abstract

Volumes 10 & 11. Summer and Fall 2010

Concessionaire

Department of English Language and Literature

Managing Director

Amir Ali Nojoumian, PhD

Editor in Chief

Maryam Rahimi (Post Grad. Student, English Lit.)

Editorial Board Translation

Farnaz Safdari (Post Grad. Student, Trans. Studies)

ELT

Mehrdad Yousefpoori Naeim (Post Grad. Student, TEFL)

Literature

Shataw Naseri (Post Grad. Student, English Lit.)

With Special Thanks to Narges Montakhabi (PhD Student, English Lit.)

Cover and Layout Design Ali Noorani

Contributors • Shataw Naseri • Mohamad Gaffari • Robabeh Jalayer •

Farnaz Safdari

Gholamreza Medadian • Mehdi Mirzaei • Narges Montakhabi • Maryam Rahimi Maryam Rafiee • Banafsheh Rafe • Mehrdad Yousefpoori Naeim • Ali Noorani Maryam Pezeshki & Ali Heidari • Golnoosh Nourpanah • Shadi Ghazi Moradi Shirin Sadaghian • Mersedeh Nasiri • Shadi Ghazi Moradi • Yasna Golyari Nahid Jamshidi Rad • Parisa Mostafavi • I

Advisory Board

Jalal Sokhanvar, Prof., Shahid Beheshti University A. Fatemi Jahromi, PhD, Shahid Beheshti University M. Anani Sarab, PhD, Shahid Beheshti University S. Baleghizadeh, PhD, Shahid Beheshti University S. Ahmadzadeh, PhD, Shahid Beheshti University K. Soheil, PhD, Shahid Beheshti University S. C. Ilkhani, PhD, Shahid Beheshti University H. Mollanazar, PhD, Allame Tabataba’i University

Publisher

Accessible at

SBU Publishing House

http://sbu.ac.ir http://thresholdsbu.wordpress.com http://www.englishliteratureiniran.com

Address

Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences Shahid Beheshti University Evin, Tehran 19839 Iran Tel: 00 98 21 29 90 24 86 E-mail: [email protected] Price: 1000 T

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SUBMISSION GUIDELINE ► welcomes contributions of original (not previously published) works of interest in the disciplines of Translation Studies, English Language Teaching, English Literature and Comparative Studies along with related reports, news, profiles of eminent scholars, book reviews and creative writings. ► The contributors are expected to submit their works for the coming issue no later than 15 Esfand 1389. ► Prospective authors are invited to submit their materials to either of the journal E-mail addresses: [email protected] / [email protected] ► The manuscripts are evaluated by editors of each section and at least two referees from the advisory board. ► The editors require the following format styles: Informative title Abstract (150-200 words) Keywords (3-5 words) Introduction (500-800 words) Background or review of related literature (1500-2000 words) Methodology (500-700 words) Results and discussion (500-700 words) Notes and references ► The name of the author(s) should appear on the first page, with the present affiliation, full address, phone number and current email address. ► Microsoft word 2003 is preferred, using Times New Roman font and the size of 11 with single space between the lines for the abstracts, and the same font with size of 12 with 1.5 spaces for the body of paper. Graphics can be in JPEG or PSD format. ► Footnotes should only be used for commentaries and explanations, not for giving references. ► References come in parenthesis within the text in the following format: (Author’s surname – Page number) ► The references should be listed in full at the end of the paper in the following sample forms: Reference to books Smith, John, (1999). Milton’s Style. New York: Random House. Reference to an article in an edited collection Smith, Tom, (1999). “Humour in Milton.” Milton Encyclopedia. Eds. Smith and Marshall. New York: Random House. 25-80. Reference to an article in periodicals Marshall, Jane (August 1998). “Metaphor in Milton.” Poetry Yesterday 26. 12: 50-65, 55. Reference to technical reports and doctoral dissertation Smith, John (1985). “A political study of Milton.” Diss. University of Maryland. Reference to website Guerrero, Donna (14 Jan. 2000). La Profesoressa: Travel in Italy. . ► The Editorial Board accepts no responsibility for the opinions and statements of the authors

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EDITORIAL We are pleased that we have found another opportunity to present you with a new issue of Threshold, which could have never been published without your most valued contributions, suggestions, and encouragement. We believe Threshold has made substantial progress during these years; however, we are also aware of the fact that there is still room for further advancement, and this is what we aim at achieving in the forthcoming issues. As it has always been the case, the whole process of publishing a new issue takes considerable time and effort, and despite our additional endeavor, we are still behind schedule, and we definitely need to speed up to catch up with our plans. In order to realize this goal, we hereby call for and welcome your further contributions and cooperation of any kind. Maryam Rahimi Editor in Chief

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Literary studies Profile: Luisa Valenzuela / Shataw Naseri .8. Hybridity and Nationhood: A Postcolonial Reading of Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations / Mohammad Ghaffary .12. A Thematic Study of Carver’s Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? / Robabeh Jalayer .23. To Define or Not to Define Poetry, This Is the Question / Shataw Naseri .30. Translation Studies Profile: Katharina Reiss / Farnaz Safdari .36. Postmodern Translation: Translation as Text or Taste? / Mehdi Mirzaei

.39.

The Role of Context of Situation in Translation / Farnaz Safdari .48. English Language Teaching Profile: Simon Borg / Mehrdad Yousefpoori Naeim

.58.

The Effect of Instruction on EFL Students’ Production of the Speech Act of Complaint / Maryam Pezeshki & Ali Heidari .60. A Study of Peripheral Learning in English Language Classroom: The Effective Factors and the Resultant Acquisition / Shirin Sadaghian .72. The Effect of Teaching Vocabulary through Word-Formation Strategy on Vocabulary Learning of Iranian EFL Learners / Mersedeh Nasiri .81. Interview Mr. Alireza Khalighi: A Brief Discussion of Letter Writing Styles and Translation Courses / Mehrdad Yousefpoori Naeim .100. Army of Letters A Tale from Bostan Sa’adi

.104.

Nocturnal IX by Ahmad Shamloo / Mohammad Ghaffary .105. Method Disturbed / Golnoosh Nourpanah Under the Sun / Golnoosh Nourpanah

.109.

Apple and Moon/ Nahid Jamshidi Rad

.110.

.108.

V

Smiled, the Mad / Nahid Jamshidi Rad

.111.

Nocturnal by Ahmad Shamloo / Ali Noorani The Wolf / Mehrdad Yousefpoori Naeim

.112 .113.

If I Want to Draw a Picture of You! / Yasna Golyari Shoes / Shadi Ghazi Moradi

.114.

.115.

Translation Challenge Profile: Yadollah Royayi

.118.

The Rainy Day / Banafsheh Rafe

.120.

Shall-not-be Day / Nahid Jamshidi Rad

.121

Rainy Day / Farnaz Safdari

.122.

A Rainy Day / Maryam Rafiee

.123.

Next Issue Translation Challenge / Salman Harati

.124.

Views & Reviews A Film: The White Ribbon / Narges Montakhabi

.126.

A Play: The Night That Rachel Left Home / Maryam Rahimi

.130.

A Poem: To Autumn / Parisa Mostafavi .132. A Novel: Reading Turgenev / Nahid Jamshidi Rad

.142.

ThreShelf Practice Reading: A Foundation English Course for University Students (September 2010).148. Grammar as Science (January 2010)

.149.

Theatre, Communication, Critical Realism (What Is Theatre?) (June 2010)

.149.

An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method (August 2010) .150. Image/Text Semiotics: A Hypertextual Reading of Shakespeare’s and Titian’s “Venus and Adonis” (September 2010) .150. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications (2010) .151. An English Translation of Selected Tales of the Shahnameh Abstracts

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.153.

.152.

Literary Studies

Literary Studies

Profile: LUISA VALENZUELA By Shataw Naseri

BIOGRAPHY

L

uisa Valenzuela was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on November 26, 1938, to Pablo Franciso Valenzuela, a physician, and to writer Luisa Mercedes Levinson. At her mother’s house various writers gathered such as Adolfo Bioy Casares, Jorge Luis Borges and Ernesto Sabato. Though she felt an interest in natural sciences from an early age, at 17 she began publishing in several newspapers, such as Atlántida, El Hogar and Esto Es, and worked for Radio Belgrano, as well. At 20, just barely married to Theodore Marjak, a French merchant marine, she moved to Paris where she worked for Radio Télévision Française, and met members of both the nouveau roman literary movement and Tel Quel. She published her first fiction work entitled Clara (Hay que sonreír), whose main character would give its name to the title of the book of both English and French translations. In 1958, Luisa Valenzuela gave birth to her daughter Anna-Luisa. In 1961 she moved back to Argentina, where she worked as a journalist for La Nación and Crisis magazine. In 1965 she got divorced. During 1967 and 1968 she traveled throughout Bolivia, Peru and Brazil working for La Nación.

In 1969 she obtained the Fulbright Scholarship to study at the University of Iowa where she wrote The Efficient Cat (El gato eficaz). Between 1972 and 1974 she lived in Mexico City, Paris and Barcelona, with a brief stay in New York, where she researched the expression of the marginal United States literature as a recipient of the scholarship awarded by Argentina’s National Fund for the Arts (Fondo Nacional de las Artes). As a consequence of the National Reorganization Process, that partially censored her novel He Who Searches (Como en la guerra) by removing a torture scene, she moved to the United States where she lived for ten years. There she published in 1982 her short fiction book Change of Guard (Cambio de armas) and in 1983 The Lizard’s Tail (Cola de lagartija), a novel about José López Rega, Minister of Social Welfare during María Estela Martínez’s presidency that was supposed to be originally titled as Red Ant Sorcerer, Lord of Tacurú and Her Sister Estrella (El Brujo Hormiga Roja, Señor del Tacurú y su Hermana Estrella). 8

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Luis Valenzuela was a Resident Writer at the Center for Interamerican Relations at New York and Columbia University, where she taught writing workshops and seminars for ten years. She was a member of the New York Institute for the Humanities, at the Fund for Free Expression and member of the Freedom to Write Committee of the PEN American Center. In 1983 she was awarded the Guggenheim Scholarship. In 1989 she returned to Buenos Aires, where she finished her fiction works National Reality from Bed (Realidad nacional desde la cama), conceived initially as a play but finished as a novel and Black novel with Argentines (Novela negra con argentinos) that originally was meant to bear the title of The Motive (El motivo). Recognized as a significant author who has emerged in Argentina since the “boom” in Latin American literature during the 1960s, Valenzuela is one of South America’s best known and most widely translated women writers. She has written six novels and six collections of short stories, as well as numerous journalistic essays and a one-act play, each distinguished by a decidedly feminist slant in contrast with the male-dominated world of Hispanic literature. Throughout her writings Valenzuela has focused on contemporary politics, especially those of her native Argentina, and the use, misuse, and abuse of language in order to oppress, control, and censor thought—particularly of women—at both the personal and political level. Critics often have commented on the fantastic, magical elements of her generally realistic fiction, frequently classifying her narrative style as magic realism, a technique used by many writers to reflect the extraordinary qualities of life in Latin America. Although Valenzuela’s later works have strayed from personal themes and linear narration toward an emphasis on political concerns and a lyrical, metaphorical style, Cheryl Nimtz has observed that the personal and the political often reflect each other in Valenzuela’s work

AWARDS • 1965 Kraft Award • 1966 Premio del Instituto Nacional de Cinematografía • 1969 Fulbright Scholarship (International Writing Program, University of Iowa) • 1972 Scholarship of Argentine “Fondo Nacional de las Artes” for investigations in New York City • 1981/82 Fellow of the Institute for the Humanities of New York University • 1983 Guggenheim-Scholarship • 1985 Distinguished Writer in Residence at New York University • Honorary Doctor of University of Knox, Illinois • 1997 Medal “Machado de Assis” of Academia Brasilera de Letras 9

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• 2004 Premio Astralba (University of Puerto Rico)

WORKS Novels: Spanish • • • • • • •

Hay que sonreír, 1966 El gato eficaz, 1991 Como en la guerra, 1997 Cola de lagartija. Buenos Aires, 1993 Realidad nacional desde la cama, 1993 Novela negra con argentinos, 1990 La Travesía, 2001

• • • • •

Clara (the novel), 1999 The Lizard’s Tail (a novel),1983 He Who Searches (a novel), 1986 Black Novel (with Argentines, 1992 Bedside Manners,1995

English

Short Stories: Spanish • • • • • • • • 10

Los heréticos, 1967 Libro que no muerde, 1980 Cambio de armas, 1982 Donde viven las águilas, 1983 SimetríasAntología personal, 1993 Cuentos completos y uno más, `1999 Simetrías/Cambio de Armas, 2002 El placer rebelde. Antología general, 2003

Literary Studies

• Microrrelatos completos hasta hoy, 2003 • Trilogía de los bajos fondos (Hay que sonreír, Como en la guerra, Novela negra con argentinos), 2004 English • • • • • • •

Clara, 13 short stories and a novel, 1976 Strange Things Happen Here. 19 short stories and a novel, 1979 Other Weapons, 1985 Open Door (selected short stories), 1988 The Censors (selected short stories), 1992 “A family for Clotilde”, in Wendy Martin, The art of short story, 2006 “Blind dates”, in Pretext, 2005

Essays: Spanish • Peligrosas Palabras. Buenos Aires: Editorial Temas, 2001 • Escritura y Secreto. México: Editorial Ariel, 2002 • Los deseos oscuros y los otros (cuadernos de New York). Buenos Aires: Ed. Norma, 2002

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Literary Studies

Hybridity and Nationhood: A Postcolonial Reading of Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations Mohammad Ghaffary English Literature, MA, SBU [email protected]

ABSTRACT

T

his essay studies Charles Dickens’s Great Expectation from a Postcolonial point of view. First, I introduce the major concepts of Postcolonial criticism, namely, mimicry, hybridity,

double consciousness, unhomeliness, and liminality; then, I apply them to the novel at issue. To me, “hybridity” is not merely cultural; it could also be a social matter, as in the case of Pip, the protagonist of this novel. I argue how he is caught between two opposing cultures in the Victorian English society: the lower/working class culture and that of the middle/capitalist class. He is indeed on the threshold or in a “liminal” position. This liminality ultimately leads to the creation of a new cultural meaning of nationhood. I will also use Karl Deutsch’s theory of nationhood to argue that the English in the 19th century did not actually form a unified nation.

Keywords: Postcolonial criticism, Great Expectations, mimicry, hybridity, double consciousness, liminality, nationhood

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INTRODUCTION Dickens and Great Expectations Charles Dickens (1812–1870) was the most popular English novelist of the Victorian era, and one of the most popular of all time. In his numerous novels, he has created some of the most iconic characters of English literature. Many of his novels, with their recurrent theme of social reform, first appeared in magazines in serialized form. Unlike other authors who completed entire novels before publishing them, Dickens often created the episodes as they were being serialized. This gave his stories a particular rhythm and sense of suspense. His works are still popular and continually reprinted. With the rise of modern literary criticism, they have appealed to various critics, studying them from different perspectives. His work has been praised for its mastery of prose and unique characters by writers such as George Gissing and G. K. Chesterton, though other writers, such as Henry James and Virginia Woolf, have criticized him for the sentimentality and implausibility of his characters. Great Expectations is a novel by Charles Dickens. It was first published in serial form in the journal All the Year Round from December 1860 to August 1861. It has been adapted for stage and screen over 250 times. Great Expectations is written in the style of bildungsroman, the story of a man or woman in his/her quest for maturity, usually starting from childhood and ending in the main character’s adulthood. Great Expectations is the story of the orphan Pip, writing about his life from his early childhood and his attempts to become a gentleman. The novel can also be considered semi-autobiographical of Dickens, like much of his work, drawing on his experiences of life and surrounding people. The main plot occurs between Christmas Eve 1812, when the protagonist is about seven years old, and the winter of 1840. It is set in early Victorian England, when the nation was undergoing great social changes. As a result of the Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, capitalists and manufacturers found the opportunity to amass huge fortunes. One’s social class was no longer entirely determined by one’s blood; however, the divisions between rich and poor still remained extremely wide. London was a densely populated city with numerous factories. In that context, people more and more moved from the country to the city in search of greater economic opportunity. Pip’s sudden rise from a country laborer to a city gentleman forces him to move from one social extreme to another, while facing the strict rules and expectations that governed the Victorian England. This is perhaps the most significant aspect of this novel which I am going to elaborate in this article.

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Literary Studies

Nationhood and Postcolonial Criticism Postcolonial criticism is one of the most recent approaches in literary criticism which emerged out of developments within cultural studies in the late 1970s. It investigates what happens when two cultures clash and when one of them becomes superior to the other, enforcing its own ideology. The pioneers in this field of study include, among others, Frantz Fanon, Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, and Homi K. Bhabha. Currently, Postcolonial theorists and critics mostly focus on such issues as the identity of the Postcolonial subject, his/her cultural status, and so on. Thanks to Homi Bhabha and others, many new terms have flown into this area, among which one can name hybridity, third space, liminality, unhomeliness, etc. In this essay, I will deal with these terms in analyzing the major characters of Great Expectations. So, I try to take a quick look at them before starting my discussion. Since “nation” and “nationhood” are central concepts in my study, perhaps before anything else we had better examine the meanings of these two terms. Concise Oxford Dictionary defines “nation” as “a large aggregate of people united by common descent, culture, or language, inhabiting a particular state or territory.” Therefore, it considers common descent, culture, language, and territory as characteristic features of a nation. The same term is defined in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary as “a community of people … possessing a more or less defined territory and government” (771). As we see, according to this definition, what is important in distinguishing a nation is a common territory controlled by a unified system of government. A more comprehensive definition (the sum of the former two) is provided by Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary: “a country considered as a group of people with the same language, culture, and history who live in a particular area under one government” (847). Thus, based on these definitions, on the surface we can regard the Victorian England (the context of Dickens’s novel) as a unified nation, for people living in it had a shared descent, language, religion, territory, culture, and were under one system of government. However, beneath the surface this may not always be the case. Now, let us take a look at a more technical definition of “nationhood.” Karl W. Deutsch defines a “nation” (or a “people” in his own terms) as “[a] larger group of persons linked by … complementary habits and facilities of communication” (26). According to him, these facilities include a common language and its auxiliary codes which are used to impart information, recall it, or recombine it to new patterns. If they are complementary enough, they form a “culture.” This shared culture ultimately gives these people a common “nationality” or “nationhood.” He calls this a “functional definition of nationality” (ibid 27). Therefore, a nation forms a social, economic, and political alignment of individuals from different social classes and occupations. As Deutsch argues, the secondary basis of this alignment is “the complementarity of acquired social and economic preferences” (ibid 28). A third factor in this relation is the rise of industrialism 14

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which offers reward for the successful individuals or groups. Based on Deutsch’s theory, we can call a group of people who have a common language, culture, territory, etc. a unified “nation” when they have shared social and economic preferences. As I mentioned before, Postcolonial criticism deals with the clash between two cultures when one subordinates the other. The culture that subordinates is called the “colonizer” and the one subordinated is named the “colonized.” The colonizer tries to inculcate its own culture in the colonized nation, so that it can maintain its dominance. After the colonizer’s culture was established, the colonized people gradually adopt that culture and adapt to it. This process is called “mimicry.” It should be noted that this mimicry is not slavish imitation, and the colonized is not being assimilated into the supposedly dominant or even superior culture (Huddart 39). In fact, according to Homi Bhabha, mimicry is “an exaggerated copying of language, culture, manners, and ideas” (ibid). Mimicry reflects both the desire of colonized individuals to be accepted by the colonizer’s culture and the shame they experience regarding their own culture. In this situation, the Postcolonial subject can be described as having a “double consciousness” or “double vision.” He/she will have an unstable sense of self, feeling a state of “unhomeliness” (Tyson 421). Unhomeliness is not the same as being homeless, but “to feel not at home even in your own home because you are not at home in yourself. [The] cultural identity crisis has made you a psychological refugee …” (ibid). This is a critical issue in Postcolonial theory. Unhomeliness may exert various effects on the colonized people’s lives. They wonder whether they should adapt themselves to the new culture, maintain their original culture, or accept a combination of these two. Colloquially, “hybridity” is often spoken of in terms of its use within horticulture as the combination of two kinds that produce a third; in this process, each element possesses a self-identity that is sufficient in and of itself (Childs and Fowler 112). However, the term “hybridity” emerged within Postcolonial studies as a response to static and essentialist notions of identity of race and nation promoted by colonial discourses, and also such anti-colonial discourses as Nationalism. The term has been introduced by Homi Bhabha. Hybridity, in this specific sense, is associated with another critical concept which Bhabha calls the “Third Space.” This “Third Space” helps us to think of the identities of cultures regardless of such binary oppositions as “us/them,” “insider/outsider,” “inclusion/exclusion,” etc. Hybridity can be observed specifically in colonial clashes that have resulted in today’s “multicultural” societies. The “location of culture,” to Bhabha, in such heterogeneous societies exists in-between. Hybridity is not merely a spatial matter but also temporal. The same is true bout “liminality,” another term put forward by Bhabha. He does not talk about pure cultures interacting, but concentrates on what happens on the borderlines of cultures, in-between cultures. He thinks about this through what he calls the “liminal”: something which is on the border or the threshold. (This idea of threshold space roots in Jacques Derrida’s Deconstruction.) The term implies that “what is in-between settled cultural forms or iden15

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tities … is central to the creation of new cultural meaning” (Huddart 4-5). In Bhabha’s theory, “the proper location of culture is between the familiar forms of official culture” (ibid 5); in other words, unexpected and hybrid cultures are privileged to static and authentic ones.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The one and only Postcolonial reading of Great Expectation that I could find was Edward Said’s, in his seminal book Culture and Imperialism, which is not Bhabhaean of course. Obviously, it is not that related to our discussion here; anyhow, it is a Postcolonial critique and worth mentioning. Said sees Great Expectations as “a novel of self-delusion, about Pip’s vain attempts to become a gentleman with neither the hard work nor the aristocratic source income required for such a role” (xv). Those times, Australia functioned partly as a penal colony for English criminals. It was a “white” colony like Ireland. These criminals were sent there to get rid of their crimes and become acceptable people to the English society, but there they suffered from so much difficulties that turned them into “permanent outsiders.” They could not return to England because subjects transported to a colony like Australia could not be allowed to get back into the “metropolitan” city. According to Said, through Magwitch, Great Expectations is a novel about empire and colonialism. At the end of some of his other novels, e.g. David Copperfield, Dickens dismissed many of the characters to Australia to begin a new life, simply as a convenient way of disposing of surplus or awkward individuals. In Great Expectations, the reverse movement occurs: from the colonized periphery to the empire. After Pip admits his debt to Magwitch, his character undergoes a radical change: he is not any longer the former Pip who sought to become a gentleman without labor; now, he leaves for the east, to other colonies of the British Empire, to work hard and rise to a high social status. To Said, this reveals “Britain’s imperial intercourse through trade and travel with the Orient” (xvii). In his analysis, Said’s attention is focused upon the character of Magwitch, but I will approach the Postcolonial themes of the novel through other characters, most importantly Pip.

Postcolonial Reading of Great Expectations Pip as a Hybrid Character

As was mentioned, Postcolonial theorists and critics use the term “hybridity” in the case of those who belong to a colonized culture and claim that such people oscillate 16

Literary Studies

between their own culture (colonized) and the colonizer’s new culture. At this moment, they enter a kind of “third space,” which is neither their own culture not the colonizer’s. However, I will use this term in another meaning. To me, hybridity is not merely cultural but it can also be social. In this essay, I call “hybrid” those who live in a society which is undergoing dramatic changes regarding industrialism, market economy, development of cities, etc. Members of such a society, affected by these changes, find a new identity and fluctuate between different, and often opposing, “cultures.” In a capitalist society, it is the middle class that predominates the society and defines the dominant culture, i.e. the dominant values, sense of right and wrong, etc. All people, consciously or not, are asked to conform to the prescribed hegemony. In other words, the middle class is like a colonizer that has colonized an inferior nation. Great Expectations deals with such a society. The class system it portrays is based on the post-Industrial Revolution model of Victorian England. Dickens generally ignores the nobility and the hereditary aristocracy in favor of characters whose fortunes have been earned through commerce. With the rise of industrialism and bourgeois economy and the development of the cities, people from the lower class (villagers, laborers) flowed towards the cities (especially capital cities) to achieve advancement in their lives. They sought to join the middle class people (i.e. become “gentlemen”!). In doing so, they “mimicked” the culture of those people. Some of them were successful and could reach a high status and an apparently “prosperous” life. These individuals, on the one hand, had to adapt the culture of the middle class; on the other hand, they were not able to wholly break away from their own “lower” cultures because they had internalized their former way of living and conventions. There was always a trace of the old culture in the new one. In fact, they were afflicted with a sort of cultural “hybridity,” fluctuating between rural/working and bourgeois culture and values. This is what happens for Pip in Great Expectations. Like many other lower-class characters, including Mrs. Jones and Mr. Wopsle, Pip wishes to become more than what he is. He does his utmost to become a gentleman and attain prosperity. Thus, Satis House, with all its grotesqueness, is a kind of preparatory school for him to entre the middle-class English society; he learns there to imitate the bourgeois culture. Dickens takes great care to distinguish the two Pips, imbuing the voice of Pip the narrator with perspective and maturity while also imparting how Pip the character feels about what is happening to him as it actually happens (SparkNotes Editors). In this way, the reader fully appreciates the development of his character. The genre of bildungsroman also sheds some light on his individuation. It highlights Pip’s rise from the lower class to the upper class. However, contrarily to traditional bildungsromans, this is not a linear, progressive movement towards advancement. Since he is preoccupied with his hopes, Pip fails to notice that Miss Havisham 17

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encourages Estella to torment him. He increasingly believes that Miss Havisham intends to make him a gentleman. This shall remind us of the way colonizers have justified their act of colonization and exploitation. On the surface, they intend to save the colonized from barbarism, immorality, heathendom, and so on, but under the surface they always consider their own economic or political benefits. Moreover, Pip is doubly exploited (colonized): the young boy becomes for both Magwitch and Miss Havisham a means by which, in their different ways, they can retaliate against the society that hurt them. Magwitch retaliates against society by striving to meet it on the ground of its own special prejudices. According to Hagan, Jr., although deprived from childhood of the opportunity to become a “gentleman” himself, Magwitch does not intend to destruct the “gentleman” class (171). Having seen in Compeyson the power of that class, the deference it receives from society, he fashions a gentleman of his own to take his place in it. Pip, thus, becomes a means in Magwitch’s hands for revenge. The fulfillment of his hope of being raised to a higher social class turns out to be the work of a man from a class even lower than his own. This may suggest that the colonizer may not be really superior to the colonized. Despite his many admirable qualities — the strongest of which are compassion, loyalty, and conscience — Pip constantly focuses on his failures and shortcomings. The shame Pip experiences regarding his original culture is portrayed, for instance, in his attitude toward himself and his belongings after getting familiar with Estella and Miss Havisham. This initiates the early stages of his cultural mimicry: “You are to wait here, you boy,” said Estella; and disappeared and closed the door. I took the opportunity of being alone in the court-yard, to look at my coarse hands and my common boots. My opinion of those accessories was not favourable. They had never troubled me before, but they troubled me now, as vulgar appendages. (Dickens 51)

Here, he is ashamed of his way of clothing which belongs to the working class and compares it with that of Estella who apparently is a middle-class young girl. This feeling makes him mimic their culture (including their way of clothing) and finally become one of them. In this process, Pip loses some of his innocence and becomes detached from his natural, sympathetic kindness. Pip is unable to sympathize with Biddy or even with Joe, the most caring figure in his life. On the other hand, he still maintains such aspects of his own culture when he sympathizes with Magwitch and tries to help him run away, or with Mrs. Joe after she is dead. He is not able to completely assimilate the middle-class culture; nor can he totally break away from his own lower-class culture. For instance, as Lindberg has pointed out, the change in Pip’s objects of love obviously unravels his new moral world (121). Like his sister when she wishes to be forgiven, Pip repudiates 18

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conventional mores in pursuit of a more liberal sense of right, but eventually he returns to the former moral codes. This situation represents his state of hybridity. He fluctuates between these two and stays on the borderline rather than entering one of them: he becomes unhomely.

Estella as the Other In the course of the novel, Estella acts as Pip’s Other. In fact, it is through her that Pip formulates his subjectivity. He wants to become a gentleman so that he can marry her. In a way, all his attempts are centered upon his relationship with Estella. When Pip meets her for the first time, he unconsciously sets her as opposite to himself and does his best to become like her in manners. Because he loves Estella, he comes to value what Estella seems to value. However, Estella is a hybrid herself. She is a descendant of the lower class by birth, daughter of Magwitch and Molly, Jaggers’s housekeeper. However, she has a middle-class up-bringing by Miss Havisham. She is indeed mentally or intellectually colonized by Miss Havisham, exploited by her to torment Pip. Life among the upper classes does not represent salvation for Estella. Instead, she is victimized (colonized) twice by her adopted class. Rather than being raised by Magwitch, a man of great inner nobility, she is raised by Miss Havisham, who destroys her ability to express emotion and interact normally with the world, and rather than marrying the kindhearted commoner Pip, Estella marries the cruel nobleman Drummle, who treats her harshly and makes her life miserable for many years. Miss Havisham: A Chronotopic Character

The concept of “chronotope” (literally “time space”) was first introduced by Mikhail Bakhtin. He defines it as “the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships that are artistically expressed in literature” (84). Bakhtin adopts this term from mathematics and Einstein’s theory of Relativity. By this term, he means the inseparability of time and space, putting more emphasis on “time” and considers it as the fourth dimension of space. If we want to simplify this notion, we may say that chronotope is the manner in which literature represents time and space. In Einstein’s opinion, no chronology could be independent of events: for instance, “the movement of the clock’s hands, if that movement is to be an event …, must always be correlated with something happening outside the clock” (Holquist 113). Miss Havisham stops all the clocks in Satis House at twenty minutes to nine, the moment when she first learned that Compeyson was gone, and she wears only one shoe, because when she learned of his betrayal, she had not yet put on the other. She acts as if time were stopped for her. 19

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She, thus, becomes a chronotopic character, the spatialization of time, as if time took on flesh. On her decaying body, Miss Havisham’s wedding dress becomes an ironic symbol of death and degeneration. The wedding dress and the wedding feast symbolize Miss Havisham’s past, and the stopped clocks throughout the house represent her determined attempt to freeze time by refusing to change anything from the way it was when she was jilted on her wedding day. Finally, the dilapidated stones of the house, as well as the darkness and dust that pervade it, reflect the general decadence of the lives of its inhabitants and of the upper class as a whole. She is indeed “have-a-sham” or “half-asham” (Hynes 259). She will not survive in this society which is rapidly transforming.

CONCLUSION In this essay, I studied Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations from a Postcolonial point of view. First, I provided a very short introduction to Postcolonial terminology. Next, based on that, I analyzed three major characters of the novel, namely, Pip, Estella, and Miss Havisham. My claim was that Pip and Estella actually possess the characteristic which Homi Bhabha calls hybridity. They originally belong to the lower class of the society but in the course of their lives, due to different reasons, move towards the middle class and (try to) assimilate its culture. However, they cannot fully accomplish that and remain in a liminal situation, on the borderline of these two opposing cultures. I also argued that Miss Havisham is a “chronotopic character,” representing the decadence of the old middle-class values. She seeks to stop time by rejecting to change anything even her wedding dress, and in this way she herself becomes the spatialization of time. She cannot survive in the rapidly developing Victorian society. As I briefly explained in the introduction, Karl Deutsch believes that the members of a society will attain a unified nationhood when they have a unified culture, and the latter itself requires that people have the same means of communication as well as similar economic and political conditions and preferences. I tried to show that the Victorian English people, the characters of this novel are whose representatives, did not have common economic and political preferences and conditions; more than that, there was a huge gap between the middle-class culture, the dominant ideology of the time, and the working-class culture. Consequently, these two groups could not share a single nationality, and those lower-class people who sought to join the bourgeoisie were caught between these two cultures, becoming hybrid, unhomely subjects.

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Bibliography Bakhtin, M. M. “Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel.” The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson & Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981. 84-258. Bhabha, Homi. The Location of Culture. London & New York: Routledge, 1994. Bressler, Charles E. Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. 4th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. “Charles Dickens.” Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. June 4, 2010. Childs, Peter and Roger Fowler (eds.). The Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms. London & New York: Routledge, 2006. Concise Oxford English Dictionary [10th ed.] on CD-ROM (version 1.0). Oxford University Press. 1999-2000. Deutsch, Karl W. “Nationalism and Social Communication.” Nationalism. Ed. John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. 26-29. Dickens, Charles. Great Expectations. Introduction and Notes by John Bowen. London: Wordsworth, 2000. “Great Expectations.” Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. June 4, 2010. Hagan, Jr., John H. “The Poor Labyrinth: The Theme of Social Injustice in Dickens’s Great Expectations.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction. Vol. 9, No. 3 (Dec. 1954). 169-178. (Accessed: 03/24/2010) Holquist, Michael. Dialogism: Bakhtin and His World. 2nd ed. London & New York: Routledge, 2002. Hornby, A. S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. 7th ed. Ed. Sally Wehmeier. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Huddart, David. Homi K. Bhabha. London & New York: Routledge, 2006. Hynes, Joseph A. “Image and Symbol in Great Expectations.” ELH. Vol. 30, No. 3 (Sep. 1963). 258292. (Accessed: 03/24/2010) Lindberg, John. “Individual Conscience and Social Injustice in Great Expectations.” College English. Vol. 23, No. 2 (Nov. 1961). 118-122. (Accessed: 03/24/2010) Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 10th ed. Springfield: Merriam-Webster Incorporated, 1998. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage, 1994.

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Literary Studies SparkNotes Editors. “SparkNote on Great Expectations.” (Retrieved on 03/15/2010.) Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. 2nd ed. New York & London: Routledge, 2006.

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A Thematic Study of Carver’s Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? Robabeh Jalayer English Literature, MA, SBU [email protected]

ABSTRACT

R

aymond Carver was born in Clastskanie, Oregon in 1938. He grew up in Yakima, Washington. His father, a sawmill worker, was an alcoholic, whose alcoholism and that of his own is

reflected in almost all of Carver’s stories. Carver’s mother worked on and off as a waitress and a retail clerk. Carver worked with his father at a sawmill in California. In June of 1957, aged 19, he married 16-year-old Maryann Burk. Carver supported his family by working as a janitor, sawmill laborer, delivery man, and library assistant. During their marriage, Maryann (interestingly the name of the heroine or anti-heroine of the title story Will You Please Be Quiet, Please?) worked as a waitress, salesperson, administrative assistant, and teacher. In this essay, his famous work, Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? will be investigated in order to find its prominent characteristics

which have made this writer an outstanding one in American literature. Keywords: Carver, short stories, marital relationships,love, identity, voyeurism, sexual politics

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Carver’s career was dedicated to short stories and poetry, whereas his short, colloquial style after the example of Hemingway and Chekov prevented him from writing novels. He described himself as “inclined toward brevity and intensity” and “hooked on writing short stories”. Carver’s first book of poems, Near Klamath, was published in 1968 by the English Club of Sacramento State College. His first published story appeared in 1960, titled “The Furious Seasons”. In this story, there could be seen the influences of William Faulkner. His first collection, Will You Please Be Quiet, Please?, was first published in 1976; the title story had appeared in the Best American Short Stories 1967 collection. His other short story collections were written while he was living with the writer Tess Gallagher after his divorce from his first wife. What We Talk About When We Talk About Love, Cathedral and Elephant are his later accomplished works and Cathedral is generally thought his best. Fire, a book of essays, poems and stories appeared in 1985 and In a Marine Light he published some of his poems. He died of cancer in 1988. Carver’s Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? is consisted of 22 short stories in which lots of American young or old couples, parents and children appear. These stories, in one way or another, deal with the relationships among these people and the characters are studied psychologically or minimalistically while they are placed in different situations. Carver’s themes of marriage, love or the absence of love, infidelity, lack of trust, silence and verbal paralysis (resulted in or from lack of communication), uncertainty, alcoholism, sexuality, materialism and identity can be traced all over the stories. Carver is usually obsessed with the conflicts between men and women in this collection. The characters in Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? are described realistically in their lives, with short sentences. These characters are usually chosen from the ordinary people, the working class with which Carver has been completely familiar and lived among them in the real world. Carver’s own experiences of life, his working in various positions, being a worker, a teacher, a divorcee, an adulterer, a father, an alcoholic, etc. are a wonderful guide in his writings. As he says in an interview “A lot of things come from experience, or sometimes from something I’ve heard, a line somewhere”(David Koehne). Therefore, the themes which construct his stories are the realities of the American life, often the life of middle or low class of society. His delineating of characters such as Ralph Wyman in the title story or Al in “Jerry and Molly and Sam” is so real that makes the reader never to lose his or her touch with the real world so that he or she can empathize with them. Ralph like many other American young people leaves his parents at the age of eighteen and studies in the college, then falls in love and marries. He finds a job and tries to progress in his job. These are the characteristics of almost all other Americans. Facing a problem in his marriage, he gets out of control and hits his wife, and then as a refuge, he goes to alcohol and gambling. He tries to be again the “Jackson” of his period of uncertainty who lived a wild life in his early college years. The theme of problematic relationships between the husband and wife is a constant in Carver’s stories. Carver pictures this theme in almost all the stories of Will You 24

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Please Be Quiet, Please? except a few ones such as “Bicycles, Muscles, Cigarettes” in which the world is the masculine world of bicycles, muscles and cigarettes, showing the relationship of a father and his son. The man and woman who are linked to each other by marriage do not really have many things in common. They are two quite different and far worlds that do not attempt to have a reasonable and emotional relationship and if one of them does, he or she faces with the rejection of the other and so fails in his attempt. They are the failures of the conjugal life although they might be a material success or might pretend to be one like Wayne and Caroline who are dinning luxuriously in an expensive restaurant in “Signals”. These problems are the result of love or actually the absence of love in these marriages as Kirk Nesset suggests. The bearings of love’s absence on marriages and on the identities of the individuals are enormous in these stories. In “Jerry and Molly and Sam,” Betty, feeling this absence of love in her life, cries to her husband that “I don’t know what’s going to happen to us. I’m ready for a nervous breakdown… It isn’t the dog I’m worried about. It’s us! It’s us! I know you don’t love me anymore-goddamn you! - but you don’t even love the kids!”(Carver 120). This lack is obviously felt throughout the story in the behavior of each of the characters, in Al’s having an affair, in his trying to rid himself of the dog that the kids love and even in the cold reaction of the dog escaping from him when he tries to get her back home. The hero of “The Ducks” while sleeping beside his wife “tried to think how much he loved her or if he loved her”. In “How About This?,” Emily tells her husband, Harry, that the only solution to the uncertainty of their life is that “we have to love each other; we’ll just have to love each other”(Carver 140). Stull refers to “a certain terrible kind of domesticity” that he calls “dis-ease” (Cited in Nesset, 292). This terrible domesticity is the experience of Carver himself which is written down as the story of characters who peopled his works. The “dis-ease” in the family results in extra sexual relationships with other people rather than the husband or wife that brings about more problems. In “What’s In Alaska?,” Mary and Jack are invited to Carl and Helen’s home for a birthday party. She’s offered a new job in Alaska and she tells her husband and their friends about it. In the party, Jack sees his wife “move against Carl from behind and her arms around his waist” (Carver 64). He understands that their problem is “very serious” as he unconsciously answers Helen. The infidelity of husband or wife is the result of a lack, lack of love and so is love’s malady. The narrator of “Fat” is a waitress who is working with her husband in a restaurant in which a fat man comes to eat. She is attracted to the man since she does not really love her husband and the sexual relationship is a forced one from the husband’s side. Nesset believes that “love is a darkly unknowable and irreversible force, a form of sickness not only complicating but dominating the lives of characters” (293). The sexuality in which these characters are looking for happiness proves not to be what they really want. The outcome is not happiness, it is only a short forgetfulness of the problem and even after that they do not know what to do with it. It brings to Marian of “Will You Please Be 25

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Quiet, Please?” tears, regret and being hit by Ralph. And it causes Al “not to know what to do about it”. These characters are “the partakers of sexual politics” (Nesset) and of love or its absence that leave them diminished, isolated and entrapped. Often the victim of these problematic relationships is the female character of the story. In the tragedy of love mostly this is the woman who is attacked or ignored. In “The Student’s Wife” she’s completely ignored by her husband. He does not try to perceive or fulfill her desires; instead, he simply sleeps however she tries to keep him awake. He does not talk to her, does not answer her questions while she cannot sleep and when she conceives this night’s difficulty and loneliness, there is an epiphany in her conjugal life revealing itself in her learning that “a sunrise was so terrible as this” (Carver 96). At the end of the story, she hopelessly says “God, will you help us, God?” (Carver 96). In “Nobody Said Anything” the problem repeats in the form of the husband’s asking for a divorce which the wife does not really want and the only thing she can do is crying quietly. Liukkonen observes that “Carver’s portrayals of marriage problems are full of emotional tensions, hidden memories, wounds, longing, hate, anxiety and melancholy” (Cited in Barendt). These harsh consequences of lack of love in the life bring about the themes of “ineptitude” and hopelessness. The male figures are not heroic figures, neither do the female ones. The men are disillusioned, disappointed and isolated figures who find no way for their rescue. Like Marston in “What Do You Do in San Francisco?,” these men are usually jobless so they spend all their time thinking about the matters which make the life more difficult, more intolerable to live. Therefore, this melancholy man is thought to have killed his wife who escaped with her boyfriend. The jobless, unsatisfied male characters retreat from their conventional masculine duties and instead of them the women take the responsibility of the family. Leo’s wife, Toni goes out to sell her car in order to pay their debts. In “They’re Not Your Husband” Earl Ober is described to be “between jobs as a salesman. But Doreen, his wife had gone to work nights as a waitress at a twentyfour-hour coffee shop…”(Carver 16). Since he has nothing useful to do he starts to ask wife to lose weight because he has heard two men talking about his wife’s fatness in the coffee shop. When the woman says that her co-workers say that she’s getting too much thin he says confidently that “they’re not your husband”(Carver 20)! The men of Carver’s stories “retreat inside homes,” as Seemann suggests, “to find an alternate world in TV, alcohol, violence” and sex (1). The melancholy and anxieties of the characters results in lack of communication, or one can claim that lack of communication results in their abnormal behavior. Within the stories such as “Nobody Said Anything,” “Collectors,” “The Student’s Wife,” “How About This?” and “Put Yourself in My Shoes” the experience of verbal paralysis is emphasized. In “Nobody Said Anything” the parents’ lack of communication is reflected in the mother’s crying but not saying anything, her silence. Even the sons have been infected with this problem. When the woman in the car gives George a ride and asks him some questions he answers very briefly, then he accepts that “I couldn’t think of anything more to say”(Carver 36). Myers seems to 26

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have very little in common with his energetic wife in “Put Yourself in My Shoes” as his language that fails to communicate is shown in his wife’s attempt for talking to him and his refusal of using words in a way that his conversation is reduced to some body gestures and short words but nothing like a complete sentence to connect them together. What we can understand from this little conversation: ‘“Dick says hello,” she said. Myers nodded. Paula sipped her drink. “How was your day today?” Myers shrugged. “What’d you do?” she said. “Nothing,” he said. “I vacuumed.”’ is that Myers does not want to attend in the communication with his wife. Language, when used, is the language of loss not that of expressing love. The limitation of language in expressing what one feels and what one experiences is highlighted in this collection. Barendt indicates that the individuals in Carver’s stories struggle to explain themselves but they are unable to do so and the only feeling that remains of it is frustration. Therefore, these characters get sulky, enraged and isolated in their lives within the story. While Wayne and Caroline are having dinner at the restaurant, their conversation goes toward rage: ‘Wayne said, “Well, what do you think? Is there a chance for us or not?”… “Maybe so,” she said. “There’s always a chance.” “Don’t give me that kind of crap,” he said. “Answer me straight for a change.” “Don’t snap at me,” she said’ (Carver 162). Also the kind talking of Ralph and Marian takes the form of confessions and accusations. Even the title “Will You Please Be Quiet, Please?” emphasizes this issue; and while trying to hide himself from Marian, Ralph asks her repeatedly to be quiet. Silence clouds heavily on Carver’s stories. The intensity of meaning in sentences which are consisted of a few words is the characteristic of Carver’s Minimalism. Minimalism is the style of Carver in this and in his other short stories. This style is “inherently masculine,” emphasizing the masculine virtue of stoicism. This masculinity is shown in the stories such as “Are These Actual Miles?” in which Leo is not able or does not want to say anything while he gets aware of his wife’s sleeping with a car dealer. Also Carver’s minimalism is in line with his theme of verbal paralysis along with the inability and disappointment of the characters. The verbal failure on the characters’ side and the silence which is the natural consequence of this failure, as well as the use of body involved in sexuality which is mistakably considered to be an escape from their failures, lead the figures to get entrapped into a circle of uncertainty. Uncertainty, being the exclusive quality of modern man of the twentieth century, is as dominant as the issue of lack of love and infidelity in Raymond Carver’s stories. The uncertainty and lack of stable decision is dealt with at the beginning of “Will You Please Be Quiet, Please?” when it is announced that “Ralph’s goals were hazy” and that he could not really decide upon his future occupation, whether to be a lawyer, a doctor or a teacher. And the result was that “He drank so much that he acquired a reputation and was called “Jackson”, after the bartender at The Keg”(Carver 164). Harry of “How about This?”is not able to make up his mind about getting settled in the country, although he does not like the place, he cannot gather his courage to get 27

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back to the city. He, being disappointed with his wife’s father’s house, only “avoided looking at her. She was shrewd and might have read something from his eyes”. In “Are You a Doctor?” Arnold is stirred with getting acquainted with Clara Holt so abruptly and her strange behavior with him. When he comes out of Clara’s house “he was unable to determine which balcony was hers” (Carver 29). At his home when his wife calls, he cannot answer her questions since he is uncertain about what he is going to do or to choose, so “he remained silent” (Carver 30). The other theme which is of quite importance in Carver’s Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? is voyeurism which is repeated in some of the stories such as “The Idea” or “Neighbors”. In “The Idea” an old couple is prying every night at their neighbor who comes out of his house and stands stealthily out of the bedroom window and watches his wife undressing. This voyeurism has become a joy to compensate the loss of vitality in their own marriage and sexual relationship. In “Neighbors,” a pair of characters who is again losing their sexual vitality is to look after their neighbor’s apartment when they are on vacation. This couple starts visiting the house and get involved in a kind of changing identity with their voyeurism, looking at and wearing the clothes or things related to their neighbor’s sexual relationship. Little by little, they lose their identity and are solved in the adventurous life of their neighbor’s. Identity is another theme frequently referred to in Carver’s short stories. The uncertainty of the characters and their voyeurism has influenced the identity of the characters, changing or better to say, splitting them into divided parts. Ralph is uncertain about his wife’s infidelity but as soon as he gets sure of it, his self becomes divided between his “Ralph the respected teacher” and the drunken “Jackson”. Bill and Arlene in “Neighbors” change or lose identities by their wearing their neighbor’s clothes. Lack of identity is obviously felt in “The Father” that is about a baby and its resemblance to its father, but the father does not look like anybody. The anger and isolation of the father that might have been illegitimate and thus without an identity, can be felt while his children are talking about him. Alcoholism is another way to make them far from their real identities and actual lives. Almost all of Carver’s characters are alcoholics who take refuge in drinking in order to escape temporarily from their hellish but real lives. Leo, Ralph, Al, Marston and the women in “Night School” are all alcoholics whose drinking keeps them far from their personal identity for a while. Carver has chosen many characters from the ordinary life of the working class in America, whose problems, failures, mistakes sexuality, decisions and indecisions are so real that the reader can touch them as soon as he or she reaches their hand into the world around. Marriage and love are such an important issues for this writer that keeps him obsessed with in almost all of the masterly handled stories in Will You Please Be Quiet, Please?. Lack of love usually makes these characters infidel, seeking love and sexual pleasure somewhere outside their home. Cigarettes, alcohol and cards are as much important as characters individuality and identity (or actually its shatteredness). Carver’s life experi28

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ences make a strong base for his stories that outstand energetically in their palpability and realistic description.

Bibliography Carver, Raymond. Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? London: Vintage Books, 2003. Carver, Raymond. Interview with David Koehne. Jan. 2008. . Nesset, Kirk. ““This Word Love”: Sexual Politics and Silence in Early Raymond Carver.” American Literature, Vol. 63, No. 2. pp. 292-313. Jstor. Online. 16 Jan. 2008. . “Raymond Carver.” Wikipedia. Jan. 2008. . Seemann, Brian Charles. “What Is It?” Exploring the Roles of Women throughout Raymond Carver’s Short Fiction. Thesis. May 2006. .

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To Define or Not to Define Poetry, This Is the Question Shataw Naseri English Literature, MA, SBU [email protected]

ABSTRACT

“

What is poetry?” is a very frequent question throughout the whole history of literature.

This essay attempts to focus on this question. In order to achieve this goal here I give some

definitions of poetry and then try to concentrate on the essence of defining poetry through employing the view point of the post-structuralist philosopher Roland Barthes.

Keywords: poetry, definition, Barthes, Author

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What is poetry? This is a very key question throughout the history of literature; it is a question co-born with the poetry itself. This question is certainly not new; it has being raised for many centuries, from the ancient times when the gods were governing the world to the present time which is the age of postmodernism and specifically deconstructionsts. The so-called question has occupied the mind of the human beings, perhaps even before the time when the curiosity about the above stars were haunting man’s mind. With the eradication of the mythological gods by entering philosophy in the field of thinking this question wore a very serious aspect. Since then different philosophers and also various key literary figures have always occupied their mind to find an answer to this question. It has always been maintained that the nature of poetry is interdependent on replying this universal question. Plato, one of the first figures who argued the nature of poetry, maintained that poetry is the product of inspiration. He states that poetry, and in general art and the creation of beauty is the product of ecstasy of the artist at the moment of artistic creation. This is, for example, why a great poet such as Homer at the very beginning of his masterpiece Odyssey, evocates the gods, hoping that they will inspire him in poetizing his artistic work. This fact leads us to the concept of “inspiration,” which was also a crucial term for the romantics and philosophers of the nineteenth century. The most beautiful argument that Plato has made about inspiration and the artistic creation (a form of which is poetry) is in Ion dialogue. In this dialogue Socrates says that the poet through the power of inspiration in an esthetic manner connects to the god of poetry and that he receives his power from the goddess like an ironic chain which strikes with magnetism. This piece of fact implies that the poet has no intention. The Greeks before Plato also believed in poetic inspiration and pointed to the goddesses of poetry as “muses”. These muses were the daughters of Memory and caused the poetic inspiration, and it is with the invocation of these muses which Iliad begins. Homer demands these goddesses to help him to poetize the poem of Achill’s rage. As it was mentioned earlier, and with regarding the above statements, the meaning of poetry for Plato is some form of artistic creation which is the product of inspiration and addresses poets as mad figures, although scholars have recently said that in Symposium Plato is critical of Socrates and falls closer than him to the side of poetry. However, what is normally understood of Plato is that he has called poets mad because of their receiving inspiration at the moments of their artistic creation. This is just one definition, selected from a list of different definitions, for poetry. There are as many definitions of poetry as there are poets. Wordsworth defined poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings;” Emily Dickinson said, “If I read a book and it makes my body so cold no fire ever can warm me, I know that is poetry;” and Dylan Thomas defined poetry this way: “Poetry is what makes me laugh or cry or yawn, what makes my toenails twinkle, what makes me want to do this or that or nothing.” The twentieth-century posrt-structuralist philosopher Martin Heidegger believes that poetry does not rise up from the poetic emotion, and not from national spirit, and 31

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not from the expression of the spirit of users of language. He maintains that poem is not something but “the privilege of a moment” which gives meaning to the whole life; he adds that the poet is not a wandering being who becomes aware of his own inside, but he becomes aware of Being, of the secret; for Heidegger poetry is the foundation of Being through its language; poetry is for him naming the essence of Being and therefore the essence of everything. He continues that poetry states all those things which language expresses later; poetry is beyond any sign and any voice, it is the field of the sojourn of the human being. For George Bataille, another post-structuralist philosopher, Poetry replaces ecstatic dancing of the ancient times; Poetry for Bataille is one of the ‘horizontal’ terms which is precious for him because it is a replacement for the ancient ecstatic dancing; therefore, it gives a kind of destructive power and energy for deconstructing the ‘vertical’ systematization; it occurs at the moment when the established Hegelian order of the bourgeois society is overturned. Poetry for Bataille is a horizontal concept which can play its role in filling the ‘voids’ of the rational system of modernity. However, generally speaking, poetry today is commonly an amalgam of three distinct viewpoints. Traditionalists argue that a poem is an expression of a vision that is rendered in a form intelligible and pleasurable to others and so likely to arouse kindred emotions. For Modernists, a poem is an autonomous object that may or may not represent the real world but is created in language made distinctive by its complex web of references. Postmodernists look on poems as collages of current idioms that are intriguing but self-contained — they employ, challenge and mock preconceptions, but refer to nothing beyond themselves. Regarding all the above said definitions of poetry, again there remains the principal question: “what is poetry?” and that which of the mentioned definitions fulfill the nature of poetry. Here the writer aims to focus on the question of the topic of the present essay through the light of the philosophy of Roland Barthes, mainly by employing his very influential essay ‘Death of the Author.” Therefore, it is here necessary to first introduce as well as to give a short summary of this essay. “Death of the Author” is an essay by the French literary critic Roland Barthes, which was published in English in the American journal Aspel no. 5-6 in 1967 and in 1968 in French in magazine Manteia no.5. This essay later appeared in anthology of his essays Image- Music-Text (1997). “Death of the Author” is an attempted murder; in this essay Barthes states that there is no such a thing as the “Author” of a text, but merely a “scriptor” whose ideas are not entirely original; the author is subject to several influences when writing. Barthes continues that we can never know the true influence because writing destructs “every point of origin”. It is not the author, whose voice vanishes at the point of writing, but language that speaks; therefore, the text requires an analysis of language and linguistics, rather than a speaking voice .Barthes states that language knows a subject not 32

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a person. So the persons studying the language of a text will concern themselves more with the subject and less with the person behind it. Barthes maintains that “text” is “a multi-dimensional space in which a variety of writings, none of them original, blends and clash.” Barthes goes on to say that in his story Sarrasine, Balzac describes a Castro disguised as a woman, and he writes the following sentence” this was the woman herself, with her sudden fears, her irrational whims, her instinctive worries, her impetuous boldness, her fussing, and her delicious sensibility”. “Who is speaking thus?” Barthes asks. “Is it the hero of the story bent on remaining ignorant of the Castro hidden beneath the woman? Is it Balzac the individual, furnished by his experience, with a philosophy of woman? Is it Balzac the author professing literary ideas on femininity? Is it universal wisdom? Romantic psychology?” These questions are trustable witnesses to the fact that writing is the destruction of every voice, of every point of origin. Barthes adds that writing is that neutral, composite, oblique space where our subject slips away, the negative where all identity is lost, starting with the very identity of the body writing. The voice loses its origin, the author enters into his own death, and writing begins. The writer of “The Death of the Author” complains that French Rationalism and the personal faith of Reformation discovered the prestige of the individual, the “human person”. I should mention here that these schools elevated the role and the existence of human being as a person, and as a result, the author as the Creator of a text. Before French Rationalism and the Reformation, and more importantly the Renaissance as the precursor of these two movements in highlighting man, human being as a microcosm versus God the Creator as well as the universe had a very minimal position; before the Renaissance he was a submissive creature in the middle of the chain of beings. It was with the emergence of the Renaissance that he became the center and the focal point of the universe. It was here that, as mentioned above, author became Author-God who imposed meaning on text, and his biography, philosophical views, memoirs, feelings, and the context of his life played a prominent role in lending identity to the text. It was Roland Barthes who deconstructed this well-established convention; he assaulted the historically highlighted figure of the author. As a result, he holds that “text is not a line of words releasing the message of the Author-God, but it is a tissue of quotations from different cultures; author is himself entrapped in a discursive culture.” He is not the center; he has been decentralized from his royal throne. He adds that once the author is removed the claim to decipher a text becomes futile; to give a text an author is to impose a limit on the text, and to give it a final signified, and therefore to close the writing. As a result, for him, no definition remains, no signified is kept; the author is dead and the attempt to find definition and meaning is removed. There exists no origin. Regarding Barthes and his essay the above given definitions of poetry cannot be 33

Literary Studies

trusted; since the authors who have presented these definitions, which are the embodiment of their own literary or philosophical texts and their point of views, are already dead themselves; this means that they have no authority over their texts and therefore, their definitions of poetry are futile. Their own very texts have no debt to them; their texts have been produced out of linguistic and cultural discourses of their own time, and thus their credit is questioned forever. As a result, the term poetry remains a signer which accepts no fixed signified; it is not a piece of solid with a fixed identity; it is fluid flux which can have various identities and at the same time no definite identity; it remains eternally a Mana, a Zero Phoneme, vital for the Being without having a determinate identity. Poetry is unwilling to be defined, labeled, or nailed down. In the historical wrestling with poetry to restrain it within the walls of definition, poetry is still gloriously roaring: I am poetry kick me here! Bibliography: Batialle, Georges. On Nietzsche. London: The Athlone Press, 2004. Lechte, John. Fifty Key Contemporary Thinkers. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. Nichols, Mary P. “Socrates’s contest with the Poets in Plato’s Symposium”. Political Theory, Vol. 32, No.2. California: Sage Publications, Inc. 2004, pp. 186-206. http://evans-experientialis.freewelospace.com http://contemporarylit,about,com/od/potery/a poetry.htm http://poetrymagic.co.uk/whatiwspoetry.htm http://goodreports.net/essays.htm

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Translation Studies

Profile: KATHARINA REISS By Farnaz Safdari

K

atharina Reiss (daughter of Michael Reiss and Viktoria Kirn) was born on May 29, 1859 in Ulm, Oberkirch, Baden, Germany, and died September 17, 1924 in Renchen, Achern, Baden, Germany. She married August Berger on May 06, 1889 in Renchen, Achern, Baden, Germany, son of Adam Berger and Elisabeth Huber. Katharina Reiss is mostly renowned in the field of translation studies for her work on text types. In fact, it has been a major influence in contemporary translation. Her book on the subject dates back to 1976. Her approach relates translation closely to text linguistics and communication studies. With respect to the classification of text types, Reiss starts by sticking to the traditional three text types based on Bühler’s functions of the linguistic sign, but adds an audio-medial type to cover the increasing use of language (and translation) which is linked simultaneously to other media. The special requirements of this text type can be very restricting indeed - such as the number of letters permitted on the TV-screen for a given subtitle - and it makes sense to consider this kind of translation separately. In her book (1976), Reiss illustrates the relation between the traditional three text types and various text varieties in the form of diagrams. The main points of these can perhaps be summarized as follows. The diagram shows how examples of different text varieties can be approximately placed with respect to the three functions: no text variety represents only one function; each has its own characteristic mixture. 36

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In order to set up a text typology relevant to translation, Reiss (1976) begins with the basic communicative situations in which texts fulfil quite specific and distinct communicative functions. A tripartite aspect of language, based on Karl Bühler’s model (Bühler 1934), suggests a similar division of basic verbal communicative situations with three corresponding text types of Informative, Expressive and Operative. Over the hot debate of equivalence during the 1960s and 1970s, which was the most frequently raised question of that time, this German scholar took the very term “functional equivalence” as a starting point for her work, and carried the concept of equivalence one step further in her studies. In her seminal article entitled “Type, Kind and Individuality of Text, Decision Making in Translation”, written in 1971, Reiss proposes a methodical text typology, a practical approach to text examination, and a “functional” viewpoint regarding translation. Additionally, Reiss discerns the stipulations affecting the decisions of the translator in her study. With respect to the notion of equivalence, Reiss also takes the work of German linguist Karl Bühler’s book titled “Die Sprachtheorie” (Language Theory) as a point of commencement, and examines the text types which determine translation. Moreover, during the course of her article, Reiss uses an abundance of examples in order to support her opinions regarding the togetherness of linguistic and non-linguistic action/s (i.e. gestures, facial expressions, etc) within the communication. By distinguishing specific types of texts, Reiss has also paved the way for a better understanding of the translation quality assessment or in other words, translation criticism. In her study entitled Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Übersetzungskritik (Translation Criticism – The Potentials & Limitations), Reiss expounds on the notion of text typologies along with appropriate translation methods for each text category. In this respect, Reiss can be considered as one of the pioneers within the history of translation studies who took the notion of translation criticism as one of her focal points. As Reiss’s work has elucidated, translation can either be considered as a type of human behavior comprising characteristics pertaining to human actions. In this context, one can infer that the translation process is one of the most important parts for Reiss in her approach in regards to the translation. This approach has been elaborated on by Reiss’s colleague Hans J. Vermeer in the late 1970s and 1980s. As a consequence of his studies both with Reiss and individually, Vermeer has founded one of the most influential theories within the realm of translation studies: the skopos theory. Reiss has contributed numerous articles on text types and skopos theory as focal points of her studies. Two of her most prominent works are as the following:

37

Translation Studies

TranslaƟon CriƟcism-The PotenƟals and LimitaƟons: Categories and Criteria for TranslaƟon

By Katharina Reiss

Fundamentos para una teoría funcional de la traducción By Katharina Reiss, Hans Josef Vermeer, Sandra García Reina, Celia Martín de León

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Postmodern Translation: Translation as Text or Taste? Mehdi Mirzaei Translation Studies, MA, ATU [email protected]

ABSTRACT

T

he present paper is to discuss the latent links between translation (studies) and the mainstream of dominant, philosophical schools of thought focusing an undivided attention on

postmodernism. Undermining modernist principles, postmodernism introduces quite a reverse, iconoclastic approach into coping with such concepts as art, beauty and creativity. Despite the contradictory nature of postmodernism as to the certainty of modernist principles, postmodern art in general and translation as a verbal art in particular should not be detached from people’s ordinary lives, but rather they should live art. This study draws upon the abstract conditions of postmodernism as the prolific sources of reference enquiring how a postmodern translator

should go through the process of translation so that his/her audience may live the product as a work of art. In so doing, it jumps to this conclusion that a more encompassing variation of skopos theory is at work, i.e. the art of translation as a means of communication should serve the purpose of satisfying the postmodern audience’s taste for art accessible in an ordinary life at the expense of the beauty of text.

Keywords: Postmodernism, Postmodern Translator, Text, Taste, Art, Beauty 39

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1. INTRODUCTION Although the first use of the term ‘postmodernism’ dates back to much earlier around the 1870s, its appearance in a wide variety of disciplines, including art and literature occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The prefix ‘post’ does not suggest that an end has been put to ‘modernism’; however, notice should be taken that postmodernism somehow provides modernism with sort of continuity. It involves that postmodernism challenges so-called ‘certain modular, iconic principles’ of modernism taking issue with them. Knowledge is central to every school of thought, and modernism and postmodernism are no exception. Modernist knowledge is dogmatic and product-oriented, every branch of knowledge must be dealt with within closed formats under certain rules and procedures. On the contrary, postmodernist knowledge is critical and process-oriented, things are dealt with skepticism and relativism outside any modular forms whatsoever. Thus, modernism and postmodernism are in sharp contrast with each other concerning various aspects of knowledge and life, including art and literature. As art, translation in general and literary translation in particular, too, seem to be in the middle of struggle between modernism and postmodernism.

2. BACKGROUND Modernist Art vs. Postmodernist Art Now we are somewhat objectively convinced that translation, especially literary translation can be considered an art, though some still treat it as a matter of personal taste. Art, beauty and creativity are inextricably interwoven. We cannot talk about art without considering some kind of beauty and creativity. However, this does not mean that they have fixed, unyielding meanings at all times. According to Jacque Derrida, who is a postmodernist, meaning has an elusive nature, for different temporal settings bring different meanings to concepts and words. Modernism and postmodernism, too, indicate different periods of time with different points of departure, though they overlap each other at some points. In their travel from modernism- modernity fits the context much better- to postmodernism words and concepts, especially abstract concepts- postmodernism is very much interested in abstraction- underwent a change in meaning, and art, beauty and creativity were no exception. Modernist attitudes towards art, creativity and beauty are product-oriented and dogmatic. Modern people regardless of whether they were modernist or not had to treat art and objet d’art as luxury products or goods. They could enjoy works of art in particu40

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lar spatio-temporal settings, in certain places and certain times. Their ordinary life took place in a different place and time from where they could gain access to works of art. Art was of a dogmatic and selective nature: it was provided for them in iconic, modular forms with certain limited subjects. Not everybody could (afford to) join the well-to-do, sophisticated audience of art. It was, especially the verbal one delicate and abstruse being created only for cultured people and thus any reproduction of such an art was aimed at this group of people. Although the subjects of works of literature and art were adopted from real life, people could not live them. They were either detached from their ordinary lives and displayed in certain places like a painting at a museum so that people had to spend an off day other than their working days to visit the place where works of art were kept or they were created for a certain cultivated audience like works of literature and their translations in such an intricate manner that not every literate person could use them to deepen their insight about life as in case of interpretive literature. Postmodernism, however, takes a reverse attitude towards art, beauty and creativity. Postmodernist art is process-oriented and critical, that is to say, taste in creating and expressing art underwent a radical change. Art is no longer formatted in closed icons nor treated as a luxury product. It must be lived as a process within the body of processes of life. No dogma is at work concerning the form, subject and audience of a work of art. Postmodernist art, whether pictorial, verbal or audio-medial, does not comply with a certain iconic form nor does it deal with limited subjects. But rather its subjects are taken from ordinary life for ordinary people, for everybody but not a select audience. This is what the critical nature of postmodernism in general and postmodernist art in particular means. Postmodernism wants artists, including writers and translators to be critical and free from any dogmas in producing their works. Art must be produced or reproduced with sort of dynamism as opposed to the static nature of modernist art. This dynamism or process-orientedness of art production means changing the form, subject and audience of a work of art from closedness into openness. It wants them to change their taste in (re)producing and creating their works and process them in such a manner that their audience can live them, that their audience’s taste is satisfied. The following is an illustration of what changing taste, process and living art means in postmodernism: Painting on walls is likely to be regarded as the most important 20th century movement in the field of art. In order to establish a close link between art and ordinary people, all the Mexican painters between the 1910s up to around 1960s painted on walls only showing some reluctance to paint on canvases. They chose commonplace subjects over academic, aesthetic ones and painted about them along walls, so that a process appeared on walls rather than a static point and therefore ordinary people walking along the walls had the opportunity to live paintings from beginning to end as if they had been in the middle of paintings. Based on what has been said so far some may argue that a postmodern translator is caught between a rock and a hard place. Their argument is most likely as follows: 41

Translation Studies

If a postmodern translator is to be dogmatic with his/her work trying to statically keep the form, aesthetic beauty and stylistic turgidity and abstruseness of the SL text into the TL, his/her reproduction as an art will not be lived by ordinary people and thus there would be a huge gap between his/her translation and the lives of ordinary people. In a situation like this only a small group of sophisticated people would read translations, enjoy them in case of escape literature and most noticeably deepen their insight on them about life in case of interpretive literature. However, if a postmodern translator is to be critical with his/her work trying to dynamically process the SL text’s aesthetic form and beauty so that everybody, including ordinary people feel some warm intimacy with and live the TL text, his/her translation would no longer be considered an art as it is void of the spirit of aesthetic beauty. The counter-argument is already contained in this very argument! The fact that a postmodern translator dynamically processes the SL text so as to meet the postmodern audience’s taste for a type of intimate, in-life art is sort of beauty and creativity in itself. The real and greater art, beauty and creativity consist in a postmodern translator’s efforts to bridge the gap between art and ordinary people by processing the SL text and making them live art.

3. METHOD 3.1 Theoretical Framework The central discussion of the study is framed within the apparent struggle between the two ideological contexts: modernism and postmodernism. Of the various areas of conflict between the two ideologies, struggle over art and the opposite attitudes towards it have been taken into the consideration of the study. Translation, especially literary translation which is sort of reproducing from a work of art can still be seen as an art; therefore, the old struggle applies to it as well.

3.2 Postmodern Translator vs. Postmodernist Translator A postmodernist translator is a translator who takes an avid interest in postmodernism and tries to abide by its ideology. S/he is, indeed, measured against a modernist individual who holds a firm belief in modernity and modernism. His/her translations are most likely processed in such a manner that the resultant products meet the audience’s taste for an art as perceived and admired by the public in their ordinary lives. A postmodern translator, on the other hand, refers to every translator who is living in an eon of post42

Translation Studies

modernism regardless of whether s/he complies with postmodernist ideology or not. Therefore, a postmodern translator is either postmodernist or not. The encompassing term ‘postmodern translator’ is used throughout this study to bring any today’s translator with any ‘ism’ under its membership.

3.3 Translation: Art or Craft? Whether translation is art or craft has always been the subject of much debate. Translation scholars and translators are not in agreement as to the answer to this question, their dealing with it is very much a matter of personal taste. A more objective way of approaching the duality is to do with Reiss’s functional approach where she distinguishes between four text-types. Of her suggested text-types, two are in line with our discussion and, indeed, more frequent than the others, namely informative and expressive texts. Drawing upon Reiss’s text-types, Munday (2001: 73) describes the two text-types as follows: “Plain communication of facts: information, knowledge, opinions, etc. The language dimension used to transmit the information is logical or referential, the content or ‘topic’ is the main focus of the communication, and the text type is informative. Creative composition: the author uses the aesthetic dimension of language. The author or ‘sender’ is foregrounded, as well as the form of the message, and the text type is expressive.”

Neubert and Shreve (1992), too, describe these text types as follows: […] There are translation situations where the destructive impact of translation on cultural values is not important. There are other situations where it may be the central issue. Some translation is critical and interpretive; it is not pragmatic. This kind of translation is driven by different motivating factors. The messages and forms of the texts are more closely connected. Other texts participate in practical communication. They exchange primarily value-free technical, scientific, and commercial information. The foreignness of the source text is not a benefit in these translations. Because most practical texts have a user orientation, the foreignness of the source text is an obstacle to overcome.

Translation is primarily a craft regardless of the typology of texts. Whether the text to be translated is a poem, an instruction manual or an advertisement, its translation calls for the skill of the translator, which suggests that translation is a craft. However, when it comes to such expressive texts as poetry and drama, the work of a translator is more than a simple craft. This is because in translating such texts manner is as important 43

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as matter, sometimes more important even. As Rezaei, a professional translator, puts it: […] Translating explanatory (non-literary) texts does not need much creativity. Translation of such texts is more to do with technique and mastery of the subject matter. […] Apart from knowledge and skill which is necessary, translation of this kind of works (literary and philosophical) needs creativity and art as well. In actual fact, a translator of such texts is involved in reproduction. Here, the pride of place is given to creativity, for, if not so, the translation will be a failure. […]

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Translation as Text In their book entitled ‘Translation as Text’ Neubert and Shreve (1992) argue that text is central to translation. They hold the belief that it is texts and their situations that determine the strategy of translation: The text is the central defining issue in translation. Texts and their situations define the translation process. We cannot generalize about translation without speaking of specific texts embedded in specific situations. There is no single translation process. There are many translation processes. Translation is an intersection of situation, translator competence, source text, and target text-to-be […] We must understand what a text is before we can think about translating one. The way we translate must proceed from a consideration of the source text and the translation situation. Because there are many texts and many potential reasons to translate them, there are many ways to translate. […] translation does not pre-exist. Translation is not brought to the text and then applied to it. It is a textual process that starts with the source text and is managed by the translator to produce a target text. The translator manages translation as a textual process meant to induce one text from another.

Neubert and Shreve’s attitude toward the art of translation is a modernist one. When they suggest that ‘texts and their situations define the translation process’, they imply that a translator should act in accordance with the SL text. In other words, the SL text’s form, stylistic specialties and aesthetic beauty- if there is any- which are most likely to be the source of abstruseness for an ordinary audience must be preserved into the TL one way or another. Such a modernist translation which is based on texts and their situations is referred to as translation as text and can hardly ever bridge the gap between 44

Translation Studies

ordinary people and art. Venuti subconsciously advocates modernist translation when he calls for ‘resistive translation/resistancy’. There is, however, a slight difference between Venuti’s resistive translation (1995: 305-6, cited in Munday 2001: 147) and Neubert’s translation as text. The former suggests that a translator should force a dogmatic translation as phrased by postmodernism in reaction to modernist attitudes towards art. That is to say, the translator purposefully keeps the abstruseness of the SL text into the TL to resist the invisibility of the translator. The latter, however, suggests that the text to be translated commissions the translator to perform his/her task in a certain way. No purposefulness or determination is at work on the part of the translator, but rather the skopos inherent in the text determines that the translator comes up with a critical translation, one which ordinary people can communicate for enjoyment or most noticeably deepening their insight about life. In spite of such a difference, they have one thing in common: both Venuti’s resistive translation and Neubert’s translation as text keep ordinary people aloof from the art of translation.

4.2 Translation as Taste Postmodernism introduces a change into the postmodern audience’s taste for art. This change is iconoclastic as far as the modernist principles are concerned. Art as provided in closed formats and certain subjects for a limited, select audience is the most important iconic principle of modernism, and the art of translation is no exception. The postmodernist iconoclasm, therefore, influences translation, too. The change in taste involves that the modernist distant aloofness between ordinary people and art is eliminated, that ordinary people feel intimate with art, that their taste for understandable, intelligible art is met, and, above all, that they live art. Thus, postmodern translation as an art is taste-oriented- it (re)produces art on the basis of a different taste considering the taste of the postmodern audience- as opposed to that of modernism which is partially and most importantly text-oriented. Postmodern translation is translation as taste: a translator should process the SL text in so critical, non-dogmatic a way that its turgidity and abstruseness is resolved in favor of the postmodern audience’s taste, no matter what academic background the audience comes from.

4.3 Text-Based vs. Taste-Based Skopos Translation as text is end in itself because the skopos lies within the text to be translated. Put another way, the text and its situation amount to skopos. Text-based (modernist) skopos, thus, reproduces a TL text which is compatible with the SL one concerning any respect. Consequently, the rule 3 of the skopos rules does not apply to it as it is a text-based skopos. These rules (Reiss & Vermeer 1984: 119, cited in Munday 2001: 79) 45

Translation Studies

include: 1. A translatum (or TT) is determined by its skopos. 2. A TT is an offer of information (informationsangebot) in a target culture and TL concerning an offer of information in a source culture and SL. 3. A TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way. 4. A TT must be internally coherent. 5. A TT must be coherent with the ST. 6. The five rules above stand in hierarchical order, with the skopos rule predominating. Translation as text is a skopos which does initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way; it is a restricted variation of skopos theory. Translation as taste is, however, a means to an end because the skopos is somewhere outside the text. Translation as taste (postmodern translation) serves the purpose of satisfying the postmodern audience’s taste for communicable translations. It is a more encompassing skopos which pertains to the mainstream of postmodernist ideology. Postmodern translation neither is to do with the restricted text-based skopos as the SL text and its situation do not determine the translation nor does it relate to the typical skopos theory proposed by Vermeer as it is not commissioned by an individual, a publisher or an organization/institution. But rather it is a taste-based skopos, a skopos with the aim of processing the SL text to the benefit of receptors’ taste. In other words, the commissioner is not the text, an individual or institution but it is postmodernism and its iconoclastic ideology. Finally, notice should be taken that all the rules of skopos apply to the so-called taste-based skopos but on a much larger scale.

5. CONCLUSION Questioning the established principles of modernism, postmodernism takes a different attitude towards such abstract concepts as art, beauty and creativity. It believes that art should be a part of ordinary people’s lives as opposed to modernism which keeps art and creativity aloof from the routines of ordinary life by producing works in defined forms. A more sensitive description of translation sets it, especially literary translation as tantamount to other forms of art in an eon of postmodernism. A postmodern art of translation should be provided in such a manner that its audience may live it. Indeed, it should be free from modernist abstruseness of form and style, so that a postmodern audience with an average degree of literacy can use it for either escape or interpretive purposes. A postmodern translator should process his/her translation in so critical a manner that his/her final product meets the audience’s taste for a comprehensible art. Therefore, 46

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postmodern translation is translation as taste in that it changes the overall taste of modernist art and makes it be in keeping with the postmodern audience’s taste. This change of taste and the subsequent compatibility occurs through a skopos encompassing not only the text and individual or institutional commissioner but also the philosophical ideology of postmodernism. It is so-called taste-based skopos which conditions any other form of skopos, other commissioners, indeed. A taste-based skopos would work at the sacrifice of an SL textual beauty, but the beauty of taste satisfaction is still greater, though the translator would go infamous with a scarlet letter ‘I’, infidel!

References Aylesworth, Gary. “Postmodernism”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 30 Sep. 2005. 9 Oct. 2009 . Klages, Mary. “Literary Theory: A Guide for the Perplexed: Postmodernism”. Continuum Press. Jan. 2007. 10 Oct. 2009 . Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies. London & New York: Routledge, 2001. Neubert, Albrecht, and Gregory M. Shreve. “Translation as Text”. Book. Language and Translation. 3 Sep. 2009. 15 Sep. 2009 . Rezaei, Reza. “How does a Postmodern World Look Like?”. Sound Clip Lecture. Club of Thought. 17 May 2007. 15 Oct. 2009 . Rezaei, Reza.”Interview with Reza Rezaei”. Interview. Language and Translation. 26 Sep. 2009. 2 Oct. 2009 . “Assessment of Postmodernism”. 123HelpMe.com. 9 Oct. 2009 . “Literature - Postmodern Literary Criticism”. 123HelpMe.com. 8 Oct. 2009 . “Postmodernism”. Def. 15 Oct. 2009 . “Postmodernism”. Wikipedia. 9 Oct. 2009 . “Postmodernism, Economic Domination, and the Function of Art”. 123HelpMe.com. 8 Oct. 2009 .

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The Role of Context of Situation in Translation Farnaz Safdari Translation Studies, MA, SBU [email protected]

ABSTRACT

A

text is a form of communication that takes place between particular participants under particular situation and at a particular time. According to the theory of systemic-functional

linguistics, context of situation determines the meaning system of a text. Everything happens under certain situation. Every utterance should be understood in accordance with the situation. On the other hand, translation by its very nature is a process of reestablishing situational context in another language, namely target language. As such, context of situation needs to be taken into account in the process of translation. Participants, medium, and other factors are different under different situations. Also, audients are different in terms of their social class, taste, age, education, etc. While the translator is expected to keep an eye on the situational context of translation, in order to meet the expectation of the target reader, s/he may have to adjust certain factors which may result in the change of certain elements of the register. Keywords: Context of situation, context of culture, register, discourse analysis, translation, Systemic Functional Theory, Halliday 48

Translation Studies

INTRODUCTION Language is a means of verbal communication. But it has long been recognized as an essential and important part of a given culture which is undoubtedly under the impact of culture in a given society. But any kind of communication occurs in a certain linguistic and cultural environment. In that light, the change of any one of situation factors such as changes with time, place, participants, etc may more or less change the meaning the linguistic form expresses. For example, participants in the communication may give rise to discrepancies in utterance interpretation. All these factors have to be taken into account by the translator. According to Hatim and Munday, such ‚multi-layered extra- textual environment which exerts a determining influence on the language used‘ is termed „context“ (2004: 336). The context is the relation of the form to non-linguistic features of the situations in which the language operates, and the relation of form to linguistic features other than those of the item under attention. Context is annexed with language in that language is always presented and interpreted in some context. Thus, it plays the key role in the creation of discourse and the utterance interpretation. The target text is different form the source text in that the situation in which it is produced is different from that of the source text, with the ST sender and TT recipient being separated in time and space. That is why Neubert cites translation as displaced and disjoined kind of communication (Neubert, 1992:10). The way the text functions will depend on the situation and the respective recipients. This is also true with understanding the same text differently, by various people even when they are from the same culture. A text therefore can only be an offer of information, from which the receiver will choose the pieces that are relevant to his situation and purpose. In the same vein, every translation, independent of its function, is based on the information provided in the ST. Viewed from this angle, translation is an offer of information on the basis of a communicative act which in order to meet the expectation of the target reader should be adjusted in certain content or style of the language. As such, the translator will decide upon the way translation is going to function in the target culture in accordance with expectations of the target culture receivers and their situations. This stresses the need for a look into the context in which a text is produced while interpreting it, besides being aware of the fact that translation may bear some changes upon use-related variation or register, namely, field of discourse, level of formality and mode to some extent.

Halliday‘s model of discourse analysis In the 1990s, discourse analysis gained prominence in translation studies. While text analysis normally takes the way in which texts are organized (sentence structure, cohesion, etc.) into account, discourse analysis concentrates on the way language communicates meaning and social and power relations (Munday, 2001: 89). Text analysis is 49

Translation Studies

concerned with the organization and mapping of texts. It is more concerned with characterizing rather than with explaining meaning. Instead, Discourse analysis is more concerned with relationships and interaction through texts. Translation theorists believe that textual and discoursal meanings are closely bound up and that any separation of the two could only be acceptable as a convenience. In other words, text analysis is an initial exercise which has to be supplemented by identification of other important levels of meaning that are discoursal (Hatim 262-265). Halliday (1989) outlines the strong connection between language and its social context. In the framework proposed by Halliday, the concept of context consists of three strata: context of culture, context of situation and co-text. To be specific, context of culture is related to genre, context of situation is related to register, and co-text to the discourse itself. Context of culture and context of situation are outside of language itself. Co-text, also known as linguistic context, is certainly inside of language itself. The notion of language varieties can be approached from two distinct yet related angles of „registers“ and „dialects“, which were later followed by Hatim and Mason. The first dimension of variation has to do with text type in terms of how it accommodates the way language generally varies as situation varies which is referred to as use-related varieties, known as „registers“. These varieties essentially have to do with such factors as the occupation of the speaker and whether the occasion of use is formal or informal. The second dimension of variation has to do with user in a particular language event: who the speaker/writer is. Such user-related varieties are called „dialects“. Here, texts and their translations may be seen from the point of view of the wider context of culture. Factors such as the communicative event, within which a text is embedded, and the ideological statements, which a text makes, become essential elements in the effective production and reception of texts (Hatim and Munday, 2004: 76-85). Halliday‘s model of discourse analysis is based on what he calls Systematic Functional Grammar. Systemic Functional Theory (SFT) has its origins in the main intellectual tradition of European linguistics that developed following the work of Saussure. Like other such theories, those from the mid-20th century, it is functional and semantic rather than formal and syntactic in orientation, which takes the text rather than the sentence as its object, and defines its scope by reference to usage rather than grammaticality. Halliday‘s systemic functional theory is perhaps the most widely taught version of functionalism. On the one hand, it is called „Systemic“ because language is viewed as a set of systems, each of which offers the speaker (or writer) the choice of ways of expressing meanings. Instead of Saussure‘s paradigmatic-syntagmatic model, Halliday represents „system“ as a paradigmatic set of choices available in a certain environment. Language, when considered as a system—its lexical items and grammatical categories—is related to its context of culture. On the other hand, it is dubbed „Functional“ because it focuses on the use of language, that is, discourse. The specific text and its component parts are 50

Translation Studies

related to its context of situation. Functional theories focus on human communication as a social act. According to the theory of systemic functional linguistics, situational context determines the meaning system of a text. However, both context of situation and context of culture get into text by influencing the words and structures that text-producers employ. That‘s why Newmark states that „what are relevant to translation are not only situational context but also cultural context. Language is a substantial but partial reflection of a culture“ (1991: 73). Halliday (1989:12) outlines three features of the context of situation, which can be applied to analysis of a text. According to him, a particular situation type consists of three dimensions: the ongoing social activity, the role relationship involved, and the symbolic or rhetorical channel. As such, questions regarding the ‚field‘, ‚tenor‘ and ‚mode‘ of a discourse serve to frame the text in a social context. He believes that there is a systematic relationship between the context and the text. In fact, the context of situation is organized according to its three aspects: •

Field: what is actually taking place—the participants, the processes they are engaged in, and when, how, and where those processes are taking place.

•

Tenor: the nature of the participants—their status, the roles they take up, their relationships and attitudes. According to Halliday (1989: 12), discourse is shaped by the participants and their respective roles and statuses in a text (the ‚‘tenor“ of discourse).

•

Mode: the nature of the language itself and its organization, including the channel (is it spoken, written or visual, or a combination of these) and the medium (e.g. book, email, phone).

Collectively these three aspects of situational context are called register. Register is defined as ‚the configuration of semantic resources that the member of a culture typically associates with a situation type‘ (Halliday, 1978: 111) and therefore provides the necessary link between a communicative act and the context of situation in which it occurs. Systemic functional linguistics aims at more than providing a theoretical description of language. It attempts to describe human communication. Language, for Halliday, is part of a social semiotic, and the theory of language is part of an overall theory of social interaction. Halliday classifies the ways in which human beings use language into three broad categories. Thus, every text exhibits three functions of language (Munday, 2001: 90-91): 51

Translation Studies

•

Ideational function: Language is used to organize, understand and express our perceptions of the world. It is used as a means of reflecting on or describing things.

•

Interpersonal function: Language is used to enable us to participate in communicative acts with other people, to take on roles and to express and understand feelings, attitudes and judgments. It is used as a means of acting on readers or listeners.

•

Textual function: Language is used to relate what is said (or written) to the real world and to other linguistic events. This involves the use of language to organize the text itself.

Thus, the ideational function represents „processes“: actions, events, and processes of consciousness. The interpersonal function involves the exchange of roles in rhetorical interaction: statements, questions, and commands. The textual function of the clause is that of constructing a message. These are called „metafunctions“, because they reflect the language functions used by speakers of the language. The first two metafunctions rely on „textual function“, which enables the other two to be realized, and which ensures that the language use is relevant. These functional components constitute the register plane known as “field of discourse”, “tenor of discourse” (the interacting roles of a text), and “mode of discourse” (the role assigned to language, including the channel and rhetorical mode). Halliday, MacIntosh and Strevens (cited in Hatim, 1998: 262) define register in this way: “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations. The name given to a variety of a language distinguished according to use is register”. Register is important in systemic linguistics because it is seen as the linguistic consequence of interacting aspects of context, namely, field, tenor, and mode. Thus, accounting for such language variations, register, in the translation process can be composed of the following: Identifying register through analysis of the linguistic features of the source text. Determining the context of situation of the text. Choosing the proper words and expressions in the production of the target text, so that the corresponding context of situation can be reestablished in the target language text. However, Baker (1992) believes that „a translator (...) must ensure that the transla52

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tion matches the register expectations of its prospective receivers, unless, of course, the purpose of the translation is to give a flavor of the source culture“. Of fundamental consideration in choosing a text for analysis, whether written or spoken, is to first identify its purpose. Halliday‘s ‚field‘ of discourse (1989, p.12) includes questions about what is happening in the discourse and what the participants are engaged in. Sociocultural environment

Genre

Register (field, tenor, mode)

Discourse semanƟcs (idea onal, interpersonal,textual)

Lexicogrammar (transi vity, modality, theme-rheme/Cohision) Figure 1: lation of Genre and Register to Language (Munday, 2001: 90)

As shown in the above illustration, register variables (field, tenor, and mode) reflect various meanings of a text; they are ideational, interpersonal, and textual. In fact, meaning is viewed in these three dimensions. Each meaning has its own function: ideational meaning is realized in transitivity, that is, the representations we have of the world (including feelings, beliefs, etc.) which are shown through the language and can be perceived by the verbal choices we make, the kinds of ‘processes’ (verbal, material, behavioral) chosen by the participants according to the circumstances they are involved with. The Interpersonal meaning ‘uses language to encode interaction and to show how defensible or binding we find our propositions or proposals’ (Butt et. al., 1995: 13-14) and is concerned with the social, expressive, and conative functions of language. It is reflected 53

Translation Studies

in the kind of social talk participants are involved in. It is focused on the characterization of the participants in the linguistic exchange, the interlocutors, in terms of social roles, relationships and attitudes, the mode field. Textual meaning is concerned with the organization of the text, it ‘uses language to organize our experiential, logical and interpersonal meanings into a coherent, and in the case of written and spoken language, linear, whole’ (Butt et. al., 1995:13-14). Textual function acts to organize the flow of interpersonal and ideational meanings as they unfold in a text.

CONCLUSION It is strongly held that, human communication is the primary objective of human language. On the other hand, communication takes place in a context that is socioculturally formed, and in which participants take on socially shaped roles. As a result, there is a close interdependent relationship between language and context. Context determines and is constructed by the choice of language. Therefore, as meaning is determined by the context, there is the need to attain some relevant knowledge according to the context. As such, translation needs to be contextualized. Register analysis, which uses systemic functional theory, is a very useful tool for building understanding about how translation choices vary according to the situational context embracing texts both in source and target languages. This may include some changes on the part of the translator in terms of elements of register.

References Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words. A Coursebook in Translation, London: Routledge. Butt, D. et al. (1995).Using Functional Grammar: An Explorer‘s Guide. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University. Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as Social Semiotic, London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. and R. Hasan. (1989) Language, Context and Text: Aspects of language in a Social Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: OUP. Hatim, B. (1998). Text linguistics and Translation. In: M. Baker, ed. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London: Routledge, pp. 262-265. Hatim, B. and Munday, J. (2004). Translation: An advanced resource book. London and New York: Routledge. Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies : Theories and Applications. London and New 54

Translation Studies York: Routledge. Neubert, A. & Gregory M. S. (1992). Translation as Text. The Kent State University Press. Newmark, P. (1991). About Translation. Multilingual Matters ltd.

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English Language Teaching

English Language Teaching

Profile: Simon Borg [email protected] Member of Centre for Language Education Research

By Mehrdad Yousefpoori Naeim

BACKGROUND Dr. Borg has been involved in TESOL for 22 years, working as a teacher, teacher educator, and lecturer in the UK, New Zealand, Malta, Oman, and Turkey.

CURRENT RESPONSIBILITIES At the School of Education, Dr. Borg teaches MA TESOL modules on Teacher Education and Research Methods. He also supervises a group of PhD students all of whom are working in the area of language teacher cognition. Outside the School of Education, he is a member of TESOL’s Research Standing Committee and on the editorial boards of TESOL Quarterly and Language Teaching Research.

RESEARCH AREAS His key area of research in TESOL is language teacher cognition - the study of what language teachers know, believe, think, and do. His book on related issues, “Teacher Cognition and Language Education,” was published in paperback edition in 2008. A second edition of the book will be published in 2012. He has also researched the teaching of grammar in ELT classrooms. Research methods and teacher research engagement are other areas of specialization.

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BOOKS Sasajima, S and Borg, S (2009). “Gengo Kyoshi Ninchi no Kenkyu (Language Teacher Cognition Research)”. Tokyo: Kaitakusha. Borg. S. (Ed.). (2009). “Researching English language teaching and teacher development in Oman”. Ministry of Education, Oman. Borg, S. (Ed.). (2009). “Understanding English language teaching and learning in Oman”. Ministry of Education, Oman. Borg, S. (Ed.). (2008). “Investigating English language teaching and learning in Oman”. Ministry of Education, Oman. Borg, S. (2006). “Teacher Cognition and Language Education”. Continuum. Borg, S. (Ed.). (2006). “Language Teacher Research in Europe”. TESOL. Borg, S. (Ed.). (2006). “Classroom Research in English Language Teaching in Oman”. Ministry of Education, Oman. Beaven, B. and Borg, S. (Eds.) (2003). “The Role of Research in Teacher Education”. Whitstable, Kent: IATEFL.

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English Language Teaching

The Effect of Instruction on EFL Students’ Production of the Speech Act of Complaint Maryam Pezeshki, MA, ATU [email protected] Ali Heidari, MA, ATU [email protected]

ABSTRACT

F

ew studies are conducted to examine the effect of instruction of the speech acts which are included in the books used in institutes to see whether the explicit instruction from the book

and doing the exercises in it together with those in the work books or movie books are enough to enable the students to use them in real life situations. One of such speech acts that have been used in the books is complaint. In this study the researchers compare two groups, one of which received instruction in the speech act of complaint from the book New Interchange 2 and the other who did not receive any explicit instruction. A qualitative analysis was used to compare the strategies the students used with the native speaker norm. Also in order to compare the two groups in the test they took, Mann Whitney U was used. The results of both analyses revealed no difference between the two groups.

Keywords: Speech acts, Complaint, instruction

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INTRODUCTION ‘Pragmatics is the study of language use in a social context, and language users’ pragmatic competence is their “ability to act and interact by means of language”(Kasper & Roever, 2005)’ (McNamara & Roever, 2006). “Learners’ use and acquisition of L2 pragmatic ability,” known as interlanguage pragmatics has gained researchers’ attention in the field (Kasper & Rose, 2001). One of the mostly researched areas in interlanguage pragmatics is the study of speech acts or language functions such as refusal, politeness, complement, and complaint. Complaint is a speech act that is gaining more prominence as different studies in the field which have been conducted on different kinds (direct versus indirect) of it reveal (like, Chen, 2009; Drew & Walker, 2009; Heinemann, 2009; Kozlova, 2004; Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007). Direct complaint consists of four components: “explanation of purpose”, “complaint”, “justification”, and “a candidate solution” (Murphy and Neu (1996, as cited in Kozlova, 2004) and is made when the speaker is not satisfied by what a person has done to him/her. Studies have been done to examine the way native and non-native speakers use such a speech act in order to examine the probable differences between the two groups (e.g. Ho, 2009; Kozlova, 2004; Laforest, 2002; Prykapatska, 2008). The results of these studies revealed differences between native and non-native speakers in the use of the speech act of complaint. It is argued that because of the difference that exists between the productions of these speech acts by native and non-native speakers in either “social” or “linguistic” or even “pragmatic acceptability” (Bardovi-Harlig, 2001), they should be taught to the students. Bardovi-Harlig (2001) makes a strong case for the necessity of instruction, documenting that second language learners who do not receive instruction in pragmatics differ significantly from native speakers in their pragmatic production and perception in the target language. Chen (2009) also believes instruction to be effective in changing not the rout of acquisition but “the process of language development, rate of acquisition and ultimate level of attainment”. Two ways to teach the speech acts have been known in the literature as the explicit versus implicit teaching, with the former being more effective than the latter as is revealed by the results of some studies (like Chen, 2009; Soler, 2005). To help EFL students progress in the extent to which they produce these speech acts, instructional books used in language institutes include some units, which try to explicitly teach the speech acts. However, not so many studies have been conducted to examine whether the mere inclusion of such information in the book, which is taught by the teacher is enough to enlarge the knowledge students have with regard to these speech acts and whether these materials can enable the students to use the language the same as a native uses it. Some (like Cohen, 2008) believe that such information in books alone is not enough to help the students use the language native-like and some supplementary material is also mandatory, however, not so many studies have been done to examine this.

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BACKGROUND A lot of studies have been conducted in the field with regard to different speech acts (or functions of language) like politeness (e.g. Biesenbach-Lucas, 2007; Linde, 2009), impoliteness (e.g. Bousfield, 2007; Emmertsen, 2007), apologizing (e.g. Harris; Grainger; & Mullany, 2006) and disagreement (e.g. Edstrom, 2004). Complaints are also gaining prominence as is revealed by the number of the studies in recent years (e.g. Chen, 2009; Drew & Walker, 2009; Heinemann, 2009; Kozlova, 2004; Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007). Complaint is one of the speech acts that deal with the concept of face (as mentioned by Brown and Levinson, 1978 in Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007) and complaining can take either the form of direct or indirect (Griping). Kozlova (2004) defines each of them as follows: A direct complaint is a direct confrontation performed by a speaker who expresses displeasure or annoyance towards a hearer for a socially unacceptable behavior, and holds the hearer responsible for this behavior. Similar to a direct complaint, an indirect complaint also expresses displeasure and annoyance but, unlike a direct complaint, does not hold the hearer responsible for the substance of the complaint. This kind of complaint leads the hearer to potential commiseration and sympathy with the complainer.

Monzoni (2009) maintains that an indirect complaint is that in which a complaint is made to an absent party and the addressee who is listening is not responsible for the act and just listens and may then commiserate, while in a direct complaint the complainee who is receiving the complaint is responsible for the act. These latter kinds of complaint may be “responded to through denials and admissions of fault”. Murphy and Neu (1996, as cited in Kozlova, 2004) enumerated four components for the speech act of direct complaint as: 1. explanation of purpose (speaker explains the purpose for initiating the conversation); 2. complaint (speaker expresses dissatisfaction about the hearer’s behavior); 3. justification (complainer states the reasons for complaining); and 4. a candidate solution: request (complainer offers a resolution to resolve the problem). The number of studies done for indirect complaints is flourishing. Boxer (1993) studied the interaction between Japanese learners of English and English speakers while indirectly complaining and commiserating. She maintained that indirect complaint is a way of achieving solidarity and an important goal for L2 learners to successfully interact is to know how to establish the solidarity with a native speaker. She also found salient differences between the two groups of native and nonnative speakers with regards to 62

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indirect complaints and responses to them tracing back the difference to the two groups’ different orientations toward talking. Heinemann (2009) carried out a study on the third party complaints (“complaints that target someone other than the recipient”) and related it to the social roles the participants have in the act. In this study when a caregiver complained about a care receiver in his/her presence, the other caregivers supported him/her, but the reverse was not true. The researcher concluded from the qualitative analysis of the participants’ conversations that “participation is constructed through and influenced by the social roles we have and the social activities we engage in as members of society”. Ruusuvuori and Linfors (2009) conducted a research on complaints in health care settings and concluded that unlike in normal conversational settings in which “the absent party often makes an affiliation from the co-participant relevant and helps to build alliances between those complaining against the third party” healthcare settings may opt for other institutional tasks, too. Traverso (2009) studied the conversations between friends in order to find out how they “introduce, accept or refuse, develop, and close the activity of complaining in the course of their exchanges”. Most of the studies done in the field also reveal differences between the ways natives and nonnatives use this speech act. Kozlova (2004) compared indirect complaints in Russian and American English, finding some various strategies in this speech act with regard to the participants’ language background. Prykapatska (2008) compared American and Ukrainian groups complaining to their friends. He collected data using a questionnaire the analysis of which revealed “Ukrainian friends apply the whole rank of complaint strategies from the least offensive to the most severe. Native speakers of American English use the most indirect and conventionally indirect strategies”. Henry and Ho (2009) examined the letters of complaints Bruneian English speakers sent to the newspaper over a period of 17 years. They concluded that the genre changed over this period and complaint had “metamorphosized from one that was indiscriminately direct and aggressive to one that (was) direct but diplomatic and polite”. Laforest (2002) investigated complaints and complaint responses in the speech of families in Montreal indicating the strategies used in the act. In their study of three speech acts (apologies, complaints, requests), Cohen and Olshtain (1993) tried to describe how nonnative speakers “assess, plan, and execute” these speech act utterances using retrospective verbal report protocols. In the study by Murphy and Neu (1996, as cited in Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007) which compared the responses of American native speakers with that of Korean non-native speakers, the norm found for the natives involved the use of modals (like would and could), mitigators, the pronoun “we” and “acceptance of responsibility”, and “depersonalization of the problem”, while nonnatives tended to personalize the problem more and use the modal “should”. Salmani-Nodoushan’s (2007) study dealt with this speech act in Farsi, specifically focusing “on the role of complainers’ sex, age, perceived situational seriousness, and social class in relation to their complaining behavior”. He based his study on the strategies used for complaining and concluded that each of the variables in the study had differential effects on the four different strategies. His study focused only on Iranian complainers 63

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and not how the complainees use the strategies. Salmani-Nodoushan (2007) aptly summarizes the literature on complaining: The review of literature related to complaint … revealed three major areas that had previously been studied: (a) functions of complaints, (b) responses to complaints, and (c) conversational strategies used by complainers and complainees for complaining or troubles-telling. According to literature, the functions of complaint are threefold: (a) to further conversation, (b) to build relationship, and (c) to establish solidarity (Boxer, 1993; Boxer, 1996). Six responses to complaints have been identified I the literature: (a) no response, nonsubstantive responses, or topic switch; (b) questions; (c) contradiction; (d) joke/teasing; (e) advice/lecture; and (f) agreement/ commiseration (Boxer, 1993; Boxer, 1996). In addition, there were four conversational strategies which were used by complainers and complainees: (a) expressing emotions, (b) dealing with complaint situation, (c) providing rhetoric for argument, and (d) manipulating conversational development (Kunagai, 2004).

In this study the strategies the students used to complain and the complainees responses to them are going to be investigated.

Instruction Chen (2009) favors instruction in L2 pragmatics and states the advantage of formal instruction: A large body of morphosyntactic studies demonstrated that although formal instruction cannot change the order of acquisition, it has two advantages. First, formal instruction has a beneficial effect on the process of language development, rate of acquisition and ultimate level of attainment. Second, through practice, routinization and consciousness-raising in the classroom, formal instruction can transform from learning to acquisition, from explicit to implicit knowledge, and from controlled processing to automatic processing.

In the beneficial effect of instruction, Cohen (2008) maintains “What has emerged from at least two decades of elicited data collection on speech acts as requests, refusals, apologies, and complaints is that certain patterns tend to recur regularly enough to warrant their instruction to L2 learners.” Kasper and Rose (2001) also believe that “many aspects of L2 pragmatics are not acquired without the benefit of instruction”; hence the great number of studies done to examine this effect. Both interventionist (explicit teaching) and non-interventionist (implicit teaching) studies have been carried out with the former being more effective than the latter (e.g. 64

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Chen, 2009; Soler, 2005). Soler (2005) compared the two types of instruction (explicit and implicit) in students’ use of request strategies. The results of his study revealed the benefit of explicit instruction in the production of this speech act. The study done by Morrow (1995, in Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007) revealed students’ progress in the speech act of complaint. In this study students were said to be more indirect in complaining, to explain more, and to state dissatisfaction less explicitly. Chen (2009) was concerned with the problem that students may be linguistically competent but pragmatically incompetent, so he saw instruction in this aspect of language beneficial. He included instruction in complaints in the L2 materials, showing the positive attitude students had with regard to it. Since students in Taiwan did not have access to “authentic language samples” to improve their pragmatic competence in line with their linguistic competence instruction seemed necessary. Some researchers like Cohen (2008) believe that the coursework is not enough in itself for students to improve their knowledge in pragmatics, so supplementary materials should be provided for the students to complement their knowledge in pragmatics. In this study, the researcher aims at examining the effect of instruction on students’ production of the speech act of complaint. The students in this study receive instruction from the book they are studying in the institute (New Interchange 3). So the researcher tries to investigate whether this kind of material and the instruction based on that is helpful in students’ production of the speech act of complaint. The following research questions are addressed: 1.

What is the difference between the experimental and comparison groups in the use of strategies to complain and in answers to complaints?

2.

Is there any difference between the experimental and comparison groups in the production of the speech act of complaint?

METHODOLOGY The setting The participants of the study are 18 female students aged 12-17 in an English institute in Sari. They participate in the class two times a week (3 hours a week). The first group of students (half of the participants) is studying chapters 5-8 of the book New Interchange 3 and the other group chapters 9-12. Based on the placement test administered by the institute the students in the two groups are at the same level of English proficiency. Since the focus of the study is the speech act of complaint, the two groups were chosen so that one of them received instruction and the other did not. 65

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The teaching material The book that the students are studying is New Interchange 3. Unit 6 of this book, titled “What’s wrong with it?” is about complaining. In the first section of the lesson students are provided with a kind of warm up and are asked some questions about whether they ever made complaints or not. Then a conversation in which a woman is complaining to a shopkeeper is given. The next sections of the book include grammar, pronunciation, listening, writing, and reading all on the same theme of complaint. The book also contains some supplementary materials like a workbook and a video book. Related to each unit of the students’ book the workbook and the video book also have exercises on the same topic.

The teaching procedure The experimental group received instruction from the book for 6 hours. They also did the exercises in the workbook and the video book. They had the opportunities to listen and read the way native speakers complain and also speak and write in this speech act. The teacher followed the structure in the book in order to teach this group. The comparison group did not yet have the opportunity of studying the unit on complaints and are not familiar with this speech act in the explicit way the first group are. They are studying other units of the book.

The test In order to test the students’ ability to produce the speech act of complaint, three tasks were given to them (Appendix A): Task 1: Discourse Completion Task (DCT). The students were given a situation and were then asked to complain about it. Task 2: Multiple-Rejoinder DCT. A conversation was given to the students in which one role was filled in but the students were asked to fill in their own role. Task 3: Role-play. Students were given a situation to complain and were asked to write down a conversation. The number of turns was not specified in this task so that students could provide as much answers to the complaint as possible. Three different tasks were used in this study to cater for the varieties of pragmatic behavior (Cohen, 2008).

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Data analysis To answer the first question, a qualitative analysis of the students’ responses to the tasks was carried out. The strategies the students used to complain in all of the tasks and the answers to complaints they provided in the third task (role-play) were analyzed based on the table in Appendix B. To answer the second question, Mann-Whitney U was used. Two non-native raters were asked to score the students’ tests based on the five-point Likert scale. (Because the raters were non-native, they based their ratings on the norm found for American native speakers in Murphy and Neu’s (1996, as cited in Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007) study and also used the answers a native speaker gave to the same test). The scores given to each student were based on the average score of the two raters’ ratings. There was a significant correlation (about 70%) between the two raters in their ratings.

Results and Discussion In this study the students’ complaints and complaint responses were investigated qualitatively and quantitatively. The results of both kinds of analyses revealed no difference between the two groups in terms of the strategies they used. In general, the students in both groups used to complain mostly without mitigators, they blamed the complainee for the act (personalizing the act), and in some cases even using the modal “should”. The results were similar to those found for Murphy and Nue’s study with Korean learners. Also the strategies the complainers mainly used were that of disapprovals. Complainees answered with expressing regret. The two groups were nearly similar in using the strategies. For example, in both groups the students tended to personalize the complaint and blame the other person for the wrong thing they had done. Two of the answers the students provided are given below from the third task to show this: - A student from the experimental group: a) Hey, here is your book. b) Oh … what have you done to it? Come on. It wasn’t like this when I gave you - A student from the comparison group: a) Are you sure this is my book? b) Sure. It is yours. a) So why is it damaged? Or another example can be provided from the second task which needs “mitigation (e.g. ‘I think uh it’s JUST in my opinion MAYBE the grade was ALITTLE low’) and then 67

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effective delivery of the complaint statement” (Cohen,2008). But what is the norm in both groups is little use of mitigators (maybe the mostly used one being SORRY). Again two example answers are given below: - A student from the experimental group: Teacher: I corrected each paper two times, but check yours to see if there is any problem. You: hmm. Excuse me, you didn’t see this part and you didn’t give me the score. - A student from the comparison group: You: But it is not my grade. I study my lessons very well. As for the quantitative analysis the result of the test showed no significant difference between the two groups, as is revealed in the following table: Table 1: Mann-Whitney U Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]

SCORE 29.500 74.500 -.975 .329 .340(a)

It can be argued that instruction of the speech act of complaint as it is explained in the book is not effective for the group examined. Maybe more should be put in the book or supplementary materials should be used to explain these speech acts to the students. As Cohen (2008) stated, a textbook may list a number of words (“like intensifiers for an apology”) but it does not explain how frequently these are used or in which situations these should be used. So teachers are advised to use more than the materials they usually use in the class in order to provide students with real life situations. For example, some excerpts from movies can be used in which the speech act we want to teach is used by the actors and then the students’ attentions drawn to those acts. Or materials deliberately produced for teaching the speech act can be used in the classroom. Much is said and written about the grammar, vocabulary, and other bits of language; however, speech acts gain less attention in the books, or if they do (as is revealed in the books based on functions) they may not be enough to help students to produce them in situations other than those in the book. Materials other than the book may be needed in the classrooms to help students get more familiar with the real-life situations and be able to perform in similar situations when necessary. The results of this study revealed no 68

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difference in the production of the speech act of complaint between the students who were taught this speech act and those who were not; however, the result should be generalized with caution because of the few number of the participants. Also this study may be replicated with males to see if gender mediated the results. Other speech acts may also be considered before we could generalize the results to books teaching through functions.

References Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2001). Evaluating the empirical evidence: Grounds for instruction in pragmatics? 13-32. In Kasper & Rose (eds.). Pragmatics in Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Biesenbach - Lucas, S. (2007). Students Writing Emails to Faculty: An Examination of E-Politeness among Native and Non-native Speakers of English. LanguageLearning and Technology, 11(2): 59-81. Bousfield, D. (2007). Beginnings, Middles and Ends: A Biopsy of the Dynamics of Impolite Exchanges. Journal of Pragmatics, 39(12): 2185-2216. Boxer, D. (1993). Complaints as Positive Strategies: What the Learner Needs to Know. TESOL Quarterly, 27(2): 277-297. Chen, Y. (2009). Learner Perceptions of Instruction in L2 Pragmatics. English Language Teaching, 2, 154-161. Retrieved October 2009 from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal.html/ Cohen, A.D. (2008). Teaching and Assessing L2 Pragmatics: What Can We Expect from Learners? Language Teaching, 41(2): 213-235. Cohen, A.D. & Olshtain, E. (1993). The Production of Speech Acts by EFL Learners. TESOL Quarterly, 27: 33-53. Edstrom, A. (2004). Expressions of Disagreement by Venezuelans in Conversation: Reconsidering the Influence of Culture. Journal of Pragmatics, 36: 1499-1518. Emmertsen, S. (2007). Interviewers’ Challenging Questions in British Debate Interviews. Journal of Pragmatics, 39(3): 570-591. Harris, S.; Grainger, K. & Mullany, L. (2006). The Pragmatics of Political Apologies. Discourse and Society, 17: 715-737. Heinemann, T. (2009). Participation Pragmatics, 41 2435-2451.

and

Exclusion

in Third Party Complaints. Journal of

Henry, A. & Ho, D. (2009). The Act of Complaining in Brunei – Then and Now. Journalof Pragmatics, 41: In Press. Kasper, G. & Rose, K. (2001).

Pragmatics in Language Teaching. Cambridge University

69

English Language Teaching Press: Cambridge. Kozlova, I. (2004). Can You Complain? Cross-Cultural Comparison of Indirect Complaints in Russian and American English. Prospect, 19: 84-105. Laforest, M. (2002). Scenes of Family Life: Complaining in Everyday Conversation between Friends. Journal of Pragmatics, 41: 2385-2399. Linde, A. (2009). How Polite Can You Get? A Comparative Analysis of Interlanguage Pragmatic Knowledge in Spanish and Moroccan EFL University Students. Porta Linguarum, 12: 133-147. McNamara, T. & Roever, C. (2006). Language Testing: The Social Dimension. Blackwell publishing: UK. Monzoni, Ch. M. (2009). Direct Complaints in (Italian) Calls to the Ambulance: The Use of Negatively Framed Questions. Journal of Pragmatics, 41: 2465-2478. Prykarpatska, I. (2008). Why Are You Late? Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Study of Complaints in American English and Ukrainian. Revista Alicantina deEstudios Ingleses, 21: 87-102. Ruusuvuori, J.& Lindfors, P. (2009). Complaining about Previous Treatment in Health Care Settings. Journal of Pragmatics, 41: 2415- 2434. Salmani - Nodoushan, M.A. (2007). Conversational Strategies in Farsi Complaints: The Case of Iranian Complainers. PhiN, 39: 20-38. Soler, E.A. (2005). Does Instruction Work for Leraning Pragmatics in EFL Context? System, 33: 417-436. Traverso, V. (2009). The Dilemmas of Third-Party Complaints Friends. Journal of Pragmatics, 41: 2385-2399.

in Conversation Between

Appendix A: The Tests Task 1: DCT

While eating in a restaurant, you notice an insect in your food. How do you complain to the waiter for that? Task 2: Multiple-rejoinder DCT

Suppose the teacher gave you a lower-than-expected grade in you exam. How do you complain to him or her? Fill in the blanks for the following conversation with the teacher. Teacher: I corrected each paper two times, but check yours to see if there is any 70

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problem. You: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. Teacher: Are you sure the mistake is on my part? You: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. Teacher: Yes, I see. Sorry! I will take a look at it again. Task 3: Role-play

Suppose one of your classmates borrowed your book, but returned it to you damaged. How do you complain for the damage? Write down the conversation.

Appendix B: Strategies and Responses (From Salmani-Nodoushan, 2007)

Strategies

Complainer

Complainee

1) Expressing emotions Expressing negative feelings Expressing disapproval 2) Dealing with comIntensification of reproach plaint situation Maintaining stance by adding utterances Sarcasm (and insulting) Using complainee’s words humorously 3) Providing rhetoric Holding the floor by speaking for argument fluently by adding utterances by controlling complaint topic

Expressing regret Expressing disagreement Repeating apologies Stalling the complaint Diverting the complaint

4) Manipulating devel- Continuing the complaint opment of conversation by exact repetition by modified repetition or paraphrase Avoiding continuation of complaint

Minimizing the confrontation Confronting the complainer on a par

Reorienting the conversation to a solution Closing the conversation

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A Study of Peripheral Learning in English Language Classroom: The Effective Factors and the Resultant Acquisition Shirin Sadaghian, MA , SBU

ABSTRACT

T

he purpose of this empirical study is to investigate the incidental learning of vocabulary through posters in a language classroom. The study is thus two folded. It first applies pe-

ripheral learning of words through 3 sets of posters to homogenous groups of highly motivated and average students and measures the degree of learning using tests analyzed by SPSS16 for windows, and then it proposes a second layer of awareness raising in order to deepen the associations of newly learned words in students’ cognitive network. Findings from this research affirms that both groups of students benefited from peripheral learning of words to the same extent and

more important is that the knowledge gained through peripheral learning, without explicit focus and explanation, could only be used for recognition rather than production. Thus the author argues that this teaching model should be presented at 2 levels; starting with a peripheral presentation of material followed by awareness raising activities. Keywords: peripheral learning, incidental learning of vocabulary, motivated students

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INTRODUCTION Research suggests that a large portion of the vocabulary children learn in their L1 is incidental in nature, a by-product of reading (Huckin & Coady, 1999) (Nagy, Anderson & Herman, 1987) which provides at least three benefits for language learners: a richer grasp of the contextual meaning and use 1.

the concurrency of the two activities (e.g., reading/listening and vocabulary learning)

2.

a more learner-centered learning process.

Likewise, it is generally accepted that a considerable percentage of learners’ L2 vocabulary is acquired incidentally. That is either through reading and listening or through visual ads in language class that is called here peripheral learning. But despite the obvious advantages, there are also a number of disadvantages for incidental vocabulary learning. For example, research suggests that contextual information is often unclear for language learners to make correct inferences leading to learners’ making wrong inferences and, thus, running the risk of learning words incorrectly. In a comprehensive review of research on incidental vocabulary learning in mostly L1 contexts, Krashen (1989) concluded that incidental vocabulary learning, or “acquisition”, achieves better results than intentional vocabulary learning. A major flaw in this review lies in the assumption that “spelling and vocabulary are developed in second languages as they are in the first language” (p. 454). A prerequisite for effective incidental vocabulary learning through reading is, as mentioned earlier, reading ability, an ability beginning foreign language learners possess only to a very limited extent. This problem would be exacerbated when the L2 being learned is of a totally different orthography, e.g., Chinese EFL students learning English, where differences in writing system pose serious challenges to the development of reading ability and therefore to vocabulary learning through reading . Moreover, where learners have little target language input and insufficient reading materials at their disposal, an exclusive incidental vocabulary learning program will stifle the language development of these learners. The aim of this study is to investigate the incidental learning of words trough a way rather than reading which puts less emphasis on reading ability and makes inferences easier through pictures. In fact there is already evidence in recent studies of second language learners that a combined approach is superior to incidental vocabulary learning alone. Paribakht and Wesche (1997) also found that reading plus explicit instruction led to superior gains over a period of three months

Peripheral learning Children learn new languages very easily, almost too easily. Most adults find foreign languages quite difficult. They must toil and struggle and put in long hours of hard work to make even small gains in their ability in a new language. But a child seems to just pick 73

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it up out of thin air. To a child, it is all play and no work. And, to make it even more frustrating for the adult learner, the results of a child’s language play are superior to the results of an adult’s language struggle. It does not seem fair. However it has been said that the reason for this superiority is child’s capability in learning from different source and without awareness that is called peripheral learning. The method has been adopted in Teaching and learning second language by different method one of which was Lozanov’s Suggestopedia. It has been proposed that students can learn high amount of structure and vocabulary from their environment and use it in their speech. Or in other words as was presented by the proponents of suggestopedia the students acquire English not only from direct instruction but also from indirect instruction. It is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of posters and decoration featuring the target language and various grammatical information. They are changed everyday. By doing this, the students can learn many things undirectly in the classroom or outside classroom. For example, YLLs can make simple oral production by using the posters or grammatical information on the wall. Considering the degree of usefulness of posters on the language class bulletin and the cost and energy that is devoted to their preparation of these devices in order for the students to learn new materials through an incidental way; this study aims at assessing the degree of usefulness of these materials among two groups of highly motivated and average students .

Motivated student The term motivated in this research was relative and was determined by teachers’ assessment of students’ degree of motivation. We used the term to refer to students that had shown great tendency to learn and had more willingness in learning specifically learning new vocabulary and had got higher scores in their quizzes.

Incidental vocabulary learning It should be noted that the very term “incidental learning” is open to different interpretations in the literature. In fact, the last few years have seen the blurring of distinction between the incidental and intentional dichotomy. Traditional studies of incidental vocabulary learning involve learners being told just to read for comprehension, recent twists to the incidental vocabulary learning concept have included more demanding tasks beyond reading such as looking up new words in dictionaries for comprehension. Thus far, research seems to indicate that incidental vocabulary learning through reading and listening is not only possible but also plausible strategies for vocabulary development. However, this strategy seems to be more effective for native speakers and intermediate to advanced L2 learners who already have at least a basic grasp of the language skills such as reading and listening. Even for these learners, the usefulness of incidental learning does 74

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not exclude the use of intentional learning strategies. One of the major shortcomings of learning new vocabulary from context is the risk of wrong inferences. Huckin and Coady (1999, pp.189-190) warned us that “guessing from context has serious limitations. It is still seen as an important part of vocabularybuilding, especially among advanced learners, but it requires a great deal of prior training in basic vocabulary, word recognition, metacognition, and subject matter”. Lastly, the most recent tendency to see incidental learning as involving different levels of task involvement (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001) also suggests a need to combine incidental and intentional learning as a vocabulary learning strategy. Similar views are shared by Nation (2001) and Schmitt (2000), two new books on vocabulary acquisition. After all, as Ellis (1994) rightly points out, different aspects of vocabulary demand different acquisition mechanisms, and hence, I would add, different strategies of learning. As mentioned in the introduction part methods such as suggestopedia has used posters as their main devices providing students with the chance to learn from classroom environment. No need to refer back to suggestopedia era, the technique is still being used by language institutions who claim to use Communicative approach in teaching English as a foreign language. However as a teacher I found these posters useless among average students and came up with the idea of assessing its usefulness among two homogenous groups of motivated and average students. Concerning the view that encourages peripheral learning and presence of such posters in language classroom and teachers findings that believe them to be useless for average; this study investigates motivation as a determining factor in students degree of learning through posters or so called peripheral learning thus it propose a hypothesis that is: “Motivated students benefit from classroom posters other devices of peripheral learning more than so called average students” The study also aims at answering a very important question of gained knowledge usability through analysis of students test results. Can the material learned through peripheral learning be used productively?

Method Participants The participants were 86 male and female Iranian EFL learners enrolled in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) course in Goldis language institution in Tabriz, Iran. At the time of research they were leveled as the upper intermediate students with regard 75

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to their language proficiency. The participants were purportedly homogeneous in terms of their perceived level at Interchange series. They ranged in age from 15 to40. Beside being homogeneous in terms of the level of English language proficiency, total lack of familiarity with specified 25 target words constituted the second criterion for participants selection.

Materials The main materials in this study were 3posters that contained different types of vocabulary organized in various manners e.g. words from same lexical family and words from various lexical families. The most important characteristics of these posters was that they all contained vocabulary above students level of proficiency with which students were completely unfamiliar. The other material that was used to test the outcome were tests which were prepared using various types of items e.g. matching, short answers and etc

Instruments Word Recognition Test The tests evaluated the participants on the learning of the target words by asking them to omit the odd word out, by using matching techniques and by asking them to provide a short defining sentence for each given word. The test was using both comprehension and recognition techniques. Teachers’ Questionnaire Teachers’ questionnaire was prepared in order to gather information on students’ degree of motivation. Teachers were expected to estimate students motivation with regard to their class participation, eager to learn, tendency toward learning new vocabulary and their scores in quizzes.

Procedure The homogeneous classes in the institution were determined through using the factors as students’ level of proficiency, the range of their ages, and their unfamiliarity with the chosen words. Then the prepared posters which each contained 10 difficult vocabularies which students were not familiar with were pinned to the classroom bulletin. The teachers were warned against focusing students’ attention to the words in the poster because the overall aim of the research was evaluating peripheral learning of students in language class. After ten days the posters were changed. Each poster remained in class for10 days. 76

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At the same time teachers evaluation on students’ level of motivation based on their tendency to learn and their class participation along with their marks in quizzes were gathered to discriminate between motivated and unmotivated students from teachers’ perspective. The final step was getting information on whether the students have learned those words provided for them or not. In order to assess the learning outcome the test was devised and administered without prior informing of students. The test results then were gathered evaluated and processed using SPSS statistical procedures.

RESULTS The data were analyzed using the independent sample T-test statistical analysis as performed in the environment of the software SPSS 16.0 for Windows. For all the analyses, the alpha level was set at .05 Group Statistics Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

t-test for Equality of Means

Std. Error Difference

.41080

.43637

-.45698

.352

.41080

.43867

-.46230

Upper

1.28391

Mean Difference

.349

79.268

Lower

1.27858

Sig. (2-tailed)

84

df

Equal variances not assumed

.936

.696

.154

Equal variances assumed

VAR00001

.941

t

F

Sig.

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

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The T-test was conducted and the achieved sig.(2-tailed) was.34 as shown in the above table. .34 sig which is below .5 indicates that there is no considerable difference between highly motivated and average groups. In fact both groups benefited from peripheral learning to the same extend and scored same in the achievement test. Beside the main result which was achieved through test score analysis another more important finding was achieved through test analysis and students obtained marks in various parts of the achievement test. As mentioned earlier the achievement test consisted of various production and recognition parts. The production part made students write a short defining sentence for each word and write the name of the word under its picture. The recognition part asked students to omit the odd one out in each group and match the words to their suitable pictures. The detailed analysis of tests clarified that the mean of scores on recognition part was 4 whereas the mean of scores production part was 1.

Examination of the proposed hypothesis The hypothesis proposed that: “Motivated students benefit from classroom posters and other devices of peripheral learning more than so called average students” Findings from this research concludes that according to the achieved test results there is no considerable difference between motivated and unmotivated students or as called in this research highly motivated and average students thus refutes the hypothesis.

Posttest results by research question Q. Can the material learned through peripheral learning be used productively? -The knowledge gained through peripheral learning was used best in recognition rather than production parts. Students answered mostly the whole recognition part questions where as only a few could answer some of the questions in production part.

Discussion Posters and other implicit teaching devices play an important role in language classrooms these days. You can find at least 1 or 2 posters on the classroom bulletin which aims at teaching students new material in an implicit way. This study was carried out in order to examine the effectiveness of such techniques and investigate the extent to which motivation as a crucial technique can play an important role in it. 78

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>= 48.00 < 48.00

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

39 47

3.5385 3.1277

2.07550 1.96288

.33235 .28632

The findings of this study suggest that incidental learning through posters alone cannot be effective in long run. Student even the motivated ones who acted well during instruction period didn’t benefit from the posters that incidentally taught them the words they already didn’t know. Furthermore the material gained through this implicit instruction and incidental learning technique didn’t help students to use the gained knowledge productively and the lack of this ability to produce made students think that they have gained nothing. In fact there is a doubt of legitimacy for knowledge that is used in recognition. With the finding in hand this article suggests that a combination of peripheral learning techniques and awareness raising activities then will be a more useful technique. Through peripheral learning students can gain knowledge on visual and written form of the word and awareness raising activities remind students of the knowledge they have gained and works as a stimulus for students to try to remember the words deeply. Thus this research concludes that the second phase of instruction should be added to this technique with the aim of deepening the associations that the new word has made in students cognitive network. Teachers should be aware of the fact that posters alone are not useful for teaching new words, and if they want their students benefit from this technique it’s better to use the word in other activities sometimes later like other awareness raising activities. On the whole peripheral learning through posters in language classroom is considered useless unless post learning activities be done in order to deepen the associations.

CONCLUSION This study investigated the effectiveness of peripheral or incidental learning of vocabulary through posters among adult Iranian EFL learners at the upper-intermediate level. The research was carried out using posters that contained vocabulary which were above students’ level of proficiency. Each poster had the chance of being on the classroom bulletin for 10 days. After 10 days the poster was replaced by a new one. At the end of the 30 days a test was prepared to assess students’ degree of achievement of new vocabulary. The results after test scores analysis indicated that both groups of highly motivated and average students scored rather same in the test thus the study finds that there is no considerable difference between highly motivated and average groups in their incidental learning of material through posters and thus ignores the motivation as a defining factor in peripheral learning. Furthermore test part analysis results indicated that the knowledge gained through peripheral learning couldn’t be used productively. Posters alone couldn’t make any contribution for learning of vocabulary and making it usable for 79

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learners in productive tasks. Thus a combination of peripheral or incidental vocabulary learning and awareness raising activities afterward was suggested by the article in order to make gained knowledge deeply associated in mind and accessible for productive use. References Doug McGlothlin. J, (1977). The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. III, No. 10, October1977. Huckin, T & Coady, J, (1999) Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second Llanguage. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21.2 (1999): 181-93. Nagy, W., Anderson, R. C., & Herman, P. A. (1987). Learning word meanings from context during normal reading. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 237-270. Priyatmojo, A. (2009). Suggestopedia as a method for teaching speaking for young learners in a second language classroom. Renandya, W. & Richards, J. (2002). Methodology in language teaching, pp. 258-264. Shahrokhy, A. (2009). Second language incidental vocabulary learning: the effect of online textual, pictorial, and textual pictorial glosses, December 2009, Volume 13, Number 3. Taylor, E. & Sadana, R. & Bey, R. (1990). Peripheral perception information processing without awareness Yongqi Gu, P. (2003). Vocabulary learning in second language: person, task, context and strategies. TESL-EJ, 7(2).

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The Effect of Teaching Vocabulary through Word-Formation Strategy on Vocabulary Learning of Iranian EFL Learners Mersedeh Nasiri, MA, ATU [email protected]

ABSTRACT

T

he purpose of this study was to determine whether word formation strategy improves vocabulary learning of Iranian intermediate EFL learners or not. Ellis (1994) argued that suc-

cessful learners use metacognitive knowledge in order to choose the learning strategies suitable for their L2 acquisition. Among these strategies are knowledge of word families, stem, prefixes, and suffixes. Accordingly, a group of homogeneous students were selected. They were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups. Then, both groups enjoyed a series of similar instructions except that the students in experimental group were required to divide the words they were faced with to their meaningful and functional constituents. For analyzing the data, t-test statistical technique was used. The results suggest that the learners in this study who consistently focused on word formation strategy for vocabulary learning did not significantly increase their

vocabulary knowledge with respect to students who did not focus on word formation strategy. Keywords: vocabulary learning, word formation strategy, vocabulary knowledge, EFL learners, meaningful constituents.

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1. INTRODUCTION According to Twaddell (1973), vocabulary use is limited in early stage of language learning, but he urged that the learners develop strategies for the massive expansion of vocabulary at the intermediate and advanced stages. Heining (1973( called the lack of attention to vocabulary acquisition unfortunate, since he believed that one’s learning of the terms and expressions of a language is fundamental even in the early stages of the acquisition of a language. When students find an unfamiliar word in sentences, they are sometimes able to determine the meaning by reading the other words in sentences .The other words give the context allowing students to make educated guesses about the meaning of the unfamiliar words. However, this is not the only strategy to guess the meaning of the words, many English words consist of more than one part which involve basic meaning of the words and occur in English repeatedly; therefore, they can be learned with practice quite easily. Affixes are the smallest components of language. Words can best be retained and recognized by breaking them into their component parts. So, an affix is a morpheme which only occurs when attached to some other morpheme or morphemes such as a root, stem, or base. Vocabulary items, either one-word or multi-word can often be broken down into their component bits. Exactly how these bits are put together is useful information. If the learners know the meaning of affixes, this will help them guess the meanings of words easier. New combinations using prefixes are not unusual, and the reader or hearer would be expected to gather their meaning from an understanding of their components. Research in the first language has shown that an understanding and mastery of native language word formation process is an effective tool for building vocabulary in L1, but little research has been done on knowledge of word formation process in second language learning and on the effect of such knowledge on L2 vocabulary acquisition. Also, it was unknown in what level of proficiency we should teach these strategies to the learners. According to Krashen (1985), beyond the basic level, the most efficient way for L2 learners to acquire vocabulary is through extensive reading. However, scholars such as Oxford & Scarcella (1994) argued for the importance of explicit vocabulary instruction. It does not mean teaching specific words but teaching learners the strategies necessary to expand their vocabulary (Ellis, 1994). Ellis (1994) argued that successful learners use metacognitive knowledge in order to choose the learning strategies suitable for their L2 acquisition. Among these strategies 82

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is knowledge of word families, stem, prefixes, and suffixes. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether teaching word formation strategy has any effect on vocabulary acquisition of Iranian Intermediate students or not.

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In second language learning, vocabularies are a core component of language proficiency and provide the basis for how well learners speak, listen, read, and write. Without an extensive vocabulary and strategies for acquiring new vocabulary, learners often achieve less than their potential and may be discouraged. According to the Min (2008), there is a close relationship between reading and vocabulary knowledge in English as a second language, so the researchers have been searching for ways to effectively enhance students’ acquisition and retention of new vocabulary knowledge. Many techniques have been examined, such as glosses, mnemonic devices, and morphological analysis (Nation, 1994). Hunt & Begler in their article introduced three approaches to vocabulary instruction and learning: • Incidental learning: through extensive reading and listening. • Explicit instruction: explicit instruction is essential for beginning students whose lack of vocabulary limits their reading ability. According to Prince (1996), teachers should provide opportunities for elaborating word knowledge that includes sorting lists of words, making semantic maps, and generating derivatives and inflections. • Independent strategy development: such as guessing from the context. As Oxford and Crookall (1990) demonstrated, incidental or indirect vocabulary learning through L2 use is essential for language development, but for most adult learners, direct vocabulary instruction is also beneficial and necessary. This is because students cannot usually acquire the mass of vocabulary they need just by meaningful reading, listening, speaking, and writing. For long-term retention and use of a large amount of vocabulary, additional support is usually helpful. This kind of support is provided especially well by direct instruction. Nowadays there is a considerable emphasis on vocabulary learning strategies. One strategy for learning vocabulary includes paraphrasing, using word parts. These strategies make learners more independent of the teacher and serve as a useful tool that can be used both inside and outside of class. Guided practice with this strategy encourages students 83

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to use strategies and gives learners the skill to use them effectively (Oxford & Scarcella, 1994). Kelly (1990) categorized the procedures and strategies employed by a learner to deduce the meaning of a new term: contextual guessing and formal guessing. Contextual guessing involves looking for a meaning that fits that part of the sentence or passage in which it occurs without the reader having any recourse to any formal aids. In the case of formal guessing, if one form of a word is known, the meanings of other words in the same language can be deduced. It means that the learner possesses basic knowledge in respect of affixes and word formation in the TL. Foreign language learners make extensive use of this strategy and rely heavily on it. According to the Nation (1990), the majority of words in English come from Latin and Greek, and the majority of these have words parts, particularly prefix and suffixes, which occur in many words. Knowledge of these word parts can be used to improve the learning of many words through relating unknown word forms and meanings to known word parts. The effect of such learning will contribute to both explicit and implicit knowledge, because it is a very strong form of consciousness-raising. Deccarico (n.d) in his article said that vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition, but he said that new words should not be presented in isolation and should not be learned by simple root memorization. It is important that new vocabulary items be presented in context rich enough to provide clues to meaning. One way is introducing word families along with the meaning, for example: act, active, action, activate. Pica (1988) pointed to the importance of the study of interlanguage morphology and to the belief that morpheme analysis can provide important insights into the sequences, processes, and inputs relevant to second language acquisition. Jenkins & Dixson (1983) named morphological analysis as a strategy that may help the growth in vocabulary knowledge that occurs in L1 during the elementary school years when it is used in combination with other strategies such as definition and example (as cited in Morrin, 2003, p.201). Nagey & Anderson (1984) argued that any vocabulary instruction that occur must include increasing children’s ability to learn words on their own because knowledge of word formation processes opens up large amount of vocabulary to young readers. Thus, it is a necessary skill that helps the students when exposed to unfamiliar low-frequent words. Tyler & Nages (1980) tested different aspects of the morphological knowledge of English derivational suffixes among students in the fourth, sixth, and eighth grades .They found that in the L1 different aspects of knowledge about suffixes are not acquired simultaneously. For instance, students first develop a relational knowledge of derivational 84

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morphology. Schmitt & Meara (1987) examined how two types of word knowledge, word associations, and grammatical suffix knowledge, change over time both receptively and productively. Ninety-five secondary and postsecondary Japanese students were tested on three word associations and inflectional and derivational suffixes for each of 20 verbs, once near the beginning of their academic year and once near the end. The results showed their average vocabulary gain was 330 words. The analysis has shown that suffix knowledge and association knowledge are related to each other as well as to vocabulary size and general second language proficiency. It has also shown that the subjects in this study do not have anything near native like mastery of these two types of word knowledge. They mentioned that the learners did not have very good mastery of either association or suffix knowledge, indicating we need to learn more about the different kinds of word knowledge and how to effectively promote their learning. Montrul (1999) said that morphological analysis can be a useful tool, not only for and through reading but also for facilitating the oral and written communication that is important part of what occurs in the foreign language classroom (as cited in Morrin, 2003, p.202). Morrin (2003) investigated whether beginning students of Spanish as a L2 can successfully learn to use knowledge of Spanish derivational morphology to increase their vocabularies. Four intact groups of Spanish learners were selected. In the control group, the researcher used strategies such as role play, interview, and semantic map. For the experimental group, the same procedure was used; moreover, the learners participated in small group activities designed to draw their attention to suffixes and prefixes of Spanish .At the end, it was found that the learners who consistently focused on derivational morphology as a strategy for building word families did not learn significantly vocabularies or significantly receptive knowledge of Spanish morphology in comparison to students who did not focus on morphology as a vocabulary building strategy .The interesting finding of this study was that students with low proficiency derived minimal benefit from the treatment. The treatment was more useful for students with higher levels of proficiency.

3. RESEARCH QUESTION To achieve the purpose of the study, the following research question was proposed: Does teaching word formation strategy have any significant effect on vocabulary acquisition of Iranian intermediate students? 85

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Null hypothesis Teaching word formation strategy has no significant effect on the vocabulary acquisition of Iranian intermediate students.

4. METHODOLOGY 4.1. Participants The subjects participating in this study were 60 female Persian speaking students studying English at Shokooh English Institute. They were between 12-15 years of age and at the intermediate level. Since homogeneity of the subjects should be established, a set of 40-item test was administrated as the pre-test. Two groups, one as experimental and the other as control, were selected. Each group consisted of thirty students.

4.2. Instruments The following instruments were used in this study: The forty-item test was used by the researcher according to the fifty derivational words. The material taught was taken from different books. Then the researcher grouped them in 3 categories of suffix, prefix, and stem. In every session of the instruction, the teacher provided the students with each of these categories of words together with their meanings, and each category was accompanied by related examples.

4.3. Procedure In this study the researcher has applied a true-experimental research design. Two classes were selected through randomization process, and a pre-test was administered in order to measure the ability of the two groups at the outset. The students were divided into two groups, one as the experimental group and the other as the control group. Afterwards, each group was taught the same set of words, but the experimental group received the prepared materials and methods of teaching, which were applied during the entire course. However, the control group received the same sets of words with different ways of teaching that were poles apart with the experimental group’s method. The training course for both experimental and control groups lasted for 3 sessions, since restrictions did not let the researcher for more training sessions. Each session was 45 minutes. 86

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For the control group, in the first session, the researcher presented those words which contain suffixes, in the second session those that contain prefixes, and in the third, the roots. They were presented in a traditional way without extra examples or reinforcing activities and contextual examples .They received only the meaning of the words. The teacher explained the meaning of the words. For the experimental group, the researcher started by writing the words on the board and explained the meaning of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Then, students were asked to find more words. Moreover, the researcher collected all the words that contained specific suffix, prefix, and roots and explained the meanings; therefore, it was possible for the learners ` meet several examples for a single suffix, prefix, or root. The researcher also tried to reinforce what she had already presented with the help of some simple sentences containing those kinds of words which were presented throughout the training course. At the end, to check the effect of the treatment, a post-test which was the same 40-item test was administrated to the experimental and control groups. Time allocated for taking the test was 30 minutes for both groups.

5. RESULTS SPSS11.5 for Windows was employed for the statistical analyses. First, descriptive statistics was calculated for the various measures used in the research. The descriptive statistics of vocabulary scores are shown in Table 1 .It is also necessary to consider whether the control and experimental groups were reasonably similar or whether there were any differences among the treatment groups. In the following table (5. 1), we observe that in the pre-test, there was no prominent difference between the two groups at the outset. The average score for the experimental group was 24.93 (SD=7.538) and for the control group was 21.27 (SD=8.034).

PRETEST

Table 5. 1: Group Statistics: pre-test GROUP N Mean Sd experimental 30 24.93 7.538 control 30 21.27 8.034

Sd Error Mean 1.376 1.467

The results of the t-test indicate no significant differences between the two groups on the pre-test (as we can see in the table 5. 2). So, the difference between the two groups 87

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in the pre-test was not significant. It means that they are homogeneous. Table 5. 2: Group Statistics: post-test

PRETEST

GROUP experimental control

N 30 30

Mean 28.73 22.73

Sd 4.307 7.016

Sd Error Mean .786 1.281

As discussed above, to check the effect of the treatment, a t-test statistical procedure was used. As shown in the table 5. 3, results indicate that there is no significant difference between the two group means. The results of independent sample t-test (t=1.142, df= 56, Sig=.256) showed that teaching word formation strategy was not so effective. Although the mean score of the experimental group (28.73) was more than the control group (22.53), we cannot rely only on the mean scores. Table 5. 3: Independent sample test

t-test for Equality of Means Mean Difference

Sd. Error Difference

.259

-2.6262

2.30009

56

Sig. (2-tailed)

df

t

DIFFERENCE

48.701

-1.142

Equal variances not assumed

Therefore, although learning word formation can be directed to more exercise of mind, it does not make any significant difference in vocabulary learning between those who are trained in this field and those who are not.

6. DISCUSSION The results suggest that the learners in this study who consistently focused on word formation strategy for vocabulary learning did not significantly increase their vocabulary knowledge in comparison to the students who did not focus on word formation strategy. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether teaching word formation strategy has any effect on vocabulary acquisition of Iranian Intermediate students .The 88

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results showed that teaching word formation strategy was not an effective strategy. Although the mean score of the experimental group in posttest was better than the control group, no conclusion could be made because their mean score in pretest was high, too. The hypothesis of this study which proposed that teaching word formation strategy has no significant effect on the vocabulary acquisition of Iranian intermediate students was not rejected in this study. These results may be due to the learners’ proficiency level. Learners simply did not have the necessary competence at this level of proficiency to provide reliable data. Further research might want to examine the effects of teaching word formation strategy on vocabulary learning of high intermediate and advanced students. Secondly, the findings were based on vocabulary learning among female students only. Whether male students would react to the instructional treatments needs further research. Another reason for these findings is related to the treatment. The researcher only provided simple sentences containing those kinds of words which were presented throughout the training course. According to Webb (2007), different types of context may have different effects on vocabulary learning. Richer contextualized examples may be more useful. The findings of the present study are in accord with Morrin’s )2003 (claim. As discussed above, he investigated the derivational morphology analysis as a strategy for vocabulary acquisition in Spanish context, but he also found that this strategy was not so useful for vocabulary acquisition. He related this result to the limitation of his study (for instance, lack of the experimental design due to the use of intact groups.) Secondly, there appear to have been some differences between groups at the outset. It means that there have been varying degrees of receptive and productive knowledge among learners at the beginning of the study. Knowledge of word formation strategy, especially derivational morphology, is the key to increased vocabulary knowledge. Vocabulary knowledge is the key not only to the literacy but also to the written and oral communication, so there is an interest in discovering whether teaching word formation strategy is useful or not. In this study, both the experimental and the control groups developed equally, and there was no significant difference between the two groups. Thus, as a conclusion, we can infer that teaching word formation knowledge had the same results as the traditional teaching of vocabulary had on vocabulary learning. Regarding the null hypothesis, it was not rejected. As it is the case with other research, this study suffers from some limitations. First, our participants were females only. Second, the findings of this study were based on only three treatment sessions, which is too short for an experimental research. Further re89

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search needs to investigate the effect of teaching word formation strategy on vocabulary acquisition, using more treatment sessions.In addition, future research needs to look at vocabulary learning with a richer idea of what it means to know a word and of how words are learned. It is not enough to know that certain techniques help some learners and are more efficient than other techniques. We need to know why. How are some techniques more efficient than other techniques. How does context help learning (if it does at all)? Do techniques like the study of Latin affixes and roots and imagining help learners because they work at deeper levels than rote repetition? For most foreign or second language learners, it is hard to deal with new vocabulary in class because of their property of semantic eccentricity. In order to adequately grasp words and keep them in long-term memory, the learner requires a feasible strategy that follows a reliable approach. Language teachers need to provide reliable strategies for students to learn new words in a foreign language. References Decarrico, J. D (n.d.).Vocabulary learning and teaching.In Celce Murcia, M., (Eds),Teaching English as a second or foreign language, (pp.285-299). United State: Heinle&Heinle. Ellis, R. (1994).Factors in the incidental acquisition of second language vocabulary from oral input. Applied Language Learning,15, 1-32. Hatch, E.& Lazarton, A.(1991). The research manual. Design and statistics for applied Linguistics. New York: Newbury House Publisher. Heining, G. (1973). A Research study in vocabulary learning. Los Angeles: University of California. Hunt, A. & Begler, D. (n.d.). Current research and practice in teaching vocabulary. In Richards,J.C. & Renandya, W.A.)Eds(, Methodology in language teaching (pp.258- 269(. New York: Cambridge University Press. Kelly, P. (1990). Guessing: No substitute for systematic learning of lexis. System, 18, (2), 199-207. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis, Issue and implication, Newyork: Longman. Min, H. T. (2008). EFL vocabulary acquisition and retention: Reading plus vocabulary enhancement activities and narrow reading. Language Learning, 58(1), 73-115. Morrin, R. (2003). Derivational morphology as a strategy for vocabulary acquisition in Spanish. Modern Language Journal, 87)2(, 200-221. Nation, I. S. P).1990(. Teaching and learning vocabulary. NewYork: New Berry House. Nation, I.S.P).1994(. Review of books working with words, teaching and learning vocabulary. System, 22, 283-287. Negay, W.,&Anderson, R.(1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading 90

English Language Teaching Research Quarterly, 19, 304-330. Oxford, R. L. and Crookall, D).1990(.Vocabulary learning: a critical analysis of techniques. TESLCanadian Journal, 7, 9-30. Oxford, R. L, & Scarcella, R. C.(1994). Second language vocabulary learnin among adults. System, 22, 231-243. Pica, T. (1988). Morpheme data analysis in second language acquisition research. Review of Applied Linguistics, 79, 77-112. Prince, p.(1996). Second language vocabulary learning: The role of context versus translation as a function of proficiency .Modern Language Journal, 80, 478-493. Schmit, N. & Meara, P.(1997). Researching vocabulary through a word Tyler, T. knowledge framework. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 17- 36. Twaddell, F.(1973). One defining the language phoneme. Language monograph, Number 166. Tyler, A. & Negey, W. (1989). The acquisition of English derivational morphology. Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 649-667. Webb, S. (2007). Learning word pairs and glossed sentences: The effects of single context on vocabulary knowledge. Language Teaching Research, 11)1(, 63-81.

APPENDIX 1: Test of Vocabulary

1.A: what is wrong? B: I lifted a heavy TV and I got a terrible …………. a. headache

c. backache

b. toothache

d. throat ache

2. A: Who do you …………… to visit at 5 o’clock? B: My grandmother. a. expression

c. exit

b. experiment

d. expect

3 .People usually use small expressions to start…………. a. celebration

c. observation

b. education

d. conversation

4. Although he know smoking is …………… to his health, but he does not stop 91

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it. a .harmful

c. colorful

b .useful

d. painful

5 .A: what is he? B: He works in a pharmacy.He is a …………… a. typist

c. psychologist

b. chemist

d .dentist

6 .I………….green and I never wear green clothes. a. dismiss

c. dislike

b .disabled

d disagree

7.A: Why are you always late at work? B: because of crowed and shortage of ………….. a. rain

c .transport system

b. food

d. job

8. All the exams have been taken, but the ………………are not clear yet. a. consequences

c. conversations

b. competitions

d. celebrations

9. Dr,Hessabi has done an interesting………… about physics. a. recent

c. research

b. relax

d. refuse

10. This new program has many …………on TV. a. winners

c. foreigners

b. viewers

d. shopkeepers

11. A: What is…………? B: It’s a science which talks about God, prophet and ……….. a. theology 92

c. biology

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b. psychology

d. geology

12. He became …………….in Iran and Iraq war. a. dismissed

c. disagree

b. disabled

d. dislike

13. I gave my shoes to the shoemaker to be ……………….. a. research

c. repaired

b .request

d. prepared

14. Topics people often …………. about them are not suitable for conversation. a .dislike

c. like

b. disagree

d. agree

15 .I was in hurry yesterday morning and I couldn’t ………..to my mother where I was going. a. comment

c. describe

b. confuse

d. depart

16. A: Which science talks about life? B: ………….. a. biology

c. theology

b .psychology

d. methodology

17. A: Why didn’t the plane land on time? B: Because the ………….. was busy. a. air

c. airline

b. air bus

d. aircraft

18. Most of the tourist are …………… in Isfahan. a. farmers

c. workers

b .foreigners

d. drivers

19. Emily Dickenson was the ………….of the Nobel Prize. 93

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a. teacher

c. driver

b. worker

d. winner

20. Football games are interesting…………..I always watch them on TV. a. consequences b .conversations

c. competitions d .compositions

21. I did not like the topic of the ………… to write about on the exam. a. composition

c. color

b. conversation

d. cotton

22. A: Why didn’t you get your driving license? B: Driving a car is ………..to me and I can never learn it. a. impossible

c. improve

b. imperfect

d. include

23. You can talk to a …………… to solve your family problem. a. typist

c. geologist

b. chemist

d. psychologist

24. A: why did not you sleep well last night? B: I had a ……….. head ache and I could not get a bit of sleep. a. helpful

c. painful

b. useful

d. shameful

25 .She could ……….. from her dangerous illness two month later. a. recover

c. report

b .repair

d. remove

26. You should never ……..people to do what they don’t like to do. a .respond

c. relax

b. require

d. report

27. My grandmother could not ………… what she had read last night. 94

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a. recall

c. require

b. recover

d. record

28. It was very …………for her to see the woman in wearing scarf. a. unmarked

c. unseen

b. uncut

d. unusual

29. When Jack saw the difficult question on the exam, he really got …………. a. compete

c. consequences

b. confused

d. converse

30. Having a laboratory to do the …………. In Chemistry is necessary at school. a. experiments

c .expenses

b. expressions

d. expresses

31. The hero of the story was………….. a. useful

c. colorful

b. painful

d. powerful

32. She was not……………..for the crime. a. portable

c. comfortable

b. responsible

d. fashionable

33. He did not understand the lesson so he ………..it. a. reread

c. repaired

b. renewed

d. recovered

34. Her friends is really talented .She makes wonderful…………… a. spacecrafts

c. aircrafts

b. handicrafts

d. a and b

35. A: how did he finish the project? B: ……………. a. successfully

c. b and d 95

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b. thankfully

d. usefully

36. A: how long was the ……………? B: About two hours. a. function

c. education

b. discussion

d. question

37. The police ………….that the man was lying . a. rewrote

c. realized

b .reread

d. relaxed

38. Computers are used to…………. all the different things. a. degree

c. depend

b. design

d. deny

39. He remains …………… 1 hour after sleeping. a. conscious

c.center

b.common

d. certain

40. The ……………. Speed of computers is really amazing. a. superpower

c .superhuman

b. supercolor

d. supermarket

APPENDIX 2: Teaching Material

Prefix

meaning

example

Air

atmosphere

Airbus, aircraft

Con, com

with

Conference

De

down

Decline

Dis

No ,not, discover

Discover

Ex

Out, form

Export

Im

No, not

Immobile

Re

Again

Recover

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Super

More, better

Supermarket

Tele

Far

Telegram

Trans

Across

transaction

Suffix

meaning

example

Ache

Pain

Toothache

Er

One who does

Baker

Ful

Fill of

Handful

Ist

One who does

Geologist

Logy

Study of

psychology

root

meaning

Example

craft

Something

handicraft

made by hand port

carry

Airport, transport

sequ

follow

consequence

vers

turn

convers

scribe

write

describe

press

tell

expression

search

Look for

research

foreign

Out of

foreigner

view

watch

viewer

wonder

surprise

wonderful

psycho

Human mind

psychology

bio

life

biography

Theo

Of God

theology

97

98

Interview

Interview

An Interview with Mr. Alireza Khalighi A Brief Discussion of Letter Writing Styles and Translation Courses By Mehrdad Yousefpoori Naeim

: First of all, I would like to thank you for accepting our invitation to this interview. Please let me start with a rather general question. You are among the most experienced instructors at SBU. How have you found English students through all these years? Do you think we have more progressed or maybe regressed? Mr. Khalighi: As for the English students and their general English proficiency, I feel we have had better students in the recent years, so I think there has been a progress. Nowadays, there are very few students who lack the required knowledge of English to start the BA program, and those who are not good enough usually manage to catch up with others during the first and second semesters. : What are some of the problems English students have, and how can they overcome them? Mr. Khalighi: There are surely many problems, but now I can think of motivational problems, which many students seem to be dealing with. Unfortunately, some students have not set clear goals for themselves, and this could get really problematic for them at later stages. : Letter Writing is one of the courses you teach, so I would like to have your opinion on how the Internet in general, or Emailing in particular, has influenced the rules and principles of today’s letter writing. How do you 100

Interview

think this needs to be accounted for in this course? Mr. Khalighi: Yes, you’re right. It is undeniable that the Internet has thoroughly changed the principles of the old-fashioned letter writing. Although there are still special cases when one needs to follow the old and established principles of writing a formal or business letter, in most cases nowadays, people use the Internet for corresponding with its own quite different patterns. I believe our Letter Writing course needs to be updated to be more in line with the way people write today. If such updates are not applied, then I think it will be even better to omit this course from our syllabus. : Another question on letter writing: Different parts of the world seem to have their own formats and styles for writing letters. What is your approach to this issue? Mr. Khalighi: Yes, this is a fact. People in Britain prefer a style different from that of the Americans. One example is the way the writer’s address is written, or another example is writing the date. We teach only one of such styles, and that is the British one. : Now about translation courses, which you have very often taught: Do you think we have enough translation courses included in our BA syllabus? Mr. Khalighi: Well, not really. While Methodology and Principles of Translation is a useful course, and students learn many things about translation in this course, they still need to do more translation. They mostly learn it theoretically, without sufficiently getting involved in translation practically. : Is there a specific course in translation that you feel is missing in our BA syllabus? Mr. Khalighi: Not a specific one, but there should be different translation courses for the discourse of various majors. For example, we could have courses such as Translation of Legal Texts or Translation of Medical Texts. We currently have a similar course for simple texts, but that does not suffice, and sometimes very difficult texts are used in 101

Interview

this course in a way that it demotivates students about translation. : My next question concerns Konkour. Do you think excluding Konkour from the Iranian educational system improves or worsens the current situation in our universities? Mr. Khalighi: I think what we need is a test of general English before admitting any students in the English Department. This test should be run along with another test in the form of an interview to see if the applicants are really qualified to start a BA program. Without having these two, we will continue to see unprepared students being admitted each year. :Thank you again.

102

Army of Lettres

Army of Letters

A Tale from Bostan Sa’adi The Story of a Devout Miser

In the remote regions of Turkey, there lived a good and pious man, whom I and some fellow –travelers once visited. He received us cordially, and seated us with respect. He had vineyards, and wheat-fields, slaves and gold, but was miserly as a leafless tree. His feelings were warm, but his fireplace was cold. He passed the night awake in prayer, and we in hunger. In the morning he girt his loins and recommended the same politeness of the previous night. One of our party was of merry with and temper. “Come, give us food in change for a kiss,” he said, “for that is better to a hungry man. In serving me, place not thy hand upon my shoe, but give me bread and strike thy shoe upon my head.” Excellence is attained by generosity, not by vigils in night. Idle words are a hollow drum; invocations without merit are weak support. Bostan of Sa’adi, Chapter 2: Concerning Benevolence 104

Army of Letters

Nocturnal IX Ahmad Shamlu (1964-65) (1)

I have met death. In a sad visit, I have touched death by the hand. (2)

I have lived death With a sad sad song And for an extremely lengthy, extremely exhausting life. (3)

Oh, let me be! Let me be! If death Is all that familiar moment when the red clock Stops beating. And a candle — which in the wind’s direction — Does not delay between nothingness and being, Blessed will be the moment when in a womanly way With the happiest desire of my body I embrace it So that the heart may indolently stop working And the look of the eye become fixed at everlasting hollownesses And the body Become idle! 105

Army of Letters

(4)

Alas Alas! Death Is not a candle snuffed Neither a clock stopped, Nor the comfort of a woman’s arms That you find again in the eternal return, Nor a juicy lemon that you suck So that what is throwable Is but a refuse: (5)

It is a sad sad experience Lasting for years and years and years… When gather around you beautiful corpses Or familiar beings at the point of death to whom you have been bound With the official chains of ID cards And other identity documents And papers Which have become heavy From the pressure of so many stamps and seals and the ink that has penetrated them — (6)

When around you Mouths will not ever stop talking And among all these voices none is familiar to you, — 106

Army of Letters

(7)

When pains Do not overlook small jealousies And questions are all centered upon the gut… (8)

Yes, death is a dreadful waiting; A waiting that cruelly lasts long. A painful reincarnation That makes Christ holding sword in hands in the alleys of rumor Rise up to defend his mother’s chastity, And makes Buddha With the passionate cries of exultation Wear the sacred garment of the military service, Or makes Diogenes With a turndown collar and polished shoes Honor with his presence Alexander’s supper banquet. □ (9)

I have lived death With a sad sad song And for an extremely lengthy, extremely exhausting life. Translated by: Mohamad Ghaffari

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Army of Letters

Method Disturbed At three A.M. When you come out your nest I fall deep down in pain; You, sweet madness Sweet secrecy on this blatant planetOh my bitter freedom, When did it all happen? You, stuck all over my brain my bed my desk My burnt papers My poems in red; When did it all happen: My self-deception: To trick myself into washing you away With all the shameAnd people’s horrific criticism; -Oh I only socialize in hellAnd would you dare my conservative misery To play more of this game? For your sly soul Your fervent jeans Your tan hands Playing piano and painting my soul Are disturbing my method. 108

Golnoosh Nourpanah English Language and Literature, SBU

Army of Letters

Under the Sun Under the burning sun Is it sane to confess That I crave the rain? You are my rain Rain on my fever Cure my disease That science couldn’t bear. In this broad daylight Is it safe to confess That I desire the darkness? For I can see you in darkness where everything else is dark and dead -where I can worship this shameI can touch your invisibility, and your pure vagueness With my very fingers. Now let us just talk for a while -in this broad daylightAbout art and insomnia With our jealous hearts Buried And burnt

Golnoosh Nourpanah English Language and Literature, SBU

Under this sadistic sun. 109

Army of Letters

Apple and Moon It was evening. The new moon was roaming in the dark sky. She looked up; at the sight of the pale new moon her lips gave way to a small smile and she sighed. She raised her hand. There was a red apple in her hand glistening in the faint moon light; she took a short look at it. It was wet with sweat. She rubbed it to her dress and kept it pressed against her bosom. Then she walked on. She was almost there, behind the door. She stopped, took another look at the apple in her hands; it was a big full red apple, smelled it and shifted it from one hand to the other a few times. She raised the apple to her nose and smelled it for a few moments. She sighed looking up at the new moon standing over her head. When she came into the room her mother said: “You are so late! Well, give it to him.” Pointing to a little boy beside her she asked the girl. He was 2 or 3 years younger than the girl. His eyes were red from crying and he was drying his nose with his hand. At sight of the red apple in her hands he smiled widely and rushed towards the girl seizing the apple out of her hands. The mother was gone. The girl and the boy were face to face now. The boy was staring at her. The girl was looking down and playing with her feet. He moved the apple in his hands and all of a sudden, he dropped it and cried out. The red apple rolled on a worn out carpet for a few times and then came to a stop at her feet. It was bitten. She picked it up and went out. She sat under the dark sky of late evening and looked at the moon while eating the red apple.

Nahid Jamshidi Rad English literature, MA

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Army of Letters

Smiled, the Mad Smiled, she was happy. Why? Because she thought she found it finally. What? The lost one. It was there, just close to her heart. She knew it was there. The beats of her heart told that. Smiled, a big one. She noticed the looks of the passerby who perhaps thought there was something wrong with her. She would be a little mad! Smiled at this idea. mad, how funny! She, a mad girl! It was possible, by the way. Madness would come and lie there in her mind so softly that she would not understand its presence. She remembered once she has heard a case getting mad so gently that he could not accept its reality. Suddenly, felt a freezing coldness all through her body. If she was mad and she was unaware of it, then? She laughed quietly. Ha, ha, ha, how funny! Why she should be worry of being mad when she does not feel it. But, if they say she is mad, then can she still deny it? She remembered the case that when he knew about the fact of his madness that he was unaware of it, he became actually mad. A real mad man. Then, if someone, no if a few guys tell her she is mad then she is mad. why? Smiled widely, no she was not mad, because first, nobody has told her such a thing. Besides if they say so, she will resist it. Yes, she was not mad. Smiled. Why she smiled? Oh, she was happy. Why? Because she… oh yes, she finally found it. She felt its existence there in the depth of her heart. Isn’t it the very madness to feel so? That she was happy? That she felt it? May be she was wrong. May be the beating of her heart had nothing to do with it. May be she was mad or getting mad to think that it was there. Nobody had affirmed its existence except for her own… she felt doubt. What part of her existence approved it, her heart, soul, body, mind, her essence? Which part? She did not smile any more. There was a… she felt she could no longer smile. There was something biting her heart. It was not it. It was something like a nasty ugly worm eating her soul, her existence. Was she right? Was it there? She smiled. She was not happy. Why? Because she was not sure it was there. She wished she had shared her feeling with someone. Now she would ascertain herself about her state. Now it was too late. She was not sure about it any longer. To talk to someone, only means to provide some excuses in favor of its presence or absence. No, now it was late to ask for affirmation. She was already in doubt. How someone out of her could make her sure about what was going on within her. Oh, why, why she always makes thing ruined? Just because she can not stop thinking. To think is to doubt and to doubt is to get mad. Yes she was mad. She was sure. Now she could go and ask. They would say yes. She smiled. She was happy. Because she was sure. There was no doubt.

Nahid Jamshidi Rad English literature, MA

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Army of Letters

Nocturnal Ahmad Shamlu (1964-65) If night’s beauty is futile Why is night Beautiful? For whom is it beautiful? Night and The incurved river of stars That passes cold, And the mourners with long tresses At the river’s banks Which memory With breath taking songs of frogs Will they sing? When every dawn With the chorus sound of twelve bullets Is Pierced? If night’s beauty is futile For whom is night beautiful? Why is it beautiful Translated by Ali Noorani English Language and Literature, SBU

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Army of Letters

The Wolf I used to have a brother called Tom He was very naughty when he was a child. He would do whatever he would like, Unaware of what he could cause. He was good at telling lies In a way that no one would realize. No one liked him anymore. Everybody thought he was a Bad little disaster boy. One day a wolf came and said I want to eat you, evil bastard. My mum told me not to lie Cuz the wolf might again come. This was a story told by mum Although she lied, No wolf did ever come!!! Mehrdad Yousefpoori Naeim English Language Teaching, MA, SBU

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Army of Letters

If I Want to Draw a Picture of You! If I want to draw a picture of you, I will sit you on a Polish chair, I’ll tell you to look at the farthest oak As if you knew a miracle would happen I don’t want you to put on an expensive hat, Or a formal gown, just wear a jet necklace, Wear it around your pale neck, That doesn’t mean you have to mourn That just suits your black eyes and hair, I will start from your lips, then nose, Then hair and your chin, but not eyes, No, I won’t draw your eyes, So this painting won’t be finished, Till the day I can touch your soul.

Yasna Golyari English Language and Literature, SBU

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Army of Letters

Shoes oes Every month he would drop by. His shoes were always brown, and Patty had trouble understanding whether it was their real color or the residue of the endless layers of dirt. He never stepped inside with the shoes on though. He left them outside the door. She sometimes brought them in when it rained. He insisted on putting them outside, even if they got wet. Still brown. Year after year. Outside. His shoes. They seemed to resemble his eyes, brown. Real color, or dirt? she wondered. Both his shoes and his eyes seemed to resemble all he’d ever done, all he’d ever seen. He hated all four. She pitied all four. She loved him. He might have. He stopped by again in February. Left the shoes outside as usual, brought his eyes inside though. 115

Army of Letters

Came in. Stayed. When he came to leave a few days later, the shoes were gone. Stolen? Robbed? “Told you to bring them in” Patty said. Still, he didn’t care. Good thing he had brought in his eyes. Shoes, like many things, can be replaced. Replaced. But eyes can’t be. Can’t ever replace eyes. The shoes were gone. So much the better. He never left after that. He stayed. Took over. The shoes ended up happy too. A hen laid an egg in one, and a chicken, her mate, stayed in the other. The hen and chicken and their chicks live across the field, not far from Patty and him. Well, at least him. Patty is gone. He replaced her. The new one is Ella. She is more charming for his brown eyes to look at.

Shadi Ghazi Moradi English Literature, MA

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Translation Challenge

Translation Challenge

Profile: Yadollah Royayi (1931) Born in Damqan, northeast of Iran, Yadolleh Royai is the poet of the New Wave or the Poem of Imagination. He is a graduate of college of law and human sciences and he has worked for the state television for several years. His poetry renewed debate about the relative value of form and context in modern Persian poetry. Yadollah is careful to produce unity in his poems. His sea songs reflect French symbolism. He moves to exotic marine land scape and creates glorious lyrical images, focusing mostly on symbols rather than metaphors in image building. His lyrics are and deeply imbued with Persian mysticism.

WORKS: • On Empty Roads • Sea Songs • The Melancholies • I Obtained from the Friend and Overflowing

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Translation Challenge

Marine Silence seemed a flower bouquet In my larynx.

The melody of the coast Was the breeze of my kiss and your open eye-lid.

On the water, the bird of the wind, Was disturbed in the nest of a thousand sounds. On waters The bird was restless.

The sound of the wet thunder, And the light, the wet light of the lightening, Built a mirror in the water With a luminous frame out of the sea flames.

The breeze of kiss and Your eye-lid and The bird of wind, Grew into fire and smoke In my larynx Silence was like a flower bouquet.

119

The Rainy Day When you are not present neither our “ares” are the way they should be nor our “shoulds” as usuall I take my lumps: the last of my word and my last word It’s been years that I have saved my small smiles in the heart for a rainy day but in the calendar no date is a rainy day that day, whatever it would be, is a day like yesterday a day like tomorrow a day like nowadays but who knows maybe today is a rainy day too when you are not present neither our “ares” are the way they should be nor our “shoulds” without you, everyday is a rainy day.

Translated by: Banafsheh Rafe Post Grad., Translation Studies, ATU 120

Shall-not-be Day When you are not, not our beings are as they must be, nor are our musts.

‫ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ‬ ‫ﻭﻗﺘﻲ ﺗﻮ ﻧﻴﺴﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﻧﻪ ﻫﺴﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﭼﻮﻧﺎﻥ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪﻧﺪ‬ ...‫ﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ‬

As always the last of my words and my last words I swallow with tears. It is a lifelong my slim smiles I do save in my heart for a rainy day.

‫ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﻤﻴﺸﻪ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺣﺮﻓﻢ‬ ‫ﻭ ﺣﺮﻑ ﺁﺧﺮﻡ ﺭﺍ‬ ‫ﺑﺎ ﺑﻐﺾ ﻣﻲ ﺧﻮﺭﻡ‬ ‫ﻋﻤﺮﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫ﻟﺒﺨﻨﺪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻻﻏﺮ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ‬ : ‫ﺩﺭ ﺩﻝ ﺫﺧﻴﺮﻩ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‬ ! ‫ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ‬ ‫ﺍﻣﺎ‬

Yet in the calendar pages there is no day as rainy day; that day whatever it is, a day as yesterday, a day as tomorrow, a day the same as our days is. But who knows,

‫ﺩﺭ ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺗﻘﻮﻳﻢ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻱ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ‬ ‫ﺁﻥ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻫﺮ ﭼﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻱ ﺷﺒﻴﻪ ﺩﻳﺮﻭﺯ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻱ ﺷﺒﻴﻪ ﻓﺮﺩﺍ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻱ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺯﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺎﺳﺖ‬ ‫ﺍﻣﺎ ﻛﺴﻲ ﭼﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺩﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬ ‫ﺷﺎﻳﺪ‬

may be today is the rainy day too.

! ‫ﺍﻣﺮﻭﺯ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬ ***

When you are not,

‫ﻭﻗﺘﻲ ﺗﻮ ﻧﻴﺴﺘﻲ‬

not our beings are as they must be,

‫ﻧﻪ ﻫﺴﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺎ‬

nor are our musts. As always every day without you is shall-not-be-day*. Translated by: Nahid Jmshidi Rad

‫ﭼﻮﻧﺎﻧﻜﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪﻧﺪ‬ ...‫ﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﻫﺮ ﺭﻭﺯ ﺑﻲ ﺗﻮ‬ ! ‫ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ‬

‫ﻗﻴﺼﺮ ﺍﻣﲔ ﭘﻮﺭ‬ 121

Rainy Day When you are not present neither our things present are as they should be, nor the shoulds As always, I gulp down the end of my word and my end word in sobbing It is a life-long time that I store my slim smiles in my heart: let them be for a rainy day But on the pages of the calendar there is no day as a rainy day That day, whatever be is a day like yesterday a day like tomorrow a day as the same as these days of us But who knows? May today also be a rainy day When you are not present neither our things present are as they should be, nor the shoulds Each day without you is a rainy day Translated by: Farnaz Safdari 122

Rainy Day When you’re not here,

‫ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ‬ ‫ﻭﻗﺘﻲ ﺗﻮ ﻧﻴﺴﺘﻲ‬

What “is” and what “should be” are not the

‫ﻧﻪ ﻫﺴﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺎ‬

same anymore;

‫ﭼﻮﻧﺎﻥ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪﻧﺪ‬

I swallow my last words, And the last of my words, With the lump in my throat,

...‫ﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﻤﻴﺸﻪ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺣﺮﻓﻢ‬ ‫ﻭ ﺣﺮﻑ ﺁﺧﺮﻡ ﺭﺍ‬

Just like always;

‫ﺑﺎ ﺑﻐﺾ ﻣﻲ ﺧﻮﺭﻡ‬

For a long time,

‫ﻋﻤﺮﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ‬

I’ve been saving my thin smiles, Somewhere in the region of my heart, Just for a rainy day, But no rainy day is marked, On the calendar; Whenever that day might be, It’d a day like yesterday, A day like tomorrow, A day like every day.

‫ﻟﺒﺨﻨﺪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻻﻏﺮ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ‬ : ‫ﺩﺭ ﺩﻝ ﺫﺧﻴﺮﻩ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‬ ! ‫ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ‬ ‫ﺍﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﺩﺭ ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺗﻘﻮﻳﻢ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻱ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ‬ ‫ﺁﻥ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻫﺮ ﭼﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻱ ﺷﺒﻴﻪ ﺩﻳﺮﻭﺯ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻱ ﺷﺒﻴﻪ ﻓﺮﺩﺍ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻱ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺯﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺎﺳﺖ‬ ‫ﺍﻣﺎ ﻛﺴﻲ ﭼﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺩﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬

But who knows? Today might be a rainy day.

‫ﺷﺎﻳﺪ‬ ! ‫ﺍﻣﺮﻭﺯ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬ ***

When you’re not here What “is” and what “should be” are not the same anymore. Without you,

‫ﻭﻗﺘﻲ ﺗﻮ ﻧﻴﺴﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﻧﻪ ﻫﺴﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﭼﻮﻧﺎﻧﻜﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪﻧﺪ‬ ...‫ﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ‬

Everyday is a rainy day. ‫ﻫﺮ ﺭﻭﺯ ﺑﻲ ﺗﻮ‬ ! ‫ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ Translated by: Maryam Raϐiee English Literature, MA, Tehran University

‫ﻗﻴﺼﺮ ﺍﻣﲔ ﭘﻮﺭ‬ 123

‫‪Translation Challenge‬‬

‫ﺗﻮ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺳﺘﺎﺭﻩ‬ ‫ﺗﻮ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺳﺘﺎﺭﻩ‬

‫‪Next Issue‬‬ ‫‪Translation‬‬ ‫‪Challenge‬‬

‫ﭘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺎﺯﮔﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻯ ﻭ ﻧﻮﺭ‬ ‫ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺳﺘﺖ ﺍﻧﮕﺸﺘﺮﻯ ﺑﻮﺩ ﺍﺯ ﻋﺸﻖ‬ ‫ﻭ ﭘﺎﻛﻴﺰﻩ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺩﺭﺧﺘﻰ‬ ‫ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻨﮕﻞ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺑﺮﮔﺸﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬ ‫***‬ ‫ﺳﺮﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﺗﻮ‬ ‫ﻣﺜﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻏﻨﭽﻪ ﺳﺮﺷﺎﺭ ﭘﺎﻛﻰ‬ ‫ﺯﻣﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ ﺗﻮ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺪﺱ ﻣﻰ ﺯﺩ‬ ‫ﺗﻮ ﺑﻮﺩﻯ ‪،‬ﻫﻮﺍ ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ ﭘﺨﺶ ﻣﻰ ﻛﺮﺩ‬ ‫***‬ ‫ﻭ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻫﺮ ﮔﻠﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺩﻳﺪﻡ ﺍﺯ‬ ‫ﺩﺳﺘﻬﺎﻯ ﺗﻮ ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﻰ ﺷﺪ‬ ‫ﻭ ﺁﺑﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺑﻴﺸﻪ ﺍﻯ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻣﺪ ﺁﺭﺍﻡ‬ ‫ﺑﻮﻯ ﺗﻮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ‬ ‫***‬ ‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍﻯ ﺗﻮ ﻓﻬﻤﻴﺪﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻡ‬ ‫ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺭﻭﺯ ﺧﻮﺭﺷﻴﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻰ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﻳﻐﺎ ﺗﻮ ﺭﻓﺘﻰ!‬ ‫ﻫﺮﺍﺳﻰ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﻡ‬ ‫ﻣﻬﻢ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ﺍﻯ ﺩﻭﺳﺖ‬ ‫ﺧﺪﺍ ﺩﺳﺘﻬﺎﻯ ﺗﻮ ﺭﺍ‬ ‫ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ‪...‬‬

‫ﺳﻠامن ﻫﺮاﺗﯽ‬ ‫‪124‬‬

Views & Reviews

Views and Reviews

A Film

The White Ribbon: Resistance Mystified Narges Montakhabi English Literature, PhD, SBU

PLOT The White Ribbon narrates the memories of an unnamed elderly tailor form a parable from the distant year he worked as a village schoolteacher and met his fiancée Eva. The setting is the fictitious Protestant village of Eichwald, Germany between July 1913 and August 1914, where the pastor, the doctor and the baron rule the roost over women, children and peasant farmers. The puritanical pastor leads confirmation classes and gives his pubescent children a guilty conscience over trivial offenses. He has them wear white ribbons as a reminder of the innocence and purity from which they have strayed. When his son confesses to impure touching, the pastor has the boy’s hands tied to the bed frame. The doctor, a widower, treats the village children kindly but sexually humiliates his housekeeper (the local midwife) and takes advantage of his teenage daugh126

Views and Reviews

ter at night. The baron, who is the lord of the manor, underwrites harvest festivities for the villagers, many of whom are the immigrant workers in his employ. He may summarily dismiss his twins’ nanny Eva for no apparent reason yet defend the integrity of the farmer whose son has taken his revenge on the baron with the destruction of a field of cabbages. Mysterious things happen. A wire is stretched between two trees causing the doctor a terrible fall from his horse. The farmer’s wife dies at the sawmill when rotten floorboards give way; her grieving husband later hangs himself. The baron’s eldest son goes missing on the day of the harvest festival and is found the following morning in the sawmill, bound and thrashed with a cane. A barn at the manor burns down. The handicapped son of the midwife is attacked and almost blinded. The pastor’s parakeet is found cruelly impaled after his daughter prepares scissors and opens the bird’s cage. The midwife commandeers a bicycle from the schoolteacher to go into town, claiming that she has evidence for the police given to her by her son. She is not seen again, and neither is her son. On the same day, the doctor’s family vacates the premises, leaving his practice closed. The schoolteacher’s growing suspicions lead to a confrontation in the rectory, where he suggests to the pastor that his children have severely bullied the weaker in the village. Offended, the pastor immediately threatens him, warning that he will face disciplinary measures if he repeats his accusations again. The film ends at the time of the declaration of war on Serbia by Austria–Hungary, with the conclusion in church on the day of a visit from the narrator’s prospective fatherin-law. Disquiet remains in the village but nothing has been discovered and no one accused. The narrator left Eichwald, never to return.

REVIEW “Baroness, you play too well for me.” The tutor’s flute cannot keep up with Baroness’ piano dexterity. This is the only scene in which true music touches the ears. Real music belongs to Baronesses, Barons, those who can appreciate its value; the rest should suffice to the choir, to the chorale, to the whistle. Even the mocked, pseudo music of the whistle should be vouched by the power; it decides if you can have a whistle or not, and well, the decision is you cannot. The piano-power does need flute-subjects accompanying in order to assure itself of its insurmountable supremacy. Against the background of other sounds, the solo can exert its dominance. The White Ribbon is the solo of the 127

Views and Reviews

power; the voice of power does not allow other sounds to be heard. It is not a voice, it is just a sound, a whistle, an echo. The sound-subjects are to be mystified; they should appear as puzzles, riddles, questions, or cold cases. The mystification of the subjects is a requisite for the power in order to maintain its prowess, what happens if the subjects’ sounds turn into a real voice, and then into a cry? What would befall on the authorial voice of the power now lost in the vociferance of subjectional voices? So the piano should never stop, the flute should always be in the backdrop. The incidents of resistance by subjects, the wire tied between the trees, the cabbage spoiling, the fire, Baron’s son, Sigi’s cruel torture, pastor’s dead bird, the left open window in steward’s house all are mystified. They remain unresolved riddles, and they should remain so. Riddles of resistance lubricate power mechanism, because they give

the subjects illusions of real resistance; as if resistances. This is the way the mechanism operates: Some malfunctions in the institutions of power damage the airtightness of power; subjects seize the opportunity and try to disrupt their relation to the operating system; having detected the resistance, power mystifies it into cold cases of unresolvability; balance re-gained. The malfunctions of institutions happen in the doctor’s household demarcated with incest and illegitimacy, and the incident in the sawmill resulting in the death of Felder’s wife. The mystification of resistance is a medium of containment. The film is more about the codification of mystery than mystery itself. The teacher-narrator’s text is an attempt of de-codification, but we should not forget that he belongs to one of the institutions serving the power; school. He cannot and is not supposed to see through; the realm of power is not transparent for the public gaze. His narration of the tale of the village generates another institution, another structure for the power; memory. Memory can also be subjectified, it can only remember what it is allowed to remember, it can only color what it is allowed to conceptualize, otherwise it remembers in black and white. Black and white memoir of the teacher is not an instance of resistance, it is more of a reminder, an immortalization of the power. Raymond Williams’ the emergent can be materialized in Martin, Anni, klara, and the steward’s sons who according to the teacher’s 128

Views and Reviews

conjectures and the way the camera shows us are the dissidents. Anni avenging her pervert father, Martin and Klara accomplices, steward’s son’s intentional leaving open of the window all are suspensions, doubts, shown-tobe-truths. But such dissidentoriented hunches are at the end shadowed by the restoration of order, an epithalamion! The teacher completes the cycle of power by endorsing it through another power institution; marriage. The final scene of community, communality, and confirmation, with the villagers staring into the camera, is the substantiation of the gaze of the power. Regardless of the prior incidents, they look into the power, and are looked at. This is an allegory of reading and watching, while being read and watched; an allegory of power as the ultimate reader and interpreter of the subjects. White Ribbon the reminder. It impregnates the whole text with ideology. It is not just a reminder for Martin and Klara; it is the reminiscent of the old tales of sin, fall, redemption, salvation, God’s grace, obedience, moderation,… . Whiteness of the ribbon conceals the true colors of power, its satanic multiplicity, its hellish demonism, its invisible spears (bullets!). The white ribbon is the ideology and the ideology is the white ribbon. Some subjects like Martin and Klara should be reminded of the whiteness of power more than others, perhaps because they have noticed the real colorfulness of power. For them carrying the white ribbon is like being in more direct contact/touch with ideology. Tortures suffered by Sigi and the retard, Karl are the admonitions of power; any dissidence or counter-move would result in such atrocities. The innocent punished: this is the most severe mechanism of power for submerging the kindles of resistance. The piano, just the piano, flutes can never keep up with the pianos.

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Views and Reviews

The Night That Rachel Left Home Maryam Rahimi

A Play

English literature, MA, SBU [email protected]

The play The Night That Rachel Left Home is about a woman whose husband on Christmas Eve has employed someone to kill her; however, before the entrance of the murderer, her husband Tom reveals the secret, therefore Rachel leaves her home and four-year-old son. On the same night of leaving home she gets acquainted with a man called Lloyd, and unintentionally enters his life. During the time she lives with Lloyd and his wife, the direction of Rachel’s life changes. In fact, the play is like a modern day odyssey for a woman whose life has turned upside down, and stays that way. This remarkable dark comedy invites the audience to share laughter and pain in the most absurd yet oddly familiar circumstances. The play is written by Craig Lucas, and directed by Parisa Moghtadi. Craig Lucas is a respected, well known playwright with a long list of credits and theater awards. He has written movie scripts and directed them as well, and even wrote the book for a musical. Yet, his play The Night That Rachel Left Home or Reckless is, in a word, a weird incomprehensible, mixture of comedy, farce, realism, and fantasy. Maybe even satire as well. So in a literal sense, the work is quite reckless and deserves its title. The purposely crazy, coincidence-based plot of the 130

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play and its comic surface are a mask for the philosophical questions at the heart of the play; questions about time and identity, how things change and how they stay the same, the randomness of things and yet their interconnectedness. “Things happen for a reason,” Rachel keeps saying until she is forced to ask, “Or do they?” One of the things that makes the play so satisfying and psychologically truthful is its caricature of conventional psychology. Psychoanalysis’ gift to 20th century theater was the kind of drama that sets out a conflict or character flaw and then goes on to track down the motivation that explains the behavior in question. In The Night That Rachel Left Home, the surreal chain of events sends Rachel to a series of shrinks who keep trying to put their own fixations on her shoulders. The play dramatizes the kind of psychological search that results not in laying blame but in understanding that things fail despite the most careful plans and, despite disaster after disaster, things can turn out okay. Not without pain, not without puzzlement, Rachel becomes someone she never set out to be. As Rachel stumbles along the twisty path of her misadventures, her operating principle seems to be: Just keep moving. The Night That Rachel Left Home does the same thing, at a hurtling pace, though it finds time along the way to satirize American institutions as diverse as psychotherapy and television game shows. The play makes an abrupt tonal shift near the end that seems to derive more from the playwright’s sentimental streak than from the logic, however skewed, of the world he has created in The Night That Rachel Left Home .It feels too tidy a resolution for so anarchic a play.

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A Poem

Autumn Field by Stephen Gibson

A Stylistic Analysis of To Autumn by John Keats Parisa Mostafavi English Literature, MA, ATU [email protected]

To Autumn SEASON of mists and mellow fruitfulness! Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run; 132

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To bend with apples the moss’d cottage-trees, 5 And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees, Until they think warm days will never cease,

10

For Summer has o’er-brimm’d their clammy cells.

Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store? Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor, Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;

15

Or on a half-reap’d furrow sound asleep, Drowsed with the fume of poppies, while thy hook Spares the next swath and all its twinèd flowers; And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep Steady thy laden head across a brook;

20

Or by a cider-press, with patient look, Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours.

Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they? Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,— While barrèd clouds bloom the soft-dying day, 25 And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue; Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn Among the river sallows, borne aloft 133

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Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies; And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;

30

Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft; And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.

General Interpretation The poem gives a descriptive account of the season Autumn.It renders the season as beautiful and unique.A sad, melanchoholy,drowsy,heavy,yet beautiful image of Autumn is created through the use of stylistic features:

Lexis Most words are formal or archaic.There is not much repetition,which gives a wide variety to the vocabulary of the poem.The words are cleverly chosen from 8 separate categories.This gives unity to the poem: 1. Labor and Fertility: Fruitfulness/load/bless/fruit2/bend/fill/ripeness/swell/plump/budding/ more2/o’er-brimm’d/bloom/clammy cells 2. Vegetation: Vines/cottage trees/apples/core/gourd/hazel shells/kernel 3. Pleasant: Mellow/sweet/warm/maturing sun/flowers/soft 4. Creatures: Bees/gnats/lambs/hedge-crickets/red-breast/swallows 5. Harvest: Store/granary/winnowing/half-reaped/furrow/hook/spare/swath/stubbleplains/cider-press/gleaner 6. Drowsy: Laden head/careless/sound asleep/drowsed/fume of poppies/patient look/last oozings/hours by hours 134

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7. Gloomy: Wind/soft-dying/barred clouds/rosy hue/wailful/mourn/sallows/sinking/light wind/lives or dies/ 8.Sounds: Whistle/music/song/twitter/bleat/choir

Grammar The second and third stanzas each start with a question which is addressed to Autumn: Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store? (stanza 1) Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they? (stanza 2) This contributes to the unity of the poem beside creating 2 important notices. As regaring Definiteness and Generics,we should say that although there are examples of generics in the poem: Mists/apples/fruit/flowers/budding/poppies/hours/barred swallows

clouds/gathering

But the majority of nouns are definite: The maturing sun/the vines/the thatch-eves/the moss’d cottage-trees/the core/ the gourd/the hazel shells/the bees/the winnowing wind/the next swath/the last oozings/the songs/the sof-dying day/the stubble-plains/the small gnats/the light wind/the red-breast/the skies The generics used attribute the description to the season Autumn,while the definite nouns give a description of the specific splendid Autumn in the poet’s mind. The Tense used is the present tense: Present simple verbs: Think/cease/seeks/may find//spares/dost keep/watchest/are/hast/bloom/ touch/mourn/lives/dies/bleat/sing/whistles/twitter Or present perfect verbs: Hath not seen/has o’er-brimm’d But there are also many phrases used in the poem: 135

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Present participle phrases: Conspiring/sitting/sinking Past participle phrases: Drowsed/borne And several infinitive phrases.The whole first stanza is created by infinitive phrases;no complete sentence is to be found: To load and bless/to bend and fill/to swell and plump/to set To categorize these,we can say that the dominant grammatical structures are: Infinitive phrase in stanza 1,(fast-paced,exiting imagery) Past participle phrase in stanza 2,(slow-paced,drowsy,harvest imagery) And present simple in stanza 3.(active,musical imagery) These 3 structures contribute to the 3 images developed in the stanzas. There are also some archaic grammatical structures: Think not/watchest Pronouns in this poem are all devices of personification: “him” for “the maturing sun” “they” and “their” for “the bees” “thou” “thee” and “thy” for “Autumn”

Deviations Semantic Deviation

The many personifications and metaphors in this poem,all deviate semantically: Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless

2 3

With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run; Until they think warm days will never cease, 136

10

4

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For Summer has o’er-brimm’d their clammy cells. Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store? Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,

11

12

14

Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind; Or on a half-reap’d furrow sound asleep,

15 16

Drows’d with the fume of poppies, while thy hook And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep Steady thy laden head across a brook;

17

19

20

Or by a cyder-press, with patient look,

21

Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours.

22

Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,—

24

While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,

25

And touch the stubble plains with rosy hue;

26

Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;

27

29

Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft

The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;

31

32

Grammatical Deviation

The main deviation in grammar is the use of Re-orderings and Inversions in order to create a poetic language,and also to put more emphasis on the words which play more important roles in the imagery: To bend with apples the moss’d cottage-trees, And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;

5

6 137

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Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?

12

Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn

27

And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;

30

Lexical Deviation The main lexical deviation is the use of archaic words to create a splendid glorified atmosphere: Hath/thee/thou/thy/oft There is also an example of Functional Inversion,where the adjective “loud”is used as an adverb: lambs loud bleat 30 Graphological Deviation

A very importand deviation of such is the use of hyphen__ in stanza 3,which successfully creates a sense of surprise,and separates the first part of the poem from the second,which is the climax as well as the settlement of the ode: Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,—

24

Sounds Alliteration runs through the whole poem: /m/s/z/

SEASON of mists and mellow fruitfulness,

/m/s/z/

Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;

/r/

With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;

/f/

And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;

6

/s/

With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,

8

/s/z/ð/

For Summer has o’er-brimm’d their clammy cells.

/s/ð/θ/

Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?

12

/s/

Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find

13

/w/

Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;

15

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1 2 4

11

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/s/

Or on a half-reap’d furrow sound asleep,

16

/s/z/

Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers:

/s/z/

Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they?

/θ/ð/s/z/

Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,—

24

/b/d/

While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,

25

/l/

Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;

/l/b/

And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;

/s/

Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft

/r/

The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;

/s/z/

And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.

18 23

29 30

31 32 33

Assonance can be found in: Reaped/asleep

(line 16)

Sinking/wind/lives

(line 29)

Red/breast

(line 32)

And Rhyme in: Swell/hazel/shell

(line 7)

The strong Sound Symbolism in this poem is created through the use of Vowel Length: In stanza 1 short vowels are used to show the early stage of Autumn,which is somehow a joyful,happy,exciting late Summer: /I/mists/with/him/fill/still/think/will/brim/cottage/maturing/conspiring/budding/until /I/

season/fruitfulness/bosom/hazel/kernel/later/flowers/never/summer/ 139

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over/apples/ripeness/has /e/

mellow/friend/bless/bend/swell/shells/they/never/cells

/υ/

fruitfulness/bosom/maturing

/Λ/

sun/run/plump/budding/until/summer

On the other hand,longer vowels are used in the next 2 stanzas,especially stanza 2,which shows Autumn in its 2nd and typical phase,when Nature goes through a long,sad,slow and gloomy drowsiness,as if exhausted by the fast-paced Summer: /i:/

seen/seek/reaped/asleep/gleaner/keep/bleat

/ő/

store/floor/mourn/bourn/small/abroad/borne

/α:/

poppies/swath/aloft/croft/across/songs/are/barred/gardens/swallows/

/ǽ/

half/last/hast/gnats/sallows/lambs/gathering/granary

/З:/

careless/hair/spares

soft

/ϋ/

brook/oozings/hue/bloom

Meter The dominant meter in this poem is iambic pentameter,but the Rhythmic Deviation contributes to the variation of the poem,and keeps it from becoming monotonous.The Rhythmic Deviation is developed by the use of Reversed Feet: Season of (line 1) Close bosom (line 2) Of the maturing (line 2) Conspiring with (line 3) Apples the moss’d cottage (line 5) All fruit (line 6) To the core (line 6) With a sweet kernel (line 8) Set budding (line 8) Still more (line 9) 140

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Think warm days (line 10) Summer has (line 11) Who hath not seen (line 12) Sometimes whoever (line 13) Thee sitting (line 14) Careless on a (line 14) Soft-lifted by (line 15) on a half-reaped furrow (line 16) Drows’d with the (line 17) Next swath (line 18) Steady thy (line 20) by a (line 21) Watchest the (line 22) Where are the (line 23) Think not (line 24) Barred clouds (line 25) in a (line 27) Full- grown lambs loud bleat Hedge-crickets (line 31) Red-breast (line 32) Whistles from a (line 32) Twitter in the (line 33)

( line 30)

And finally,the Poetic Orthography device used is Elision, in order to fit the number of syllables in some lines: Moss’d/o’er-brimm’d/drows’d

Left: Vincent van Gogh: Harvest

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A Novel

Reading Turgenev Nahid Jamshidi Rad English literature, MA, SBU

TREVOR, WILLIAM 1928 Introduction Trevor is acknowledged as one of Ireland’s finest contemporary short story writers. Often compared to James Joyce and Frank O’Connor, he skillfully blends humor and pathos to portray the lives of people living on the fringe of society. While many of his early works are set in England, his most recent fiction incorporates the history and social milieu of his native Ireland. In works such as The Ballroom of Romance, and Other Stories, Trevor explores the importance of personal and national history as he focuses on lonely individuals burdened by the past.

Biographical Information Born in Country Cork to Protestant parents, Trevor moved frequently while growing up and attended thirteen different schools before entering St. Columba’s College in Dublin in 1942. Shortly after graduating from Trinity College, Dublin, he left Ireland to accept a position teaching art in England, where he currently resides. While he was in his mid-thirties, he abandoned a successful career as a sculptor to pursue writing full-time. His first novel, A Standard of Behaviour, was generally dismissed as imitative and pretentious. The Old Boys, proved significantly more successful, winning the Hawthornden Prize for literature in 1964. In the years that followed, Trevor continued to write novels and also produced a number of well-received plays. However, it is as a writer of short 142

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fiction that he has received the most critical and commercial attention. The publication of his first collection of short stories, The Day We Got Drunk on Cake, was soon followed by the highly popular works The Ballroom of Romance and Angels at the Ritz, and Other Stories. One story in particular—”The Ballroom of Romance”—established Trevor’s reputation as a talented short fiction writer, inviting comparisons to works by Evelyn Waugh, Graham Greene, and Muriel Spark. Trevor’s most recent short fiction collections, The News from Ireland, and Other Stories, Family Sins, and Other Stories and Two Lives: Reading Turgenev; My House in Umbria continue to generate popular and critical acclaim.

READING TURGENEV Summary Mary Louise a country girl in her twenties sees the lonely years at her parent’s farm looming a head of her. When an older shop owner from city Elmer Quarry asks her to the movies she sees in him a chance to escape the monotony of the country. He courts her timidly and shortly thereafter asks for her hand. Only after they are married does she find that the deal has cost her freedom and her privacy. On her honeymoon to an Irish seaside resort Mary Louise finds that her husband is as inexperienced as herself, but what’s more he has no intention of learning. He also begins on honeymoon what will become a steady descent into alcoholism. Back home she finds that Elmer’s two sisters resent a newcomer in the household and the shop, and do all that they can to find fault with new bride. One day while she is out ridding Mary Louise decides to drop in on her aunt and invalid cousin Robert, whom she has not seen sine childhood. The two find they have much in common and Mary Louise starts to look forward to weekly visits. But there’s a cost associated with her friendship with her cousin. Soon the town led by the Quarry sisters, is talking about Mary Louise’s strange ways.

Review Reading Turgenev is a novella that fluctuates between present time and the past. It opens with a scene from present when the protagonist Mary Louise is in a mental hospital in a state of absolute detachment from her environment as if she lives in another world. And at the end, the story again is closed with a scene from present; she is dead and is buried beside her beloved Robert her invalid cousin. Each section of the novel narrates a phase of her life shifting between present and 143

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past and this style is kept to the end when she is taken home by her husband; the odd chapters narrate present and the even ones past. It seems that she lives an insane life by her own choice to escape from the bitter reality of her life; lost of her love and living with a cold husband. The story narrates her past step by step from her getting married Elmer Quarry and meanwhile the present scenes go on hand in hand with the past events so that past scenes and present ones meet. In fact, the structure of the novel makes it possible to link past and present in a way that the story is gradually revealed. In the present scenes she is already mad but in the past scenes she is moving toward insanity. When the past and present meet, we know that her insanity is actually self-chosen for escaping any involvement in the real world. She tries to keep distance with reality since it has noting to offer her. She drowns herself in the memories of her lost cousin to resist against the bitter reality of her life which is nothing but a boring loveless life without any hope for changing into something better. She married Elmer out of despair and anger. She knew that her family was not enough rich to afford the whole charges of life hence if one member left the family it would be of great benefit to the rest. The field could not support the whole family. The family needed a scapegoat. She decides to play the role of sacrifice since her life in Colin,her family farm, is not a very happy one. It’s a boring country life without any promise for a bright future. Besides, her sister is jealous about her; Mary Louise has been chosen by Elmer and not her. Letty’s harsh opposition to her marriage with Elmer makes her more decisive about her decision to Mary him. And latter when she becomes desperate she confesses bitterly to her stupidity for making such a decision and blames her relatives and friends for not opening her eyes to the dark side of her hasty decision. However she never has the courage or perhaps the motivation to face the consequences of her own decision and just tries to escape from them; first through taking refuge in friendship- what latter turns to love- with her invalid cousin and after death of him by imprisoning herself in the world of insanity. What we see in this novel is the fragmentary representation of life and mentality of Mary Louise. Just as the structure of novel is divided between past and present, Mary also all the time travels from present to past; with the passage of time she spends more time in past and is very reluctant to be back to present. She limits her connection with present to short affirmative sentences which are uttered coldly. It seems that she never can stay in present life; the present is so unpromising and disappointing that she does not like to stick to it more than short necessary moments that make it possible for her to be still in touch with her current environment. Even before getting married Elmer and being frustrated by the coldness and loveless marital life she used too fluctuate between past and present. In fact, she to resist her unhappy present life does nothing but to escape to her past, her childhood, school time and her romantic love for her cousin. Past is refuge for Mary Louise but Elmer Quarry who also has the same problem turns to alcohol. Elmer is also trapped in a failed marriage that he thought could be the fulfillment of all of his dreams and desires being repressed throughout his life. He was 144

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never in love with Mary Louise but he hoped he loved her after marriage. Actually it was not very important to him to Mary whom; once he wanted to Mary Letty, Mary Louise’s older sister, and once he thought of Brigitte the bar maid, but what counted to him was to find someone who could be the embodiment of all of his repressed sexual desires. However being inexperienced he just as Mary Louise was, fails to fulfill his expectations and out of absolute despair he soothes his pains of frustration by alcohol. He experiences the same pains of loveless, hopeless, monotonous life as Mary Louise does. He also has concerns for future since their family business is not so promising and he hopes through marriage guarantee an heir for the family business. All of their desires fail due to their loveless relation. Both of them instead of looking for their true match simply choose the most at hand person hoping love comes after. The novel goes to the mind of its protagonists presenting the stream of their consciousness it portraits their bitter life which is the result of the bad circumstance as well as their own lack of understanding of their position. The inexperience of the characters is the main cause of their despair and frustration. Both Elmer and Mary Louise are less victim of the circumstance they are forced to cope with than their own failure to understand people and the world they live in.

Source: Second Annual Trinity Symposium on Contemporary Irish Fiction, 2008

Reading Turgenev is the story of individuals who are trapped by their own weak personalities. They are inexperienced and disable to overcome this fault. The only thing they can do against this negative trait of their character is that one takes refuge in her past and a lost love, and the other drowns himself in alcohol to forget the bitterness of the reality of his life momentarily. These helpless people are so disabled that even cannot talk about their problem with other people, their silence makes their situation more and more critical till one becomes insane or at least seems to be so, and the other a drunkard. Both of them are aware of their wrong decision to Mary without love, but neither Mary 145

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Louise nor Elmer try to reform their life, instead, they pretend not to have any problem and when pretence fails to work any longer each of them goes to his/her own way; Mary Louise creates a counter-life which is a substitute for her loveless boring life in the real world and Elmer in his turn spends his life in a constant ecstatic state under the intoxication of alcohol. Thus, they escape reality and find comfort in a virtual world that is ruled not by the cold and inconsiderate rules of reality but they are the absolute rulers of the world they chose to live in. the counter world the characters voluntarily emigrate to it offers them the happiness and equilibrium that the real world fails to provide them with. The novel mostly covers the counter world of Mary Louise and Elmer’s stands in distance; it is only touched here and there with not as interest as the narrator has for Mary Louise’s. The virtual world that Mary Louise has found her ultimate happiness in it has got two dimensions; one belongs to her past and the other is the shadow of lives of some foreign peoples who come from another counter life, the world of fiction. The past has always been significant to her since she always could soothe her pains through recalling past and reliving it. However the world of novels of Turgenev is quite new to her. It is a romantic gift by her lover Robert that offers her a sedative to forget about pain of life in real world. She combines these two and after death of Robert lives by them till she dies. As she imagines past and her cousin to be with her she does recreate the fictional characters as well. It seems that she finds a lot in common with the characters of the Russian writer; she is also so interested in the fictional world since it offers her a new world with strange people from a far land that is a sort of counter world to her. To recreate them actually is being faithful to Cousin Robert who once introduced them to her; she lives with them just as she lives with Robert. She never can, or possibly wants to, completely break with reality; she limits her contact to reality to the most necessary situations and avoids active interaction with people in the real world. She is never insane as people think, only she voluntarily decides to live in her counter life than the real one since she cannot enjoy and stand it any longer. She is happy in her world and her only wish is that to be buried beside her love so that she can join him after death. She is fully aware that her world is not real and that is only a detachment a escape from reality, hence she waits patiently for death to take her to her beloved. In fact the real happy scene in the novel is Mary Louise’s death that promises fulfillment of her wish ultimately. Just as the novel begins with Mary Louise sitting lonely in the mental hospital, the novel closes with her lonely death. Her loneliness however is finally ends with her death and she joins Robert.

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PRACTICE READING Mohammad Reza Anani Sarab (PhD) / 130 pages / Shahid Beheshti University Publishing House / ISBN: 9789644571893 & 9789644571909 / Paperback / Sep. 2010 / Price: 3000 T.

Practice Reading includes a series of two books designed to lead university students to move through the pre-intermediate and intermediate levels of general English preparing them for ESP courses. With this purpose in mind, they can be used in unit-credit general English courses offered at university level. The first book would bridge the gap between the intermediate level and the upper elementary level which is assumed to be the level of most of the high school graduates who enter university under-graduate programs. Each unit in Practice Reading 1 includes three sections. Before You Read includes two activities: (A) a series of multiplechoice questions intended to activate the students’ background knowledge about the theme of the text; (B) a number of true/false statements to be guessed at by the students without referring to the text. The Reading Text is supplemented with a list of new words and expressions. After You Read consists of three types of activities: • Text comprehension and skill-building activities including (a) activities for the students to check their comprehension of the text; (b) activities to check their understanding of vocabulary items which are considered to be key for text understanding; (c) activities intended to help students engage in dealing with content issues through relating language to content; and (d) activities to help students develop reading micro-skills like guessing the meaning of vocabulary items and distinguishing between the main idea and supporting details. • Vocabulary building activities intended to help students acquire vocabulary learning strategies by finding patterns in vocabulary structure and the relationship among the members of a vocabulary set. • Language analysis activities focusing on grammatical structures through awarenessraising meaningful exercises. Each unit in Practice Reading 2 includes three sections. Before You Read includes two activities: (A) a series of wh-questions intended to activate the students’ background knowledge about the theme of the text; (B) a number of true/false statements to be decided upon through skimming the text. After You Read consists of three types of activities: • Focus on Comprehension and Reading Skills: including (a) activities for the students to check their comprehension of the text; and (b) activities to check their understanding of vocabulary items which are considered to be key for text understanding • Focus on Vocabulary: including vocabulary-building activities intended to help students acquire vocabulary learning strategies by finding patterns in vocabulary structure and the relationship among the members of a vocabulary set • Focus on Grammar: including language analysis activities focusing on grammatical structures through awareness-raising meaningful exercises

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GRAMMAR AS SCIENCE Richard K. Larson / 432 pages / The MIT Press; New edition / ISBN-10: 026251303X/ ISBN-13: 978-0262513036 / Paperback / January 2010/ Price: $45.00

This introductory text takes a novel approach to the study of syntax. Grammar as Science offers an introduction to syntax as an exercise in scientific theory construction. Syntax provides an excellent instrument for introducing students from a wide variety of backgrounds to the principles of scientific theorizing and scientific thought; it engages general intellectual themes present in all scientific theorizing as well as those arising specifically within the modern cognitive sciences. The book is intended for students majoring in linguistics as well as nonlinguistics majors who are taking the course to fulfill undergraduate requirements. Grammar as Science covers such core topics in syntax as phrase structure, constituency, the lexicon, inaudible elements, movement rules, and transformational constraints, while emphasizing scientific reasoning skills. The individual units are organized thematically into sections that highlight important components of this enterprise, including choosing between theories, constructing explicit arguments for hypotheses, and the conflicting demands that push us toward expanding our technical toolkit on the one hand and constraining it on the other. Grammar as Science is constructed as a “laboratory science” course in which students actively experiment with linguistic data. Syntactica, a software application tool that allows students to create and explore simple grammars in a graphical, interactive way, is available online in conjunction with the book. Students are encouraged to “try the rules out,” and build grammars rule-by-rule, checking the consequences at each stage.

THEATRE, COMMUNICATION, CRITICAL REALISM

WHAT IS THEATRE?

Tobin Nellhaus / 256 pages / ISBN-10: 0230623638 / Hardcover/ June 2010 /

Palgrave Macmillan / ISBN-13: 978-0230623637 / Price: $64.13

The first book that takes proach to theater studies, Realism provides a comrealism within an embodwanting elsewhere . . . One things, sophisticated case at the same time suggest tices of theater historiograof recent discoveries made those on ‘image schemas’

an explicitly critical realist apTheater, Communication, Critical pelling articulation of critical ied dynamic that is often found encounters here, among other analyses of theater history that paradigmatic shifts in the pracphy; a provocative deployment in cognitive sciences such as in the light of critical realism

that historicizes the question of experience, possibilities of knowledge, and conditions of agency; and a highly original theory of metatheatricality that is about the socio-culturally specific structural origins of historical changes in theater as in society, i.e., about the ontological condition of social change and the theatrical nature of such changes . . . Charged 149

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with an invigorating critical rigor, this book makes an important contribution to the fields of theater studies, critical theory, and cultural historiography in the midst of paradigmatic shifts. This book is also a timely contribution to the humanistic studies’ quest for relevancy in the midst of another round of revolutionary changes of communication structures with unforeseeable consequences.

AN INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: THEORY AND METHOD James Paul Gee / 224 pages / Routledge; 3rd edition / ISBN-10: 0415585708 / ISBN-13: 978-0415585705 / Paperback / August 2010 / Price: $36.00

Discourse analysis considers how language, both spoken and written, enacts social and cultural perspectives and identities. Assuming no prior knowledge of linguistics, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis examines the field and presents James Paul Gee’s unique integrated approach which incorporates both a theory of language-in-use and a method of research. The third edition of this bestselling text has been extensively revised and updated to include new material such as examples of oral and written language, ranging from group discussions with children, adults, students and teachers to conversations, interviews, academic texts and policy documents.While it can be used as a stand-alone text, this edition has also been fully cross-referenced with the practical companion title How to do Discourse Analysis: a Toolkit and together they provide the complete resource for students with an interest in this area. Clearly structured and written in a highly accessible style, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis includes perspectives from a variety of approaches and disciplines, including applied linguistics, education, psychology, anthropology and communication to help students and scholars from a range of backgrounds to formulate their own views on discourse and engage in their own discourse analysis.

IMAGE / TEXT SEMIOTICS: A HYPERTEXTUAL READING OF SHAKESPEARE’S AND TITIAN’S «VENUS AND ADONIS»

Farzaneh Doosti / 172 pages / LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing / ISBN-10: 384335345X / ISBN-13: 978-3843353458 / Paperback / September 2010 / Price: $93.00 150

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The Renaissance was a proper context for growing interconnections between art and literature where poetry and painting achieved unity of form and content as two autonomous media with self-regulating means of expression and yet intermingling with the techniques of each other: Renaissance poetry is known by its pictorial features manifested in scenic descriptions, visual figures of speech and techniques like ekphrasis. Renaissance painting, on the other hand, is extremely narrative and early paintings are usually enriched with ?continuous narrativity’. This affinity is in fact rooted in the period’s palimpsestuous interest in Ovidian myths and their rehabilitation in all artistic and literary forms. To better understand the notion of Palimpsests or ?literature in the second degree’ in this context, the current volume undertakes a comparative study of Shakespeare’s and Titian’s Venus and Adonis ? as two different ways of reading the original story found in Ovid’s Metamorphoses in the light of Gérard Genette’s theory of hypertextuality.

INTRODUCING TRANSLATION STUDIES: THEORIES AND APPLICATIONS Jeremy Munday / 256 pages / Routledge; 2nd edition / ISBN-10: 041539693X / ISBN-13: 9780415396936 / Paperback / Price: $18.57

This introductory textbook provides an accessible overview of the key contributions to translation theory. Jeremy Munday explores each theory chapter-by-chapter and tests the different approaches by applying them to texts. The texts discussed are taken from a broad range of languages – English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and English translations are provided. A wide variety of text types are analyzed, including a tourist brochure, a children’s cookery book, a Harry Potter novel, the Bible, literary reviews and translators’ prefaces, film translation, a technical text and a European Parliament speech. Each chapter includes the following features: • • • • •

a table introducing key concepts an introduction outlining the translation theory or theories illustrative texts with translations a chapter summary discussion points and exercises.

Including a general introduction, an extensive bibliography, and websites for further information, this is a practical, user-friendly textbook that gives a balanced and comprehensive insight into translation studies.

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AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF SELECTED TALES OF THE SHAHNAMEH Rogelio Reyes* & Seyyed Abolghassem Fatemi Jahromi** /

Ferdowsi was the greatest Persian epic poet, to whom is attributed the remarkable Shahnameh, the tales of Iranian Kings. Born in 935 in a village known today as Tous, he was the son of a wealthy land owner. Being from such a social level, his education enabled a profound knowledge of Iran’s ancient history and he had a great interest in the national glories of Iran. Ferdowsi started the composition of his grand epic, to which he devoted over 30 years of his life, in the Samanid era. In the Shahnameh, he claimed that during those thirty years, although he had suffered much, he was, in the end, able to revive and spread the seeds of the Persian language. This masterpiece centers on the history of Iran, having its roots in Avesta, the sacred scriptures of Zoroastrianism, especially, in the Younger Avesta, the Yasnas and the Yashts. It continues to account for the historical and religious events in the Ashkanian and the Samanid era and it finally concerns the Islamic era. Because of the strides he made in reviving and regenerating the Persian language and cultural traditions, Ferdowsi has a unique place in Persian history. The Persian people consider Shahnameh the “golden sheets of treasure”.

* Professor of Linguistics, San Diego State University- Imperial Valley Campus ** Associate Professor of English, Shahid Beheshti University

152

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‫ﭼﻜﻴﺪﻩ ﻣﻘـﺎﻻت ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎت ادﺑﻲ‬ ‫ﺩﻭﺭﮔﻪﮔﻲ ﻭ ﻣﻠﻴﺖ‪ :‬ﺧﻮﺍﻧﺶ ﭘﺴﺎﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﺯ ﺭﻣﺎﻥ ﺁﺭﺯﻭﻫﺎﻱ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺛﺮ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺰ ﺩﻳﻜﻨﺰ‬ ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻏﻔﺎﺭﻱ‬ ‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺭﻭﻳﻜﺮﺩﻱ ﭘﺴﺎﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻧﺶ ﺭﻣﺎﻥ ﺁﺭﺯﻭﻫﺎﻱ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﻣﻲﭘﺮﺩﺍﺯﺩ‪ .‬ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍﻱ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﻳﻜﺮﺩ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﺩﻱ ﭘﺴﺎﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭﻱ ﻫﻤﺮﻧﮕﻲ‪ ،‬ﺩﻭﺭگﮔﻲ‪ ،‬ﺑﻲﺧﺎﻧﻤﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ‪ ...‬ﭘﺮﺩﺍﺧﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺳﭙﺲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺭﻣﺎﻥ ﺍﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻋﻘﻴﺪﻩ‬ ‫ﻏﻔﺎﺭﻱ »ﺩﻭ ﺭﮔﻪﮔﻲ« ﺻﺮﻓﺎ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻣﻲ ﻓﺮﻫﻨﮕﻲ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﻣﻲﻧﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻣﺴﺎﻟﻪﺍﻱ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺗﻠﻘﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﻫﻤﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺩﻳﺪﮔﺎﻩ ﭘﻴﭗ ﻗﻬﺮﻣﺎﻥ ﺭﻣﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺁﺭﺯﻭﻫﺎﻱ ﺑﺰﺭگ‪ .‬ﺍﻭ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺩﻭ ﻓﺮﻫﻨﮓ ﻣﺘﻀﺎﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﻋﺼﺮ ﻭﻳﻜﺘﻮﺭﻳﺎﻳﻲ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﺎﺭ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺗﻨﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺒﻘﻪ ﻛﺎﺭﮔﺮ‪/‬ﻓﺮﻭﺩﺳﺖ ﻭ ﻃﺒﻘﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‪/‬ﺳﺮﻣﺎﻳﻪﺩﺍﺭ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺖ ﺍﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺳﺘﺎﻧﻪ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ »ﺁﺳﺘﺎﻧﮕﻲ« ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻠﻖ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻱ ﻓﺮﻫﻨﮕﻲ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﻱ ﺍﺯﻣﻠﻴﺖ‬ ‫ﻣﻨﺠﺮ ﻣﻲﺷﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻣﻠﻴﺖ ﻛﺎﺭﻝ ﺩﻭﻳﭻ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺑﺤﺚ ﭘﻴﺮﺍﻣﻮﻥ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﺴﺘﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺮﻥ ﻧﻮﺯﺩﻫﻢ ﻣﻠﺘﻲ ﻳﻜﺪﺳﺖ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺪﻭﺍژﻩﻫﺎ‪ :‬ﻧﻘﺪ ﭘﺴﺎﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭﻱ‪ ،‬ﺁﺭﺯﻭﻫﺎﻱ ﺑﺰﺭگ‪ ،‬ﻫﻤﺮﻧﮕﻲ‪ ،‬ﺩﻭﺭﮔﻪﮔﻲ‪ ،‬ﻫﻤﺮﻧﮕﻲ‪ ،‬ﺁﺳﺘﺎﻧﮕﻲ‪ ،‬ﻣﻠﻴﺖ‪ ،‬ﺧﻮﺩﺁﮔﺎﻫﻲ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ‬

‫ﺧﻮﺍﻧﺶ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺩﺍﺳﺘﺎﻥ ”ﻣﻰﺷﻮﺩ ﺳﺎﻛﺖ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﻟﻄﻔ ًﺎ؟“‬ ‫ﺍﺛﺮ ﺭﻳﻤﻮﻧﺪ ﻛﺎﺭﻭﺭ‬ ‫ﺭﺑﺎﺑﻪ ﺟﻼﻳﺮ‬ ‫ﺭﻳﻤﻮﻧﺪ ﻛﺎﺭﻭﺭ ﺩﺭ ‪ 25‬ﻣﻪ‪ 1938 ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺷﻬﺮ ﻛﻼﺗ ْْﺴﻜﺎﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﺎﻟﺖ ﺍﻭﺭﮔﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻧﻴﺎ ﺁﻣﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻛﻴﻤﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﺎﻟﺖ ﻭﺍﺷﻨﻴﮕﺘﻦ ﺑﺰﺭگ‬ ‫ﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﭘﺪﺭﺵ ﻛﺎﺭﮔﺮ ﻛﺎﺭﺧﺎﻧﻪ ﻯ ﭼﻮﺏﺑﺮﻯ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻰ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻟﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺩﺍﺳﺘﺎﻥﻫﺎﻱ ﻛﺎﺭﻭﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻣﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻭ ﮔﺎﻫﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ‬ ‫ﭘﻴﺸﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﻭ ﻓﺮﻭﺷﻨﺪﻩ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻰﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻛﺎﺭﻭﺭ ﻫﻤﺮﺍﻩ ﭘﺪﺭﺵ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺎﻟﻴﻔﺮﻧﻴﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺎﺭﺧﺎﻧﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻲﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻭ ﺩﺭ ژﻭﺋﻦ ‪ 1975‬ﻫﻨﮕﺎﻣﻲ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻮﺯﺩﻩ‬ ‫ﺳﺎﻝ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻧﺪﺍﺷﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺎﺭﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﻮﺭﻙ ‪ 16‬ﺳﺎﻟﻪ ﺍﺯﺩﻭﺍﺝ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻛﺎﺭﻭﺭ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﻓﻪﻫﺎﻳﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﺩﺭﺑﺎﻧﻲ‪ ،‬ﻛﺎﺭﮔﺮﻱ ﻛﺎﺭﺧﺎﻧﻪ ﭼﻮﺏﺑﺮﻱ‬ ‫ﻭ ﺩﺳﺘﻴﺎﺭﻱ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺨﺎﻧﻪ ﺧﺎﻧﻮﺍﺩﻩﺍﺵ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺎﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﻲﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻫﻤﺴﺮﺵ ﻣﺎﺭﻳﺎﻥ )ﻫﻢﻧﺎﻡ ﻗﻬﺮﻣﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺳﺘﺎﻥ ﺳﺎﻛﺖ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﺪ ﻟﻄﻔﺎ( ﺩﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺯﻧﺪﮔﻲ‬ ‫ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻛﺶ ﺑﺎ ﻛﺎﺭﻭﺭ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭﻫﺎﻳﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﭘﻴﺶﺧﺪﻣﺘﻲ‪ ،‬ﻓﺮﻭﺷﻨﺪﮔﻲ ﻭ ﻣﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﺩﺍﺭﻱ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻠﻤﻲ ﺍﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺩﺍﺳﺘﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺳﺎﻛﺖ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﻟﻄﻔ ًﺎ؟ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﺮﺭﺳﻲ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻲﺩﻫﺪ ﺗﺎ ﻭﻳﮋﮔﻲﻫﺎﻱ ﺑﺎﺭﺯ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﺎﺑﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺪﻭﺍژﻩﻫﺎ‪ :‬ﻛﺎﺭﻭﺭ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﺳﺘﺎﻥ ﻛﻮﺗﺎﻩ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪﻫﺎﻱ ﺯﻧﺎﺷﻮﻳﻲ‪ ،‬ﻋﺸﻖ‪ ،‬ﻫﻮﻳﺖ‪ ،‬ﭼﺸﻢﭼﺮﺍﻧﻲ‪ ،‬ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺖﻫﺎﻱ ﺟﻨﺴﻲ‬

‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻳﺎ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺷﻌﺮ‪ ،‬ﻣﺴﺎﻟﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫ﺷﺘﺎﻭ ﻧﺎﺻﺮﻱ‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺎﻟﻪ ﻣﺎﻫﻴﺖ ﺷﻌﺮ ﭘﺮﺳﺸﻲ ﻣﺘﺪﺍﻭﻝ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻫﺪﻑ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺗﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﺮﺳﺶ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻦ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻮﺍﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﺭﻳﻔﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺷﻌﺮ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻣﻲﻛﻨﺪ ﺳﭙﺲ ﻣﻲﻛﻮﺷﺪ ﺑﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﺩﻳﺪﮔﺎﻩﻫﺎﻱ ﺭﻭﻧﺎﻟﺪ ﺑﺎﺭﺕ‪ ،‬ﻣﻨﺘﻘﺪ‬ ‫ﭘﺴﺎﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭﮔﺮﺍ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮ ﻣﺎﻫﻴﺖ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺷﻌﺮ ﻣﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺪﻭﺍژﻩﻫﺎ‪ :‬ﺷﻌﺮ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﺭﺕ‪ ،‬ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻨﺪﻩ‬

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‫‪Abstracts‬‬

‫ﭼﻜﻴﺪﻩ ﻣﻘـﺎﻻت ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎت ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‬ ‫ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻥ‪ :‬ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺜﺎﺑﻪ ﻣﺘﻦ ﻳﺎ ﺳﻠﻴﻘﻪ؟‬ ‫ﻣﻬﺪﻱ ﻣﻴﺮﺯﺍﻳﻲ‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺣﺎﺿﺮ ﺑﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻧﻴﺴﻢ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﭘﻨﻬﺎﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ )ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ( ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﻭ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻏﺎﻟﺐ ﻣﻜﺎﺗﺐ‬ ‫ﻓﻜﺮﻯ ﻭ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﻰ ﻣﻰ ﭘﺮﺩﺍﺯﺩ‪ .‬ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻧﻴﺴﻢ ﺍﺻﻮﻝ ﻣﺪﺭﻧﻴﺴﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻀﻌﻴﻒ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺭﻫﻴﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺎﻣ ًﻼ ﻣﺘﻀﺎﺩ ﻭ ﺷﻤﺎﻳﻞ ﺷﻜﻨﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﭘﺮﺩﺍﺧﺘﻦ‬ ‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﻫﻨﺮ‪ ،‬ﺯﻳﺒﺎﻳﻰ ﻭ ﺧﻼﻗﻴﺖ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﻴﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﺎﻫﻴﺖ ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺾ ﺁﻣﻴﺰ ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻧﻴﺴﻢ ﺩﺭ ﻭﺍﻛﻨﺶ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻗﻄﻌﻴﺖ ﺍﺻﻮﻝ‬ ‫ﻣﺪﺭﻧﻴﺴﻢ‪ ،‬ﻫﻨﺮ ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻛﻠﻰ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﻫﻨﺮ ﻛﻼﻣﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻧﺒﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺯﻧﺪﮔﻰ ﺭﻭﺯﻣﺮﻩ ﻣﺮﺩﻡ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻨﺮ ﺯﻧﺪﮔﻰ ﻛﻨﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺭﺟﻮﻉ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺻﻮﻝ ﺍﻧﺘﺰﺍﻋﻰ ﻭ ﻓﺮﺍﻭﺍﻥ ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻧﻴﺴﻢ ﻭ ﺑﻬﺮﻩ ﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺴﺘﺠﻮﻯ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻦ ﭘﺎﺳﺨﻰ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻥ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻓﺮﺍﻳﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺶ ﺑﺒﺮﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﻣﺨﺎﻃﺒﺎﻧﺶ ﺑﺘﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺍﺵ ﺑﻪ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﺛﺮﻯ ﻫﻨﺮﻯ ﺯﻧﺪﮔﻰ ﻛﻨﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﭘﻰ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺴﺘﺠﻮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺍﻯ ﺷﺘﺎﺑﺰﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻣﺪ ﻣﺒﻨﻰ ﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻨﺠﺎ ﮔﻮﻧﻪ ﺍﻯ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ‬ ‫ﺍﺳﻜﻮﭘﻮﺱ ﺩﺧﻴﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻫﻨﺮ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﻭﺳﻴﻠﻪ ﺍﻯ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﻬﺪﻭﻑ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺭﺿﺎﻯ ﺳﻠﻴﻘﻪ ﻭ ﺫﻭﻕ ﻣﺨﺎﻃﺐ‬ ‫ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻨﺮﻯ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺑﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺯﻧﺪﮔﻰ ﺭﻭﺯﻣﺮﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺳﺖ ﻳﺎﺑﺪ ﺍﮔﺮ ﭼﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺭﺿﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺯﻳﺒﺎﻳﻰ ﻣﺘﻦ )ﻣﺒﺪﺃ( ﺗﻤﺎﻡ‬ ‫ﺷﻮﺩ!‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺪﻭﺍژﻩﻫﺎ‪ :‬ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻧﻴﺴﻢ‪ ،‬ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻥ‪ ،‬ﻣﺘﻦ‪ ،‬ﺳﻠﻴﻘﻪ )ﺫﻭﻕ(‪ ،‬ﻫﻨﺮ‪ ،‬ﺯﻳﺒﺎﻳﻰ‬

‫ﻧﻘﺶ ﺑﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‬ ‫ﻓﺮﻧﺎﺯ ﺻﻔﺪﺭﻱ‬ ‫ﻫﺮ ﻣﺘﻦ ﻧﻮﻋﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺷﺮﻛﺖﻛﻨﻨﺪﮔﺎﻧﻲ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻄﻲ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺭﺥ ﻣﻲﺩﻫﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﺯﺑﺎﻥﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻤﺎﺗﻴﻚ‪-‬ﻓﺎﻧﻜﺸﻨﺎﻝ ﺑﺎﻓﺖ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻗﻴﻌﺖ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﻣﺘﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻣﻲﻛﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻫﻤﻪ ﭼﻴﺰ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻳﻚ‬ ‫ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻣﻲﺍﻓﺘﺪ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻫﺮ ﮔﻔﺘﻪﺍﻱ ﻃﺒﻖ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻄﻲ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺩﺭﻙ ﻣﻲﺷﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﺳﻮﻱ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻫﻴﺖ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‬ ‫ﻓﺮﺁﻳﻨﺪ ﺑﺎﺯﺳﺎﺯﻱ ﺑﺎﻓﺘﻲ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺘﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺯﺑﺎﻧﻲ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﺑﺎﻓﺖ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻫﻨﮕﺎﻡ ﻓﺮﺁﻳﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ‬ ‫ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺷﺮﻛﺖﻛﻨﻨﺪﮔﺎﻥ‪ ،‬ﺭﺳﺎﻧﻪ ﻭ ﺳﺎﻳﺮ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮﻥ ﻣﺘﻔﺎﻭﺗﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺷﻨﻮﻧﺪﮔﺎﻥ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻃﺒﻘﻪ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺳﻼﻳﻖ‪ ،‬ﺳﻦ‪ ،‬ﺗﺤﺼﻴﻼﺕ ﻭ ‪ ...‬ﺑﺎ ﻳﻜﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺍﻧﺘﻈﺎﺭ ﻣﻲﺭﻭﺩ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺑﺮ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺑﺎﻓﺖ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺑﺮﺁﻭﺭﺩﻥ‬ ‫ﺗﻮﻗﻌﺎﺕ ﺧﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺧﺎﺻﻲ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺻﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺛﺒﺖ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺳﺘﺨﻮﺵ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺪﻭﺍژﻩ ﻫﺎ‪ :‬ﺑﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻓﺖ ﻓﺮﻫﻨﮓ‪ ،‬ﺛﺒﺖ‪ ،‬ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻨﺎﻥ‪ ،‬ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‪ ،‬ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻤﺎﺗﻴﻚ ﻓﺎﻧﻜﺸﻨﺎﻝ‪ ،‬ﻫﺎﻟﻴﺪﻱ‬

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‫‪Abstracts‬‬

‫ﭼﻜﻴﺪﻩ ﻣﻘـﺎﻻت آﻣﻮزش زﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ‬ ‫ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺑﺮ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻛﻨﺶ ﮔﻔﺘﺎﺭﻱ ﺷﻜﺎﻳﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺍﻧﺶﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﭘﺰﺷﻜﻲ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻲ ﺣﻴﺪﺭﻱ‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺪﻛﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﺮﺭﺳﻲ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺑﺮ ﻛﻨﺶﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﻔﺘﺎﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺘﺎﺏﻫﺎﻱ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺷﺲ ﻣﻮﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﮔﻨﺠﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻨﺶﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﻔﺘﺎﺭﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺘﺎﺏﻫﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪﺍﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺑﺒﻴﻨﻨﺪ ﺁﻳﺎ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﺿﺢ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻛﺘﺎﺏﻫﺎﻱ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻳﺎ ﻓﻴﻠﻢﻫﺎﻱ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺷﻲ ﻣﻲﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺩﺍﻧﺶﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺁﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﻨﻨﺪ‬ ‫ﻳﺎ ﺧﻴﺮ‪ .‬ﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﺯ ﻛﻨﺶﻫﺎﻳﻲ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺏﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺷﻜﺎﻳﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﭘﮋﻭﻫﺸﮕﺮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺩﺳﺘﻪ ﺍﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻜﻲ‬ ‫ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﻛﻨﺶ ﮔﻔﺘﺎﺭﻱ ﺷﻜﺎﻳﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ‪ New Interchange 2‬ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻟﻲ ﺩﻭﻣﻲ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺷﻲ ﺻﺮﻳﺢ ﻧﺪﻳﺪﻩ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﻲﻛﻨﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻲ ﻛﻴﻔﻲ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺭﺍﻫﻜﺎﺭﻫﺎﻳﻲ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﻧﺶﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻧﻲ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻧﺮﻡﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﻮﻳﻨﺪﮔﺎﻥ ﺑﻮﻣﻲ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ‬ ‫ﻣﻲﻛﻨﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻬﺮﻩ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﻬﺖ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﮔﺮﻭﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺯﻣﻮﻥﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ‪ Mann Whitney U‬ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﻫﺮ ﺩﻭ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺢ ﻫﻴﭻ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺗﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺷﻜﺎﺭ ﻧﻜﺮﺩ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺪﻭﺍژﻩ ﻫﺎ‪ :‬ﻛﻨﺶﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﻔﺘﺎﺭﻱ‪ ،‬ﺷﻜﺎﻳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ‬

‫ﺑﺮﺭﺳﻲ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻼﺱ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ ‪:‬‬ ‫ﺷﻴﺮﻳﻦ ﺻﺪﻗﻴﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻫﺪﻑ ﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﮋﻭﻫﺶ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﺑﺮﺭﺳﻲ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﺿﻤﻨﻲ ﻭﺍژﮔﺎﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﭘﻮﺳﺘﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻼﺱ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﮋﻭﻫﺶ ﺩﻭ‬ ‫ﻻﻳﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻰ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺳﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺍﺯ ﭘﻮﺳﺘﺮﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭﻩ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻫﻤﮕﻦ ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﮕﻴﺰﻩ‬ ‫ﻭ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﺟﺮﺍ ﻣﻲﻛﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺁﺯﻣﻮﻥﻫﺎﻳﻲ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ‪ SPSS16‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻭﻳﻨﺪﻭﺯ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻲﺷﻮﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ‬ ‫ﻣﻲﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺳﭙﺲ ﻻﻳﻪ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺗﻬﻴﻴﺞ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺁﮔﺎﻫﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺎﻳﻲ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺗﺎﺯﻩ ﺁﻣﻮﺧﺘﻪﺷﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ‬ ‫ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘﻰ ﺩﺍﻧﺶﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﭘﻴﺸﻨﻬﺎﺩ ﻣﻲﻛﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻪﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﮋﻭﻫﺶ ﺗﺼﺮﻳﺢ ﻣﻰﻛﻨﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺩﻭ ﮔﺮﻭﻩ ﺩﺍﻧﺶﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ‬ ‫ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻰ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻬﺮﻩﻣﻨﺪ ﺷﺪﻩﺍﻧﺪ ﻭ ﻣﻬﻢﺗﺮ ﺁﻥ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻰ‪ ،‬ﻭ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺗﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﻰﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﻭ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﻣﻰﻛﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺪﻝ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ‬ ‫ﺩﺭ ﺳﻄﺢ ‪ 2‬ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﺷﻮﺩ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻰ ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖﻫﺎﻱ ﺁﮔﺎﻫﻲ ﻓﺰﺍﻳﻨﺪﻩ ﭘﻴﮕﻴﺮﻱ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺪﻭﺍژﻩﻫﺎ ‪ :‬ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﺿﻤﻨﻲ ﻭﺍژﮔﺎﻥ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺶﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﮕﻴﺰﻩ‬

‫ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﻭﺍژﮔﺎﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺭﺍﻫﻜﺎﺭ ﻭﺍژﻩﺳﺎﺯﻱ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﺳﺪﻩ ﻧﺼﻴﺮﻱ‬ ‫ﻫﺪﻑ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻟﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻳﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﮋﻯ ﻭﺍژﻩﺳﺎﺯﻱ ﻓﺮﺁﻳﻨﺪ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ‬ ‫ﺳﻄﺢ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺑﻬﺒﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺨﺸﺪ ﻳﺎ ﺧﻴﺮ‪ .‬ﺑﺮ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﺍﻟﻴﺲ )‪ ( 1994‬ﺯﺑﺎﻥﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﻣﻮﻓﻖ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ﻓﺮﺍﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﺭﺍﻫﺒﺮﺩﻫﺎﻯ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺁﻣﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺑﻬﺮﻩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﮋﻯﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻫﻢﺧﺎﻧﻮﺍﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺭﻳﺸﻪﻫﺎ‪،‬‬ ‫ﭘﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪﻫﺎ ﻭ ﭘﺴﻮﻧﺪﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻲﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﻭﻫﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﺠﻮﻳﺎﻥ ﻫﻤﮕﻦ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﺷﺪﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻓﻰ‬ ‫ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﮔﺮﻭﻩ ﻛﻨﺘﺮﻝ ﻭ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺷﺪﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺳﭙﺲ ﻫﺮ ﺩﻭ ﮔﺮﻭﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪﺍﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵﻫﺎ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩﺍﺭ ﺷﺪﻧﺪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺍﻧﺶ‬ ‫ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﮔﺮﻭﻩ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺸﻲ ﺧﻮﺍﺳﺘﻪ ﺷﺪ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻱ ﻣﻌﻨﻰﺩﺍﺭ ﻭ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﺮﺩﻱ ﻋﻤﻠﻜﺮ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻛﻨﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻭ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ‬ ‫ﺁﺯﻣﻮﻥ ﺁﻣﺎﺭﻯ ‪ t‬ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﺯﺑﺎﻥﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺪﺍﻭﻡ ﺭﻭﻱ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﮋﻯ ﻛﻠﻤﻪﺳﺎﺯﻱ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻭﺍژﮔﺎﻥ ﻣﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﺑﻮﺩﻧﺪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﻧﺶﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻧﻲ ﻛﻪ ﺭﻭﻱ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﮋﻯ ﻣﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﭼﻨﺪﺍﻧﻲ ﻧﺪﺍﺷﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺪﻭﺍژﻩﻫﺎ‪ :‬ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻭﺍژﮔﺎﻥ‪ ،‬ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﮋﻯ ﻭﺍژﻩﺳﺎﺯﻱ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺶ ﻭﺍژﮔﺎﻥ‪ ،‬ﺯﺑﺎﻥﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻰ‪ ،‬ﺍﺟﺰﺍ ﻣﻌﻨﻰﺩﺍﺭ‬ ‫‪155‬‬

‫ﻛﻔﺶﻫﺎ ‪ /‬ﺷﺎﺩﻱ ﻗﺎﺿﻲﻣﺮﺍﺩﻱ‬ ‫ﺩﻳﻮﺍﻧﻪ ﻟﺒﺨﻨﺪ ﺯﺩ ‪ /‬ﻧﺎﻫﻴﺪ ﺟﻤﺸﻴﺪﻱ ﺭﺍﺩ‬ ‫ﺳﻴﺐ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻩ ‪ /‬ﻧﺎﻫﻴﺪ ﺟﻤﺸﻴﺪﻱ ﺭﺍﺩ‬

‫ﭼﺎﻟﺶ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‬ ‫ﭘﺮﻭﻧﺪﻩ‪ :‬ﻳﺪﺍﷲ ﺭﻭﻳﺎﻳﻲ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ‪ /‬ﺑﻨﻔﺸﻪ ﺭﺍﻓﻊ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ‪ /‬ﻧﺎﻫﻴﺪ ﺟﻤﺸﻴﺪﻱ ﺭﺍﺩ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ‪ /‬ﻓﺮﻧﺎﺯ ﺻﻔﺪﺭﻱ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺍ ‪ /‬ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﺭﻓﻴﻌﻲ‬ ‫•‬

‫ﭼﺎﻟﺶ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺷﻌﺮ ﺁﻳﻨﺪﻩ‪ :‬ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﺮﺍﺗﻲ‬

‫ﻧﮕﺎﻩ ﻭ ﻧﻈﺮﮔﺎﻩ‬ ‫ﻓﻴﻠﻢ‪ :‬ﺭﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺳﻔﻴﺪ ‪ /‬ﻧﺮﮔﺲ ﻣﻨﺘﺨﺒﻲ‬ ‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ‪ :‬ﺷﺒﻲ ﻛﻪ ﺭﺍﺷﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺧﺎﻧﻪ ﺭﻓﺖ ‪ /‬ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﺭﺣﻴﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﺷﻌﺮ‪ :‬ﺑﻪ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﺰ ‪ /‬ﭘﺮﻳﺴﺎ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻮﻯ‬ ‫ﺩﺍﺳﺘﺎﻥ‪ :‬ﺗﻮﺭﮔﻴﻨﻒ ﺧﻮﺍﻧﻲ ‪ /‬ﻧﺎﻫﻴﺪ ﺟﻤﺸﻴﺪﻱ ﺭﺍﺩ‬

‫ﻗﻔﺴﻪ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ‬ ‫ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻰ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻫﻰ )ﺳﭙﺘﺎﻣﺒﺮ ‪(2010‬‬ ‫ﺩﺳﺘﻮﺭ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺜﺎﺑﻪ ﻋﻠﻢ )ژﺍﻧﻮﻳﻪ ‪(2010‬‬ ‫ﺗﺌﺎﺗﺮ‪ ،‬ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ‪ ،‬ﺭﺋﺎﻟﻴﺴﻢ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﺩﻱ )ژﻭﺋﻦ ‪(2010‬‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﻪ ﺍﻱ ﺑﺮ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎﻥ‪ :‬ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱ ﻭ ﻣﺘﺪ )ﺁﮔﻮﺳﺖ ‪(2010‬‬ ‫ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻪﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺮ‪/‬ﻣﺘﻦ‪ :‬ﺧﻮﺍﻧﺶ ﻓﺮﺍﻣﺘﻨﻲ ﺍﺯ ”ﻭﻧﻮﺱ ﻭ ﺁﺩﻭﻧﻴﺲ“ ﺷﻜﺴﭙﻴﺮ ﻭ ﺗﻴﺘﻴﺎﻥ )ﺳﭙﺘﺎﻣﺒﺮ ‪(2010‬‬ ‫ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﻭ ﺗﺌﻮﺭﻱﻫﺎ )‪(2010‬‬ ‫ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﻣﻨﺘﺨﺒﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺣﻜﺎﻳﺎﺕ ﺷﺎﻫﻨﺎﻣﻪ )ﺑﻪ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻰ( )‪(2010‬‬

‫ﭼﻜﻴﺪﻩ ﻓﺎﺭﺳﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﻻﺕ‬

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‫ﻓﻬﺮﺳﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ‬ ‫ﺳﺮﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﺩﺑﻲ‬ ‫ﭘﺮﻭﻧﺪﻩ‪ :‬ﻟﻮﺋﻴﺰﺍ ﻭﻟﻨﺰﻭﺋﻼ ‪ /‬ﺷﺘﺎﻭ ﻧﺎﺻﺮﻱ‬ ‫ﺩﻭﺭﮔﻪﮔﻲ ﻭ ﻣﻠﻴﺖ‪ :‬ﺧﻮﺍﻧﺶ ﭘﺴﺎﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﺯ ﺭﻣﺎﻥ ﺁﺭﺯﻭﻫﺎﻱ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺛﺮ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺰ ﺩﻳﻜﻨﺰ ‪ /‬ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻏﻔﺎﺭﻱ‬ ‫ﺧﻮﺍﻧﺶ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺩﺍﺳﺘﺎﻥ ﻣﻰﺷﻮﺩ ﺳﺎﻛﺖ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﻟﻄﻔ ًﺎ؟ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺭﻳﻤﻮﻧﺪ ﻛﺎﺭﻭﺭ ‪ /‬ﺭﺑﺎﺑﻪ ﺟﻼﻳﺮ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻳﺎ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺷﻌﺮ‪ ،‬ﻣﺴﺎﻟﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ /‬ﺷﺘﺎﻭ ﻧﺎﺻﺮﻱ‬

‫ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‬ ‫ﭘﺮﻭﻧﺪﻩ‪ :‬ﻛﺎﺗﺮﻳﻨﺎ ﺭﻳﺲ ‪ /‬ﻓﺮﻧﺎﺯ ﺻﻔﺪﺭﻱ‬ ‫ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﭘﺴﺎﻣﺪﺭﻥ‪ :‬ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺜﺎﺑﻪ ﻣﺘﻦ ﻳﺎ ﺳﻠﻴﻘﻪ؟ ‪ /‬ﻣﻬﺪﻱ ﻣﻴﺮﺯﺍﻳﻲ‬ ‫ﻧﻘﺶ ﺑﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ‪ /‬ﻓﺮﻧﺎﺯ ﺻﻔﺪﺭﻱ‬

‫ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ‬ ‫ﭘﺮﻭﻧﺪﻩ‪ :‬ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﺳﺎﻳﻤﻮﻥ ﺑﺮگ ‪ /‬ﻣﻬﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﻳﻮﺳﻔﭙﻮﺭﻯ ﻧﻌﻴﻢ‬ ‫ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺑﺮ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻛﻨﺶ ﮔﻔﺘﺎﺭﻱ ﺷﻜﺎﻳﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺍﻧﺶﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ ‪ /‬ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﭘﺰﺷﻜﻲ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻲ ﺣﻴﺪﺭﻱ‬ ‫ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻼﺱ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ ‪ /‬ﺷﻴﺮﻳﻦ ﺻﺪﻗﻴﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﻭﺍژﮔﺎﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺭﺍﻫﻜﺎﺭ ﻭﺍژﻩﺳﺎﺯﻱ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﺩﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ ‪ /‬ﻣﺮﺳﺪﻩ ﻧﺼﻴﺮﻱ‬

‫ﻛﻨﻜﺎﺵ‬ ‫ﮔﻔﺘﮕﻮﻳﻰ ﻛﻮﺗﺎﻩ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻴﺮﺿﺎ ﺧﻠﻴﻘﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺳﺒﻚ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﺎﻣﻪ ﻧﮕﺎﺭﻯ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻭﺱ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ‪ /‬ﻣﻬﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﻳﻮﺳﻔﭙﻮﺭﻯ ﻧﻌﻴﻢ‬

‫ﺍﺭﺗﺶ ﺣﺮﻭﻑ‬ ‫ﺣﻜﺎﻳﺘﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺑﻮﺳﺘﺎﻥ ﺳﻌﺪﻱ‬ ‫ﺷﺒﺎﻧﻪ ‪ 9‬ﺍﺛﺮ ﺍﺣﻤﺪ ﺷﺎﻣﻠﻮ ‪ /‬ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻏﻔﺎﺭﻱ‬ ‫ﺷﻴﻮﻩ ﺁﺷﻔﺘﻪ ‪ /‬ﮔﻠﻨﻮﺵ ﻧﻮﺭﭘﻨﺎﻩ‬ ‫ﺯﻳﺮ ﺁﻓﺘﺎﺏ ‪ /‬ﮔﻠﻨﻮﺵ ﻧﻮﺭﭘﻨﺎﻩ‬ ‫ﺷﺒﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺍﺣﻤﺪ ﺷﺎﻣﻠﻮ ‪ /‬ﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﻮﺭﺍﻧﻲ‬ ‫ﮔﺮگ ‪ /‬ﻣﻬﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﻳﻮﺳﻔﭙﻮﺭﻯ ﻧﻌﻴﻢ‬ ‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﺨﻮﺍﻫﻢ ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺮﻱ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻮ ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﻛﻨﻢ ‪ /‬ﻳﺴﻨﺎ ﮔﻠﻴﺎﺭﻱ‬

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‫ﭘﻴﺎﭘﻰ ‪ 10‬ﻭ ‪ . 11‬ﺗﺎﺑﺴﺘﺎﻥ ﻭ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﺰ ‪1389‬‬ ‫ﺻﺎﺣﺐ ﺍﻣﺘﻴﺎﺯ‬

‫ﮔﺮﻭﻩ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺍﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ‬

‫ﻣﺪﻳﺮ ﻣﺴﺌﻮﻝ‬

‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﺍﻣﻴﺮﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﺠﻮﻣﻴﺎﻥ‬

‫ﺳﺮﺩﺑﻴﺮ‬

‫ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﺭﺣﻴﻤﻰ )ﻛﺎﺭﺷﻨﺎﺳﻰ ﺍﺭﺷﺪ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺍﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻰ(‬

‫ﻫﻴﺄﺕ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻳﻪ ‪:‬‬ ‫ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ‪ :‬ﻣﻬﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﻳﻮﺳﻔﭙﻮﺭﻱ ﻧﻌﻴﻢ )ﻛﺎﺭﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﺭﺷﺪ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻰ(‬ ‫ﺍﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻰ‪ :‬ﺷﺘﺎﻭ ﻧﺎﺻﺮﻱ )ﻛﺎﺭﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﺭﺷﺪ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺍﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ(‬ ‫ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ‪ :‬ﻓﺮﻧﺎﺯ ﺻﻔﺪﺭﻱ )ﻛﺎﺭﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﺭﺷﺪ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ(‬ ‫ﺑﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﺮ ﻭﻳﮋﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻧﺮﮔﺲ ﻣﻨﺘﺨﺒﻲ )ﺩﺍﻧﺸﺠﻮﻱ ﺩﻛﺘﺮﻱ ﺍﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ(‬ ‫ﻃﺮﺍﺣﻰ ﺟﻠﺪ ﻭ ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺁﺭﺍﻳﻲ‪ :‬ﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﻮﺭﺍﻧﻲ‬ ‫ﻫﻤﻜﺎﺭﺍﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺷﻤﺎﺭﻩ‪:‬‬ ‫ﺷﺘﺎ ﻧﺎﺻﺮﻱ ‪ /‬ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻏﻔﺎﺭﻱ ‪ /‬ﺭﺑﺎﺑﻪ ﺟﻼﻳﺮ ‪ /‬ﻓﺮﻧﺎﺯ ﺻﻔﺪﺭﻱ ‪ /‬ﻏﻼﻣﺮﺿﺎ ﻣﺪﺍﺩﻳﺎﻥ ‪ /‬ﻣﻬﺪﻱ ﻣﻴﺮﺯﺍﻳﻲ ‪ /‬ﻣﻬﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﻳﻮﺳﻔﭙﻮﺭﻱ ﻧﻌﻴﻢ‬ ‫‪ /‬ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﭘﺰﺷﻜﻲ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺣﻴﺪﺭﻱ ‪ /‬ﺷﻴﺮﻳﻦ ﺻﺪﻗﻴﺎﻥ ‪ /‬ﻣﺮﺳﺪﻩ ﻧﺼﻴﺮﻱ ‪ /‬ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﺭﺣﻴﻤﻲ ‪ /‬ﺷﺎﺩﻱ ﻗﺎﺿﻲ ﻣﺮﺍﺩﻱ ‪ /‬ﮔﻠﻨﻮﺵ ﻧﻮﺭﭘﻨﺎﻩ ‪ /‬ﻳﺴﻨﺎ‬ ‫ﮔﻠﻴﺎﺭﻱ ‪ /‬ﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﻮﺭﺍﻧﻲ ‪ /‬ﻧﺎﻫﻴﺪ ﺟﻤﺸﻴﺪﻱ ﺭﺍﺩ ‪ /‬ﻧﺮﮔﺲ ﻣﻨﺘﺨﺒﻲ ‪ /‬ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﺭﻓﻴﻌﻲ ‪ /‬ﺑﻨﻔﺸﻪ ﺭﺍﻓﻊ ‪ /‬ﭘﺮﻳﺴﺎ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻮﻯ‬ ‫ﻫﻴﺄﺕ ﻣﺸﺎﻭﺭ‪:‬‬

‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﺟﻼﻝ ﺳﺨﻨﻮﺭ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﺍﺑﻮﺍﻟﻘﺎﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻃﻤﻲ ﺟﻬﺮﻣﻲ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﺪﺭﺿﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﻧﻲ ﺳﺮﺍﺏ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﺳﺎﺳﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﻲﺯﺍﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﺷﻴﺪﻩ ﺍﺣﻤﺪﺯﺍﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﻛﻴﺎﻥ ﺳﻬﻴﻞ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﺳﺎﺭﺍ ﻛﺎﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻳﻠﺨﺎﻧﻰ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻰ‬ ‫ﺩﻛﺘﺮ ﺣﺴﻴﻦ ﻣﻼﻧﻈﺮ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﻋﻼﻣﻪ ﻃﺒﺎﻃﺒﺎﻳﻲ‬

‫ﭼﺎپ‬

‫ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻲ‬

‫ﻗﻴﻤﺖ‪ 10000 :‬ﺭﻳﺎﻝ‬

‫ﺗﺤﺖ ﺣﻤﺎﻳﺖ ﻣﻌﺎﻭﻧﺖ ﺍﻣﻮﺭ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﺠﻮﻳﻲ ﻭ ﻓﺮﻫﻨﮕﻲ‬ ‫ﺑﺎ ﻧﻈﺎﺭﺕ ﻛﻤﻴﺘﻪ ﻧﺎﻇﺮ ﺑﺮ ﻧﺸﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﺠﻮﻳﻲ‬ ‫ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﺠﻠﻪ‪ :‬ﺗﻬﺮﺍﻥ‪ ،‬ﺍﻭﻳﻦ‬ ‫ﺩﺍﻧﺸﮕﺎﻩ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ ﺑﻬﺸﺘﻲ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻜﺪﻩ ﺍﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ‪ ،‬ﮔﺮﻭﻩ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺍﺩﺑﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ‬

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