical activity rather than energy expenditure (Landi et al., 2007). The product of time and duration was computed, and the results of these products were added to give an indicator of total physical activity participation per week in minutes. This physical activity participation indicator was used together with the type of activity practiced.

Anthropometric Measures. Participants were weighed on a digital balance scale

and measured without shoes using a vertical ruler. The participants’ body-mass index (BMI) was computed as weight in kilograms divided by height squared in meters.

Procedure Permission to conduct the study was granted by the university’s human research ethics committee. First, questionnaire data were collected on the premises of the association, and a cluster analysis was conducted to identify the participants’ motivational profiles. In line with Edmunds et al. (2006), given that participants were all engaged in physical activity, amotivation was not considered in this analysis. The analysis was conducted using the procedure recommended by Hair, Anderson,


Tatham, and Black (1998). First, all the variables shared the same metrics. Second, given that no case with a distance from the mean greater than 3 times the value of the standard deviation was found, no outliers had to be excluded. Finally, given that no Pearson’s correlation was higher than .90, there was no problem of multicollinearity (Table 1). After these criteria were met, a hierarchical cluster analysis was performed, using Ward’s method with squared Euclidian distance as a similarity measure. An agglomeration schedule and dendrogram were used to determine the number of clusters. Some participants included in these motivational profiles volunteered to be interviewed (n = 38). The one-on-one interviews took place in a quiet area without distractions, and each interview lasted approximately 1 hr. All interviews were audiotaped, transcribed verbatim by the interviewers, and read several times to understand the content and to gain a sense of the whole data set. The interview transcripts were returned to the participants to check their content and quality. No changes were recommended by the interviewees.

Interview Schedule The full interview schedule included three sections. First, participants were asked to describe their personal histories. Second, the main section of the interview was composed of specific questions relating to motives for participation in regular physical activity. A semistructured format was used for the interview schedule, and each participant was taken through the same central questions to ensure consistency (Patton, 2002). Participants were asked to talk about their attitudes toward physical activity (e.g., “What does physical activity mean to you?” “What do you do exactly?” “What do you seek in regular physical activity?” “What advantages do you get out of it?”) and were encouraged to discuss freely what was important to them in relation to physical activity (e.g., “What does regular physical practice bring to you?” “Have you experienced any changes in physical activity recently?” “If yes, what changes in your life have the changes in physical activity brought to you?” “What did the changes mean to you in your daily life?”). For each question, elaboration (“Could you say something more about that?”) and clarification (“What do you mean by that?”) probes were used. When appropriate, additional follow-up questions were asked. This flexibility facilitated greater depth of information. No participants refused to answer any questions in the interviews. The closing section summarized the interview and invited the interviewee to discuss any issues that the researcher may have overlooked. All the interviews were conducted by the

Table 1 Correlation Matrix Variable 1. Intrinsic motivation 2. Identified motivation 3. Introjected motivation 4. External regulation *p < .05. **p < .01.

1 — .715** .539** .372**

2 .715** — .563** .435**

3 .539** .563** — .234*

4 .372** .435** .234* —

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first two authors, who are experienced in qualitative methods. The issues related to confidentiality and informed consent and the quality of the relationship between interviewer and interviewees enabled us both to limit biasing responses and to encourage participants to talk freely about their experiences and views and to be honest and open in their responses.

Data Analyses Inductive content analysis was used to analyze the interview transcripts. First, all the data were transcribed and reported without any frame. Second, they were read several times to understand the content, gain a sense of the whole, and enable raw data themes to emerge. Third, frequent discussion and debates between members of a research group unaffiliated with this study and the first two authors were conducted, focusing on the authors’ interpretations of the overall findings. More precisely, the research group was used to question the choice of themes and the relevancy of given categories and classified 83% of the raw-data subthemes into the chosen themes. All the verbatim transcripts were reread to ensure that the categories were representative of the original material. With the triangulation of sources, we tried to strengthen the study’s reliability (Patton, 2002). Sources of triangulation were literature reviews related to older adults and physical activity, health professionals, and the use of peer researchers as an external audit. Data credibility was achieved in three ways (Lincoln & Guba, 1985): independent coding of the data, checking of the categorization process by researchers experienced in qualitative methods, and participants’ examination of the researchers’ scripts. The scripts were translated from French to English by a native English speaker, respecting the participants’ state of mind.

Results Quantitative Findings Results suggested a two-cluster solution, and descriptive statistics for the two groups are presented in Table 2. The first cluster was labeled high combined motivation (HC) and represented 47.83% of the sample (n = 44, 27 women and 17 men). Participants in this cluster showed high levels of self-determined forms of motivation—intrinsic, identified, and introjected motivation—as well as low levels of external regulation. The second cluster was labeled low to moderate motivation (LM) and represented 52.17% of the sample (n = 48, 29 women and 19 men). Participants in this cluster had low levels of intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, relatively high levels of introjected regulation, and low levels of external regulation. A MANCOVA including age and BMI as covariates was conducted on the four motivational constructs as a function of group membership to test whether motivation scores differed across the clusters. Results revealed a significant effect of cluster membership on motivation, Wilks’s Lambda = .37, F(3, 91) = 35.37, p < .001. Follow-up ANCOVAs with age and BMI included as covariates revealed that each motivational construct differed as a function of a profile (see Table 2). These results provide support for the distinctiveness of the two motivational profiles. Regarding motivational profiles and physical activity participation, a one-way


ANCOVA controlling age and BMI revealed that level of physical activity participation in minutes per week differed in function of motivational profile, F(1, 91) = 6.68, p = .01. The members of the HC group had higher levels of physical activity participation than those in the LM group; see Table 2.

Qualitative Findings Thirty-eight participants were selected based on the two motivational profiles and were interviewed (HC group = 9 women and 10 men, LM group = 8 women and 11 men). Table 3 shows demographic information of the participants included in the two motivational profiles. The inductive content analyses of the interview responses regarding motives for regular physical activity yielded two categories (relatedness and well-being benefits, with 10 themes for the HC group and 8 for the LM group; see Table 4). The quotations presented here are meant to illustrate the variety of responses obtained.

Relatedness Benefits Most participants stated that linking social interactions with physical activity was the most successful approach to encourage them to be involved in regular physical activity. The following statement from a participant reflects this point: “There is not only the physical activity, there is the conviviality! Most programs focus on group activities. We are among friends. We laugh, blather, chat. It is this that makes us feel great.” The peer support group represents not only a group activity but also a place where people can meet other people and communicate with someone outside the family who shares their experiences. Some participants explained that they need support, and others indicated that the peer support group motivated them. More particularly, participants of the HC group indicated that they seek to experience greater stimulation though the group. Their goal is to practice physical

Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for the Two Clusters

Intrinsic motivation Identified regulation Introjected regulation External regulation Age Body-mass index Physical activity

High combined profile, n = 44, M ± SD

Low to moderate profile, n = 48, M ± SD

F(1, 91)

p

2

5.35 ± 1.24

3.03 ± 1.33

111.94

.00

.56

5.08 ± 1.28

2.93 ± 1.07

76.70

.00

.47

6.00 ± 0.91

4.51 ± 1.37

35.14

.00

.29

2.07 ± 1.3 74.59 ± 4.64

1.59 ± .091 75.27 ± 4.59

4.43 0.50

.04 ns

.05

24.09 ± 3.16 475.8 ± 3.08

23.94 ± 2.28 386.4 ± 2.23

0.07 6.68

ns .01

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Table 3 Demographic Characteristics of Study Sample

n Mean Age, years Sociodemographic Characteristics, n Education level elementary school high school postsecondary education Employment status employed storekeeper senior executive middle management Marital status never married married widowed separated/divorced Living in town (flat) town (individual house) Body-Mass-Index Status Acceptable At risk (>27 kg/m2)

High Combined Profile Women Men 9 10 75.91 73.58

Low to Moderate Profile Women Men 8 11 73.75 75.71

1 3 5

0 4 6

1 6 1

1 6 4

2 0 5 2

1 1 6 3

1 0 1 6

1 1 4 5

2 2 3 2

0 5 2 3

1 4 3 0

1 9 1 0

7 2

5 5

5 3

9 3

8 1

10 0

8 0

10 1

activity, but they also talk about enjoying social affiliation, and all these factors reinforce their intrinsic motivation. The following statement from a participant in this group reflects this point: “Being physically active is beneficial to me . . . but it also affords an opportunity to meet others and open-mindedness. This is energizing!” Participants in the LM group indicated that they wished to socialize more, to be a part of a social network with others, and talked about socioemotional benefits. The presence of support brings warmth, affection, and peer acceptance through communication with others. One of the LM group participants described it in this manner: “Physical activity in a group enabled me to have a mutually agreeable time together and to share deep feelings with friends. I feel reciprocity between them and me.” In addition, the most important difference between the two groups was the fact that most of the HC group participants were involved in voluntary work to teach physical activity in this association. They developed sporting habits during their

Table 4 Content Analysis Related to Motives for Physical Activity Participation Themes/Subthemes High Combined Profile (n = 19) Relatedness Benefits Share convivial time have friendly environment share experiences with others keep open-mindedness Seek emulation though the group Be useful to the association volunteer to teach physical activities use sporting knowledge Well-Being Benefits Increase well-being by regular physical activity Pay particular attention to the recommended medical guidelines Reinforce links between motivation and physical activities continue enjoying practicing physical activity experience challenge and effort Reinforce links between physical activity and health stay healthier longer have better quality sleep Consider regular physical activity a part of life Use sporting knowledge do safe and appropriate exercise feel personal control Seek a dynamic image with a lot of vitality and energy push back physical limits stay younger Low to Moderate Profile (n = 19) Relatedness Benefits Share convivial time have friendly environment need support Belonging and social network Well-Being Benefits Increase well-being by regular physical activity Pay particular attention to recommended medical guidelines Reinforce links between motivation and physical activities find enjoyment though physical activity get away from daily cares Use physical activities for health prevent falls and fractures feel at risk in relation to health problems Delay the loss of physical autonomy by adapted physical practice Perceive physical limitations as a handicap to practice physical activity

n

%

16/19 3 6 7 15/19 18/19 10 8

84.2%

16/19 14/19 16/19 7 9 18/19 14 4 18/19 15/19 6 9 16/19 10 6

84.2% 73.7% 84.2%

11/19 7 4 15/19

57.8%

14/19 11/19 12/19 8 4 17/19 10 7 17/19 16/19

73.7% 57.8% 63.2%

78.9% 94.7%

94.7%

94.7% 78.9%

84.2%

78.9%

89.5%

89.5% 84.2%

223

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adolescence and adulthood and indicated that the desire to be useful and frequency of participation in physical activity within their association were related to years of sporting education and their past sporting behavior. Statements such as “I am at their service. It’s my choice. My sporting past helps me. . . . It’s energizing to teach others. It’s also a guarantee for longevity because I combine physical and mental capacities. It’s added value” are indicative of their state of mind.

Well-Being Benefits Most participants explained that regular physical activity increased their level of well-being. This was expressed by the following quotation: “I feel well when I am involved in sport regularly. I live. . . .” They all paid particular attention to the recommended medical guidelines. This is described by a woman who said, “I know, as everyone does, the recommended medical guidelines indicating that every adult should accumulate 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity on most days of the week.” There were some nuances between the two groups. Statements such as “What keeps me in good health is physical activity in general and associated life hygiene” and “For my health, I ought to do physical activity; otherwise I would feel bad” are indicative of the state mind of the HC group. “My doctor tells me that these programs help build muscle strength, improve balance, and significantly reduce falls” is indicative of the state of mind of the LM group. Moreover, some participants in the LM group got involved in physical activity because they feel at risk for future health problems and are anxious. This is expressed by a man who said I’m fit but that it is not going to continue . . . it’s clear. . . . For 1 year I have done physical activities more carefully. . . . They are necessary for my health but I’m afraid of future physical and mental degradations. In the current study, enjoyment was perceived as an intrinsic, affective element associated with the motivation to engage in physical activity and well-being. Results, however, showed some differences. Participants in the HC group stressed the need to pursue the enjoyment of practicing physical activity, to experience challenge and effort, and to not only do leisure-time activities (i.e., walking, housekeeping, and gardening), while participants in the LM group wanted to find enjoyment and relaxation in physical activity and get away from daily cares. Their choice of physical activity was not the same. Participants in the HC group did activities including endurance activities (skiing, cycling, and hiking), while participants in LM group did activities such as swimming, water exercises, stretching, and gymnastics. The following statements from 1 participant in each group reflect these different points of view: My well-being is linked to my commitment to practice physical activities. I really experience pleasure because I am feeling well practicing my activities, and I also have the associated interest of challenge and effort. (Interview M of the HC group) Doing physical activity allows me to forget daily cares for a while. I lose track of time. (Interview M of LM the group) The two groups linked enjoyment of practicing physical activity and health, and some differences appeared. For the HC group, physical activity was reported as


a high priority to stay healthier longer, to take care of their body and mind for the future, and was integrated as part of their daily life. This was expressed as follows: Everyone knows that unless we practice, eventually in the end we get rusty. It’s clear. Doing physical activity is enjoyable and allows us to be better balanced. I need to keep my body and mind young. Me, I am 80 years old and I am still healthy and active. (Interview F) For the LM group, physical activity prevents falls and fractures and delays the onset of physical frailty. Moreover, maintaining independence is considered a major health outcome, and some participants indicated their anxiety about future physical involvement. This was expressed as follows: First, preventing fractures is a priority. I would say continue physical activity so that aging does not become a disaster. Physical dependence begins as a diminishing of self-reliance and leads to frailty, despair, and destitution. I still know who I am but perhaps not for much longer. (Interview M) Results also showed some differences between the two groups in relation to four other subthemes: sporting knowledge, physical autonomy, quality of sleep, and vitality. With regard to sporting knowledge, participants in the HC group indicated that safe and appropriate exercise behavior (using good technique, correct postural alignment, and good practice advice) together with a sense of personal control over a situation satisfied their basic need for competence and might decrease their risk of injury and increase the potential to enjoy the activity, self-fulfillment, and wellbeing. They also indicated that physical activity offered opportunities to extend the years of an active independent life, and it was important for them to maintain physical autonomy as long as possible. This point is illustrated by the following statement: “Through the sport, I become aware that I cannot do sport as before, but . . . I can still do it. It’s essential! This allows me to increase my life span” (Interview F). In respect to participants in the LM group, they wanted to delay the loss of physical autonomy by an adapted physical practice. This was expressed as follows: Note! I do physical activity but it must be within my capabilities. I must be aware on my own age. I mustn’t try to do more than I can do. I have lost some abilities, and now my physical activity practice must be adapted. It is what I look for. (Interview M) Participants in the HC group associated regular physical activity with better quality sleep. They talked about insomnia and irregular sleep/wake patterns and emphasized the advantages of regular physical activity. This was described by a woman who said, “Previously, I woke early in the morning and had some problems establishing regular sleep patterns. Since I regularly do physical activities, it’s better. I have a deep sleep.” Finally, participants in the HC group claimed that their vitality and pushing against their physical limits allowed them to increase their satisfaction and stay younger. This was expressed as follows: Physical activity arouses awareness of my body, my capacities, and limits. I know my strong and weak points. I have a greater knowledge of my body now because I have always done sport. I feel more vital and alive after exercising. I stay younger. (Interview M)

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Participants in the LM group emphasized that the elderly may be hindered from adhering to physical activity by perceived physical limitations. They talked more about a loss of independence and mobility than the other group, and improved knowledge of their physical limitations was for them an imperative need linked to well-being. They also stressed that after an injury or “slight problem,” recovery of physical function is slower. This was expressed as follows: “If I had better knowledge of my physical limits, I could tell myself that I am still able to do a regular sporting activity. Growing older is linked to an inevitable loss of strength, energy, and vitality.”

Discussion A primary purpose of the current study was to use cluster analysis to examine the motivational profiles that are naturally emerging in older adults regularly practicing physical activity. Two motivational clusters emerged with a balanced number of older adults in them (n = 44 and 48). The first motivational cluster was an example of a combined profile. Older adults in this cluster had high levels of intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, which are considered self-determined types of motivation; a high level of introjected regulation; and a low level of external regulation. The second motivational profile represented older adults with low levels of self-determined motivation, a moderate level of introjected regulation, and a low level of external regulation. Wilson, Rodgers, and Fraser (2002) found that feelings of obligation and compulsion could be a powerful force in motivating exercise behavior, and Deci and Ryan (2000) indicated that introjected regulation was associated with expending effort and internalization of reasons for performing an activity. In this population, introjected regulation might be positively related to commitment in the area of physical activity. It should be noted, however, that some research findings in exercise settings have revealed that individuals who report that they do physical activity for more fully internalized or autonomous reasons tend to engage in more frequent physical activity and enjoy it more than those who exercise in reaction to external pressures (Frederick & Ryan 1993; Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997). In the current study, participants of the HC profile reported a higher level of physical activity participation than those in the LM motivational profile, and by identifying with the importance of exercising regularly for their own health and well-being they exercised more volitionally (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The second purpose of the current study was to achieve a better understanding of perceived motives of some older adults in these two motivational profiles that explain their regular physical activity behavior in relation to SDT. SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991) suggests that when participants’ psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are met in a physical activity context, they will experience more self-determined types of motivation. It has also been postulated that relatedness has less impact on intrinsic motivation than competence and autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1985). In the current study, we found that all participants experienced feelings of relatedness. Relatedness means connectedness, belonging, having mutual relationships in which to be accepted and liked. It means sense of being with others, security and unity (Deci & Ryan, 2002), to be part of a group that shares the same interests.


More precisely, for participants in the HC profile, relatedness is associated with open-mindedness, competence, and autonomy. When a person willingly gives to others he or she will exercise autonomy and feel a sense of connection with others. Furthermore, the act of giving is likely to be associated with a sense of competence, because it means that one is in the position of being able to help. So, perception of relatedness in conjunction with perceived autonomy and competence might facilitate forms of regulation that are fully integrated with the self. According to Ryan and Deci (2000), relatedness would provide the “groundwork for facilitating internalization” (p. 64). For participants in the LM profile, relatedness is linked to socioemotional benefits and the pleasure of practicing physical activity together. Dacey, Baltzell, and Zaichkowsky (2008) suggested that socioemotional benefits were self-determined extrinsic motives. Nevertheless, social relationships have been shown to be significant predictors of motivation (Deci & Ryan 2008), and relatedness contributes to the willingness of these participants to practice physical activity in a warm and friendly manner. So these findings suggest that the need for relatedness has its specific forms of expression, and needs specify the conditions under which people can most fully realize their human potential (Deci & Ryan, 2000). To explain this issue in relation to psychological well-being, results showed that participants in the HC profile underlined the satisfaction of their need of relatedness, autonomy, and competence. The need for autonomy was connected to the perception that physical activity is an entire part of their lives, freely chosen, and the need for competence was connected to feelings of capability, self-efficacy, and self-worth in physical activity. Motives such as enjoyment, personal challenge, and effort are likely to be experienced as autonomous and reflect intrinsic motivation for physical activity. Participants also reported a subjective vitality associated with greater well-being. According to Ryan and Deci (2008) vitality is a salient and functionally significant indicator of health and motivation. Moreover, it is enhanced by activities that satisfy basic psychological needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy (Ryan et al., 1997), and participants expressed it in this sense, with greater well-being. Gillet, Vallerand, and Rosnet (2009) suggested that under certain conditions (e.g., when autonomous motivation is high), controlled motivation may act in synergy with autonomous motivation in leading to commitment to physical activity and time spent exercising each week. It is also possible that this motivational profile depends on sport activities and levels of expertise. Indeed, participants in the HC profile recounted their sporting past and did mainly endurance activities. SDT also suggests that when extrinsic motives are well internalized, they will be experienced as autonomous, and positive outcomes will ensue. Conversely, participants in the LM profile indicated the importance of friendly meetings and the need for belongingness, ensuring them a more cohesive social organization. They also got involved in physical activity because they felt at risk for developing future health problems. This motivational role of risk perception can be consistent with a life-span perspective (Freund, 2006; Heckhausen, 1997). That is, with advancing age, individuals are strongly driven by a preventive goal orientation aimed at decreasing health risks and avoiding losses. According to Williams et al. (2009), this perception is related to the prevalence of physical changes, health problems, and diseases that can result in an increase in the feeling of susceptibility to future illness, leading to a higher intention of performing preventive

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health behavior as physical activity. Mullan and Markland (1997) suggested that the motives related to health pressures might play a part in allowing one to decide to do physical activity but do not necessarily contribute to turning intentions to actions. Moreover, competence experience is less promoted in these participants than those in the HC profile. Findings show a more complex picture of participation motives to practice physical activity in these older adults than in those in the HC profile. Some limitations of the current study need to be addressed. First, our sample only comprised physically active volunteers, so the results may not be generalizable to the entire older population. Second, we focused on older adults engaged in organized physical activity programs. Future research should determine whether the motivational clusters uncovered in the current study can be replicated with a larger sample of older adults engaged in various forms and styles of physical activity. Third, more education may indirectly raise awareness of health benefits and increase the importance of doing physical activity among middle- and upperclass individuals. In this respect, we are not authorized to extend the results to a demographically broader elderly population. Despite these limitations, we believe that this study offers important support for the understanding of self-determined behaviors and the linkage between need satisfaction and well-being. When the process of internalization is differentially successful, such that external regulations are internalized though the processes of introjection or identification, the result is different types of extrinsic motivation that vary in the extent to which they are controlled versus autonomous. Moreover, this study supports the view that Autonomy occupies a unique position in the set of needs: being able to satisfy the need for competence and relatedness may be enough for controlled behaviors, but being able to satisfy the need for autonomy is essential for the goal-directed behavior to be self-determined. (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p. 243) So, when older adults engaging in physical activity are more able to satisfy all their needs, the regulation of their behavior is characterized by choice, volition, and autonomy rather than pressure, demand, and control, and the result is higher quality behavior and greater psychological well-being. Further research is needed to extend these findings and to provide a better understanding of motivational processes in older adults to maintain an active lifestyle.

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