A Study of the Impact of Transformative Professional Development on ...

J Sci Teacher Educ (2014) 25:845–859 DOI 10.1007/s10972-014-9396-x ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION

A Study of the Impact of Transformative Professional Development on Hispanic Student Performance on State Mandated Assessments of Science in Elementary School Carla C. Johnson • Jamison D. Fargo

Published online: 7 August 2014 Ó The Association for Science Teacher Education, USA 2014

Abstract This paper reports the findings of a study of the impact of the transformative professional development (TPD) model on student achievement on state-mandated assessments of science in elementary school. Two schools (one intervention and one control) participated in the case study where teachers from one school received the TPD intervention across a 2-year period while teachers at the other school received no program and continued business as usual. The TPD program includes a focus on the core conceptual framework for effective professional development (Desimone in Educ Res 38:181–199, 2009) as well as an emphasis on culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and other effective science instructional strategies. Findings revealed that participation in TPD had a significant impact on student achievement for Burns Elementary with the percentage of proficient students growing from 25 % at baseline to 67 % at the end of the 2-year program, while the comparison school did not experience similar growth. Implications for future research and implementation of professional development programs to meet the needs of teachers in the realm of CRP in science are discussed. Keywords Science English language learners Assessment Professional development Introduction The impetus for science education reform in the U.S. has grown increasingly more urgent as the student population has become rapidly more diverse while instruction C. C. Johnson (&) College of Education, Purdue University, 100 N. University St., West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA e-mail: [email protected] J. D. Fargo Department of Psychology, Utah State University, 2810 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-2810, USA e-mail: [email protected]

123

846

C. C. Johnson, J. D. Fargo

has failed to transform accordingly (Lee & Luykx, 2006; Southerland, 2012). As a result, creating equity in science is still an elusive target, as evidenced by student performance on the 2011 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) where only 16 % of Hispanic students scored proficient compared to 43 % of their Caucasian classmates (National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 2012). This is something that should be of great concern to the science education community as the low performance, coupled with the fact that the Hispanic community has grown and surpassed the population of African Americans, making Hispanics the largest minority group in the country (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). This growth is projected to continue, as the Pew Hispanic Center (2008) reported the number of Hispanics in the U.S. is projected to double by 2050, growing from 15 % of the total population to 29 %. Comparatively, in the same period, the white population will decrease from 67 to 47 % and the black population will remain the same at 13 %. Science is often taught without a cultural, language, or interactional connection to Hispanic student backgrounds (Gibbons, 2003). These students also have lower literacy levels than their classmates and are more likely to live in poverty (Pew Hispanic Center, 2008). As suggested by Duran (2008) literacy is a definite barrier to learning for Hispanic English Language Learners (ELLs) as this ‘‘affects or mitigates assessment and schooling performance’’ (p. 293). It is critical to link science learning to the real world students live in, as research has demonstrated a relationship between connecting language and culture to learning and critical thinking and problem solving skills (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Lee, 2004; Pellegrino, Chudowsky, & Glaser, 2001). Despite the evidence of promise in building of skills, research on improving ELL student performance on science assessments is limited (Lee, 2004; Lee & Luykx, 2006). Furthermore, it is unclear if professional development programs can support science teachers to produce growth in student outcomes for any ethnic or racial group in this climate of high-stakes accountability where science is often shortchanged in instructional time if included at all, and when taught is delivered in a very teacher-centered manner (e.g., Johnson, 2011; Lee & Luykx, 2006; Southerland, 2012). The science education research community in the U.S. has begun to examine models that support in-service teachers transform practice to better meet the needs of the growing Hispanic student population. This paper will contribute to this line of research, as it details a study of an elementary school engaged in a 2-year professional development program with the goal of improving science teaching and learning for Hispanic ELL students through integration of effective science instructional strategies including the use of culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and inquiry-based teaching. Student achievement on state-mandated assessments of science in grades 4–6 was examined in relation to teacher participation in the Transformative Professional Development (TPD) program (Johnson, 2011; Johnson & Marx, 2009). The study explored the following research question: ‘‘What relationship, if any, exists between teacher participation in Transformative Professional Development (TPD) and student performance on state-mandated assessment of science?’’

123

Impact of TPD Participation on Hispanic Student Science Achievement

847

CRP and Effective Science Teaching Culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) is a theoretical framework used to inform pedagogy which combines student knowledge, experiences, and cultures to enable students to be successful academically, exhibit cultural competence and become socio-politically critical (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Further, teachers who utilize CRP hold conceptions of self and others, structured social relations, and conceptions of knowledge which are aligned with supporting diverse student success and build upon rich experiences they bring to the classroom (Ladson-Billings, 1995). As Luykx and Lee (2007) argued, CRP can enable teachers to gain critical consciousness and therefore, ‘‘addresses issues of poverty, as well as cultural and linguistic diversity, from a critical perspective that focuses on the unequal distribution of social resources and the school’s role in the reproduction of social hierarchy’’ (p. 179). The literature base regarding implementation of CRP in science has grown over the past decade including a realization of the important role CRP plays in science education reform (Goldston & Nichols, 2009; Lee & Fradd, 1998; Lee, Butler, & Tippins, 2007). As classrooms across the U.S. become increasingly more diverse, it is critical to harness the knowledge, experiences, and cultures of children to make learning more relevant which will result in building deeper conceptual understandings of science and agency for students to apply science to making a difference in their communities (Goldston & Nichols, 2009; Johnson, 2011; Lee & Fradd, 1998; Lee et al., 2007). Effective science instruction driven by the use of inquiry-based practice, as defined by the National Science Education Standards (1996) is congruent with CRP. For instance, Chamot and O’Malley (1994) argued scientific discourse facilitates the development of English language proficiency. Additionally, through inquiry-based instruction, students construct understandings through engaging with phenomena through investigations and discourse with others (National Research Council [NRC], 1996). Teachers enable this process through building collaborative learning communities and the use of scaffolding of content all anchored through strong relationships and a climate of trust and respect (Lee & Luykx, 2006; NRC, 1996). Students who are engaged in inquiry actively and through the lens of their own personal experiences and cultures ‘‘describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others’’ (NRC, 1996, p. 8). Findings of more than a decade of research on inquiry-based science classrooms have revealed positive student learning outcomes and performance on high-stakes assessments of science (e.g. Czerniak, Beltyukova, Struble, Haney, & Lumpe, 2005; Johnson, Kahle, & Fargo, 2007; Kahle, Meece, & Scantlebury, 2000). Improved gains in science learning have been associated with the integration of science content with inquiry, literacy, culture, and home language (Fradd, Lee, Sutman, & Saxton, 2002) and concrete explorations that work to anchor new science concepts through combining new experiences with prior knowledge and new language for ELLs (Johnson, 2011; Lee, 2002, 2003; Lee, Buxton, Lewis, & LeRoy, 2005). Inquiry-based instruction has emerged as an effective pedagogical strategy, particularly for ELLs due to the ability to integrate real-world interests including

123

848


a funds of knowledge approach (Johnson, 2011). Students who participate in inquiry-based learning environments view science learning through the lens of their own experiences and background and as a dynamic, emerging knowledge base, rather than learning science as a discrete set of isolated facts determined by others that must be memorized out of context.

Professional Development in CRP Morrison, Robbins, and Rose (2008) argued culturally relevant pedagogy ‘‘ultimately clashes with the traditional ways in which education is carried out in society’’ (p. 444). Due to the recent surge in Hispanic student population, most science teachers have not been provided opportunities to learn how to address the needs of this growing, underserved group (Bryan & Atwater, 2002; Lee, 2004; McCandless, Rossi, & Doherty, 1997; Rodrı´guez & Kitchen, 2005; Stoddart, Pinal, Latzke, & Canaday, 2002) Therefore, there is a growing need to transform practice and professional development experiences to an approach that enables science teachers to link content to student cultural and linguistic experiences (Atwater, 1994; Chamot & O’Malley, 1994; Lee, 2004; Lee & Luykx, 2006) as most teachers are not prepared to meet the demands of linguistic minority students (Lee, Penfield, & Maerten-Rivera, 2009; Morrison et al., 2008). Effective science teachers must have deep knowledge of their discipline and diversity to successfully mine rich student experiences including home language and culture (Lee & Fradd, 1998). Much has been learned through recent attempts at designing professional development programs for science teachers to enact strategies for diverse students (e.g. Johnson, 2011). As the knowledge base on educational reform and improving teacher quality has grown over the past decade (e.g., Johnson & Fargo, 2010; Johnson et al., 2007; Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love, & Stiles, 2007; Putnam & Borko, 1997) it has become more evident that traditional professional development formats do not result in sustained change in practice. Professional development linked to school and district reform initiatives have demonstrated the ability to transform educational practice systemically (Desimone, 2009). However, since enactment of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) there have been few attempts to explore the ability of effective teacher quality programs to achieve systemic reform (Desimone, 2009; Johnson et al., 2007). A study by Buxton, Lee, and Santau (2008) revealed challenges to their professional development program including moving teachers beyond scripted curriculum to applying reform-oriented approaches. Buxton et al. (2008) discussed shortcomings in existing programs for teachers including focus on strategies rather than systemically promoting equitable and rigorous practice, as well as the complexity of diversity being situated in local context that is difficult to address in programs whose scope is larger than an individual school. In an effort to synthesize positive findings from professional development programs over the past century, Desimone (2009) conducted a review focused on establishing a core conceptual framework to guide future work in the professional development realm. Desimone (2009) identified characteristics reported in studies of professional development deemed essential for ‘‘increasing teacher knowledge

123


849

and skills and improving their practice, which hold promise for student achievement’’ (p. 183). The components of Desimone’s (2009) resulting core conceptual framework included: content focus, active learning, coherence, duration, and collective participation. The Transformative Professional Development (TPD) program (e.g. Johnson, 2011; Johnson & Fargo, 2010) was designed to focus on these five core areas. This study will provide insight into the ability of Desimone’s (2009) core conceptual framework for professional development and TPD to impact state student achievement outcomes in science.

Conceptual Framework The TPD framework was used to guide the implementation of CRP into practice for this study (Johnson, 2011; Johnson & Marx, 2009). TPD is a framework for the delivery of professional development in science and the use of the work transformative is purposeful and integral to the success of the model. TPD begins with engaging participants with experiences, as necessary, to challenge their current beliefs and assumptions regarding the teaching science, followed by ongoing and meaningful discourse in the context of practice, modeling of and immersion in effective strategies, and safe, supportive, collaborative settings to master new approaches and reflect on changes to beliefs and assumptions. TPD includes purposeful integration of CRP within a professional development model designed to increase the use of effective science instruction, improve student learning, create effective learning and working environments, and promote shared vision and concern for students through enhanced relationships (Johnson & Marx, 2009). These outcomes of immersion in the TPD model are produced through components of the model grounded in the literature on diverse student learning in urban schools and CRP (e.g., Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Howard, 2001; Johnson, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Lee, 2004; Lipman, 1995), societal inequities and power dynamics of mainstream society (Buxton, 2009; Calabrese Barton & Lee, 2006), effective science teaching and professional development (e.g. Chamot & O’Malley, 1994; Fullan, 2001; Johnson, 2011; Johnson & Marx, 2009; Johnson et al., 2007; Lee & Fradd, 1998), and connections between science, literacy, language, and culture (e.g. Lee, 2002, 2004; Luykx & Lee, 2007). The premise of TPD is, ‘‘teachers of students from diverse backgrounds must understand the role that culture or a students’ background, interests, values, beliefs, etc., plays in learning of science’’ (Johnson, 2011, p. 174). In previous publications reporting the impact of TPD, significant change in teacher practice has been demonstrated (Johnson & Fargo, 2010), as well as the ability of teachers to implement CRP as a frame for their science instruction (Johnson, 2011). Additionally, findings have revealed the ability of TPD to impact student growth on pre/post assessments derived from released state assessment items (Johnson & Fargo, 2010). This study examines the ability of TPD to impact state science assessment performance students of participating teachers, followed across elementary school grades 4–6.

123

850


Methodology Setting and Participants This is a case study of an elementary school (Burns Elementary School) within a large urban school district in the southwestern United States that was selected to receive the TPD program from 2009 to 2011 and the comparison school that did not receive the intervention. Teachers at Burns Elementary School agreed to participate in a longitudinal case study to follow students beyond their own individual participation in the TPD. Therefore, Burns was the TPD intervention school selected for this case study. Pseudonyms are used for all school and teacher names. Overall there were 12 elementary schools within the district that were matched in pairs according to percentage of Hispanic population, performance on state science assessments at baseline, and percentage of students receiving free or reduced fee lunch. One school in each pair received the TPD program and the other school did not. Burns Elementary School received the TPD program intervention. The comparison school, Johnson Elementary School, did not receive the program or any other science program from during this study or for the 3 years prior to the study. Demographics for Burns Elementary School included 62 % Hispanic, 36 % Caucasian, and 2 % other. Eighty-eight percent of students at Burns qualified for free/reduced lunch. Johnson Elementary School had 74 % Hispanic, 25 % Caucasian, and 1 % other. Nighty-nine percent of students received free/reduced lunch. There were three-fourth-grade, three-fifth-grade, and four sixth-grade teachers who participated in the program. Background data for participants can be found in Table 1. Professional Development Intervention Overview The goal of Transformative Professional Development (Johnson, 2011; Johnson & Fargo, 2010) is to transform the teaching and learning of science, particularly for Hispanic student populations, through enhancing teacher effectiveness. The first key component of the TPD framework is integration of CRP and other effective teaching strategies for science (e.g. inquiry) identified by the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996), as well as a focus on literacy and home language as means to facilitate development of student conceptual understanding of science. Teachers are presented with a series of experiences with CRP, inquiry, and literacy that challenge their current notions of teaching science to create dissatisfaction and openness to transformation. The second area of TPD is community building through effective relationships for teachers, students, and professional development staff. Relationship building is essential in creating a supportive environment for the critical dialogue necessary for transforming practice. The final component is creation of supportive cultures for learning, including a focus on school and classroom environments, as well as high expectations and engaging students in scientific discourse. Establishment of the professional learning community is essential for building capacity within and across teachers to implement transformed practice, as it serves as a feedback loop for staying the course through the challenges

123


851

Table 1 Elementary teacher demographics for Burns and Johnson schools # Years School

Teacher

Teaching

Ethnicity

Gender

Grade

Burns

Bennett

3

Caucasian

M

6th

Burns

Bryan

3

Caucasian

M

4th

Burns

Grant

25

Caucasian

M

5th

Burns

Hudson

3

Caucasian

M

5th

Burns

Harrison

13

Caucasian

F

6th

Burns

Peters

5

Caucasian

F

5th

Burns

Peterson

3

Caucasian

F

4th

Burns

Wang

3

Asian

F

4th

Burns

Schmitty

6

Caucasian

F

6th

Burns

Mack

8

Caucasian

F

6th

Johnson

Brown

8

Caucasian

M

4th

Johnson

West

3

Hispanic

F

4th

Johnson

White

23

Caucasian

F

4th

Johnson

Marcellas

12

Caucasian

M

4th

Johnson

Haron

3

Caucasian

F

5th

Johnson

Sutton

5

Caucasian

M

5th

Johnson

Tye

3

Caucasian

M

5th

Johnson

Smith

6

Caucasian

F

5th

Johnson

Woods

5

Caucasian

F

6th

Johnson

Miller

4

Caucasian

F

6th

Johnson

Banks

3

Caucasian

M

6th

of new roles associated with inquiry-based learning environments. To ensure effective delivery of the TPD framework, it was designed around the research-based pillars for successful professional development programs including a content focus, active learning experiences for teachers, coherence with teacher beliefs and policies, sufficient duration to support change, and collective participation of teachers from the same school (Desimone, 2009; Johnson, 2011; Johnson & Marx, 2009). Over the 2 years, the TPD intervention immersed participants in study and discourse of culturally relevant pedagogy and the use of problem-based learning (PBL) to design authentic, real-world based learning experiences that will leverage culture, student experiences, literacy, and language to support increased student conceptual understanding of science. There were three key components to the TPD program: summer workshop (2 weeks), academic year release-days (8 total), and monthly grade-level support sessions (20 total). The TPD program started in the summer with a combination of one graduate level course Biodiversity for Elementary Teachers along with beginning work on CRP. The biodiversity course was delivered in the first summer of the program and focused on content aligned with required state standards delivered in an inquiry-manner such as biomes, ecosystems, diversity of animals, and plants. Coursework was delivered through an

123

852


accelerated format across 2 weeks with 4-h sessions each day. Summer sessions during year one provided teachers time to gain orientation to new science curriculum provided through the grant program ConceptLinks Science Inquiry (Millmark Education) that was developed for English language learners including focus on literacy and development of conceptual understanding through a guided inquiry approach. Teachers received the six ConceptLinks Science Inquiry modules each. During the second summer session teachers completed Physical Science by Inquiry graduate course, also taught through inquiry focusing on required concepts for elementary school students in the state including: heat, light, and sound, physical/chemical change, states of matter, and basic chemistry. The TPD model also included an accelerated conversational Spanish course for participants in the afternoon session of summer two following the physical science course. The focus was to enable teachers to begin using language as a way to make connections and build relationships with their students. In the second academic year, participants continued their study and implementation of CRP through the use of argumentation in science. Teachers received support to integrate scientific practices and critical perspectives of CRP focused on addressing and challenging societal inequities through the use of argumentation and debate. For example, participants engaged in a water-quality study as TPD leaders modeled how they could empower their students to be socio-politically critical. The water quality problem-based learning module was focused on local issues of drought in the state and then tied to worldwide struggles of access to water. Participants went through a series of activities in the TPD that allowed them to examine their goals, expectations, and orientations toward instruction. As a result, instructional focus for participants was modified to include higher expectations, connection to the larger community, and a more studentcentered, inquiry focus. Monthly grade-level support sessions were conducted to continue collaboration of teachers within a grade level across schools through professional learning communities which were facilitated by university staff and were focused on further building of pedagogical content knowledge and real-time support for implementation of curriculum. Across the program there were a total of 224 h devoted to the TPD program.

Research Design Participants in this case study included all students who began 4th grade at Burns and Johnson elementary schools in 2009. These children were followed from baseline (4th grade) through year two (6th grade) comparing their growth on state assessment measures of science overall each year. Students who completed state testing all 3 years (baseline, year one, year two) of the study for at Burns (intervention) were included in the treatment group to ensure data was aligned with students who had been at the school from the beginning to the end of the program. All students all years at Johnson (control) Elementary school were included because there was no professional development intervention conducted at this school in

123


853

science or CRP either prior to or during the TPD implementation. A comparison of state achievement scores was made each year for students at Burns Elementary who had received the TPD intervention to students at Johnson Elementary whose teachers who did not participate. District provided unique identification number for each student was used which enabled the following of students for 3 years. The CRT state science assessment was administered to 102 students in 2009, 107 students in 2010, and 102 students in 2011. The proportion of students in the treatment group was 51 % in 2009, 49 % in 2010, and 50 % in 2011. Students came from multiple teachers within the treatment and control schools. There were three treatment and four comparison teachers in 2009, three treatment and four comparison teachers in 2010, and four treatment and three comparison teachers in 2011. Instruments The state-mandated criterion referenced assessment (CRT) in science was used as the measure of student achievement for this study. The state administers mandatory assessments of all four content areas each year, beginning at grade three. Internal consistency reliabilities range from .90 to .94 on the various grade level assessments (Nelson & Fox, 1999). Statistical Analyses Due to the small number of individuals who were not identified as Caucasian or Hispanic, and in order that the effects of race on the study outcomes could be adequately addressed in the statistical analyses, race was dichotomized as Hispanic or non-Hispanic. Chi square analyses were used to evaluate any differences in the proportions of males and females or Hispanic or non-Hispanic students as distributed across the treatment and control groups in each year of the study. McNemar tests for correlated proportions were conducted to determine if the proportions of student gender or race/ethnicity varied significantly over time in the comparison and treatment groups. To determine the effect of the TPD intervention on test scores over time, a binomial longitudinal multilevel statistical model was conducted with CRT proficiency (binary: proficient or non-proficient) as the outcome. This particular analysis method was selected given the importance of adjusting the standard errors and Chi square tests of model fit for the non-independence among students due to repeated measurements over time as well as cluster sampling within classrooms. Predictors in each model included: time (years 1 through 3), study group membership (treatment/control), race/ethnic identity (Hispanic/non-Hispanic), gender (male/female), and interactions between (1) time and group membership, (2) time and race/ethnicity, (3) study group membership and gender, and (4) time, group membership, and race/ethnicity. An R2 statistic was computed as a measure of model fit.

123

854


Findings Demographic Characteristics A summary of the demographic characteristics of the study sample is presented in Table 2. A series of within-year comparisons using Chi square tests indicated that there were only two significant significant differences (p \ .05) observed, in both 2009 and 2011, between the intervention and control groups: (a) more females in the comparison group and (b) more Hispanic students in the treatment group. A series of McNemar tests for correlated proportions indicated that the proportions of student gender and race/ethnicity did not vary significantly across years. CRT Scores Over Time by Treatment Group Table 3 presents results from the longitudinal multilevel model. Results indicated a significant main effect for time, with scores increasing for both Burns and Johnson Elementary Schools each year, controlling for other factors in the model. Additionally, two interactions were statistically significant (all others removed and the model refitted). First, a significant time by group interaction indicated that CRT scores for Burns Elementary students (TPD group) improved significantly over time as compared to the Johnson Elementary comparison school (see Fig. 1 for an illustration). Second, the significant interaction between group and race/ethnicity indicated that nonHispanic students performed equally well in the comparison condition (collapsed across time), whereas the % of students achieving proficiency on the CRT was much greater for Hispanic as compared to non-Hispanic students from Burns Elementary (see Fig. 2 for an illustration). There was no significant effect for gender. Random effects in this model included random intercepts for students. Random intercepts for teachers and random slopes for time were also evaluated during the model fitting process, but did not significantly improve model fit and were not retained in the final model. In terms of overall model fit, the set of predictors included in the final model accounted for 83.3 % of the variance in CRT proficiency (R2). Both Burns and Johnson were performing low on the state-mandated assessment in science during the year preceding the TPD intervention, with 25 and 18 % of students scoring proficient respectively. After receiving 1 year of the TPD program, 50 % of Burns Elementary School students scored proficient, compared to 31 % for the comparison school (Johnson Elementary). At the end of the second year of participation in the TPD intervention, 67 % of students at Burns Elementary scored proficient—compared to only 29 % at Johnson. The growth for Burns Elementary from baseline to end of program resulted in 42 % more students who were proficient in science. Additionally, by the end of the program 85 % of Hispanic students at Burns were proficient in science compared to only 25 % at Johnson Elementary. At baseline, only 35 % of Hispanic students at Burns were proficient. Further, Burns and Johnson were 2 of 11 elementary schools within this district. During the 3 years of this study, none of the other 9 schools experienced significant gains in state science achievement, as experienced by Burns Elementary. In fact, the 9 other schools performed very similarly to Johnson Elementary. Therefore, we

123


855

Table 2 Demographic characteristics and CRT state science assessment proficiency 2009 Johnson

2010 Burns

Johnson

2011 Burns

Johnson

Burns

Teachers (n)

4

3

4

3

3

4

Students (n)

50

52

55

52

51

52

Male students (%)

42

48

47

48

43

49

Non-Hispanic students (%)

76

56

67

58

82

58

CRT proficiency (%)

18

25

31

50

29

67

CRT proficiency by race (%) Non-Hispanic

21

15

29

33

31

50

8

35

33

68

25

8

Hispanic

Table 3 Results of longitudinal multilevel model for CRT state science assessment proficiency Fixed effects

Estimate

Intercept

SE

t value -3.92

-4.25

1.09

Time

0.73

0.37

1.98*

Treatment group (vs. comparison)

3.13

1.48

2.12*

-0.11

0.61

-0.18

Non-Hispanic (vs. Hispanic)

Female (vs. male)

0.01

0.77

0.02

Time 9 treatment group (vs. comparison)

2.11

0.63

3.37*

-3.66

1.55

-2.36*

Treatment group (vs. comparison) 9 Non-Hispanic (vs. Hispanic) Random effects

Standard deviation

Student intercept

4.22

2

Model R = .833 * p \ .05

conclude that there was a relationship between participation in the Transformative Professional Development program and gains on state science achievement for Burns Elementary School.

Discussion and Implications The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Transformative Professional Development (TPD) model on science achievement for elementary school students who were predominantly Hispanic English Language Learners (ELLs). The TPD framework includes components that have been revealed in previous research as effective components producing change in teacher practice (Desimone, 2009; Johnson, 2011; Johnson & Fargo, 2010). Additionally, the TPD model includes purposeful focus on teaching science through a culturally relevant lens to make science more accessible for students, which may lead to student

123


0.4

0.6

Control Treatment

0.2

% CRT Proficiency

0.8

856

2009

2010

2011

Year

0.7

Fig. 1 Percentage of students proficient on the CRT and 95 % CI for Burns Elementary (treatment) and Johnson Elementary (control) over time

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Non-Hispanic

0.1

0.2

% CRT Proficiency

Hispanic

Control

Treatment

Group

Fig. 2 Percentage of students proficient on the CRT and 95 % CI for race/ethnic and treatment groups, pooled across time

agency, empowerment, and success in science (Buxton, 2009; Calabrese Barton & Lee, 2006). As was eluded to in this paper, there are few studies that have linked various effective professional development models to successful outcomes on highstakes assessments overall (Czerniak et al., 2005; Southerland, 2013) much less for Hispanic students specifically (Duran, 2008; Lee & Luykx, 2006). Findings from this study suggest that teacher participation in TPD enhances science performance on state-mandated assessments for their students. This study has provided strong evidence linking teacher participation in the TPD program to student gains on high-stakes assessments of science similar to previous findings in this area (e.g. Czerniak et al., 2005; Southerland, 2013). This study further supports the connection between sustained, collaborative, professional

123


857

development models that include the Desimone’s (2009) core conceptual framework to student learning outcomes (e.g. Johnson & Fargo, 2010; Johnson et al., 2007). Interestingly, TPD participation translated into gains for all students, including the Hispanic population. As a result, our findings provide additional support linking inquiry-based learning environments to growth in performance on state mandated science assessments for all students. More importantly, participation in the TPD model produced gains for the large Hispanic population at this school and TPD may be an intervention that can help to bridge achievement gaps while enhancing the learning of other populations as well. Students at Burns Elementary School and Johnson Elementary School were followed beginning in fourth grade through the end of their sixth grade year to determine what, if any, impact teacher participation in TPD had on their performance on end of year state science assessments. A limitation of this study is that it focused only on a few schools, thus influencing the generalizability of findings. The implications for elementary science teacher education, as well as overall teacher education research and practice are several. First, our knowledge base on the necessary components of effective professional development has evolved into an articulated framework (Desimone, 2009) that was further substantiated through this study. Professional development programs must have a clear and strong content focus, including the majority of activities delivered in an active learning mode. This is particularly important for elementary science education, as many teachers do not have a strong science content background or a firm grasp of how to use inquiry and engage students in authentic investigations. Professional development programs must also involve a critical mass of teachers from the school, be coherent with school/district policies and academic standards, and teacher beliefs. Further, professional development must have sufficient duration, both with contact hours and spread across the school year for teachers to receive support during implementation to insure fidelity. This study revealed participation in TPD supported teachers to transform their practice resulting in a significant impact on traditional state science assessments for all students, including English Language Learners. This finding is powerful and key to supporting reform of elementary science teaching, as many elementary classrooms have been reduced to focusing on direct instruction types of pedagogy with increased focus nationally on accountability (e.g., Lee & Luykx, 2006). Students can learn more, develop deeper conceptual understanding and perform significantly better on state standardized assessments through authentic, inquiry-based science learning—as revealed in this study. Therefore, our understandings of how to better support elementary science teachers in reforming their practice are enhanced through this study of the TPD model. Future research in science education and teacher education overall should continue to explore professional development models generally, as well as those focused on improving science effectiveness specifically, to continue to develop our understandings of effective models for professional development. Acknowledgments The research reported in this manuscript was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant number R305A090145 to The University of Cincinnati. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the U.S. Department of Education.

123

858


References Atwater, M. M. (1994). Research on cultural diversity in the classroom. In. D. L. Gabel (Ed.), Handbook of research on science teaching and learning (pp. 558–576). New York: Macmillan. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Bryan, L. A., & Atwater, M. M. (2002). Teacher beliefs and cultural models: A challenge for science teacher preparation programs. Science Education, 86, 821–839. Buxton, C. (2009). Science inquiry, academic language, and civic engagement. Democracy in Education, 18(3), 17–22. Buxton, C., Lee, O., & Santau, A. (2008). Promoting science among English language learners: Professional development for today’s culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 19, 495–511. Calabrese Barton, A., & Lee, O. (2006). NARST equity and ethics committee: A call to action. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 875–878. Chamot, A., & O’Malley, M. (1994). The CALLA handbook. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Czerniak, C. M., Beltyukova, S., Struble, J., Haney, J. J., & Lumpe, A. T. (2005). Do you see what I see? The relationship between a professional development model and student achievement. In R. E. Yager (Ed.), Exemplary science in grades 5–8: Standards-based success stories (pp. 13–43). Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualization and measures. Educational Researcher, 38, 181–199. Duran, R. P. (2008). Assessing English-language learners’ achievement. Review of Research in Education, 32, 292–327. Fradd, S. H., Lee, O., Sutman, F. X., & Saxton, M. K. (2002). Materials development promoting science inquiry with English language learners: A case study. Bilingual Research Journal, 25, 479–501. Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change. New York: Teachers College Press. Gibbons, B. A. (2003). Supporting elementary science education for English learners: A constructivist evaluation instrument. The Journal of Educational Research, 96, 371–380. Goldston, M. J., & Nichols, S. (2009). Visualizing culturally relevant science pedagogy through photonarratives of Black middle school teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 20, 179–198. Gonzalez, N., Moll, L., Tenery, M., Rivera, A., Rendon, P., Gonzales, R., & Amanti, C. (1995). Funds of knowledge for teaching in hispanic households. Urban Education, 29, 443–470. Gonzalez, N., Moll, L., & Amanti, C. (2005). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Howard, T. (2001). Telling their side of the story: African American students’ perceptions of culturally relevant teaching. The Urban Review, 33, 131–149. Johnson, C. C. (2011). The road to culturally relevant science: Exploring how teachers navigate change in pedagogy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48, 170–198. Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform through transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45, 4–29. Johnson, C. C., & Marx, S. (2009). Transformative professional development: A model for urban science education reform. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 20, 113–134. Johnson, C. C., Kahle, J. B., & Fargo, J. (2007). A study of sustained, whole-school, professional development on student achievement in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44, 775–786. Kahle, J. B., Meece, J., & Scantlebury, K. (2000). Urban African–American middle school science students: Does standards-based teaching make a difference. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 1019–1041. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 465–491. Lee, O. (2002). Science inquiry for elementary students from diverse backgrounds. In W. G. Secada (Ed.), Review of research in education (pp. 23–69). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Lee, O. (2003). Equity for culturally and linguistically diverse students in science education: A research agenda. Teachers College Record, 105, 465–489.

123


859

Lee, O. (2004). Teacher change in beliefs and practices in science and literacy instruction with English language learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 65–93. Lee, S., Butler, M. B., & Tippins, D. J. (2007). A case study of an early childhood teachers’ perspective working with English language learners. Multicultural Education, 15(1), 43–49. Lee, O., Buxton, C., Lewis, S., & LeRoy, K. (2005). Science inquiry and student diversity: Enhanced abilities and continuing difficulties after an instructional intervention. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 607–636. Lee, O., & Fradd, S. (1998). Science for all, including students from non-English-language backgrounds. Educational Researcher, 27, 12–21. Lee, O., & Luykx, A. (2006). Science education and student diversity: Synthesis and research agenda. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Lee, O., Penfield, R., & Maerten-Rivera, J. (2009). Effects of fidelity of implementation on science achievement gaps among English language learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46, 836–849. Lipman, P. (1995). Bringing out the best in them. In S. Loucks-Horsley, P. W. Hewson, N. Love, & K. Stiles (Eds.), Designing professional development for teachers of mathematics and science. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Loucks-Horsley, S., Hewson, P. W., Love, N., & Stiles, K. (2007). Designing professional development for teachers of mathematics and science. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Luykx, A., & Lee, O. (2007). Measuring instructional congruence in elementary science classrooms: Pedagogical and methodological components of a theoretical framework. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44, 424–447. McCandless, E., Rossi, R., & Doherty, S. (1997). Are limited English proficiency (LEP) students being taught by teachers with LEP training? (NCES 97-907). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Morrison, K. A., Robbins, H. H., & Rose, D. G. (2008). Operationalizing culturally relevant pedagogy: A synthesis of classroom-based research. Equity and Excellence in Education, 41, 433–452. National Center for Educational Statistics. (2012). The Nation’s Report Card: Science 2011. Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Nelson, D. E., & Fox, D. G. (1999). Technical manual for Utah state office of education core assessment series (2nd ed., form A). Salt Lake City, UT: Institute for Behavioral Research in Creativity. Pellegrino, J., Chudowsky, N., & Glaser, R. (Eds.). (2001). Knowing what students know: The science and design of educational assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Pew Hispanic Center. (2008). U.S. Population Projections: 2005–2050. www.pewhispanic.org/2008/02/ 11/us-population-projections-2005-2050/ Putnam, R., & Borko, H. (1997). Teacher learning: Implications of new views of cognition. In B. J. Biddle, T. L. Good, & I. F. Goodston (Eds.), The international handbook of teachers and teaching (pp. 1223–1296). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. Rodrı´guez, A., & Kitchen, R. S. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing prospective mathematics and science teachers to teach for diversity: Promising strategies for transformative action. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Southerland, S. A. (2012). Is it possible to teach ‘‘science for all’’ in a climate of accountability? Educational policy and the equitable teaching of science. In J. A. Bianchini, V. L. Akerson, A. Calabrese Barton, O. Lee, & A. J. Rodriguez (Eds.), Moving the equity agenda forward: Equity research, practice, and policy in science education (pp. 21–38). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. Southerland, S. A. (2013). The possibilities of teaching ‘‘Science for All’’ given national education policy: How policy influences the equitable teaching of science. In J. A. Bianchini, V. L. Akerson, A. Calabrese Barton, O. Lee & A. J. Rodriguez (Eds.), Moving the equity agenda forward: equity research, practice, and policy in science education (pp. 21–38). Netherlands: Kluwer. Stoddart, T., Pinal, A., Latzke, M., & Canaday, D. (2002). Integrating inquiry science and language development for English language learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 664–687. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.census. gov/prod/2008pubs/09statab/pop.p

123