ABSTRACT Contrary to popular belief, the twentieth ... - SSRN papers

ABSTRACT

Contrary to popular belief, the twentieth century was a good one for commercial apple varietal diversity. As measured by availability in commercial nursery catalogs, significant gains were made in both absolute number of apple varieties and the available number of pre-1900 historic varieties. In 1905, an estimated 420 different apple varieties were commercially available, approximately 390 of which dated from the 19th century or earlier. By 2000, 1469 different apple varieties were offered in commercial catalogs, at least 435 of which were pre1900 century varieties. And, if one counts apple varieties maintained in the USDA orchards as commercially available (one can obtain scions by making a simple on-line request), hundreds more apples, including many historic varieties, can be added to the count. Most importantly, the data collected reveals the sources of diversity gains in the twentieth century, including an analysis of the percentage of varieties resulting from patented innovation, non-patented local innovation, preservation of old varieties, and importation. Although patented apples constitute a relatively small percentage of available varieties, they exhibit stunningly high commercialization rates and surprisingly low obsolescence rates. A unique list of all patented apples, their varietal names, and present availability is included in an appendix. .

1 Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1543336

APPLE DIVERSITY REPORT CARD FOR THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: PATENTS AND OTHER SOURCES OF INNOVATION IN THE MARKET FOR APPLES

Paul J. Heald Allen Post Professor of Law University of Georgia

Susannah Chapman Ph.D Candidate, Anthropology University of Georgia

“Consider the apple . . . many of the thousands of varieties grown in this country during the last century that have now all but disappeared. Because of the industrial agriculture system, the majority of those varieties are extinct today.” FATAL HARVEST: THE TRAGEDY OF INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE

1

This is the third in a series of short papers examining the relationship between intellectual property protection for fruit and vegetable crops and plant diversity. 2 Consistent with our earlier findings, and contrary to the conventional wisdom 3 , we once again find that the twentieth century was a good one for apple diversity, as measured in terms of the commercial availability of apple trees. We realize that despite the popularity of farmers markets and other local initiatives, choices in the typical supermarket remain limited. Nonetheless, as compared to the turn of the last century, growers have a significantly greater number of commercial varieties from which to choose. To the extent that diversity is important to maintain a ready source of germplasm to adapt plants to drought, pests, and disease, this report is an optimistic one. Additionally, for the first time, we are able to identify the sources of diversification of apple varieties. Approximately 420 varieties were available in commercial catalogs in 1900 and 1905, while almost 1500 are available now. Who are the sources of these diverse apple varieties? Patentees? Importers? Non-patenting innovators? Preservationists? We are able to provide sound estimates for all relevant sources of apple diversity. We know of no other industry where a more complete snapshot can be given as to the role patent law plays in the overall innovation picture. FINDINGS: 1. Estimating 1900 & 1905 Apple Diversity. The National Agricultural Library in Beltsville, Maryland, maintains a comprehensive historical collection of seed and nursery catalogs. Since our larger project studies the commercial availability of several fruits and vegetables over a onehundred year period, we have been sampling the catalogs in the collection that begin with the letter “S” in five-year intervals. Although the catalogs beginning with “S” (hereinafter “S Cats”) are typically only 10% of the total catalogs for any one year, the sample gives us a snap shot of one-third to one-half of the total market (as confirmed by statistics from years where we have information for all catalogs). 4 In each of the fifteen years for which we have full S Cats data, we always capture between one-third and one-half of the market, so we are confident in the bounds of our estimate of apple diversity at the turn of the century. In 1900, 128 different varieties of apples were offered in S Cats, while 140 were available in 1905. Using the larger figure, we can predict that 280-420 different varieties were available in commercial nursery catalogs at the time.


We will return to the Beltsville library soon to survey all 1905 catalogs and confirm this estimate. 2. Apple Varieties Available in the Early 21st Century. Thanks to the hard work of the Seed Savers Exchange, we have full data from all catalogs published in 2000. 5 Those catalogs offered 1469 different varieties of apple trees for sale, significantly more than the highest bound of our estimate for 1905 (420 varieties). In reality, even more varieties are available to apple enthusiasts. The Plant Genetic Resources Unit of the USDA 6 in Geneva, New York, maintains orchards containing an addition 980 apple varieties that are not currently being offered in commercial catalogs. Scions from these trees, however, are typically available to anyone who wishes to propagate the variety. 7 The USDA numbers bring the total varieties of apples available to 2450. 3. Sources of Apple Diversity: Preservation and Reintroduction of Historic Varieties. Where have all of these varieties come from? One important source is the preservation of pre1900 varieties. Of the 1469 apple varieties offered by commercial nursery catalogs in the 2000 Fruit, Berry, and Nut Inventory 8 , 435 are also listed by W.H. Ragan in his famous work, Nomenclature of the Apple: A Catalogue of Known Varieties Listed in American Publications from 1804-1904. 9 In addition, the 2000 inventory also describes as “old-timer” or “heirloom” 44 additional varieties not listed by Ragan. An additional 102 Ragan varieties are available in the USDA facility in Geneva, New York. Since our upper estimate of the total number of commercially available varieties in 1905 is only 420, it seems quite clear that more historic varieties (approximately 581) are commercially available now than 100 years ago. Interestingly, 75% of apple varieties commercially available in 1905 were still available in 2000 nursery catalogs. This indicates that apple varieties are substantially more durable than vegetables, as our earlier study 10 showed that only 6% of common vegetable varieties available in commercial seed catalogs in 1903 were available in 2004 seed catalogs. Such durability may be partially due to the work of apple collectors and apple enthusiasts who actively search for and relocate old varieties listed in early 20th century publications. For example, ethnographic research in the southeastern United States has shown that private collectors have played a major role in relocating, propagating, distributing, and commercializing many Ragan varieties thought to be extinct as recently as 1980. Such collectors have also played a role in the location, propagation, distribution and commercialization of old varieties that were not listed in 19th or early 20th century nursery catalogs or USDA publications. 11 Although not relevant to determining commercial availability, private collectors have also maintained many other varieties not listed in the Fruit, Berry, and Nut Inventory or offered by the USDA. A check of just two sources, the list of apples maintained by Horne Creek Farms 12 and a list of apples identified by Tom Brown, a southern apple hunter, 13 reveals an additional 143 Ragan apples and undoubtedly many other old-timey apples that even Ragan did not know about. Interestingly, Ragan, after accounting for multi-naming, listed approximately 7000 different varieties grown from 1804 to 1904. Most of these varieties had already disappeared from nursery catalogs by 1905. If there was ever a diversity cataclysm for apples, it must have


occurred in the 19th century, not the twentieth. More likely, as our data suggest, apple varieties came and went over time and there was never a single moment when all 7000 Ragan varieties were available. Several hundred of his listed apples were probably available in any given year, with the content of the list changing regularly over the course of the century. 4. Sources of Apple Diversity: Patented Apples. Patents seem to play a minor role in explaining apple diversity. As of 2009, 372 apple varieties have ever been subject to patents, with 142 of those varieties available in nursery catalogs in 2000. This is slightly less than 10% of the 1469 total number available in catalogs. Counting the USDA apples would lower this percentage significantly. A complete list of all patented apples, along with their common varietal names and an indication of availability as of 2000, is contained in the Appendix. 5. Sources of Apple Diversity: Importation and Local Innovation. The 2000 Fruit, Berry, and Nut Inventory contains detailed descriptions of about 60% of the 1476 total varieties listed. 14 In addition to patented varieties, historic Ragan varieties, and non-Ragan old-timers, 82 varieties are described as imports and 177 are described as unpatented twentieth century U.S. innovations. Having already checked the entire list against our databases of all patented apples and all Ragan apples, we can be quite sure that none of the undescribed 596 varieties falls in either of those categories. Most of the undescribed 596 varieties should be imports or local unpatented twentieth century innovations, but some are probably 19th century apples missed by Ragan in his 1903 survey. As mentioned above, the 2000 inventory does reveal 44 varieties listed as “oldtimers” or “heirlooms” which we cannot match up with any variety listed by Ragan. So, using a ratio of 44 (non-Ragan oldtimers) to 82 (imports) to 177 (non-patented local innovations), and assuming the 596 undescribed varieties contain a similar ratio, we set forth the following description of the full list of 1476 apple varieties available in commercial nursery catalogs in the year 2000: 142 patented varieties 435 historic varieties described by Ragan 131 non-Ragan “old-timers” or heirloom varieties 243 twentieth century imports 525 non-patented, twentieth century local innovations = 1476 total varieties (in 2000) Over one-third of present commercial diversity is due to preservation of historic varieties, while only slightly less is due to local innovation. The remaining third of the diversity equation is occupied by imports and patented innovations, with patented varieties constituting slightly less than 10% of the whole. 6. Commercialization and Obsolescence Rates of Patented Apples. Despite the relatively small numbers of patented apples (142), the group shows some very unexpected characteristics. First, from the 1930 advent of the Plant Patent Act 15 to the year 2000, only 298 apple trees had ever been patented. This means that as of 2000, at least 48% of all patented apples had been commercialized, with the actual number undoubtedly being much higher due to apple varieties that may have been commercialized at one time but have now been discontinued. This is a vastly higher figure the 3-5% commercialization rate usually given for patented inventions as a

4

whole. 16 A high commercialization rate holds for even the oldest patented apples, an even more striking result. For apples patented in the 1930’s, 36% (4/11) are still commercially available. For apples patented in the 1940’s the figure is 35% (6/17). For the rest of the century: 1950’s = 32% (6/19); 1960’s = 31% (10/32); 1970’s = 41% (21/51); 1980’s = 57% (34/60); 1990’s = 49% (46/93). Conclusion: It is entirely possible that more varieties of apples are available in the United States today than at any time in our history, but our limited sources of information restrict our claims to advertised commercial markets only. At all times in US history, purely local growers have privately traded and propagated apple varieties for their own personal use and for swapping in informal markets. We cannot calculate, therefore, what was available to home gardeners and private collectors in 1900 and compare it with similar private reserves in 2000. Chapman’s own ethnographic research on private markets in Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina and Virginia suggests that the twentieth century may have seen an increased marketing of old apple varieties, as formerly private growers made historic stock commercially available. In other words, some of the numerical gains that we document may reflect changes in market structure unrelated to actual gains in germplasm diversity. If market changes have occurred, individual growers/breeders may have a greater diversity of varieties at their fingertips, but overall genetic diversity could still be compromised due to standardization of varieties offered in commercial catalogs. Despite our inability to actually time travel and compare apple diversity on the DNA level between 1900 and 2000 varieties, we suggest with confidence that any despair over diversity should be directed at supermarket choices and commercial fruit production and not the maintenance of traditional germplasm sources. What we document is a vigorous and thriving market.

5

APPENDIX

PPA

Pat. Number

Issue Date

PP57

1933

PP61

1933

PP85

1934

PP90

1934

Avail. 2000

Variety Name(s)

Owner/Assignee

Apples Stark Brothers Nursery Newtown Delicious

Wray

x

Jonared; Jon-A-Red

Stark Brothers Shotwell Buntings/Waynesboro/Harrison Nurseries

PP125

1935

x

Shotwell Delicious Yorking; Double Red York; Red York Imperial; Yorking York; Red Yorking

PP168

1936

x

Colora Red York; Red York Imperial

Bountiful Ridge Nursery

PP238

1937

Valmore

Moore

PP258

1937

PP278

1938

PP293

1938

x

York-A-Red; Double Red York Imperial

Stark Brothers

Graham Spy; Graham; Graham Red; Graham Special

Greenings Nursery

Strored Graham Spy

Greenings Nursery

PP327

1939

PP388

1940

PP474

1941

PP564

1943

Martin

Martin

PP608

1943

Empire Red

Stark Brothers

PP619

1944

Baxter's Black Winesap

Gem City Vineland

PP642

1944

x

Stark Earliest; Scarlet Pimpernel

Stark Brothers

PP659

1945

x

Etter's Gold

Roeding

PP699

1946

x

Alaska

Roeding

PP710

1946

x

Jonwin

Roeding

x

Frostproof

Bazanella

Pink Pearl

Roeding

PP720

1946

PP722

1947

PP723

1947

x

Almeda

Savely

Wrixparent


Minnetonka Beauty

Soderland

Stark Brothers

PP765

1947

June Wealthy

Stark Brothers

PP794

1948

JonGrimes; Hoosier Seedling; Stark JonGrimes

Stark Brothers

PP801

1948

PP819

1949

Yakima Newtown

Aller

PP906

1949

Davey

Kelly Brothers Nursery

PP972

1950

Metzgar

Metzger

PP1075

1952

Nu-Jon

Columbia & Okanogan Nursery

PP1278

1954

x

Royal Red Delicious


PP1352

1955

x

Pettingill

Armstrong Nurseries

Pietra

PP1411

1955

Starking, Red King; Braun's Delicious

Van Well Nursery

PP1414

1955

Nero Rome; Flaming Rome; Lemcke Rome; Teiton Rome


PP1422

1955

PP1470

1956

PP1550

1957

PP1565

1957

x

x

Summer Delicious

Stark Brothers

Barkley Red Rome

Van Well Nursery

Law Rome Beauty

Stark Brothers

Bisbee Red Delicious; Starkrimson

Stark Brothers

6

PP1587

1957

Waldorf

PP1602

1957

Connell Red; Connell Fireside

Connell

PP1685

1958

Red Dessert; Neumann James Grieve; Red James Grieve

Fey (Germany)

PP1721

1958

EarliBlaze; Stark EarliBlaze

Stark Brothers

Jonalicious

Stark Brothers

x

x

Sawle

PP1777

1958

PP1805

1959

Gilbert

PP1811

1959

J.D. Hamilton Orchard Co. (inv)

PP1822

1959

Redspur Delicious; Show Red

PP1838

1959

Golden Treasure

Dykstra

PP1916

1960

Topred


PP1930

1960

Starkspur Red Delicious, Woods Delicious

Stark Brothers Bolding

x


PP1974

1960

Red Delight

PP1975

1960

Pacific Pride

Fox

PP1994

1960

King Luscious

Dalton

Starkspur Golden Delicious

Stark Brothers

PP2024

1961

PP2178

1962

x

Fairglo

Fair

PP2179

1962

Stark Summer Gold

Stark Brothers

PP2285

1963

PP2288

1963

West Virginia Red York

Hevener

PP2313

1963

Starspur Winesap; Mance Winesap

Stark Brothers

PP2334

1963

Goldspur; Sundale; Sundale Sturdy Spur

Sundale Orchards

PP2433

1964

Sturdeespur Delicious; Miller Spur

Consolidated Orchard

PP2440

1964

Super Starking Delicious

Stark Brothers

PP2460

1964

Splendour

Stark Brothers (New Z.)

PP2464

1964

Red Scarlet

Silva

PP2486

1965

Best Ever; Bestever

Silva

PP2512

1965

Hawaii

Silva

PP2606

1966

PP2608

1966

PP2616

1966

PP2650 PP2702

Miller

x

x

x

Cooper Delicious; Earlistripe Red Delicious

Cooper Stark Brothers

x

Thewgold Delicious

Thew Orchards

1966

Nured Jonathan


1967

SummerGlo

Stark Brothers

PP2750

1967

McQuarrie

Braun

PP2790

1968

PP2800

1968

x

Paula Red

Hill Top Orchards

PP2803

1968

x

Smoothee; Gibson Golden Delicious

Hill Top Orchards

PP2806

1968

x

PP2816

1968

PP2835

1968

Cooper

x

Prime Gold

Hoekman

Oregon Spur Red Delicious

Van Well Nursery

Blushing Golden

Stark Brothers Hill Top Orchards

PP2934

1969

Jonnee

PP2956

1969

Red Bouquet

Stark Brothers

PP2982

1970

Macspur

Hill Top Orchards

PP3025

1971

Stark; Earlibrite Delicious

Stark Brothers

PP3035

1971

PP3040

1971

PP3045

1970

PP3057

1971

Stark Brothers

PP3058

1971

Stark Brothers

x

Maxam Norton Early Vance Spur

7

Green Forest Nursery

PP3110

1972

Magnolia Gold

PP3121

1972

x

Starkspur Red Rome Beauty; Taylor Strain

Stark Brothers

PP3134

1972

x

Prima

Purdue Research Foundation

PP3182

1972

Classic

Nakmura

PP3198

1972

SpureeRome

Hill Top Orchards

PP3308

1973

PP3390

1973

PP3418

1974

PP3420

1974

PP3453 PP3475

x


Runkel

Runkel

x

Mor-Spur Macintosh


x

Viking; Wisconsin Viking

Gilbert

1974

Hannaford Granny Smith

Granny Spur Enterprises (Australia)

1974

Jurale

Jurale

Mason

PP3485

1974

PP3488

1974

PP3496

1974

PP3505

1974

x

Criterion

Crites

PP3541

1974

x

Starkspur Supreme

Stark Brothers

PP3550

1974

Stark Bounty

Stark Brothers

PP3556

1974

x

Early Red One

Van Well Nursery

PP3557

1974

x

Starkspur UltraRed Delicious; Flanagan Delicious

Stark Brothers

PP3558

1974

Holdren's Early Red

Holdren

PP3560

1974

PP3567

1974

Starking FullRed Delicious

Stark Brothers

PP3578

1974

Red Chief [Campbell strain, not Heinicke]

Hill Top Orchards Stark Brothers (New Z.)

x

Rose Red Delicious

Rose

Priscilla


Annalee; Blount Golden

Blount

Stark Brothers x

PP3637

1974

x

Gala; Kidd's D-8

PP3808

1975

x

Garden Delicious

Zaiger

PP3864

1976

Spured Royal Delicious; Spur Royal Red Delicious


PP3878

1976

Red Saelet

Saels (Belgium)

PP3882

1976

Starkspur Prime Red

Stark Brothers

PP3974

1976

Little Giant

Slusarenko

PP3988

1976

Sir Prize


PP4021

1977

PP4050

1977

Shawnee

Kaplan

PP4060

1977

x

Stark Supreme Staymared

Stark Brothers

x

Dalton

PP4096

1977

x

Lawspur; Rome Beauty Law Strain

Hill Top Orchards

PP4121

1977

x

Royal Gala; Tenroy


PP4144

1977

x

Gordon

Gordon

PP4159

1977

Silverspur Red Delicious

Callghan; McCormick

PP4166

1977

PP4320

1978

PP4321

1978

PP4322

1978

PP4359

1978

PP4372

1979

PP4382

1979

PP4383

1979

PP4499

1980

PP4587

1980

PP4615

1981

x

Firm Gold; Firmgold

Callghan; McCormick Purdue Research Foundation Purdue Research Foundation

Redfree

Purdue Research Foundation Purdue Research Foundation

x

Bright 'N Early

Craig

Starkspur Compact Mac; Wicjik

Stark Brothers

Starkspur Ultramac

Stark Brothers Purdue Research Foundation

x

Ace; Ace Spur

Perleberg Wrigley

8

PP4633

1981

x

Jonafree


PP4676 PP4724

1981

Grandspur; Spur Granny Smith

Granspur Enterprises

1981

McShay

PP4731

1981

x

State of Oregon

Stark Puregold; Goldensheen #2; Ultragold

Stark Brothers

PP4740

1981

x

PP4741

1981

Stark Summer Treat

Stark Brothers

PP4793

1981

PP4800

1982

PP4801

1982

PP4819

1982

x

Oregon Spur II

Wells & Wade Fruit Co.

PP4820

1982

x

Earligold


Greenspur Granny Smith

Anvil Fruit Co. Stark Brothers

x

Starkspur Law Rome; Peace Valley

Stark Brothers

Starkspur Compact Red Delicious; Cascade Compact Red

Carlton Nursery Co.

PP4824

1982

x

Haralred; Lantz Haralson; Red Haralson

Bailey Nurseries

PP4839

1982

x

Scarlet Spur

Van Well Nursery

PP4900

1982

PP4901

1982

PP4914

1982

PP4926

1982

PP4956

1982

PP4974

1983

PP5050

1983

PP5086

1983

PP5095

1983

Marsland Starkspur Winter Banana

Stark Brothers Auffet McCormick Fruit Tree Co.; Bountiful Ridge

x

Early Dawn

Claypool

Flamespur Red Rome; Alvah; Taylor

McCormick Fruit Tree Co. McCormick Fruit Tree Co.

x

Super Jon

Carnefix

Redcort

Hilltop Nurseries

PP5334

1984

Top Spur Delicious; Kemp Delicious

C & O Nursery

PP5406

1985

Meran

Zanon (Italy)

PP5421

1985

Eve's Delight

Hanners

PP5472

1985

Starkspur Utrastripe Delicious; Jenred

Stark Brothers

PP5508

1985

PP5547

1985

Dixiered; Starkspur Red Delicious; Hared

Stark Brothers

Glazier x

PP5569

1985

PP5584

1985

PP5629

1986

Summer Granny

Zee

PP5723

1986

x

Freedom

Cornell Research Foundation

PP5761

1986

x

Earlee Grannee; Early Granny; Cooper Granny Smith

Cooper

PP5838

1986

PP5937

1987

x

Rico Red

Merkely; Topinka; Myrick

Dayton


Loriglo

Akins

x

Jonagored Elbee

Gemis-Zuckerman (Belgium) Haberli Obst und Beerenzentrum (Swiss)

x

Par-Fect Spur Criterion

Fechtig

Daliguy

Davodeau-Ligoniere (France)

x

Scarlet Gala


Maypole

Kent Incorp. Society (England)

PP5947

1987

PP6043

1987

PP6148

1987

PP6172

1987

PP6184

1988

PP6190

1988

x

Superchief Spur; Sandige

Sandige

PP6224

1988

x

Ultra Spire; Waltz; Telamon

PP6225

1988

x

Emerald Spire; Bolero; Tuscan

Kent Incorp. Society (England) National Seed Development (England)

PP6226

1988

x

Scarlet Spire; Polka; Trajan

Kent Incorp. Society (England)

PP6268

1988

x

Williams Pride


Merrigold

Merrill

x

Adina;Frankad

Stark Brothers (Australia)

PP6294

1988

PP6361

1988

9

PP6406

1988

x

Higred; Ultrared Stark Jonathan

Stark Brothers

PP6450

1988

x

Elstar

Instituut voor der Veredeling (NL)

PP6519

1989

x

Sansa

Fruit Tree Research Station (Japan)

PP6588

1989

x

Rubinette; Rafzubin

PP6689

1989

x

Swiss Gourmet; Arlet

Hauenstein (Swiss) Swiss Federal Research Station (Swiss)

PP6702

1989

x

Vallee Spur

Vallee

PP6724

1989

Hacker's August Gold

Hacker

PP6955

1989

x

Galaxy Gala


PP7001

1989

x

Yataka

Okada (Japan)

PP7002

1989

x

Pioneer Mac

Adams County Nursery

PP7063

1989

x

Ginger Gold


PP7106

1990

PP7118

1990

x

Empress


PP7146

1990

x

Jonica; Schneica

Schneider (Germany)

PP7167

1990

x

Red Max; Starling

Starling

PP7197

1990

x

Honeycrisp

Regents, Univ. of Minnesota

PP7209

1990

x

Gourmet Golden; Keystone; Golden Supreme

North American Tree Co.

PP7226

1990

Or

Fruit Board (Israel)

PP7227

1990

Tomer

Fruit Board (Israel)

PP7237

1990

PP7327

1990

PP7328

1990

PP7363 PP7396

Komachien (Japan)

x

Sali Red Delicious

Sali

Benifuji

Otani (Japan)

x

Early Spur Rome


1990

x

Tift Spur Rome; Red Rome Spur No. 21

Tift

1990

x

Treco Spur Red Gala; Gala Red No. 42

Oregon Rootstock

PP7526

1991

x

Hillwell Braeburn; Hidala; Red Braeburn

Hill (New Z.)

PP7589

1991

x

Regal Gala; Fulford

Fulford (New Z.)

PP7590

1991

x

Rubinstar

Lichtenauer (Germany)

PP7618

1991

Vermont Gold

Luginbuhl

PP7812

1992

Scieur

MacKenzie (New Z.)

PP7813

1992

Sciglo

MacKenzie (New Z.)

PP7814

1992

Sciros

MacKenzie (New Z.)

PP7815

1992

Sciray

MacKenzie (New Z.) Cornell Research Foundation

PP7820

1992

x

Teeple Red Empire; Royal Empire

PP7851

1992

x

Golden Glory

Interplant Patent Marketing

PP7857

1992

Beni Tsugaru

Nakjima Tenkoen Co. (Japan)

PP7878

1992

x

Spur Gold Blush; Griffspur

Griffeth

PP7880

1992

x

Pink Lady; Cripps Pink

Cripps (Australia)

PP7923

1992

Spencerville Red

Feldman

PP7928

1992

Earlichief

PP7956

1992

Fiesta

Interplant Patent Marketing Plant Breeding International (England)

x

PP7997

1992

Benji Shogun; Heisei Fuji

Nakajimi Tenkoen Co. (Japan)

PP8010

1992

x

Thome Empire


PP8032

1992

x

Red Fuji (T.A.C. 114)

T.A.C. Co.

PP8049

1992

x

Decosta; Jonagold de Coster

The De Coster Group (Belgium)

PP8187

1993

Dulcet

Bailey

PP8234

1993

Sommerfeld

Sommerfeld

PP8354

1993

Akita Gold

Akita Prefecture (Japan)

PP8440

1993

Kizashi

Fruit Tree Research Station (Japan)

10

PP8460

1993

x

Corodel; Coromandel Red; Knottenbelt Red

South Pacific Apple Breeders (New Z.)

PP8477

1993

x

Sundowner; Cripps-Two

Department of Ag. (Australia)

PP8519

1993

Hampshire

Leadbeater

PP8543

1994

Geneva 65


PP8544

1994

Eve's Apple

Tucker

PP8621

1994

x

UltraRed Gala; Obrogala

Stark Brothers

PP6848

1994

x

SunCrisp

Rutgers

PP8673

1994

x

Crimson Gala; Waliser Gala

Waliser

PP8701

1994

Lucky Jon; Johnathan TF-812


PP8702

1994

Starlite

Gillespie (New Z.)

PP8707

1994

Belle Cox

Knottenbelt (New Z.)

PP8720

1994

Applewaites

Hill (New Z.)

PP8851

1994

PP9060

1995

PP9061

1995

PP9068

1995

PP9123

1995

PP9193

1995

PP9298

1995

x

Jored

Nicolai & Co. (Belgium)

Crimson Spire; Flamenco; Obelisk

Hort. Res. Int'l (England)

Irish Spire; Hercules; Charlotte

Hort. Res. Int'l (England)

x

Cameo; Carousel

Carousel Apple Co.

NJ109

Rutgers

x

Enterprise


Tensei

Fukushima Tenkoen (Japan) Purdue Research Foundation

PP9392

1995

x

Goldrush

PP9508

1996

x

Fuji-Spike; Lynd-Spur

Lynd Fruit Farm

PP9541

1996

x

Crimson Jonagold; Romagold

Surkijn (Belgium)

PP9645

1996

Myra Red Fuji


PP9681

1996

x

Pacific Gala

Olsen

PP9707

1996

x

Lucky Rose Golden

Stemilt

PP9708

1996

Tropic Sweet; Fla. 90-30

Sherman

PP9881

1997

x

Pristine


PP9907

1997

x

Autumn Gold; Hein

Columbia Basin Nursery

PP10010

1997

x

GalaSupreme; Davis

Davis

PP10016

1997

x

Brookfield Gala; Baignet

Brookfield New Zealand (New Z.)

PP10049

1997

x

Royal Court; Hartencourt


PP10114

1997

x

Gale Gala; Malaga

Van Well Nursery

PP10115

1997

x

Ruby Jon; Jackson

Jackson

PP10141

1997

Auvil Early Fuji

Anvil Fruit Co.

PP10276

1998

Delblush

Societe des Pepinieres (France)

PP10291

1998

Treco Red Fuji; Fuji Compact T.A.C. #114

T.A.C. Tree Co.

PP10314

1998

Excel; Jonagold Excel

Jomobel (Belgium)

PP10401

1998

x

Jonagored Supra

Jomobel (Belgium)

PP10458

1998

x

Big Red Gala

Protree Nurseries

PP10623

1998

Bel-El

Jomobel (Belgium)

PP10669

1998

Chinook

Okanagan Plant Improvement Co.

PP10714

1998

PP10731

1998

Elliot; Mt. Timp Gold

Burchell Nursery

PP10739

1998

Creston


PP10740

1998

Silken


PP10744

1999

PP10745

1999

Scotion Spur


PP10770

1999

Hartenmac; Scotian Spur Mac




11

PP10789

1999

x

Ambrosia

PP10832

1999

PP10840


Cumberland Spur

Deutscher

1999

x

Buckeye Gala; Simmons Gala; Peace Valley 1001

Peace Valley Orchards

PP11000

1999

x

Fortune


PP11071

1999

x

Snapp Stayman

PP11076

1999

Chinese Marshal; Huashuai

PP11077

1999

Chinese Champion; Huaguan

Adams County Nursery Fruit Industry Plant Improvement Station (New Z.) Fruit Industry Plant Improvement Station (New Z.)

PP11092

1999

Sciearly

White (New Z.)

PP11112

1999

Red Jonaprince

Wilton (Netherlands)

PP11182

2000

Magnum Gala; Stiekema

Stiekema

PP11193

2000

x

September Wonder Fuji; Jubilee; Fiero

Columbia & Okanagan Nursery

PP11201

2000

x

Crown Empire


PP11213

2000

Delkistar

Societe des Pepinieres (France)

PP11226

2000

x

Lochbuie Red Braeburn

Turner (New Z.)

PP11348

2000

x

Grand Gala; Caitlin

Stark Brothers

PP11367

2000

Zestar T; Minnewashta

Univ. of Minnesota

PP11436

2000

Ryoka

Nakajimi Tenkoen Co. (Japan)

PP11508

2000

Kanki

Saito (Japan)

PP11511

2000

PP11601

2000

PP11604

2000

PP11992

2001

PP12098

2001

PP12219

2001

Triple E Fuji

Torres

PP12323

2002

Scarlett O'Hara


PP12415

2002

Nevson

Nevis Fruit Co. (New Z.)

PP12421

2002

Kotaro

Nat. Inst. Fruit Tree Science (Japan)

PP12551

2002

Daybreak Fuji; Rankin Red

Twin Springs Fruit Farm

PP12842

2002

Autumn Gala; Harry Black Gala

International Plant Management

PP12863

2002

Miriela

Janket

x x

x

x

Miki Life

Kudo (Japan)

Sonata; Corail; Pinata; Pinova

Fischer (Germany)

Eve Braeburn; Mairiri Red

Easton (New Z.)

Joburn; Aurora

Jones (New Z.)

Top Export; Snyder

Snyder

PP12900

2002

Bull MacIntosh; Linda Mac


PP13732

2003

Kitaro

National Ag. Research (Japan)

PP13753

2003

Ultima Gala; Banning Gala

Banning

PP13819

2003

x

Sundance; Co-op 29


PP13871

2003

x

Pixie Crunch; Co-op 33


PP13888

2003

Jazz; Scifresh

Hort. And Food Inst. Of NZ (New Z.)

PP13930

2003

Stella Minnesota

Cox

PP14177

2003

Civni

Consortio Italiano Vivaisti (Italy)

PP14299

2003

Irene

Teague

PP14314

2004

Lynn

Nelson

PP14448

2004

Smith Gala

Smith

PP14792

2004

Star Gala; Weaver


PP14575

2004

Adams Apple; Burchinal Red Delicious

PP15134

2004

Rebella

Microsoft Bundesanstalt fur Zuchtungsforschung (Germany)

PP15261

2004

Fuji Brak; Brak

Kiku (Italy)

PP15465

2005

Dalitoga

SNC Elaris (France)

PP15946

2005

Walden


12

PP15963

2005

PP16084

2005

Opal

Institute of Experimental Botany (Czech) Institute of Experimental Botany (Czech)

PP16270

2006

Fukachee Fuji

Clevenger

PP16559

2006

Greenstar; Nicogreen

Better3Fruit (Belgium)

PP16620

2006


PP16622

2006

Crimson Crisp

PP16624

2006

Banning Red Fuji

Purdue Research Foundation Banning Orchards & Nursery

PP16654

2006

MC38

A.D. McLean Investments (Australia)

PP16725

2006

Ruby Pink

Tallawang Trust (Australia)

PP16753

2006

Dalitron

SNC Elaris (France)

PP17013

2006

Burkitt Gala

Trustees of BMA Trust (New Z.)

PP17201

2006

Kanzi; Nicoter


PP17268

2006

Mahana Red Braeburn

Field (New Z.)

PP17284

2006

GRE-1198

Greiner

PP17549

2007

PP17672

2007

Skyglow Enterprises (Australia)

PP17914

2007

CAPb Fuji

CABp 4 Limited (New Z.)

PP18004

2007

Eppich 2

Eppich

PP18071

2007

Gunn 300

Gunnison

PP18482

2008

Dalinip

SNC Elaris (France)

PP18483

2008

Dalirail

SNC Elaris (France)

PP18485

2008

PP18512

2008

El Nino

PP18541

2008

Sirius

McDonald Institute of Experimental Botany (Czech)

PP18592

2008

Hort. And Food Inst. Of NZ (New Z.) Western Australia Ag. Auth. (Australia)

Hofmann (Germany)

Ministry of Ag. (Canada)

PP18640

2008

Western Dawn

PP18661

2008

Candy

Austin (New Z.)

PP18730

2008

Modi

Consorzio Italiano Vivaisti (Italy)

PP18761

2008

Fuji Fubrax

Kiku (Italy)

PP19787

2008

Lady in Red

Mawley Family Trust (New Z.)

PP18812

2008

Minnieska

Univ. of Minnesota

PP18946

2008

Emmons

Zirkle Fruit Co.

PP19007

2008

McLaughlin Gala

McLaughlin

PP19054

2008

Fujiko

PP19276

2008

Orion

Consorzio Italiano Vivaisti (Italy) Institute of Experimental Botany (Czech)

PP19312

2008


PP19446

2008

Snowsweet; Wildung

Univ. of Minnesota

PP19473

2008

Zari


PP19604

2008

Alvina

Frankhauser (Australia)

PP19615

2009

Milwa

Agroscope (Czech)

PP19762

2009

PremA280

Prevar Ltd. (New Z.)

PP19766

2009

Dudek

Dudek

PP19806

2009

Masonova

Ministry of Ag. (Canada)

PP19826

2009

Lady Laura

Davidson (Australia)

PP19909

2009

Galaval

Pepinieres de Valois (France)

PP20016

2009


13

PP20028

2009

PP20057

2009

State of Queensland (Australia) Beller 142

14

Beller

ENDNOTES

1

See Andrew Kimbrell (ed.), Fatal Harvest: The Tragedy of Industrial Agriculture 58 (2002). See Heald & Chapman, Crop Diversity Report Card for the Twentieth Century: Diversity Boom or Diversity Bust?, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1462917; Heald & Chapman, Patents and Vegetable Crop Diversity, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm? abstract_id=1507228. 3 See supra note 1; Carol Goland and Sarah Bauer, When the Apple Falls Close to the Tree: Local Food Systems and the Preservation of Diversity, 19 RENEWABLE AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SYSTEMS 228, 228 (2004) (“these numbers are typical of fruits . . .estimated loss of varieties during the twentieth century [is] 80-90%”); 4 In 1929, we found 36 catalogs beginning with “S” (hereinafter “S Cats”) selling apple trees and 332 beginning with other letters (hereinafter “NS Cats”). Of 668 total varieties offered for sale, 217, or 32% were offered in S Cats. In 1988, S Cats contained 52% of all varieties of apples offered for sale that year. In 1992, S Cats contained 39% of the total market, and 31% in the year 2000. We also have full data for tomatoes (1903, 1987, 1994, 1998, 2004), strawberries (1988, 1992, 2000), and peaches (1988, 1992, 2000) in multiple years. For those crops in those years, the percentage of the market captured in S Cats ranges from 31% to 51%. 5 See Kent Whealy (ed.), FRUIT, BERRY AND NUT INVENTORY (3d ed. 2000) (surveying all commercial nursery catalogs published in the year 2000 for a wide variety of fruit species). 6 See http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=19-10-05-00 7 For example, request two scions of the apple variety “ACME” here http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgibin/npgs/acc/request.pl?action=add&acid=1241500. 8 See supra note 4. 9 USDA BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN, No. 56 (1905) 10 See Heald & Chapman, Crop Diversity Report Card for the Twentieth Century: Diversity Boom or Diversity Bust?, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1462917. 11 Susannah Chapman, The Apple of Their Eye: Apple Collectors, Landscape and Memory in the Southeastern United States, paper presented at the 2007 American Anthropological Association Conference, Washington, D.C. 12 See http://www.nchistoricsites.org/horne/horne.htm. 13 See http://www.applesearch.org/apples_found.html. 14 The Fruit, Berry, and Nut Inventory claims to list 1513 apple varieties: we have culled some duplicates so our number is lower. 15 See 15 U.S.C. § 161-63. 16 See, for example, Mark Lemley, Rational Ignorance at the Patent Office, 95 N.W. L. REV. 1495, 1501, 1504 (2001) (estimating that only five percent of patents are ever licensed; about two percent are litigated). 2

15