When I was still a student in school, I used to admire the secondary division ... from four schools of which three were private fee-paying in Mount-Lebanon and ...
Title:
LEADERSHIP STYLES OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS: A MULTIPLE-CASE STUDY
A Thesis Submitted to the Department of English, Translation and Education (ETE) for a Master Thesis in School Leadership and Management Education, Notre Dame University-Louaize
By: Pascale Hajal-Chibani
Department of English, Translation, and Education Notre Dame University – Louaize Lebanon
Advisor: Dr. Kamal Abouchedid First Reader: Dr. Carol Ann Goff-Kfouri Second Reader: Dr. Rita El-Meouchy
Dedication
To my Lord, Creator, and Savior To my precious love, Wessam To my treasured Charbel To the memory of my mother to whom I owe my life and what I am
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Declaration
The work submitted in this thesis is the result of my own work, except when otherwise stated. Any errors or inconsistencies that appear in the thesis are those of the author.
Pascale Hajal-Chibani Signature
__________________________________________
Date ______________________________________
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Acknowledgements I express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Kamal Abouchedid for his guidance throughout the research process and who went an extra mile in advising and helping me. I am indebted to Dr. Carol Ann Goff-Kfouri, who has always been at my side in my difficult and stressful moments. I am thankful to Dr. Rita El-Meouchy for her valuable feedback and continuous support. I would also like to thank Ms. Diala El-Mast for helping me with data entry on the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). I am also grateful to my parents who guided me throughout my education until I reached this level and to my dear husband Wessam Chibani for always being there to support me.
When I was still a student in school, I used to admire the secondary division principal’s leadership style. I have never thought of reaching a stage where I study how to teach and continue my education to seek to be a leader in my community because leadership means a lot to me. Therefore, I am grateful to all schoolteachers and principals who agreed to participate in the study as well as the schools that gave me access to data collection and thereby allowed me to study the topic of leadership in schools, which has always grabbed my attention.
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Abstract This study was set to explore the leadership styles among school principals as measured by the Leadership Orientations Questionnaire (LOQ) developed by Bolman and Deal (1991). The LOQ has two forms: one is self-rated by principals, and the other is addressed to schoolteachers to rate their principals on two dimensions: behavior and leadership. Under these two dimensions there are four subscales called frames. These are: the structural frame, human resource frame, political frame and symbolic frame. The subjects involved in the study were 8 school principals and 158 schoolteachers drawn from four schools of which three were private fee-paying in Mount-Lebanon and one public situated in Beirut.
The study used the LOQ and a structured interview to gather data on the leadership styles of school principals. A pilot study was conducted to ascertain the reliability and validity of the LOQ and the clarity of the questions asked in the interviews. Pilot study results showed that this kind of research was comparable to Bolman and Deal's (1991) study and useful to gain understanding of the leadership style of school principals as received by both the principals themselves and schoolteachers.
Access to schools was secured by means of informed consent signed by the subjects participating in the study. Both quantitative and qualitative data analyses were conducted. Main results showed that the principals rating was the most as human resource frame. As to teacher ratings of the principals in relation to leadership frames, the principals were rated the highest on structural frame in Section I and Section II. Moreover, the majority of the teachers think that the principals that they work with are Structural. 5
The study concluded with recommendations addressed to school principals, teachers, education policymakers and researchers interested in furthering the understanding of leadership styles in educational contexts in Lebanon. Such styles have clear implications on how school affairs are internally managed.
Keywords: Leadership, Leadership Styles, Structural, Human Resource, Political, Symbolic.
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Table of Contents DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 4 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 5 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 9 CHAPTER ONE ..........................................................................................................................................13 BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM AND CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ........................................13 I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................13 II. EDUCATION IN LEBANON ......................................................................................................................13 1. The development of the school system in Lebanon ..........................................................................13 2. Types of schools ................................................................................................................................15 3. Distribution of teachers according to employment status and qualifications ..................................16 4. The national curriculum...................................................................................................................18 III. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM ........................................................................................................22 IV. OBJECTIVES .........................................................................................................................................22 V. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ..........................................................................................................................23 VI. RATIONALE .........................................................................................................................................23 VII. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................23 CHAPTER TWO .........................................................................................................................................26 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY .....................................................................26 I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................26 II. APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP ...............................................................................................................26 1. Bolman and Deal’s (1995) theory .....................................................................................................27 III. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS ....................................................................................................................33 IV. HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS OF THEORIES ...........................................................................................34 V. INTERNATIONAL STUDIES OF LEADERSHIP ............................................................................................39 VI. SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................................................49 VII. LEBANESE STUDIES OF LEADERSHIP ...................................................................................................50 VIII. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................50 CHAPTER THREE.....................................................................................................................................53 THE RESEARCH DESIGN OF THE STUDY .........................................................................................53 I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................53 II. DESIGN OF THE STUDY ..........................................................................................................................53 III. THE SCHOOL SAMPLE ...........................................................................................................................55 IV. METHODS ............................................................................................................................................56 1- Sample .............................................................................................................................................56 2. Questionnaire...................................................................................................................................61 3. Interviews .........................................................................................................................................66 4. Replication .......................................................................................................................................67 5. The pilot study ..................................................................................................................................67 V. ACCESS TO SCHOOLS.............................................................................................................................69 VI. DATA ANALYSES .................................................................................................................................70 1. Quantitative .....................................................................................................................................70 VII. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY...............................................................................................................71 VIII. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................73 CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................................................74
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THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................74 I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................74 II. TEACHERS RATING THEIR PRINCIPALS ...................................................................................................74 1. Marginal ..........................................................................................................................................74 2. Independent t-test..............................................................................................................................83 3. One-Way Analysis of Variance Results (ANOVA) (teachers).............................................................85 4. Correlation.......................................................................................................................................87 III. QUALITATIVE FINDINGS .......................................................................................................................88 IV. SUMMARY OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE FINDINGS.................................................................91 V. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................91 CHAPTER FIVE .........................................................................................................................................92 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ....................................................................................................................92 I. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS CHAPTERS .............................................................................................92 II. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS ...............................................................................................................92 CHAPTER SIX ..........................................................................................................................................101 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................................101 I. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................101 II. RECOMMENDATIONS ...........................................................................................................................104 ENGLISH REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................107 ARABIC REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................118 LIST OF APPENDIXES ...........................................................................................................................119
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Introduction
Since I was a student in school, I admired the secondary division principal1’s leadership style, particularly being strict, but at the same time fair. The school principal was also a good listener and well organized in her work. Her performance was a role model for me as I wanted always to emulate her in the future when I grew up. Like the rest of my classmates who assigned to themselves future roles without necessarily understanding them, I thought I would have a certain role in school when I became adult. However, although I was impressed by the way our school principal handled various classroom affairs, I have never thought of reaching a stage where I study how to teach and continue my education to seek a leadership position in educational institutions because leadership means a lot to me.
After I have started working on my master’s courses at Notre Dame University-Louaize (NDU), many ideas about leadership styles started to draw my attention, but this time not as a child, but as a schoolteacher and a mother. I realized that principals around the school in which I teach and in different ones as well have different leadership styles and deal with their staff members differently and respond to their professional needs in different ways. To borrow from (Mosbacker, 2009), these ranged from being fair to unfair, authoritative to authoritarian or permissive. My observation of school principals’ leadership styles stimulated my curiosity to study it further in academic terms.
1
As it apperars in this study, the school principal is the head of each division.
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While doing my early literature search on the topic, I was surprised to find that this subject was not previously studied in Lebanese schools. This was yet another motivation to study leadership styles in schools. It is worth mentioning that I found a number of national reports and studies that dealt with educational issues in Lebanon. Among these was high drop-out rates, particularly in grade 9 (Vision Document, 2006)2; shortage of school inspectors (80 inspectors for 30,000 employees in the educational institutions) (Bashshur, 1999), and shortage of qualified teachers. Regarding this later, analysis of raw data obtained from the website of the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD) for the school year 20052006 shows that about 46% of schoolteachers in Lebanon are holders of the Lebanese Baccalaureate Part II and below. These figures provide a bleak picture of the level of educational attainment of these teachers and raises concerns with regards to their academic and cultural backgrounds, and thereby their ability to capitalize on modern styles of pedagogy outlined in the new national curriculum of 1997. Moreover, according to figures obtained from CERD in 2006-07, the distribution of teachers according to age by sector shows that the age group over the 41-year-old category is the most numerically distributed in public schools. This signifies that the education these teachers received decades ago may be obsolete compared to evolving modern educational philosophies and related styles of pedagogy; hence, the educational background of these schoolteachers may not render itself to answering emerging needs in the classroom environment; particularly in elementary cycles, which represent a main stage for the early cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development of children.
2
Unpublished document developed in 2007 by the Lebanese Association of Educational Studies (LAES).
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In addition, the teachers' role in modern education not only depends on education which is based on theoretical lectures, but also includes operations aimed at developing the practical skills of thinking, perception and creativity in the students’ self-learning and exploration, research, synthesis, as well as guidance to how to acquire knowledge, skills, life, and human values. Preparation and training focuses on the development of teacher competence and capacity to implement active teaching, classroom management skills through lesson planning, answering questions, communication skills, and guidance (Menizel & Alwan, 1997). More importantly is that these teachers are supervised by school principals who do not have degrees in school management and administration. The conditions for appointing school principals in public schools are not being applied as is the case that principals should take and pass a course in educational administration offered at the Lebanese University before their appointment goes into effect as stipulated in Law 320 dated 5/4/2001. In private schools, very little is known as to how school principals are appointed and on which criteria. Thus, very little is known about how these principals actually direct their schools and what style of leadership they use in administering school affairs.
The above concerns engaged me further in designing my research. For example, there are numerous tools for measuring leadership styles in the literature. However, I chose the Leadership Orientation Questionnaire (LOQ) which was developed by Bolman and Deal (1991), because it uses simple and straightforward language and the frames they talked about were what I was observing before I started my study.
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This thesis is concerned with measuring leadership styles among school principals in four schools. Details on the research problem, literature review, and research design of the study will follow in the appropriate chapters. In addition to this introduction, this thesis is structured as follows:
Chapter one presents the background of the research problem and describes the context of the study. Particularly, it reviews the school system in Lebanon upon which this study was conducted. It identifies the rationale, objectives, and research questions of the study.
Chapter two presents the theoretical framework of the study and reviews pertinent literature on both international and local focusing on the Lebanese leadership theories and competency frameworks. It also focuses on the Bolman and Deal theory especially that their Leadership Orientation Questionnaire (LOQ) was adapted for data collection.
Chapter three offers an overview of the design of the study. In addition, it describes the procedures that were followed in order to analyze the questionnaires and the interview. It also discusses the limitations of the study.
Chapter four presents the results of the study obtained from fieldwork.
Chapter five discusses the findings of the study, both quantitative and qualitative.
Chapter six concludes and presents recommendations for future research. 12
Chapter One Background of the Problem and Context of the Study
I. Introduction This chapter describes the school system in Lebanon and related characteristics upon which this study was conducted. Then, it presents the problem which this study seeks to address. It describes the rationale of the study, its objectives and research questions. The information gathered for this chapter came from the following sources: the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD), books, journal articles, legislative decrees and other relevant documents.
II. Education in Lebanon This section presents information about the following: the development of the school system in Lebanon; types of schools; distribution of schools by sector; the distribution of schoolteachers by their employment status; and the national curriculum. Reference to higher education as well as vocational training and education will be excluded as the study is concerned with schools. 1. The development of the school system in Lebanon The schools in Lebanon are traceable to important historical events. According to Salibi (1965), under the Ottoman-French Concordat of 1516, Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire granted France Capitulation in cultural and economic affairs that allowed it to incept the early foundations of Western philosophies of education in the Levant. The early establishment of private schools took place in Mount-Lebanon by 13
missionaries, both Jesuit and Protestants. According to Bashshur (1988), missionary education took the form of religious preaching as guided by two competing missionaries, the Jesuits and the Protestants. This, in turn, led to the establishment of more educational institutions, run by Jesuits or Protestant missionaries who introduced Western philosophies of education into Lebanon. These schools have long traditions and still operate in our present days; for instance, the first modern school in Lebanon which was established in 1734 by the Jesuits in the village of Ayn Tura, the seminary in Ghazir in 1848 (Szliowcz 1973) which was confirmed by the Pope as a university in 1881 (Hitti, 1957) and a school for girls in 1846 which provided the first opportunity for women in the area to acquire education. Furthermore, in 1874 the famous Catholic school, Al Hikma (La Sagesse) was established and the Greek Orthodox founded the Thalathat Akmar in 1852 (Salibi, 1965; Hitti, 1957). On the other hand, Muslims founded their own schools for the education of their communities. They had established Al Madrassah Al Uthmania (The Ottoman School) in 1897 and the well known philanthropic school Al Maqassed in 1877 (Bashshur, 1988). By the 18th century each confessional community in Lebanon had its own private educational institutions which are maintained until the present (2010).
Political developments under the French Mandate of Lebanon emphasized the process of giving confessional communities greater freedom in educational and cultural affairs (Khalil, 1962). When France declared Greater Lebanon as a potentially viable state in 1920, its mandatory authorities organized education along particularistic confessional lines and ignored its national secular role (Khalil, 1962) according to Article 8 of the French Mandate which guaranteed the right of each community to maintain its own 14
schools for the instruction of its own members in its own language, while conforming to general educational requirements imposed by the administration shall not be denied or impaired. Article 10 of the Lebanese Constitution of May 23, 1926 reiterated Article 8 of the French Mandate by according confessional communities the right to run their own private schools, provided they did not infringe on public order (CERD, 2007).
The stipulation of Article 10 of the Constitution reflected the desire of leading political and confessional circles to put the socialization process of schoolchildren in “private hands” with minimal state authority over private schools. With the establishment of the government-run public schools particularly following independence in 1943 Lebanon’s school system became complete, though diversified, since it accommodated private schools (CERD, 2007).
2. Types of schools Schools in Lebanon are of two types: private, which includes philanthropic and foreign schools; and public schools which are funded and supervised by the state (Bashshur, 1988). However, officially, schools in Lebanon are of three types; public (nonfee paying), private (fee-paying) and private subsidized by the government. As of the 2006-2007 school year, there were 2812 schools, of which 50% were public, 35% private fee-paying, and 13.4% private subsidized (CERD, 2006-2007).
The administration of public schools is centralized and is run by the Ministry of Education (Legislative Decree number 10832, October 9, 1962). On the other hand, private schools 15
are run either by confessional communities, or private association and individuals as legitimized by Article 10 of the Lebanese Constitution of May 23, 1926 and by Decrees number 7962 May 1, 1931 and number 7000 October 1, 1946. These school accommodate a total of 917, 877 students as of 2006-07 (CERD, 2007). These students are distributed by sectors as shown in figure 1-1 below. FIGURE 1-1 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS BY SECTOR
Distribution of students by sector
51% 36%
14%
Public
Private fee-paying
Subsidized
While there are more public schools than private both subsidized and fee-paying, the numbers of students in the private sector outnumber those in the public sector. 3. Distribution of teachers according to employment status and qualifications a. Employment status The total number of teachers during the 2006-2007 school-year was 87,757 (CERD, 2007), of whom 45.5% were in the public sector, 47% in the private sector, and 7.5% in private subsidized schools.
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One of the main problems is that one third of teachers are not found in the school as fulltimers to follow up their students. Figure 2-1 shows the number of teachers according to the sectors of education and status in the academic year 2006-2007 as obtained from CERD (2007). FIGURE 2-1.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO EMPLOYMENT STATUS ON THE SECTORS OF EDUCATION
b. Qualifications
Through the analysis of data obtained from the website CERD on the level of educational attainment of teachers for school year 2005-2006, 46% of the total teachers in Lebanon have certificates of elementary education or the Lebanese Baccalaureate Part II and below. Because of these low standards and qualifications, schoolteachers are likely to 17
lack skills and teaching methodologies, particularity with regards to implementing the new curriculum. In addition, policies and measures adopted in recent years have further nourished the decline in the efficiency of the teaching workforce in schools due to the increasing number of appointed school teachers in the public sector with low academic background and limited professional skills suitable to performing effective classroom teaching. This disparaging situation is verified by existing research on the conditions of schoolteachers in basic education in Lebanon (Lutz, 2007 & Constantine, 2008). 4. The national curriculum
This section summarizes the new curriculum in Lebanon which came after 29 years of the old curriculum of 1968 and 27 years after the reforms of 1970 which only targeted the intermediate cycle. In other words, the new curriculum was the first initiative after the civil war to address stagnant curricula. The sections that follow summarize the rationale for the reforms, the new curriculum and a summary as a prelude to the statement of the problem.
a. Reforms
Since the Taif Agreement in 1989, the Lebanese state has initiated reforms in education under the Council of Ministers Resolution No. 15/94 of 17 August 1994, which approved the project of "Education Development Plan" prepared by the Center for Education Research and Development (CERD), as amended by the Committee in charge of by the Council of Ministers No. 26/93 dated 10 October 1994. The rationale for the reforms was penned by former Minister of Education, Mr. Mikhael El Daher as follows: 18
1. The absence of public education policy, and the ambiguity of the objectives of curricula that embody them, and weak relation with life and the labor market, which led to the low level of education academic year; 2. The suffering of educational administration and by extension faculty in terms of the following: - Lack of school management to the human elements of qualified principals and has been exacerbated by events; - Non-compliance with the requirements of engineering and health and education should be available in school buildings and equipment; The new plan was based on the dimensions of intellectual and humanitarian belief in Lebanon as a country of freedom and democracy enshrined in the Constitution and by law and maintained, and belief in the values and principles that respect human rights, national and in particular, Lebanon is a sovereign, free and independent, the ultimate homeland for all its citizens, Arab in its identity and belonging. On 27 March 1997 the Council of Ministers approved the new curriculum called the New Framework for Education in Lebanon by Decree 10227 dated May 8, 1997.
b. The New Framework for Education
The new framework for education in Lebanon structures the new and current national curriculum into four main cycles. Preschool education is at the lowest educational ladder and includes kindergarten. This cycle is followed by basic education, which is structured into two cycles: six years of primary education, and lower secondary education that lasts for three years. This latter is sub-divided into two options: general 19
education and qualification module-based vocational training. Moreover, primary and lower-secondary education makes up basic education which is normally completed by a student at the age of 15. There remain two main options after the successful completion of basic education. These are: general secondary education leading to the Baccalaureate with four mainstream educational options, namely, socio-economic, humanities, life sciences and general sciences; or technical education and vocational training offered for those who would consider vocational education (see figure 3-1). After 12 years of schooling, students are eligible to apply to higher education. FIGURE 3-1: ORGANIZATION PLAN FOR DIFFERENT LEVELS IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION
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c. Summary
From the preceding presentation, a number of issues can be synthesized, perhaps the most important of which, and most relevant for the focus of this study, is the increasing number of contractual teachers in both private and public schools which can 21
have its implications on the quality of teaching and follow up of students’ learning as well as a challenge to school principals.
III. Introduction to the problem According to the vision document of the Lebanese Association for Educational Studies (LAES) submitted to the World Bank in 2007 as part of a new reform initiative for education in Lebanon, and the Strategy 2015 document developed by the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD), the appointment of school principals in Lebanon suffers from: 1) lack of adherence to the minimum conditions specified in the laws that govern the appointment of school principals; 2) absence of a system of performance appraisal for school principals; and 3) no institutionalization for preparing principals in leadership and educational administration. This last point glosses over the identification of existing leadership styles among school principals which this study seeks to address. IV. Objectives
The objectives of the study are: (1) to examine leadership styles of school principals as measured by Bolman and Deal (1991) after adapting it to the Lebanese context; (2) to compare differences in leadership styles among schools in Lebanon in general and by sector in particular; and (3) to provide recommendations for improving performance of leadership in the schools.
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V. Research questions The research questions of the study are: 1. What are the leadership styles of school principals in Lebanon as measured by 2. Are there differences in leadership styles among schools in Lebanon in general and by sector in particular? 3. What recommendations can be offered to future research and approaches in enhancing leadership styles of school principals in schools in Lebanon?
VI. Rationale This study is to advance knowledge of leadership styles in the school system in Lebanon. The rationale is rooted in the following: 1. Leadership3 styles of school principals in schools is a matter of public concern; 2. There is need to provide data on leadership that might be helpful to set standards for appointing qualified principals; and 3. There is need to improve the standards of school principals in Lebanon.
VII. Conclusion
This chapter provided an overview of the school system in Lebanon upon which this study was conducted. It identified the problem which this study seeks to address, the
3
Leadership is an act of having influence on the activities of an organized group in its attempts to set and achieve its goals (Stodgill, 1997). 23
rationale, objectives, and research questions. The chapter that follows presents the theoretical framework of the study.
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Chapter Two The Theoretical Framework of the Study
I. Introduction
This chapter establishes the theoretical framework of the study as basis for the research design and analysis of the data gathered that will be presented in chapter four. Then, it will review the pertinent literature as it relates to the conceptual framework presented.
II. Approaches to leadership
This section will focus on the recent approaches to leadership; one of which is the primary concern of this study, namely leadership frames4. Leadership styles are approaches used by various leaders to guide people. They are used to get various plans and tasks accomplished successfully. They vary according to the situation, leader, or the task to be accomplished. Although there are numerous organizational theories, Bolman’s and Deal (1991;1997) Four Frame Model of Leadership is well-suited for this study because of its
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Leadership Frames: Bolman and Deal’s (1991) categorization of leaders’ views and actions into four frames concerning their leadership styles The structural frame: It emphasizes rationality, efficiency, structure, and policies. The human resource frame: It focuses on the interaction between individual and organizational needs. The political frame: It deals with conflict among different groups and interests for scarce resources. The symbolic frame: It pays diligent attention to myth, stories, ceremony, ritual, meaning, and other symbolic forms (Bolman & Deal,1994).
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prevalent use in educational research, particularly research focused on higher education settings. Educational leaders such as school principals must work within the organizational structure of a school board, a superintendent, and building teachers. Bolman and Deal’s (1995) theory on organizational structures and environments establishes four frames or styles of leadership in organizations: human resources; political; symbolic, and structural. According to Bolman and Deal, these styles impact the productivity of subordinates. This categorization is further tested in this study because: (1) it guides the characterization of leadership styles in schools; (2) it helps understand the way the school environment works; (3), it helps suggest preferred leadership styles for better school functioning.
1. Bolman and Deal’s (1995) theory
According to Sasnett & Ross (2007), Bolman and Deal attribute human qualities to organizations when attempting to define them as ‘‘having huge appetites’’ and almost consuming unlimited resources, but often producing unsatisfying results. Several theories have emerged so as to analyze organizations. Rational system theorists focus on organizational goals, roles, and technology. The fit between the organizational structure and environment is of prime importance. Human resource theorists emphasized the relationship between people and organizations. Their main focus is to develop the best fit between people’s skills and needs, and the values of the organization. Political theorists regard power, conflict, and the distribution of scarce resources as the central issues in organizations. Symbolic theorists, on the other hand, focus on meaning and manager’s 27
abilities to bring about organizational unity through power and rationality. One can infer that Burrell and Morgan’s ( 1988) four paradigms constituted the basis of Bolman’s and Deal leadership frames. Similarly they regard those paradigms as ways of seeing the world in a particular way as that of Bolman and Deal with the same framework thinking (Burrell & Morgan, 1988). The functionalist paradigm is concerned with providing explanations of the status quo, social order, consensus, social integration, solidarity, need satisfaction and actuality. It focuses on the effective regulation, maintaining order and equilibrium, and the control of social affairs (Burrell & Morgan, 1988). In that respect it reflects the basic assumptions of the political frame which purports that conflict is inherent in organizations and the main issue is to build negotiation and form coalitions to preserve the status quo (Sasnett & Ross, 2007). The interpretive paradigm tries to explain the nature of the social world through individual consciousness and subjectivity. Social reality exists within the consciousness of a single individual. It is formed by a network of assumptions and inter-subjectively shared meanings (Burrell & Morgan, 1988). Similarly, the symbolic frame focuses on meaning, belief, and faith (Sasnett & Ross, 2007). The radical humanist paradigm claims that a human being should be exempt from all the constraints which are inherent in social arrangements and hinder human development. For the radical humanists, human beings can be released from all the spiritual bonds and responsibilities which tie them into existing social patterns and thus realize their full potential (Burrell & Morgan, 1988). Likewise, the human resource frame attaches utmost importance to human needs and interests and tries to make the organization fit its people (Sasnett & Ross, 2007). The radical structuralist paradigm concentrates upon structural 28
relationships within a realistic social world. It tries to provide explanations for the basic interrelationships within the context of total social formations (Burrell & Morgan, 1988). Similarly, the structural frame focuses upon rules, policies and standard operating procedures. Organizational problems occur as organizations can not strike a delicate balance between differentiation and integration (Sasnett & Ross, 2007). Bolman and Deal justify their choice of the label “frames” by saying that frames are windows of the world and they act as filters by letting things in easily while leaving out some others. Also, they report that frames aid us to, order the world, and decide what action to take. They conclude that only when managers can look at organizations through multiple frames are they likely to understand the depth and complexity of organizational life. The following sections will elaborate on each leadership frame in detail.
a. Structural Leadership According to McCabe (2003), Bolman and Deal discuss that in a school context, the structural leadership is used to get teaching and administrative jobs done in a structured manner including rules, policies, standard operating procedures, information systems, and meetings. Control is very important in the structural leadership style. The extent to which this model characterizes many Lebanese schools can be further tested. Based on whether these schools were public or private and/or pattern after certain models of education; such as, the Francophone or the Anglophone, culture influences the adoption of a particular leadership style (UNESCO, 2003) that focus on: 1) How to divide the work (differentiation); 2) how to coordinate the work of different people and units after it has been divided (integration). Because structural leaders value analysis and data, focus on the lower levels, set clear directions, hold people responsible for results, 29
and attempt to solve organizational problems with new policies and rules (McCabe, 2003), they may represent a specific segment of leaders in Lebanese schools whose style is worth evaluating in light of teachers’ attitudes and perceptions towards his/her style.
b. Human Resource Leadership According to McCabe (2003), Bolman and Deal discuss that human resource leadership maintains that an organization’s most critical resources are people’s skills, insights, ideas, energy, and commitment. The human resource leadership frame is based on the following: Organizations serve human needs (physiological, social, self-esteem and self-actualization); organizations and people need each other; and organizations need skill, energy, and ideas. Similarly, people need work opportunities, salaries, and careers. The principal, the teachers as well as the political parties will benefit when they find meaningful and satisfying work, and organizations get the human skill and energy that they need. Human resource leaders while trying to lead through facilitation and empowerment, they also value relationships, and individuals’ feelings. As stated in their mission statements many private schools in Lebanon, due to their philanthropic philosophy, are likely to adopt the human resource frame.
c. Political Leadership According to McCabe (2003), Bolman and Deal discuss that political leadership view schools as political arenas that have a variety of individual and group interests and are made up of different individuals and interest groups. For example, hierarchical levels, departments, professional groups, gender and ethnic subgroups. Differences exist among individuals and groups in their values, preferences, beliefs, and information. 30
Distributions of scarce resources, which constitute decisions about who gets what, are critical decisions in organizations. Power is the most important resource, and conflict is inevitable, for resources are scarce and there are enduring differences among people. In these schools, goals and decisions are likely to emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and competition for position among members of different groups. Because there is competition over scarce resources such as salary increase and promotion among groups from different backgrounds and interest in Lebanese schools, this frame is likely to emerge in these schools regardless of sector and affiliation to a certain confessional community or political group. It would be interesting to look into the dynamics of how conflicts are approached by school principals of this leadership style frame who tend to encourage contradiction and focus on networking, building coalitions and power bases and compromises.
d. Symbolic Leadership According to McCabe (2003), Bolman and Deal discuss that symbolic leadership interprets meaning and faith that make symbols of the human experience, including organizations and schools. The importance of events lie in their meaning and the same events are subject to different interpretations by those involved in it, i.e., school principals and teachers as is the case of the present study. Many of the significant events and processes in schools are difficult to interpret and it is difficult to use rational approaches to analysis, problem solving, and decision making when the ambiguity and uncertainty is overwhelming. Many schools are processes which are more important for what they represent than for what they cause; they are myths, rituals, and ceremonies that aid people to find meaning and order in their life experiences. Rituals and ceremonies 31
serve four major roles: to socialize, to stabilize, to reduce worries and uncertainties, and to communicate messages to external and internal constituencies. Deal and Petersen(1994) state that school leaders adopt eight major symbolic roles: Historian: tries to understand the past of the school; Anthropological sleuth: seeks to understand the existing set of norms, value and beliefs that define the current culture; Visionary: collaborates with other leaders and the community to define a highly value focused picture of the future for the school which constantly evolves; Symbol: conveys values through clothing, behavior, attention, and routines; Pattern: shapes and is also shaped by the school’s heroes, rituals, traditions, ceremonies, and symbols; Poets: communicate with powerful words and images invoked from the heart which reflects influential sentiments; Actors: act in social dramas- the various stages of activity in the school in the form of a theatre play. School leader may seize such dramas as an opportunity to solve problems and redirect the school; Healers: recognize the difficulty of transitions and plan events that make the transition a collective experience which brings people together (Ibid). How to find and identify these attributes among school principals in Lebanese schools could be a difficult endeavor as it entails an in-depth investigation in their locus of control, which is beyond the scope of this study. However, it remains testable for comparison with the rest of leadership frames identified earlier.
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Leadership has had a great impact on the culture, history, and civilization of humankind; where for its theoretical explanations have been discussed throughout history. Although the term leadership is mostly associated with industry and business, it is of great importance to education as well. This is why this section will provide a historical background to theories of leadership as rooted in business and industry. Then, this section will explain the objectives of the study by providing a review of literature on leadership in educational contexts. The literature will cover international and local studies in Lebanon as available. For purpose of clarity, it is worth providing conceptual definitions of the term leader and related theories pertinent to the present study.
III. Definition of concepts
Bass (1990) argues that the appearance of the word ‘‘leader’ ’in the English language goes as far back as the year 1300, and the word ‘‘leadership’’ did not appear until the first half of the 19th century. Furthermore, he claims that it did not reveal itself in the most other modern languages until recent times. In fact, leadership has been a complex phenomenon about which many theories have been developed. There are numerous definitions about what it is and under what conditions it reveals itself. As Tead (1935, page 18) described, leadership is an ‘‘… activity of influencing people to cooperate towards the same goal which they come to find desirable” as it can be understood from that statement it necessitates an interaction between the two constituents: those who lead and those who follow. Leaders cannot exist without followers and vice versa (Slater, 1995). 33
People have been looking for direction, purpose and meaning to guide their collective activities. Therefore, leadership is needed to foster purpose, direction, imagination, and passion, especially in times of crisis or rapid change. At such times, people look to leaders for hope, inspiration, and a pathway which will lead them to somewhere more desirable (Bolman & Deal, 1994). IV. Historical backgrounds of theories
According to Bolden, Gosling, Marturano, and Dennison (2003), leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century; leadership has been thought of as a concept, which is primarily male, military, and Western. This has led to the next school of Trait Theories. The lists of traits associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. The adjectives in the dictionary describe and concentrate on what leaders do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as ‘styles of leadership’. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing Managers. This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. This elaboration of the situational viewpoint focuses on identifying the situational variables, which best call out the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances.
This approach stresses the importance of the relationship
between leader and followers focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return 34
for the commitment or loyalty of the followers. The central concept here is the change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organizational performance from ‘Great Man’ to ‘Transformational’ leadership (see table 1-1). Every theory has an individualistic perspective of the leader although a school of thought gaining increasing recognition is that of “dispersed” leadership. This approach, with its foundations in sociology, psychology, and politics rather than management science, views leadership as a process that is spread throughout an organization rather than lying solely with the formally designated ‘leader’. The emphasis thus shifts from developing ‘leaders’ to developing ‘super leaders’ organizations with a collective responsibility for leadership (Bolden, et al., 2003). The Trait Approach arose from the “Great Man” theory as a way of identifying the key characteristics of successful leaders. It was believed that through this approach critical leadership traits could be isolated and that people with such traits could then be recruited, selected, and installed into leadership positions. This approach was common in the military and is still used as a set of criteria to select candidates for commissions. The results of the trait studies were inconclusive. Another approach in the study of leadership had to be found because traits, amongst other things, were hard to measure. After the publication of the late Douglas McGregor's classic book The Human Side of Enterprise in 1960, attention shifted to ‘behavioral theories.’ McGregor was a teacher, researcher, and consultant whose work was considered to be "on the cutting edge" of managing people. He influenced all the behavioral theories, which emphasize the focus on human relationships, along with output and performance (Bolden, et al., 2003).
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The leadership strategy of effectively-used participative management proposed in Douglas McGregor's book has had a tremendous impact on managers. The most publicized concept is McGregor's thesis that leadership strategies are influenced by a leader's assumptions about human nature. As a result of his experience as a consultant, McGregor summarized two contrasting sets of assumptions made by managers in industry. Theory X, managers believe that first the average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. Second because of this human characteristic, most people must be guided, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forward adequate effort to achieve organizational objectives. Third the average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all else. Theory Y, managers believe that first the expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest, and the average human being, under proper conditions, learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Second people will exercise selfdirection and self-control to achieve objectives to which they are committed. The capacity to exercise a relatively high level of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. And also the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized under the conditions of modern industrial life (Bobic & Davis, 2003). It can therefore be seen that a leader holding Theory X assumptions would prefer an autocratic style, whereas one holding Theory Y assumptions would prefer a more participative style. According to Guillén and González (2001), the Managerial Grid developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton focuses on task (production) and employee (people) 36
orientations of managers, as well as combinations of concerns between the two extremes. The first number refers to a leader's production or task orientation; the second, to people or employee orientation. Blake and Mouton propose that “Team Management,” a high concern for both employees and production, is the most effective type of leadership behavior. While behavioral theories may help managers develop particular leadership behaviors, they give little guidance as to what constitutes effective leadership in different situations. Indeed, most researchers today conclude that nobody’s leadership style is right for every manager under all circumstances. Instead, current positions discuss the attributes of leadership, charismatic leadership, and transactional as compared to transformational leadership. People naturally tend to attribute a logical effect to every cause; in other words, when something happens, we attribute it to something else; in the case of leadership, some theories conceive that it is itself an attribute that people contribute to others. It has been observed in organizations that people attribute extremely positive or negative results to certain attributes of the leader that explain the performance (Bolden, et al., 2003). On the other hand, charismatic leadership is explained as a super-human, or an extraordinary capacity of the leader when adopting certain patterns of behavior. These leaders are perceived as being original, self-assured, very committed to the goal, and as thorough agents of change, rather than as administrators of the status quo. A steadily growing body of research shows a correlation between the charismatic leader and the performance and satisfaction of the followers. While charisma itself cannot be learned; what can be learned are certain charismatic patterns of behavior. In general 37
terms, people speak of the need for charismatic leaders when the activity they carry out has a strong ideological factor. Practically, all theories of leadership are based on the patterns of behavior of the leaders, which places them within the framework of what is called transactional leadership. But there is another type, superior to all those described so far, called transformational leadership that affords the people being led the capacity to also question the points of view established by the leader (Jewish programs, 2006). TABLE 1-1. FROM ‘GREAT MAN’ TO ‘TRANSFORMATIONAL’ LEADERSHIP
Great Man Theories
Trait Theories
Behaviorist Theories
Situational Leadership
Contingency Theory
Transactional Theory
Transformational Theory
Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behaviour are observed and categorized as 'styles of leadership'. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing managers This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organization This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of 'contract' through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organizational performance 38
V. International studies of leadership
Leadership is one of the most examined and least understood phenomena of the social sciences (Antonakis, Cainciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990; Burns, 1978; Rost, 1991; Stogdill, 1997; Yukl, 2002). The concept of leadership has been studied from various perspectives and contexts, and the result is leadership theories that attempt to define and explain its complexities (Northouse, 1997; Rost, 1991). Each leadership theory has been observed thus adding to the ambiguity and researchers’ preoccupation with the study of leadership (Bass,1990; Stogdill, 1981; Yukl, 2002). According to Sanders (2009), leadership has been considered an ancient art. Evidence of leadership practice is noted in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Chinese classics, Greek mythology, and Biblical and historical stories that detail images of powerful individuals who accomplished admirable feats. These individuals were considered to be endowed with superhuman qualities, which only select few: have the elite and privileged (Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1981). The age old belief was that leadership was vital for organizational and societal functioning (Antonakis et al., 2004; Bass; Marzano, Walters, & McNulty, 2005; Stogdill, 1981). Theorists in the earliest part of the 20th century assumed that leadership effectiveness was directly related to exhibited characteristics and behaviors of the leaders (Bass, 1990; Rost, 1991; Stogdill, 1981). These were known as the “great man theories” of the 1900s. The unquestioned assumption applicable to leadership then and now, is that organizations succeed and thrive under good leadership and fail under poor leadership (Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1981; Yukl, 2002). During that time, the leader was dominant and the person assumed an authoritative role. This authoritative role invoked influence and control over others in a 39
relationship. Leadership, on the other hand, is the processes, actions, and relationships leaders engage in to be effective leaders. Essentially, theorists evaluated leadership effectiveness through observation (Sanders, 2009). Leaders were considered effective without regard to situational and other variables, which could have been determinants of effectiveness (Bass, 1990; Stogdill 1981; Yukl, 2002). Also there was not a concern for relationships between leadership effectiveness and organizational quality (Yukl, 2002). Nonetheless, scientific research on leadership was based on a disciplinary perspective (Bass, 1990; Rost, 1991; Yukl, 2002). The disciplinary approach focused on one aspect of leadership. Most of the 20th century researchers focused on leader behaviors and traits. The content of leadership is what leaders and followers of a particular organization need to know in order to influence one another in a leadership relationship. This was the idea of mainstream leadership theories (Sanders, 2009). By contrast, peripheral elements of leadership are the habits of leaders. From a scientific standpoint, peripheral elements are quantifiable and subject to statistical manipulation thus enabling researchers to generate empirical data. Scholars had confidence in the data and used it to define and prescribe behaviors associated with leadership effectiveness (Sanders, 2009). However, the results of these studies on the determinants of leadership effectiveness were inconclusive and contradictory (Yukl, 1989). The results provided no clear explanation on how traits were consistently associated with great leadership. Stogdill’s review of leadership studies cited by Yukl (1989) and Bass (1990) concluded that despite four decades of research, the data were unsuccessful in producing an integrated understanding of leadership. It can be assumed
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that the data was uncertain because of the narrow focus on leadership traits and behaviors. These generalizations were not fully valid. Rost’s critical stance on 20th century scholars’ approach to studying leadership suggests that there is “periphery and content” syndrome. The emphasis on the periphery and content of leadership excluded studying the nature of leadership as a process- the connection among leaders and followers and leadership as a dynamic relationship. Thus, suggesting that the “periphery and content” syndrome has limited the study of leaders and leadership, Rost states that there must be an emphasis of this focus and more concentration on understanding the processes of leadership. Rost extends his criticisms of ordinary leadership in several ways. He contends that the absence of a universal definition of leadership allows for any task performance or process to be used as criterion for leadership (Sanders, 2009). Conversely, Yukl and other scholars like Antonakis et al. (2004), Bass (1990), Stogdill (1981), Yukl (1989; 2002), and Northouse (1997) disagree with Rost and recognize that leadership is defined according to perspectives and the aspects of the phenomenon of interest. They suggest that the lack of a universal definition is not a perpetuation of confusion and ambiguity but rather a source of different perspectives on a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. This vagueness adds to the preoccupation with the practice of leadership. Antonakis et al. (2004), Bass (1990), Stogdill (1981), Yukl (1989; 2002), and Northouse (1997) agree that leadership, because of its complexity, is difficult to define. Some thoughts are that a universal definition may never be discovered. In spite of this, most definitions reflect the assumption that leadership is a process; leadership involves
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influence; leadership occurs within a group context; and that leadership involves goal attainment (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003; Rost, 1991). Rost (1991) also contends that mainstream theories failed to project for the new paradigm of leadership needed for the 21st century. Paradigm is defined as patterns of thinking. A new paradigm of leadership is needed: (1) To sustain organizations in a technological and diverse society; (2) To enable leaders to adapt to cultural, political and economic challenges; (3) Leadership involves first and second order changes; and (4) Women and minority groups have been included into the enclave of leadership thus requiring leadership to be studied from non-traditional perspectives (Sanders, 2009). Because of his contention, Rost (1991) believes no real progress in understanding the actual processes of leadership and understanding leadership relationships has been made. His critical stance implied that mainstream theorists should have gone against the status quo of their time. Rost has the benefit of hindsight to incorporate an anthropological, historical, political, and social scientist perspective on mainstream leadership theory (Sanders, 2009). Whereas, other theorists were influenced by the societal occurrences of the time that did not reflect, respect, or consider the perspectives of the mass population. Yukl (1989) and others would to some degree disagree with Rost since there is a better understanding of leadership traits, behavior, power, and situational factors that determine leadership effectiveness. Similarly, there is agreement that there is more to be learned about leadership processes and leadership relationships. Consequently, Rost (1991) stated that leadership in the 20th century focused on good management and not leadership. Moreover, his criticism is certainly open to debate since there is no precise conceptual distinction between leadership and management. As 42
management evolved from a more standardized to empowerment-oriented approach, there has been a need to transition to a multidisciplinary perspective of leadership to reflect developments in society. Leadership has been stated to be relative to societal demands (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). Regardless of the criticism and inadequacies of the early studies of leadership adamantly suggested by Rost (1991), mainstream leadership theories responded to and improved on the theories preceding them. Earlier leadership theories were inadequate because they failed to fully explain leadership as a process. These narratives focused on the transactional aspects of leadership that are necessary for organizational stability. The transactional aspects of leadership entail managing the operations of the organization. Although inadequate, the narratives continue to influence thought and evolution of contemporary leadership models like transformational-transactional leadership. This model focuses on both the managerial dimensions and the processes of leadership for organizational effectiveness (Sanders, 2009). The transition from an industrial to postindustrial paradigm in the United States and other Western countries placed leadership at the forefront of the agenda for both practitioners and scholars (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). The focus on leadership can be attributed to the changing context for the practice of leadership. Kouzes and Posner (2002) stated that the context for leadership has changed while the content has remained the same. Contrary to their assertion, it can be argued that the content of leadership has changed as well, because what leaders are expected to do is observably different. The content versus context distinction is an important one. Content refers to the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of an individual in a leadership position that are explicitly 43
outlined in documents like the Connecticut Standards for School Leaders or the Interstate Consortium on School Leaders: Standards for School Leadership. The context, on the other hand, refers to the time period, or environment, in which the content is practiced. The context is defined by the cultural, political, environmental, and economic changes inherent to a particular time or location. These changes have significant implications on the practice of leadership (Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Rost, 1991). The content of leadership practice is intertwined in complex contextual issues. Fullan (2001) states that leadership must become more sophisticated to lead and manage these complex contextual issues. Fullan (2001) suggests a sophisticated non-traditional leadership approach needed to meet organizational demands, expectations, and desired goals. Due to the changing context for leadership practice, defining the concept is increasing more difficult, particularly since the multidimensional nature of leadership is being more broadly recognized. It is no longer novel to suggest that leadership is situational. Different periods in time require different types of leadership (Harris & Lambert, 2003). This new paradigm of leadership in the 21st century, specifically within educational leadership, is influenced by the current wave of systemic reform initiatives (DarlingHammond, 1992; Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). According to Goldring and Greenfield (2002), education has been buffeted by successive waves of reforms for the past 20 years. There have been three waves of reform in the United States (Dworkin, 2001). The first wave of reforms was for standardization. The focus was on conformity and uniformity through curriculum, student requirement, promotion, graduation, and teacher evaluation. The second wave occurring in the late 1980s focused on decentralization. Principals and teachers were 44
given more autonomy through site based management. The focus of the third wave is high stakes testing. This reform demands state mandated standardized tests. The test results unlike before are now used to rate schools as a success or failure, withhold graduation, and assess the continued accreditation of schools (Dworkin, 2001). For these reasons, educational administration is more cognizant of the complexities and challenges of public education and of the importance of effective educational leadership for the sustainability of an organization (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). The increased focus on student outcomes has not only created interest in the technical aspects of leadership but has drawn attention to how leaders provide moral, political, and intellectual leadership in an organization (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). There has been an expanded conception of educational leadership within each reform. The role of the principal has evolved (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003) since there has been a political shift from site-based management to improving the education system and the management of schools (Cheng, 2002). The change in the role of the principal has been influenced by changes in society, changes in perceptions of education, and changes in images of what constitutes effective leadership by policymakers (Cheng, 2002; Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). In a review of leadership scholarship, Leithwood and Duke (1999) suggested that the following six categories dominated educational leadership: instructional leadership, moral leadership, transformational leadership, participative leadership, managerial leadership, and contingency leadership styles. Of the six leadership models, empirical studies on instructional leadership and transformational leadership models were more prevalent, therefore suggesting that these two models were more dominant in the study of educational leadership. This suggested dominance of 45
instructional leadership and transformational leadership approaches is noted because unlike prior leadership models which focused more on management and administration as a linear technical exercise, these approaches sought to explain the processes by which leaders (administrators and teachers) improved school conditions and educational outcomes (Hallinger, 2003). Transformational leadership is classified as a Full Range Leadership Model, meaning it covers a variety of behaviors that constitute leadership (Avolio, Waldman, & Yammarino, 1991; Bass, 1997, 1999; Bass & Avolio, 2000). Burns (1978) describes two distinct types of leadership: transformational and transactional. Transformational leadership behaviors seek to raise follower’s consciousness for significant organizational outcomes. Transactional leadership behaviors, one the other hand, are based on exchanges. Bass and Avolio embrace this “two-factor theory” of leadership but state that transformational and transactional leadership are interdependent. According to Bass and Avolio all leaders to some extent exhibit both transactional and transformational leadership behaviors. Leithwood et al. (1999) and Bass and Avolio (2000) suggest that effective leaders engage more frequently in transformational leadership behaviors than transactional leadership behaviors. The logic is that the transactional leadership components address the basic needs of an organization; these are first-order changes. In contrast, the transformational leadership component addresses fostering change and commitment; these are second-order changes. At the onset, transformational leadership originated with Burns’ (1978) seminal historical analysis of military and political leaders from which two distinct leadership theories, transformational leadership and transactional leadership, were identified. Burns 46
distinguished between transformational and transactional leadership based on the nature of relationships. These relationships were conscious exchanges between the leader and the follower. Transactional relationships were not binding to a mutual pursuit of higher purposes, whereas transformational relationships sought to foster a collective vision and motivating members of an organization to achieve extraordinary performance (Burns, 1978; Bass 1985). Leithwood and Duke (1999) note that the work of Burns did not yield a testable leadership model, therefore no empirical evidence supported his historical analysis. Bass (1985) extended Burns’ work and created the “full range leadership” model consisting of three leadership styles: transformational, transactional, and laissez faire. Bass unlike Burns (1978) suggested that transformational and transactional leadership were complimentary. Thus, an effective leader must engage in both leadership styles to facilitate changes in an organization. Bass’ full range leadership model intended to broaden thinking about what constitutes a range of leadership styles. The scholarship of Burns and Bass provided the foundation for Leithwood’s (1994) research on transformational
and
transactional
leadership
in
educational
administration.
Transformational leadership is grounded in a goal of fostering autonomy and empowering individuals to be willing to participate in the change process (Bass, 1999). Because of this underlying assumption, transformational leadership power resources are reciprocal. Collaboration is the center point as leaders share decision making, supervision, and responsibility within the organization (DuFour, 2005). Overall, transformational leadership aims to transcend the leader’s and follower’s self-interest for the sake of the mission and vision of the organization (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). Burns suggests that transformational leadership becomes moral because it raises the expected 47
norms of conduct and ethical aspirations of both the leader and the led, thus transforming both. This transforming process is reflective and continuous. Transformational leadership refers to leaders moving the followers beyond immediate self-interest through idealized influence, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, or individualized consideration (Bass, 1985; 1997; 1999). Transformational leaders are perceived by followers as having extraordinary capacities, persistence, and determination. These are characteristics of charismatic leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Ghandi. Since followers (staff) seek to identify with and emulate the leader, charisma should not be used for personal gain but for the betterment of the organization. An alignment between the leader’s and follower’s vision for the organization shoild be adapted in order to prevent worship. This is important because followers develop trust and confidence in leaders. In addition, transformational leaders are viewed as risk takers and are consistent rather than random. The transactions refer to a social exchange relationship between the leader and follower (Bass, 1985). Burns (1978) states that “transactional leadership occurs when one person takes the initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange of valued things” (p.19). Within this interaction, each individual is conscious of the power resources and the attitude of the other. It is important to note the quality of the social exchange as its existence can be temporally bound. According to Burns (1978), relationships become routine, therefore new types of gratification are needed as time progresses. The leaders should provide resources and needed supports to ensure that the follower is meeting with success.
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There are two extremes of transactional leadership: a corrective and a passive form. In its corrective or constructive form, transactional leadership focuses on setting goals and proactively monitoring in anticipation of mistakes. On the other hand, transactional leadership in its passive form involves waiting for mistakes to occur before action is taken. Bass and Avolio (2000) state both forms of transactional leadership focus on identifying mistakes. Consequently, each does not tend to support risk-taking. According to Bass (1985) transactional leadership cannot sustain or create organizational excellence. Despite the limitations of transactional leadership, the paradox is that this type of leadership is a necessary function of organizations. For this reason, it is desirable for effective school leaders to demonstrate both transformational and transactional leader behaviors to be successful. VI. Summary The trait approach of leadership began with the Great Man theory. The Great Man theory assumes that great leaders will arise when there is a great need. From the Trait theory the field of leadership sailed off into situation theories of leadership. The result was that the situation leader theorists over-emphasized the situation and underemphasized leadership traits. In a review of leadership scholarship, Leithwood and Duke (1999) suggested that the following six categories dominated educational leadership: instructional leadership, moral leadership, transformational leadership, participative leadership, managerial leadership, and contingency leadership styles. Bass unlike Burns (1978) suggested that transformational and transactional leadership were complimentary. From all the studies that I did and all the theories that I read about it is very important to do a research about the Lebanese studies of leadership since the study will be carried in 49
Lebanese schools. The next section will discuss the few studies that were found in Lebanon about leadership. VII. Lebanese studies of leadership
There are a few studies in Lebanon on leadership in schools. Theodore (1985) studied the impact of school principals’ satisfaction with their teachers work on their performance. The study showed that satisfied principals motivate teachers. Available studies on leadership in schools in Lebanon take the form of policy papers rather than published research. According to vision document of the Lebanese Association for Educational Studies (LAES) and the National Strategic Project for Education in Lebanon (2008), public schools are administered by principals whose majority are non-specialists in school administration. In addition, there is a limited authority given to the principal to lead and administer. Moreover, the conditions and terms of appointment which require a university degree in educational administration are not implemented together with a persistent lack of adherence to the minimum conditions specified in the laws that direct the appointment of principals. VIII. Conclusion
This chapter discussed the review of leadership theory and competency frameworks that was commissioned to assist the development of the new National Occupational Standards in Management and Leadership.
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The chapter presented the approaches followed by leaders to guide people. It described Bolman and Deal’s (1995) Theory and focused on the four leadership styles a principal might have. The chapter defined concepts related to the study. The chapter further traced the evolution review of leadership theories and over the past 70 years from the “great man” notion of heroic leaders, through trait theories, behaviorist theories, situational leadership, and contingency theory and on to transactional and transformational leadership. The chapter also reviewed international and local studies on leadership.
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Chapter Three The Research Design of the Study
I. Introduction This chapter describes the design of the study i.e., the plan and process of how the research was conducted (Polit & Beck, 2004). It provides detailed information about the selection of the sites, and respondents. The research methods of the study are presented, particularly data collection instruments, procedures, and data analysis. The chapter presents the results of the pilot study and discusses the trustworthiness of the study. It concludes with the limitations of the research. II. Design of the study This study bears the characteristics of a “multiple-case research.” As in a survey research the researcher is usually interested in how and how much of the responses differ their variability, how closely some responses are related to others and how responses vary within certain demographic variables or with measures of social, political or psychological variables (Krathwohl, 1998). Case studies can be either single or multiplecase designs, where a multiple design must follow a replication rather than sampling logic. When no other cases are available for replication, the researcher is limited to single-case designs. Multiple cases strengthen the results by replicating the patternmatching, thus increasing confidence in the robustness of the theory (Yin, 2000). A multiple case study was used in this study. In general, case studies can be either single or multiple-case designs. Single cases are used to confirm or challenge a theory, or to represent a unique or extreme case (Yin, 1994). Single-case studies are also 53
ideal for revelatory cases where an observer may have access to a phenomenon that was previously inaccessible. Single-case designs require careful investigation to avoid misrepresentation and to maximize the investigator's access to the evidence. These studies can be holistic or embedded; the latter occurring when the same case study involves more than one unit of analysis. I felt more conformable with using a multiplecase study rather than a single-case study because multiple-case studies follow replication logic (Yin, 1994), and hence can help enhance the validity of the study. However, this is not to be confused with sampling logic where a selection is made out of a population, for inclusion in the study. This type of sample selection is improper in a case study. Each individual case study consists of a "whole" study, in which facts are gathered from various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts as this study sought to do. Yin (2003) asserted that a case study investigator must be able to operate as a senior investigator during the course of data collection. There should be a period of training which begins with the examination of the definition of the problem and the development of the case study design. If there is only a single investigator, this might not be necessary. The training would cover aspects that the investigator needs to know, such as: the reason for the study, the type of evidence being sought, and what variations might be expected. This could take the form of discussion rather than formal lectures. I received this training during the supervision process of this study and further learned from the case study protocol followed in the pilot study. In fact, a case study protocol contains more than the survey instrument, it should also contain procedures and general rules that should be followed in using the instrument. It is to be created prior to the data collection phase. It is essential in a multiple-case study, and desirable in a single-case study (Yin, 54
1994). Yin presented the protocol as a major component in asserting the reliability of the case study research. A typical protocol should have the following sections:
An overview of the case study project (objectives, issues, topics being investigated)
Field procedures (credentials and access to sites, sources of information)
Case study questions (specific questions that the investigator must keep in mind during data collection)
A guide for case study report (outline, format for the narrative) (Yin, 1994, p. 64).
The overview should communicate to the reader the general topic of inquiry and the purpose of the case study. The field procedures mostly involve data collection issues and must be properly designed. The investigator does not control the data collection environment as I did in this study; hence the procedures become all the more important (Yin, 1994). These procedures are detailed in the appropriate section of this chapter. Moreover, this study took place in a rather natural research setting without controlling variables or manipulating them. III. The school sample
This study was carried out in three private schools and one public school in Lebanon. The private schools were situated in Mount-Lebanon and the public school in Beirut. This sample of schools allowed for variability in studying leadership styles in both private fee-paying and public schools.
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IV. Methods 1- Sample
A sample of 166 respondents participated in the study of whom 158 were schoolteachers and 8 were school principals.
a. Age The mean age of the sample surveyed was 33. The youngest respondent was 21 years old and the oldest was 65. The mean age for schoolteachers was 33 with a standard deviation of 8.5 while principals’ mean age was 47 and standard deviation 3.1. The distribution of the sample by age category was similar to that of the private sector (see figures 3-1 and 3-2). FIGURE 3-1 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLTEACHERS IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR OF THIS SAMPLE Age distribution in the sample 78%
22%
41-61
20-40
56
FIGURE 3-2 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLTEACHERS IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN LEBANON.
63%
37%
41-61
20-40
Source: CERD, 2007
b. Gender Out of 8 principals participated in this study, 7 are females and only 1 is male. Out of 166 teachers taken part in this study, 111 of them were females and only 14 were males. Ten percent of the sample works in the public sector and 90% work in the private sector. As
could be seen from Table 3-1, 87.5% of the principals were females and this renders a comparison between male and female principals futile since a vast majority of the participants were females and an evaluation relying solely on 12.5% would not be valid and reliable statistically. The same applies to the teachers where 73.7% were females and 26.3% were males which made a female population.
57
TABLE 3-1 JOB BY GENDER CROSS TABULATION5
GENDER Male Female JOB Teacher 41(26.3) 115(73.7) Principal 1(12.5) 7(87.5) Note: The numbers in parentheses indicate the percentages. c. Specialty The teachers’ education varied among 29 different specialties (see appendix A). An Aggregated Field of Specialization was prepared to narrow down the analysis (see table 3-2). Twenty three teachers were specialized in Sciences, 5 teachers in business, 96 teachers in literature and education, 21 teachers in mathematics, 2 teachers in music and art, 1 teacher in IT, and 1 teacher in international affairs. As one can notice, the majority of the teachers had degrees that enabled them to teach in schools, yet 3.4% of the teachers taught without having degrees that enabled them to teach in schools (see figure 3-3).
5
A cross tabulation displays the joint distribution of two or more nominal variables.
58
TABLE 3-2 AGGREGATED FIELD OF SPECIALIZATION
N 23 5 96 21 2 1 1 149
Sciences Business Literature/Education Mathematics Music and Art IT International Affairs Total
% 15.4 3.4 64.4 14.1 1.3 .7 .7 100
FIGURE 3-3 PERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS’ DEGREES Areas of Specialty 64%
14%
3%
fa
IT
Af na l
te r
M
na tio
M us at ic h an d Ar t
1% 1%
In
Li te
ra
tu r
Bu
Sc
ie n
ce s
sin e/ Ed ess uc at io n
1%
irs
15%
d. Experience The minimum number of experience of principals was 6 and the maximum was 22 ( X =12.7; SD = 5). The minimum number of experience of school teachers was 1 and the maximum was 40 ( X =9.4; SD = 7.1). 59
e. Distribution of respondents across schools According to the school sample distribution, as table 3-3 shows, 155(93%) schools were private and 11(6.6%) schools were public; 23% of the teachers taught at Notre Dame de Louaize, 47.3% of the teachers taught at Jesus and Mary School, 10.3% of the school teachers taught at Omar Farrough School, and 19.4% of the teachers taught at Adma International School (See table 3-3). This means that the majority of the samples were collected from Jesus and Mary School and the least from Omar Farrough School (see figure 3-4). Beside the teachers and principals that filled out the questionnaires, I did an interview with two principals whom were chosen randomly from the school. The principals’ age is in their mid forties. TABLE 3-3 RESPONDENTS OF THE SCHOOL SAMPLE
Notre Dame de Louaize Jesus and Mary Omar Farrough Adma International School Total
N 38 78 17 32 165
% 23.0 47.3 10.3 19.4 100
FIGURE 3-4 DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS OF THE SCHOOL SAMPLE
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Respondents of the school sample 47%
23% 19% 10%
Louaize
JM
Omar Farouhk
Adma
2. Questionnaire
In this study, Leadership Orientation questionnaire (LOQ) developed by Lee G. Bolman and Terrence E. Deal (1991), was used to gather information related to the leadership frames of private and public schools. The questionnaire has two parallel forms. One questionnaire will be administered to the principals, who will be requested to rate themselves, and another one to teachers in which they will be invited to rate their principals’ leadership styles (see appendix D). In both versions there are three sections designed for measuring the Bolman and Deal’s frames. The first used 5 –point rating scales, organized around eight separate dimensions of leadership, two for each frame as shown in table 3-4 (1991). 1. Human resource dimensions: a) Supportive: concerned about the feelings of others; supportive and responsive b) Participative: encourages participation and involvement; listens and welcomes new ideas. 2. Structural dimensions: 61
a) Analytic: thinks clearly and logically; approaches problems with facts and gives attention to detail b) Organized: develops clear goals and holds people accountable for results 3. Political dimensions: a) Powerful: persuasive; high level of ability to mobilize people and resources; effective at building alliances and support b) Adroit: politically sensitive and skillful; a skillful negotiator in face of conflict and opposition 4. Symbolic dimensions: a) Inspirational: inspires others to be loyal and enthusiastic; communicates a strong sense of vision b) Charismatic: imaginative, creative, emphasizes culture and values; models organizational aspirations (Bolman & Deal, 1994). The first section contains rating scales and the items are in a consistent frame sequence: structural (items 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29), human resource (items 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30), political (items 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31), symbolic (items 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32). Subscales are also organized in a consistent sequence: analytic (items 1, 9,17, 25), supportive (items 2, 10, 18, 26), powerful (items 3, 11, 19, 27), inspirational (items 4, 12, 20, 28), organized (items 5, 13, 21, 29), participative (6, 14, 22, 30), adroit (items 7, 15, 23, 31), charismatic (items 8, 16, 24, 32). The second section contains a series of forced-choice items. Each item gives four options, and participants must rank them from 1 (most like this individual) to 4 (least like this individual). 62
The third section has two-one item measures: effectiveness as a manager and effectiveness as a leader. This section assesses whether the principals themselves and teachers regard their principals as effective managers and leaders. The LOQ was used for the purpose of this study after I made sure that the inventors of the questionnaire do not mind any person to use it in his/her study. The instrument’s layout was modified to fit the purpose of this study and a section of background information was added at the first section of the questionnaire. The first draft was used during the pilot study, and then modified to take its formal post-pilot form.
a. Reliability Reliability statistics for the English version of LOQ was based on 1309 colleague ratings for a multi sector sample of managers in business and education. For section one split-half correlation for structural frame was .87, for human resource frame .86, for political frame .83, and for symbolic frame .88. For section two forced choice items splithalf correlation for the structural frame was .64 for human resource frame .75, for political framed .70, and symbolic frame .82 (Bolman & Deal, 1990).
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TABLE 3-4. DIMENSIONS OF LEADERSHIP Structural Frame
The Structural Frame emphasizes productivity and posits that classrooms and schools work best when goals and roles are clear and when efforts of individuals and groups are highly coordinated through authority, policies, and rules as well as through more informal strategies. Holding people accountable for their responsibilities and setting measurable standards are an important of this rational approach.
Structural leaders: Social architect whose leadership style is analysis and design - focus on structure, strategy, environment, implementation, experimentation, and adaption.
Political Frame
The Political Frame points out the limits of authority and inevitability that resources are almost always too scarce to fulfill all demands. Schools and classrooms are arenas where individuals and groups jockey for power. Everyone is caught up in this swirling political vortex. Goals emerge from bargaining and compromise among competing interests rather than from rational analysis. Conflict becomes an inescapable by-product of everyday life. If handled properly, it can be a source of constant energy and renewal.
Human Resource
The Human Resource Frame is a favorite among teachers and principals. It highlights the importance of individual needs and motives. It assumes that schools and classrooms, as other social systems, work best when needs are satisfied in a caring, trusting work environment. Showing concern for others and providing ample opportunities for participation and shared decision making are among the ways to enlist people’s commitment and involvement. Many teachers and principals have found that involving others in shaping decisions gives them a sense of ownership in what happens each day.
Political Leaders: Advocate, whose leadership style is coalition and building - clarify what they want and what they can get; they assess the distribution of power and interests; they build linkages to other stakeholders; use persuasion first, then negotiation and coercion only in necessary. Human Resource Leaders: Catalyst and servant whose leadership style is supportive, advocate, and empowerment visible and accessible; they empower, increase participation, support, share information, and move decision making down into the organization.
Symbolic Frame
The Symbolic Frame centers around attention on culture, meaning, belief, and faith. Every school or classroom, as does every human group, creates symbols to cultivate commitment, hope, and loyalty. Symbols govern behavior through shared values, informal agreements, and implicit understandings. Stories, metaphors, heroes, rituals, ceremonies, and play add zest and existential buoyancy to an enterprise. The school becomes a joyful way of life rather than a sterile or toxic place of work.
Symbolic Leaders: Prophet, whose leadership style is inspiration - view organizations as a stage or theater to play certain roles and give impressions; these leaders use symbols to capture attention; they try to frame experience by providing plausible interpretations of experiences; they discover and communicate a vision.
Lee G. Bolman and Terrence E. Deal (2002). Reframing the Path to School Leadership; Corwin Press, Inc.
As tables 3-5 and 3-6 show, LOQ in this study was more reliable than the original study conducted by Bolman and Deal. For section one, the behavior, Cronbach alpha6
6
Cronbach's α (alpha) is a statistic. It is commonly used as a measure of the internal consistency or reliability of a psychometric test score for a sample of examinees.
64
shows significance with the study that was done by Bolman and Deal. The Cronbach alpha for this study was .90 for structural frame, .91 for human resource frame, .88 for political frame, and .77 for symbolic frame. As could be seen, the only frame that does not show high significance is the symbolic frame. This may be due to religious reasons which the principals do not like to talk about. Further discussion will be in chapter five (see table 3-5). The second section of the study, the leadership styles, shows that there was also a high significance between the two studies. The Cronbach alpha for this study was .82 for structural frame, .87 for human resource frame, .70 for political frame, and .88 for symbolic frame. As could be seen the political frame of both studies are equal (see table 3-6). TABLE 3-5 CRONBACH ALPHA RESULTS OF THIS STUDY COMPARED WITH BOLMAN AND DEAL’S STUDY
Frames (Behavioral) Structural Human Resource Political Symbolic
This study .90▲ .91▲ .88▲ .77▼
Bolman & Deal .87 .86 .83 .88
TABLE 3-6 CRONBACH ALPHA RESULTS OF THIS STUDY COMPARED WITH BOLMAN’S AND DEAL’S STUDY
Frames (Leadership) Structural Human Resource Political Symbolic
This study .82▲ .87▲ .70 = .88▲
Bolman & Deal .64 .75 .70 .82
b. External validity
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External validity deals with knowing whether the results are general beyond the immediate case. Some of the criticism against case studies in this area relate to singlecase studies. Reliability is achieved in many ways in a case study. One of the most important methods is the development of the case study protocol which will be described later on based on the pilot study. 3. Interviews
During interviews, which by nature are open ended; the subject's schedule must dictate the activity (Stake, 1995). I took this into consideration as I followed the activity of subjects rather than imposed my activities on them since this study followed the naturalistic paradigm of qualitative data collection. Activities included subjects desire to assign issues for discussion during the interview.
This study used the structured interview. Broadly, interviews are one of the most important sources of case study information. There are several forms of interviews that are possible: open-ended, focused, and structured or survey. In an open-ended interview, key respondents are asked to comment about certain events. They may propose solutions or provide insight into events. They may also corroborate evidence obtained from other sources. The researcher must avoid becoming dependent on a single informant, and seek the same data from other sources to verify its authenticity (Yin, 1994). The focused interview is used in a situation where the respondent is interviewed for a short period of time, usually answering set questions. This technique is often used to confirm data collected from another source. The structured interview is similar to a 66
survey, and is used to gather data in cases such as neighborhood studies. The structured requested principals to self-rate their leadership style including questions such as “What kind of leadership styles do you adopt with your staff members”. For comparing results, teachers were asked to rate their principals’ leadership style and were also asked to comment on their principal’s behavior. The questions are detailed in appendix B. 4. Replication
Construct validity is especially problematic in case study research. It has been a source of criticism because of potential investigator subjectivity. Yin (1994) proposed three remedies to counteract this: using multiple sources of evidence, establishing a chain of evidence, and having a draft case study report reviewed by key informants. In line with Yin (1994), this study used questionnaire and interviews to create a chain of evidence that would enhance the external validity described earlier under questionnaire.
5. The pilot study
As part of the case study protocol, this study piloted the research instruments before their actual administration to ensure the reliability and validity of the data and ascertain that the questions whether in the questionnaire or the interview were clear and well understood by the subjects. The questionnaire was used in English. In order to assure its validity and reliability, the questionnaire was filled out with several teachers and principals out of the
67
sample collection (see appendix C). The piloting of the research instrument showed that this type of research is reliable.
a. Procedures for the pilot study Data were collected in different schools. The questionnaire appeared simple and straightforward but from the teachers responses I adjusted the first part of the questionnaire. Also, because some school rectors and directors refused to distribute the questionnaire to their teachers saying that they can not rely on the teachers evaluating the principals especially that the results are not going to stay confidential in the school, my pilot study was limited to twenty questionnaires.
b. Preparing the data file Preparing the data file started by screening the data which were entered on excel, and then transformed to an SPSS data set to obtain Cronbach’s alpha, means, and standard deviations7 for each subscale. As table 3-7 shows there was a difference between coefficient reliability between my pilot study and Bolman and Deal’s study. TABLE 3-7 CRONBACH ALPHA OF THE PILOT STUDY COMPARED WITH BOLMAN AND DEAL’S STUDY
Frames (Behavior) Structural Human Resource
This study .56 .72
Bolman & Deal .87▲ .86▲
Political Symbolic
.59 .72
.83▲ .88▲
7
The mean is the sum of the observations divided by the number of observations. The mean of a set of numbers x1, x2, ..., xn is typically denoted by , pronounced "x bar". Standard deviation shows how much variation there is from the mean.
68
In addition to that, an analysis for the behavioral part was done and compared to that of Bolman and Deal’s. As table 3-8 shows, the initial results were higher than those of the original LOQ due to the small sample size. However, the mean of this study and that of the original LOQ match showing consistency with exception to the political dimension which was a bit higher in this study. TABLE 3-8 RESULTS OF THE BEHAVIORAL SECTION
Frames (Behavior) Structural Human Resource
This study 32 33
Bolman & Deal 32 33
Political Symbolic
29 30
28 30
V. Access to schools
Four schools granted me the permission to conduct the study with their principals and teachers. My first reader prepared official letters containing his signature explaining for the schools rectors/directors the purpose of the study and asking them to allow me to distribute the questionnaires in their schools (see appendix E). After I took appointments from Jesus and Mary School, Notre Dame De Louaize, St. Joseph School, and Evangelical School, I submitted the official letters to those who met me in personal and to the secretaries for those who apologized. I was most welcomed to do my study in Jesus and Mary School and at Notre Dame de Louaize, but unfortunately the other two schools refused since they consider the questionnaire person even though I insisted that it would be confidential and no names are required. So I asked Dr. Abouchedid to prepare a new 69
official letter for Broumana High School. Unfortunately I received a phone call after two days from the school apologizing not to be able to pass the questionnaire since they have two other questionnaires being distributed at that time. Finally, Dr, Abouchedid prepared another official letter for Adma International School where I was able to collect some data. I collected the data from Adma International School, Jesus and Mary School, Notre Dame De Louaize, and Omar Farrough School. The questionnaires at the four schools were collected on my behalf by the administration. Because the questionnaire studies the principals’ leadership styles, this limited my study where the rectors and directors of the school felt uncomfortable to allow any confidentiality of their principals to be discussed in a thesis. I was surprised to hear from some directors that they do not think their teachers will be filling out the questionnaires in a reliable way. One of the directors told me the following “I do not think any of the teachers will answer less than 5 since they know that someone from out of the school will be analyzing the data. So in order for your thesis to be reliable I won’t allow you to pass the questionnaire in this school”. Finally, I sent 400 copies and received 166 copies filled out. I also chose randomly two principals from different schools whom I interviewed after school time.
VI. Data analyses
This study used both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis. 1. Quantitative Four types of data analysis were used. These were: (a) marginal; (b) independent t-test; (c) One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); (d) correlation. 70
a. Marginal To analyze data obtained from the questionnaire, marginal, i.e., frequency distribution and percentages were performed on the background information section and subjects’ responses to the behavioral and leadership styles section described in the questionnaire earlier.
b. Independent t-test The independent t-test was used to test for a difference between two independent groups i.e., sector and job in this study, on the means of a continuous variable, i.e., the aggregated mean scores for each subscale on the behavioral and leadership styles.
c. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) This statistic is a parametric test of significance used to determine whether a significant difference exists between more than two independent variables on mean scores of these groups (see Mills & Airasian, 2006). ANOVA was performed on schools (n = 4) by leadership frames (8 frames).
d. Correlation A Pearson correlation denoted (r) was used to test for association among teachers’ and principals responses in sections one and two in the questionnaire based on the aggregated scores of the subscales. VII. Limitations of the study
Since the sample of this study is limited to 8 principals and 158 teachers from four schools in Lebanon, generalizations cannot be made to the entire school sample in 71
Lebanon. In addition, one of the major difficulties was convincing the rectors/directors of some schools that the questionnaire was meant to frame the principals’ leadership style and not to criticize them. Unfortunately, they did not accept the idea of allowing the teachers to evaluate the principals in their school considering the questionnaire as an evaluation and not as framing principals into four styles of equal importance. Maybe the reason goes to the level and type of education these rectors/directors have. This explains what I have talked about in chapter two about the problems in Lebanon in assigning directors, principals, teachers etc… Therefore, the results of this study are limited with the perceptions and experiences of the sampled group. Moreover, one of the school principals did not fill in his/her questionnaire. In addition to that, 87.5% of the principals were females and this renders a comparison between male and female principals futile since a vast majority of the participants were females and an evaluation relying solely on 12.5% would not be valid and reliable statistically. The same applies to the teachers where 73.7% were females and 26.3% were males which made a female population. During the analysis stage, I had to perform each statistical analysis technique to two different sections of the questionnaire as each section has different ways of measuring the leadership frames. This took time and needed lots of concentration and analysis. I had to make sure not to skip any detail or else the study would not be reliable. Despite these limitations, it should be noted that an educational study of this nature would hopefully contribute to the generation of new ideas and perspectives about educational administration and leadership practices. Also, the limitations of the study did
72
not detract me from making common sense discussions that might broader applicability to leadership styles in Lebanese schools.
VIII. Conclusion
This chapter provided the research design of the study. It presented the instruments and procedures of data collection and described how data were analyzed. It also presented the pilot study results, and limitations of the study. The chapter that follows presents the results of the study.
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Chapter Four The Findings of the Study
I. Introduction
This chapter presents the findings of the study which have been obtained from questionnaires and interviews. The findings concerning the leadership styles of school principals are presented in two sections. The first section deals with the results related to teachers rating their principals on the LOQ and the second section presents the results concerning principals’ ratings themselves on the same questionnaire.
II. Teachers rating their principals
This section presents the findings from marginal, Independent t-test, One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and Pearson correlation results. 1. Marginal a. Teachers rating their principals As table 4-1 shows, teachers considered their principals’ behavior to be often and always structural. A low percentage chose never and occasionally to be a characteristic of their principals’ behavior. Table 4-2, shows that the teachers rated their principals’ behavior and leadership styles almost the same. The highest percentages ranged between best and next best to be have a structural leadership style.
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TABLE 4-1 BEHAVIORS- STRUCTURAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Think very clearly and logically. Strongly emphasize careful planning and clear time lines. Approach problems through logical analysis and careful thinking. Develop and implement clear, logical policies and procedures. Approach problems with facts and logic. Set specific, measurable goals and hold people accountable for results. Have extraordinary attention to detail. Strongly believe in clear structure and a chain of command.
1 1(.6)
2 4(2.5)
3 4 5 21(13.3) 77(48.7) 55(34.8)
1(.6)
17(10.8) 73(46.2) 67(42.2) 67(42.4)
--
6(3.8)
30(19.1) 72(45.9) 49(31.2)
--
1(.6)
26(16.5) 88(55.7) 43(27.2)
2(1.3) --
2(1.3) 2(1.3)
24(15.2) 79(50) 51(32.3) 27(17.3) 79(50.6) 48(30.8)
---
8(5.1) 9(5.7)
30(19) 73(46.2) 47(29.7) 17(10.8) 68(43) 64(40.5)
1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always
Table 4-2 shows, the second rated frame was the human resource frame where the teachers rated the principals to often care for their needs and to support them with materials in order to enhance their teaching methodologies and skills. It is also shown in table 4-6 that the teachers rated their principals’ leadership style the most as next best to be human resource. Tables 4-3 and 4-4 show that the teachers rated their principals’ behavior the least as political and symbolic. The highest percentages ranged between sometimes and never.
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TABLE 4-2 BEHAVIORS- HUMAN RESOURCE FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Show high levels of support and concern for others. Build trust through open and collaborative relationships. Show high sensitivity and concern for others' needs and feelings. Foster high levels of participation and involvement in decisions. Is consistently helpful and responsive to others. Listen well and am unusually receptive to other people's ideas and input. Give personal recognition for work well done. Is a highly participative manager.
1 --
2 6(3.8)
3 4 5 28(17.7) 57(36.1) 67(42.4)
--
14(8.9)
27(17.1) 47(29.7) 70(44.3)
--
9(5.7)
29(18.5) 58(36.9) 61(38.9)
--
15(9.5)
26(16.5) 61(38.6) 56(35.4)
1(.6)
7(4.4)
28(17.7) 54(34.2) 68(43)
--
8(5.1)
32(20.3) 58(36.7) 60(38)
1(.6)
13(8.2)
43(27.2) 41(25.9) 60(38)
--
6(3.8)
27(17.1) 69(43.7) 56(35.4)
1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always
TABLE 4-3 BEHAVIORS- POLITICAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Have exceptional ability to mobilize people and resources to get things done. Is a very skillful and shrewd negotiator. Is unusually persuasive and influential. Anticipate and deal adroitly with organizational conflict. Is very effective in getting support from people with influence and power. Is politically very sensitive and skillful. Develop alliances to build a strong base of support. Succeed in the face of conflict and opposition.
1 --
2 7(4.4)
3 60(38)
1(.6) 1(.6) --
11(7) 43(27.2) 70(44.3) 33(2.9) 16(10.2) 57(36.3) 65(41.4) 18(11.5) 11(7.1) 68(43.6) 48(3.8) 29(18.6)
1(.6)
15(9.6)
6(3.8) 1(.6)
16(10.3) 52(33.3) 50(32.1) 32(20.5) 17(11) 59(38.1) 53(34.2) 25(16.1)
1(.6)
13(8.2)
61(38.9) 55(35)
25(15.9)
45(28.5) 78(49.4) 21(13.3)
1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always
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4 5 71(44.9) 20(12.7)
TABLE 4-4 BEHAVIORS- SYMBOLIC FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Inspire others to do their best. Is highly charismatic. Is able to be an inspiration to others. Is highly imaginative and creative. Communicate a strong and challenging sense of vision and mission. See beyond current realities to generate exciting new opportunities. Generate loyalty and enthusiasm. Serve as an influential model of organizational aspirations and values.
1 3(1.9) 6(3.8) 6(3.8) 7(4.5) 6(3.8)
2 25(15.8) 25(15.8) 35(22.2) 29(18.5) 29(18.6)
3 48(30.4) 42(26.6) 51(32.3) 45(28.7) 34(21.8)
4 47(29.7) 54(34.2) 38(24.1) 55(35) 44(28.2)
5 35(22.2) 31(19.6) 28(17.7) 21(13.4) 43(27.6)
9(5.7)
29(18.5) 33(21)
6(3.9) 7(4.5)
32(20.6) 33(21.3) 44(28.4) 40(25.8) 31(19.7) 36(22.9) 51(32.5) 32(20.4)
49(31.2) 34(21.7)
1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always
As tables 4-5 and 4-6 show, teachers framed their principals the best as structural and then human resource. This result contradicts the principals’ self-rating where they mostly framed themselves as human resource followed by the structural, political, and symbolic frame (see tables 4-17 and 4-18). TABLE 4-5 LEADERSHIP STYLE- STRUCTURAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES) 1 2 3 Analytic skills 4(2.6) 19(12.2) 66(42.3) Technical expert 32(20.6) 14(9) 45(29) Make good decisions 24(15.4) 14(9) 53(34) Attention to detail 19(12.2) 24(15.4) 56(35.9) Clear, logical thinking 11(7) 15(9.6) 49(31.2) An analyst 7(4.5) 27(17.3) 74(47.4) 1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best
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4 67(42.9) 64(41.3) 65(41.7) 57(36.5) 82(52.2) 48(30.8)
TABLE 4-6 LEADERSHIP STYLE- HUMAN RESOURCE FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES) 1 2 9(5.9) 20(12.9) 14(9) 19(12.2) Good listener Coach and develop people 21(13.5) 18(11.5) Concern for people 18(11.5) 25(16) Caring and support for others 9(5.8) 34(21.8) A humanist 10(6.4) 27(17.3) 1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best Interpersonal skills
3 65(41.9) 60(38.5) 64(41) 50(32.1) 60(38.5) 54(34.6)
4 61(39.4) 63(40.4) 53(34) 63(40.4) 53(34) 65(41.7)
TABLE 4-7 Leadership Style- Political frame (Percentages between parentheses) 1 2 3 4 53(34.2) 64(41.3) 22(14.2) 16(1.3)
Political skills Good listener Build strong alliances and a power base Ability to succeed, in the face of conflict and opposition Toughness and aggressiveness A politician 1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best
20(12.7) 18(11.5) 19(12.2) 66(42.9) 63(40.4)
72(45.9) 79(50.6) 68(43.6) 58(37.7) 57(36.5)
42(26.8) 38(24.4) 38(24.4) 16(10.5) 24(15.4)
TABLE 4-8 LEADERSHIP STYLE- SYMBOLIC FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Ability to excite and motivate
Inspirational leader Energize and inspire others
Charisma. Imagination and creativity A visionary
1 73(46.5) 73(47.1) 75(48.1) 80(51) 59(37.8) 64(41)
2 29(18.5) 29(18.7) 24(15.4) 20(12.7) 32(20.5) 23(14.7)
1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best
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3 23(14.6) 26(16.8) 20(12.8) 32(20.4) 42(26.9) 23(14.7)
4 32(20.4) 27(17.4) 37(23.7) 25(15.9) 23(14.7) 46(29.5)
27(14.6) 21(13.5) 31(19.9) 14(9.1) 12(7.7)
b. Principals self-rating As tables 4-9 and 4-10 show, the principals surprisingly framed themselves approximately like their teachers. Yet the principals self-rating result had the highest percentages under the human resource frame which is the teachers’ second rating.
TABLE 4-9 BEHAVIORS- STRUCTURAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Show high levels of support and concern for others. Build trust through open and collaborative relationships. Show high sensitivity and concern for others' needs and feelings. Foster high levels of participation and involvement in decisions. Is consistently helpful and responsive to others. Listen well and am unusually receptive to other people's ideas and input. Give personal recognition for work well done. Is a highly participative manager.
1 --
2 --
3 --
4 2(25)
5 6(75)
--
--
--
3(37.5)
5(62.5)
--
4(50)
--
3(37.5)
1(12.5)
4(50)
--
1(12.5)
2(25)
1(12.5)
--
--
1(12.5)
2(25)
5(62.5)
--
--
4(50)
2(25)
2(25)
4(50)
--
1(12.5)
2(25)
1(12.5)
4(50)
--
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
2(25)
1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always
79
TABLE 4-10 BEHAVIORS- HUMAN RESOURCE FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Think very clearly and logically. Strongly emphasize careful planning and clear time lines. Approach problems through logical analysis and careful thinking. Develop and implement clear, logical policies and procedures. Approach problems with facts and logic. Set specific, measurable goals and hold people accountable for results. Have extraordinary attention to detail. Strongly believe in clear structure and a chain of command.
1 4(50)
2 --
3 --
4 3(37.5)
5 1(12.5)
--
4(50)
--
3(37.5)
1(12.5)
--
4(50)
1(12.5)
2(25)
1(12.5)
--
--
5(62.5)
2(25)
1(12.5)
---
4(50) --
2(25) 6(75)
---
2(25) 2(25)
4(50) --
-4(50)
2(25) 2(25)
---
2(25) 2(25)
1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always
So, tables 4-9 and 4-10 show that the principals as stated before framed their behavior as human resource the most and then as structural; whereas, tables 4-11 and 4-12 show that the principals frames their behavior as never being symbolic and as sometimes being political
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TABLE 4-11 BEHAVIORS- POLITICAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Have exceptional ability to mobilize people and resources to get things done. Is a very skillful and shrewd negotiator. Is unusually persuasive and influential. Anticipate and deal adroitly with organizational conflict. Is very effective in getting support from people with influence and power. Is politically very sensitive and skillful. Develop alliances to build a strong base of support. Succeed in the face of conflict and opposition.
1 --
2 4(50)
3 1(12.5)
4 3(37.5)
5 --
----
2(25) -4 (50)
-5(62.5) 3(37.5)
1(12.5) 3(37.5) --
5(62.5) -1(12.5)
--
--
2(25)
5(62.5)
1(12.5)
---
4(50) 4(50)
2(25) 2(25)
1(12.5) 2(25)
1(12.5) --
--
--
1(12.5)
6(75)
1(12.5)
1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always
As shown in table 4-12, principals scored the least on the symbolic frame which matches the teachers’ results (see table 4-4). TABLE 4-12 BEHAVIORS- SYMBOLIC FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Inspire others to do their best. Is highly charismatic. Is able to be an inspiration to others. Is highly imaginative and creative. Communicate a strong and challenging sense of vision and mission. See beyond current realities to generate exciting new opportunities. Generate loyalty and enthusiasm. Serve as an influential model of organizational aspirations and values.
1 ------
2 4(50) -4(50) -4(50)
3 --2(25) 1(12.5) 1(12.5)
4 4(50) 8(100) 2(25) 7(87.5) 2(50)
5 ----1(12.5)
--
--
2(25)
6(75)
--
---
5(62.5) 5(62.5)
2(25) 2(25)
---
1(12.5) 1(12.5)
1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always
81
Tables 4-13 and 4-14 show that the principals rated their leadership style as human resource the ‘best’ and as structural the ‘next best.’ The highest percentages ranged among the human resource frame and the structural frame which match the results of tables 4-7 and 4-8 where the principals rated their behavior too the same.
TABLE 4-13 LEADERSHIP STYLE- STRUCTURAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Analytic skills Technical expert Make good decisions Attention to detail Clear, logical thinking An analyst
1 -4(50) -5(32.5) -4(50)
2 4(50) ---4(50) 1(12.5)
3 2(25) 2(25) 6(75) 2(25) 2(25) 2(25)
4 2(25) 2(25) 2(25) 1(12.5) 2(25) 1(12.5)
1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best
TABLE 4-14 Leadership Style- Human Resource frame (Percentages between parentheses) 1 2 Interpersonal skills ----Good listener Coach and develop people -4(50) Concern for people --Caring and support for others --A humanist --1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best
3 6(75) 5(62.5) 1(12.5) 5(62.5) 5(62.5) 1(12.5)
4 2(25) 3(37.5) 3(37.5) 3(37.5) 3(37.5) 7(87.5)
As table 4-15 shows, the majority of the principals rated themselves as ‘likely’ to be political. The percentages were the highest on the items of ‘likely’ being political; where as in table 4-14, it is obvious that the percentages the highest under the items of ‘best’ being a human resource.
82
TABLE 4-15 LEADERSHIP STYLE- POLITICAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
Political skills Good listener Build strong alliances and a power base Ability to succeed, in the face of conflict and opposition Toughness and aggressiveness A politician 1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best
1 1(12.5)
2 2(25)
3 --
4 5(62.5)
---5(62.5) 2(25)
3(37.5) 3(37.5) 6(75) 2(25) 5(62.5)
-1(12.5) 1(12.5) 1(12.5) --
5(62.5) 4(50) 1(12.5) -1(12.5)
TABLE 4-16 LEADERSHIP STYLE- SYMBOLIC FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES) 1 2 6(75) 1(12.5) 3(37.5) 4(50) Inspirational leader Energize and inspire others 7(87.5) -2(25) 1(12.5) Charisma Imagination and creativity 2(25) 1(12.5) A visionary 1(12.5) 2(25) 1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best Ability to excite and motivate
3 -1(12.5) --1(12.5) 4(50)
4 1(12.5) -1(12.5) 5(62.5) 4(50) 1(12.5)
It is worth mentioning that as the percentages are shown tables 4-12 and 4-16, the principals scored very low on the symbolic frame, which is surprisingly parallel to the teacher’s rating. Further discussion will take place in chapter five.
2. Independent t-test
As Table 4-17 shows, teachers of private and public schools rated principals on the structural frame the highest which is surprisingly parallel to the principals’ selfratings (See table 4-18). Moreover, teachers rated principals on the political frame; the second highest followed by the human resource and symbolic frames. It is interesting to 83
note that the teachers rated the principals on the symbolic frame; the lowest. This shows that the principals undermine the value of symbols while effective leaders value symbols and recognize the importance of articulating a vision that provides purpose, direction, and meaning to an organization (Bolman & Deal, 1994). TABLE 4-17 INDEPENDENT T-TEST COMPARING TEACHERS’ AND PRINCIPALS MEAN RATINGS BY SECTOR
STRUCTURAL HUMAN RESOURCE POLITICAL SYMBOLIC
Sector Private Public Private
T-value SD X 2.5* 32.7 5.12 29.4 6.36 1.3 32.5 5.99
Public Private Public Private
30.0 28.8 26.1 27.9 276 28.9
Public
5.75 5.13 6.09 8.53
1.6 -.35
5.40
*p< .05
As can be seen from table 4-18, teachers rated principals on the structural frame the highest, which is not parallel to the principals’ self-ratings. Moreover, teachers rated principals on the human resource frame the second highest, followed by the political and symbolic frames. Moreover, table 4-18 also indicates that the principals mostly use the human resource frame followed by the structural, political, and symbolic frame. However, it is worth mentioning that the principals scored high on the political frame and very low on the symbolic frame, which is surprisingly parallel to the teacher’s rating. This result also shows the inhibiting influence of centralization on principals’ political skills.
84
TABLE 4-18 INDEPENDENT T-TEST BY JOB (TEACHER, PRINCIPAL)
JOB Teacher Principal Teacher
X 33 24.2
SD 4.58 9.80
32.6
5.90
Principal POLITICAL Teacher Principal SYMBOLIC Teacher Principal LSTRUC Teacher Principal LHR Teacher Principal LPOL Teacher Principal LSB Teacher Principal **P
