abstracts

Saxion University of Applied Sciences | Research Group Ethics & Global Citizenship NHTV, Breda University of Applied Sciences | Academy for Tourism Wageningen University | Cultural Geography Group

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON TOURISM, ETHICS AND GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP: CONNECTING THE DOTS

ABSTRACTS (In alphabetical order, per main presenters’ last names)

3-6 July 2017 Apeldoorn, the Netherlands

Table of Contents Abstract

Authors

Page

1 Promoting Peace through International Tourism

Sana Ahmed

1

2 The Case of the Port of Linaria-Skyros, Greece: The Human

Kyriakos Antonopoulos, Aglaia

3

Factor as the Main Dimension of Impression and Other Findings

Margariti, Kalliopi Marini &

in the Guestbook Tourists' Evaluation

Constantina Skanavis

3 Corruption and Tourism: Sanding the Wheels, Greasing the

Jalal Atai

5

Maureen Ayikoru

7

Sarah Becklake

9

Bastienne Bernasco

10

7 Ethical Tourists as Global Citizens: a Critique

Jim Butcher

12

8 Disorienting Dilemmas for Critical Thinking: A Praxis of Critical

Christina T. Cavaliere, Karla

14

Pedagogy in Tourism Studies

Boluk & Lauren Duffy

9 Bridge to Freedom: Creating the Niagara Falls Underground

Thomas A. Chambers

17

10 On War Remembrance and Global Citizenship: A Critical

Joseph M. Cheer, Irina

19

Semiotic Analysis of Two Touristic

Herrschner & Keir Reeves

Wheels or a Nonlinear Relationship? 4 Border Controls, International Travel and Tourism: A Conceptualisation of the Unwanted 5 Interrogating Touristic Securitisation: A focus on La Antigua Guatemala 6 Welcome to the World: Integrating Current Affairs in Tourism Education

Railroad Interpretive Center

Contexts 11 A Meta-Analysis of the Direct Economic Impacts of Cruise

Jamie M. Chen, James F.

Tourism on Port Cities

Petrick, Alexis Papathanassis &

21

Xinjian Li 12 Institutionalised Racial Prejudices: The Encounter Between

Man Tat Cheng

23

13 Tourism Workplace HIV and AIDS Programmes in South Africa:

Adlais Davids & Dimitri

25

A Long Walk to Implementation?

Tassiopoulos

Chinese Students and UK Host Families

i

14 Identity Politics in Rural Cyprus: Tourism, Power and Ethics

Evi Eftychiou

27

15 Kindness and Gratitude in Tourism

Sebastian Filep, Julian

29

Macnaughto & Troy D. Glover 16 Gendered Violence, Tourism, and Global Citizenship

Sue Frohlick & Adriana Piscitelli

31

17 Loving Place: Domestic Tourism and Affect as Identity in

Pauline Georgiou

33

18 India Myanmar Partnership in Tourism for Development

Makarand Gulawani

34

19 Is Visiting Kibera Slum, in the Frame of Guided Tour

Aleksandra Gutowska

36

20 Tourists Aren’t Label Conscious - Rethinking Certification in

John Hummel &

37

Sustainable and Responsible Tourism

Adriaan Kauffmann

21 Tourism as a Tool for Colonization, Segregation,

Rami K. Isaac

39

22 Treesleeper, the Researcher and the State: Ethics of Power

Stasia Koot, Mariska

42

and Paternalism in Indigenous Community-Based Tourism in

Bijsterbosch & Verina Ingram

Divided Cyprus

Organized by its Residents, Ethical?

Displacement and Dispossession: The Case of East Jerusalem, Palestine

Namibia 23 We Are Happy to Help: Exploring the Socio-Economic Impacts

Tifanny Low, Sally Everett, Inge

44

of Voluntourism on Local Residents in Cusco, Peru

Hermann & Roberta Jonuškytė

24 Bicycles and Leisure, Bicycles and Labour: Tourists

Kristin Lozanski

47

Sharon McLennan

49

26 First Do No Harm: What Fieldwork Ethics Can Contribute to

Sharon McLennan & Rochelle

51

Voluntourism Practice

Stewart-Withers

27 Responsible Opportunities for Van Gogh Europe

Ondrej Mitas, Wesley Put &

and Migrant Workers on the Niagara Parkway 25 ‘It’s a Personal Thing’: Voluntourism, Social Media and the Creation of Global Citizens in Fiji

54

Bernadett Papp 28 Tourism and Global Citizenship: A Perspective of Domestic Tourists Visitation Profile and Social Media in Udzungwa National Park, Tanzania

ii

Kezia H. Mkwizu

57

29 A Discursive Analysis of Power/Knowledge in Township

Meghan L. Muldoon

59

30 Globalization of Tourism in Rural Areas in Japan

Asamizu Munehiko

61

31 Touring the Refugee: The Galang Vietnamese Camp as a

Chin-Ee Ong & Claudio Minca

62

32 Volunteer Tourism: A Path to Global Citizenship

Steven Owen

64

33 Tourism and Ethics in SESC São Paulo

Carolina Paes de Andrade,

65

Tourism

Tourist Laboratory

Fernanda Alves Vargas & Silvia via Eri Hirao 34 The Responsible Cruise Tourist: Sustainability Awareness,

Judith Römhild-Raviart

68

Alexis Saveriades

71

Leanne Schreurs (Jansen)

73

Sarah Seidel

75

Susan L. Slocum

77

Arielle Stirling

79

Sasala Taiban

81

Pauline van der Valk

82

42 The Ethicality of the Hotel Management Agreement: From

Rob van Ginneken &

84

Agency to Stewardship

Andrew Mzembe

43 The Power of Experience: Framework of City Image, Ethics in

Angga Pandu Wijaya & Devi

Tourism, Satisfaction and Word of Mouth

Yulia Rahmi

Values, Attitudes and Behaviour at Home and On-Board 35 The Effects of Clubbing and Party Tourism in Ayia Napa, Cyprus 36 And the Beneficiary Is… Hospitality in Terms of Interpersonal Communication 37 Benefits for Local Communities through Tourists’ Consumption of Local Food Products 38 Promoting Sustainability in Feudalistic Festivals: The Nobel Manager and the Peasant Vendor 39 Tourism for Development: A Discussion of Volunteer Trips and Global Citizenship 40 Conservation and Culture: Change and Continuity in the Use of Hawk-Eagle Feathers Among Taiwan’s Rukai Communities 41 Philanthropy and the Commodification of Volunteering: Voluntourism According to Local Beneficiaries in Arequipa, Peru

iii

86

44 The Risks of Pro-Social Tourism

Lourdes L. Zamanillo & Joseph

88

M. Cheer Documentaries 1 Bali’s Paradise Paradigm

Britta Boyer

iv

90

International Conference on Tourism, Ethics and Global Citizenship: Connecting the Dots 2017

1 Promoting Peace through International Tourism Sana Ahmed, Forman Christian College, Pakistan

[email protected] International Tourists had been coming to Pakistan during the 80’s and 90’s but during the last 20 years their numbers have faltered. Pakistan’s KPK province has a tourism policy but its policy is far from implementation stage. The local tourists that go there litter around so much that they completely ruin the beauty of that region which indicates that it is the basic mindset of the people that needs to be broadened and help them realize the importance of tourism and the money that it can generate for the country. There are revival projects currently under process especially in the walled city of Lahore to help preserve the ‘Shahi Hamam’ and the introduction of local tour busses that take you around the basic tourist spots but how helpful are they? Pakistan has no branding, which means that is not currently targeting the international market as other countries are, e.g. ‘Incredible India.’ What strategy is Pakistan focusing on? Pakistan is a victim and generator of terrorism and unless it focuses on curbing it, it cannot concentrate on dealing with the after effects of terrorism, especially the case of 9-11, tourism in Pakistan has greatly suffered. Promotion of Tourism in Pakistan written by Dr. Aftab ur Rehman Rana, President of Sustainable Tourism Foundation Pakistan has talked about the challenges faced by tourism in Pakistan, the areas of interest and possibilities of its revival and efforts that can be made in enhancement of tourism in Pakistan. He has laid down some figures of international tourists coming to Pakistan. According to his research Pakistan’s share of global tourism was only 0.09% which makes it only 6.7% in South Asia as compared to India’s 46%. This low share of tourists coming in to Pakistan indicates that foreigner tourists are not coming to Pakistan or that their number is not as much as it should be. He also mentions through empirical research that Pakistan’s ranking in Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index is 125 out of 141 countries in 2015. However, it is also ranked 9th in the cheapest countries of the world and 60th Cultural Resources and Business Travel. The aim of this study is to help curb terrorism through promoting international tourism so that Pakistan maybe promoted as a peaceful country and help improve International Relations. I have interviewed 30 international tourists in Pakistan as to why don’t many international tourists come here anymore and what steps can be taken to increase it. My preliminary findings are that Pakistan has great potential for tourism but due to lack of implementation of policies, law and order it is unable to fully exploit its potential for tourism. It has no International Tourism Policy to attract tourists. The findings and interviews can help with implementation and understanding of the requirements of the foreign tourists, where the policy lacks and steps that can be taken for the enhancement as a means of promoting International Relations and Peace.

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About the author I am doing my MPhil in Public Policy and Governance from FC College at Lahore under the supervision of Dr. Imdad Hussain. I have taught English Language and Literature to grade 6th and 7th at BeaconHouse School from 2013-2014, and now I am helping myself develop critical and intensive thinking through research and further educating myself, so I may be able to contribute in strengthening the existing institutions in Pakistan through policy building.

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The Case of the Port of Linaria-Skyros, Greece: The Human

Factor as the Main Dimension of Impression and Other Findings in the Guestbook Tourists' Evaluation Kyriakos Antonopoulos, Skyros Port Fund, Greece

[email protected] Aglaia Margariti, University of the Aegean, Greece

[email protected] Kalliopi Marini, University of the Aegean, Greece

[email protected] Constantina Skanavis, University of the Aegean, Greece

[email protected] Tourism is an important factor for the economic development of a country. For the sustainable development of tourism, there is a code composed of ten principles, which aim to maximize the benefits and minimize the negative influence to already existing cultural heritage and environment. These Ethics have to be followed by hosts and the tourists, for their satisfaction, respectively. The case of maritime tourism in Greece, because of its geographical location, its coasts and islands, plays a critical role in the country’s economic growth. In this way marinas, which are usually called the big leisure ports, are considered to be very significant facilities. (Diakomihalis,2007). Τhe present research aims to assess and analyse the visitors' feedback in the touristic port of LinariaSkyros and also how the environment acts as a pull factor. The choice of Linaria port was made because of its great touristic interest, its innovative features as well as the environmental protection and training activities in house. Other surveys in the past like ''Naxos Guest Satisfaction Survey'' (Hotel Association of Naxos, August to October 2012) have been conducted with the use of questionnaires and personal interviews putting emphasis however mainly upon the guests' satisfaction. For this assessment, the guestbook of Linarias' port was used, and we came up with conclusions regarding the quality of the port as well as tourists’ psychological identity. The guestbook used here, contains comments from 2012 to 2014, based on free expression of individuals’ need to share their Skyros port experience. In the first place all comments and keywords of the guestbook were treated as a total for all the years covered. Secondly they were separated based on the year they were written, their quality and their content, so as to allow the comparison of the results. Tourists have shown more interest in human factors than the provided services of the port. Also, some tourists claimed extension of their stay from 2 to 10

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days. According to the findings, the environmental actions taking place in the port’s facilities (tourism observatory, environmental camp, environmental trails) appeared to be the main reasons of tourists’ positive impressions, satisfaction, their willing to extend their stay and to visit the island again in the future. About the authors Mr. Kyriakos Antonopoulos is the President of the Board of Skyros Port Fund. He has created a multi awarded small marina at Linaria Port of Skyros Island. This Port has been identified as the Blue Port with a Shade of Green by United Nations. He is the author of several papers and has given a lot of presentations on the environmental excellence expected in the ports and how to reach such a state. Aglaia Margariti is a student of the department of Environment , University of the Aegean and she is also, a researcher in Research Centre of Environmental Communication and Education. Kalliopi Marini is experienced in Psychotherapy and in multiple applications of Applied Psychology including mostly Psychological Testing, Professional Training and Social Research. HR Consultant in the fields of Recruitment, Training and Development of employees and executives. Since 2003 she’ s been working as a free lancer, she’s taken part in the Olympic Organizational Committee as a Venue Staffing Manager and is one of the basic co-operators of ISON Psychometrica Ltd. During the last 10 years she’s been working privately as a Cognitive – Behavioral Psychotherapist. Holds a B.Sc in Psychology, an M.Sc in Social/Organizational Psychology and is a certified Gognitive – Behavioral Psychotherapist. She is currently a Ph. D candidate in the department of Environment in the Aegean University. Constantina Skanavis is a Professor in Environmental Communication and Education at the Department of Environment, University of the Aegean (Mytilene, Greece). She is also the Head of the Research Centre of Environmental Education and Communication. She joined the University of the Aegean 15 years ago. Before thatshe was a Professor at California State University, Los Angeles. She has developed several courses on issues of environmental health and education. She currently teaches environmental education, environmental

communication

and

environmental

interpretation

courses

in

undergraduate

and

postgraduate levels. Professor Skanavis has numerous publications on a international basis and has given presentations all over the world.

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3 Corruption and Tourism: Sanding the Wheels, Greasing the Wheels or a Nonlinear Relationship? Jalal Atai, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] This paper examines the relationship between corruption and tourism. The relationship has been studied by performing a cross-country (171 countries and territories) analysis over the period 2001-2012 using data obtained from multiple public sources.

Additional governance, economic, ethnical and political

factors have been added to examine the relationship in a broader context. The relationship between corruption and tourism is an emerging and interesting area of research. The existing literature on the relationship between corruption and tourism is limited, and provides mixed, and inconclusive evidence on the effects of corruption on tourism (Das & DiRienzo, 2010; Lau & Hazari, 2011; Mekinc, Kociper, & Dobovsek, 2013; Yap & Saha, 2013; Koudelková, 2015; Poprawe, 2015; Saha & Yap, 2015; Lv & Xu, 2016; Santana-Gallego, RossellÃ-Nadal, & Fourie, 2016). There are, currently three major hypotheses in the tourism literature: (a) “sanding the wheels” hypothesis, (b) “greasing the wheels” hypothesis (Lv & Xu, 2016), and (c) “nonlinear relationship” hypothesis (Saha & Yap, 2015). This paper examines the interplay between corruption and tourism, including other dimensions (i.e. governance, economic, ethnical and political) to test “sanding the wheels” hypothesis (Das & DiRienzo, 2010; Lau & Hazari, 2011; Mekinc, Kociper, & Dobovsek, 2013; Koudelková, 2015; Poprawe, 2015) against “greasing the wheels” (Yap & Saha, 2013) and “ nonlinear relationship” (Saha & Yap, 2015; Lv & Xu, 2016; Santana-Gallego, RossellÃ-Nadal, & Fourie, 2016). Consistent with the author’s predictions and (Das & DiRienzo, 2010; Lau & Hazari, 2011; Mekinc, Kociper, & Dobovsek, 2013; Koudelková, 2015; Poprawe, 2015), and based on statistically significant evidence, corruption and tourism is negatively associated. In other words, a higher level of perceived corruption, as proxied by Corruption Perception Index (CPI) may impede tourism, as proxied by inbound tourism arrivals (ITA). The findings, therefore, as predicted, support the “sanding the wheels” hypothesis. The findings suggest that policy makers might be able to enhance tourism by reducing perceived corruption through improved governance, economic and political mechanisms on cross-country level. The results, however, might be subject to some limitations. References Atai, J. (2015). Accounting, Auditing and Corruption: Is Accounting and Auditing Quality Associated with Corruption. Unpublished master thesis, Erasmus School of Economics, Erasmus University,

Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Cressey, D. (1953). Others people’s money: a study in the social psychology of embezzlement. . Glencoe,IL: Free Press.

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Das, J., & DiRienzo, C. (2010). Tourism competitiveness and corruption: A cross-country analysis. Tourism

economics, 16(3), 477-492. Koudelková, P. (2015). Corruption in Czech Services and Tourism. Corruption in Czech Services and

Tourism. Journal of Tourism & Services, 6(10), 6(10). Lau, T. S., & Hazari, B. R. (2011). Corruption and tourism. Trade and welfare: Theoretical and empirical issues. 159-170. Lv, & Xu. (2016). A panel data quantile regression analysis of the impact of corruption on tourism. Current

Issues in Tourism, 1-14. Mekinc, J., Kociper, T., & Dobovsek, B. (2013). The Impact of Corruption and Organized Crime on the Development of Sustainable Tourism. Varstvoslovje, 15(2), 218. Poprawe, M. (2015). A panel data analysis of the effect of corruption on tourism. Applied Economics, 47(23), 2399-2412. Saha, S., & Yap, G. (2015). Corruption and Tourism: An Empirical Investigation in a Non‐linear Framework.

International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(3), 272-281. Santana-Gallego, M., RossellÃ-Nadal, J., & Fourie, J. (2016). The effects of terrorism, crime and corruption on tourism. No. 595. Yap, G., & Saha, S. (2013). Do political instability, terrorism, and corruption have deterring effects on tourism development even in the presence of UNESCO heritage? A cross-country panel estimate.

Tourism Analysis, 18(5), 587-599. About the author Jalal Atai is lecturer in finance, accounting and research at International Tourism Management Studies, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands. Jalal Atai graduated with a MSc. in Accounting, Auditing and Control from Erasmus School of Economics in 2015, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands, graduated with a BSc. in Business IT & Management from Avans University of Applied Sciences in 2008, Breda, The Netherlands, and graduated with a BSc. in Micro-economics from Kabul University in 1997, Kabul, Afghanistan. His expertise and interests lie in accounting, corruption studies, economics, finance, research, heritage, tourism, tourism safety.

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4 Border Controls, International Travel and Tourism: A Conceptualisation of the Unwanted Maureen Ayikoru, Anglia Ruskin University, United Kingdom

[email protected] Border controls represent one aspect of international relations that appear to profoundly influence international travel and tourism. Most countries have some form of control with regard to who is allowed in and who is not, through varying degrees of restrictions for prospective travellers from different parts of the world. Much has been written about the rationale for border controls and the justification for legitimately restricting the movement of others into countries throughout the world. Consequently, border controls albeit legitimate, function as governmental instruments used for delineating the unwanted, unwelcome and the undesirable traveller. The concept of the unwanted in cross-border travels and international migration is not entirely new, but how it might manifest in a tourism context remains mostly unexplored. Where this has been covered, the focus has tended to be on de-marketing strategies that delineate certain segments which are unwanted in a destination, mostly due to antisocial behaviour for instance. A more relevant and perhaps poignant contribution in this area has been the politics of risk and insecurity that has begun to undermine the very (neo)liberal foundations of freedom of travel as conventionally understood in the Western democracies. Although the mobilities of global tourism have been shown to be intricately linked to broader geopolitical discourses on migration, inequality and climate change among others, remarkably little has been written about these interconnections from a “southern” perspective. In other words, the seemingly legitimate need for border controls, the ongoing South-North international migration and refugee crisis and the perceived implications for tourism remain largely unresearched. Given that places and politics are considered to be factors that will continue to impinge upon discussions of tourism mobilities, the aim of the current study is to unveil how visa requirements and other similar measures reflect the explicitly stated legitimate reasons for border controls and the extent to which they reflect a hidden discourse around the unwanted tourist. Using the technique of montage and the Foucauldian concepts of discourse and governmentality, this paper attempts to conceptualise the unwanted in a tourism context. It draws on a range of sources such as the officially published entry requirements for a selection of tourist destinations, and tourism arrivals statistics for the same countries from both developed and developing countries. The resulting evidence from these official sources are then juxtaposed against the images and imagery of contemporary events such as terrorism, international migration and refugees that feature in the media and the ensuing political and socioeconomic discourses for the selected countries. The working proposition in this paper is that persons from countries that have the least propensity to generate tourists and those that have almost become synonymous with the supply of socioeconomic migrants and refugees are more likely to feature as the unwanted tourists. The evidence for this may well be hidden in the extent to which prospective unwanted tourists face restrictions when travelling away from their own countries.

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Border controls are thus considered to be a form of a governmental technique that delineates and legitimises the unwanted tourist whose position remains in a flux and may shift over time depending on a wide range of issues that govern international relations at a given point in time. References Bianchi, R. (2007). Tourism and the globalisation of fear: Analysing the politics of risk and (in)security in global travel. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 7, 64–74. Hannam, K., Butler, G., & Morris, C. (2014). Developments and key issues in tourism mobilities. Annals of Tourism Research 44 (2014) 171–185 Hoffmann, A. (1974). Unwanted Mexican Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures 1929 – 1939. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. About the author Dr Maureen Ayikoru is a Senior Lecturer in Tourism Management in the Lord Ashcroft International Business School of Anglia Ruskin University. Maureen’s research interests are in sustainability and tourism in developing countries (Uganda and Sub Saharan Africa in particular) where the abundance of natural and cultural resources presents real opportunities for economic diversification; higher education policies that are influenced by neoliberalism, globalisation, technological advancements and their implications for institutional and individual practice; theoretical and methodological issues in social (tourism) research. Maureen is also keen to understand the role of the African Diasporas in national and regional development within the context of increased remittances by this group and the disparities seen in Africa with respect to the inflow of foreign direct investment.

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5

Interrogating Touristic Securitisation: A focus on La Antigua

Guatemala Sarah Becklake, Lancaster University, Centre for Mobilities Research, United Kingdom

[email protected] This paper examines touristic securitisation – the practice of protecting tourists to protect tourism – in the context of Guatemala. Despite high levels of violence and crime, the Guatemalan Government is increasingly using tourism as a tool of development. In Guatemala’s National Policy for the Development of Sustainable Tourism (2012-2022), the Government outlines its National Program for Touristic Security. While the program consistently outlines how it aims to provide protection for national and foreign tourists as a means of protecting sustainable tourism development, ethnographic field research in Guatemala’s main tourist destination La Antigua Guatemala (Antigua, for short) reveals that, in practice, touristic securitisation tends to put the foreign (often Western) tourist at the centre. Indeed, this paper argues that touristic securitisation in Antigua is built on a hierarchy of victims, protection, and justice, whereby the foreign tourist is deemed highly economically valuable, vulnerable to crime and violence, and touristically powerful as a potential victim and, thus, given more protection from local threats and recourse to justice when insecurity events do happen than many Guatemalan citizens. Furthermore, this scenario sees poor Guatemalans positioned as potential threats to foreign tourists and, thus, at the sharp end of touristic securitisation strategies and tactics, which de jure or de facto criminalise their presence and activities in the city, further marginalising them. It also turns a blind eye to the ways in which foreign tourists are producing new insecurities for poor Guatemalans, as easily seen in the case of child sex tourism, which continues unabated in the country despite laws against it. Through providing personal security for tourists, touristic securitisation is supposed to help provide economic security for locals. However, the case of Antigua suggests that touristic securitisation is a highly contentious practice informed by and informing of inequalities, producing new human (in)securities, and raising difficult ethical questions surrounding the meaning and practice of citizenship. About the author Dr. Sarah Becklake is currently an ESRC Post-Doctoral Fellow, funded by the Global Challenges Research Fund, in the Department of Sociology at Lancaster University. The title of her Fellowship is Touristic

Competition: Securitisation and the Creation of (In)Securities in Guatemala. Her research interests focus on development politics, global tourism mobilities, (in)securities, and embodiments.

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6

Welcome to the World: Integrating Current Affairs in Tourism

Education Bastienne Bernasco, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] Tourism students are particularly affected by the extreme volatility of current global events. This will require them to recognize and address relevant situations in which they need to act responsibly, as consumers, professionals and citizens. The average curriculum in tourism education is not agile. It is conceived years before it is taught; it is linear in design and based on positivist methodologies in which learning is seen as a performance driven by input (teaching) and monitored in relation to measurable outcomes (testing). This performance paradigm is reinforced by the syllabus, in which reality is reduced to models. Then there is the dominant mindset of the tourism industry, which is about marketing destinations to deliver the optimum and preferably authentic travel experience—although some marketeers acknowledge that sharing the negative experience may defuse post-travel emotions and can be positive for brand recognition. (Kim et al., 2015). Consequently, tourism educators train students to design and control tourist experiences to deliver business value. All the while, educators ignore the inquiry into contemporary events. The teaching schedule simply allows no space for conversations with the aim to make sense of what is difficult, paradoxical or downright chaotic. But what do students miss out on? A typical week’s teaching at the researcher’s school of tourism, illustrates that we fail to relate the tourism and hospitality syllabus to current events. We show students how to complete the business model canvas for KLM—and ignore the fact that this airline is detaining travellers at Schiphol in response to Trump’s travel ban. We explain the market share of AirBnB and neglect to ask why that same organisation offers free rooms to refugees. We teach hospitality service, but we do not ask why the people of Palermo and Lesbos are now considered as champions of hospitable behaviour. An initial search has generated little evidence to clarify the specific impact of incorporating current events on student learning in tourism education. Teaching current events relates to authentic learning, a social process which involves judgement (Lombardi, 2007). There is some evidence that integration of current events has a positive impact on student performance in higher social work education, as they feel connections with persons, systems and their own learning practice (Grise-Owens, 2010). Biology students were found to learn better as they related their discipline to policy decisions by discussing current events (Tinsley, 2016). Current events partly relate to political engagement which may lead to students working more actively on policy issues relevant to their professions (Yob and Ferraro, 2013). It has been argued that higher education may be one of the last places where students can be engaged as citizens rather than consumers (Giroux, 2003). Teaching practice suggests that teachers in higher education should engage with current events and enrich them by their own scholarly work. (Rooks, 2014) This requires teachers to identify “hot button topics” that are related to their discipline (Vanderbilt,

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2017). Methods to facilitate a safe environment in which controversial topics can be explored and discussed involve setting ground rules of democracy (Yale, 2016). Tourism educators should help students confront today’s chaotic events as a human being, a citizen and a professional. To support this change, research should be directed towards effective ways in which to optimize this type of authentic learning for tourism students. References Giroux (2003), Selling Out Higher Education, Policy Futures in Education, 1(1), 2003, 179-200 Kim, Jeongmi and Fesenmaier, Daniel R. (2015). Sharing Tourism Experiences. Journal of Travel Research,

56 (1), 28-40 Lombardi, M. M. (2007). Authentic Learning for the 21st Cy: An Overview. ELI Paper 1, 1-12 Olsen, K. (2002), Authenticity as a Concept in Tourism Research. Tourist Studies, 2 (2), 159-182 Grise-Owens, E., Cambron, S., Valade, R. (2010) Using Current Events to Enhance Learning: A Social Work Curricular Case Example. Journal of Social Work Education, 46(1), 33-146 Tinsley, H. N. (2016). Ripped from the Headlines: Using Current Events and Deliberative Democracy to Improve Student Performance in and Perceptions of Nonmajors Biology Courses. Journal of

Microbiology & Biology Education, 17(3), 380–388. http://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v17i3.1135 Rooks, N.W., (2014). Knowing when to teach current events.

The Chronicle of Higher Education.

http://www.chronicle.com/article/Knowing-When-to-Teach-Current/148939/ Yale

Centre

for

Teaching

and

Learning

(2016),

Managing

Controversy.

Retrieved

18-2-2017,

http://ctl.yale.edu/teaching/teaching-how/chapter-2-teaching-successful-section/managingcontroversy Yob, I.M. and Ferraro, A. (2013) Political Engagement in Higher Education Curricula. Journal of Social

Change, 5(1), 1-10 Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching, Difficult Dialogues, https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-subpages/difficult-dialogues/ retrieved 15 Feb 2017 About the author Bastienne Bernasco is a senior lecturer at Saxion. She is a former team manager for the hotel management school and the author of the national profile for hotel management studies.

She is currently the

coordinator of the Expedition, a Saxion minor in which students apply human centred service design and hospitality studies to international projects. Bastienne is an expert in Good Food and teacher Great Books in the Honours Programme Global Citizenship and Liberal Arts and Sciences. She is a member of the project team designing a full time bachelor programme in Liberal Arts and Sciences. Her research interests include food, educational design and hospitality studies. Bastienne holds a master in English and American language and literature.

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7 Ethical Tourists as Global Citizens: A Critique Jim Butcher, Canterbury Christ Church University, United Kingdom

[email protected] This paper offers a critique of the merits of leisure travel motivated by and linked to a desire for global citizenship. It is noted that a crisis in republican citizenship, and an attendant crisis of politics itself (Jacoby, 1999: Furedi, 2005, 2015), have reinforced the moral claims associated with global citizenship. Put simply, in an age of anti-politics, lifestyle can seem a more viable way to act upon the world. The paper develops a novel and contrasting argument: a restatement of the importance of a civic republican notion of citizenship, as opposed to global citizenship, as a progressive assumption in debates around leisure travel (and by implication much else). Ethical tourism (in contrast to mass tourism) has long been linked with global citizenship implicitly (Krippendorf, 1987). More recently that link has become explicit and theorised, particular in relation to ‘volunteer tourism’, ‘philanthropy tourism’ and niches associated with ethical travel (Palacios, 2010; Lyons

et al, 2012; Phi, Dredge and Whitford, 2013). Global citizenship suggests a less partial and less bounded view of the world, corresponding to the lived travel experience of the mobile middle classes (Mowforth and Munt, 2015). Even the Gap Year – perhaps the closest thing western societies have to a right of passage for middle class youth – is associated with, and occasionally even certificated for, promoting global citizenship (Simpson, 2005). The ethical traveller can, apparently, exercise their agency and morality in relation to globe, directly and personally, through their travels. Yet the notion of global citizenship also detaches citizenship from the polity and from the democratic or potentially democratic structures of the nation state (Parekh, 2003; Standish, 2012). Instead, citizenship is enacted, or ‘performed’, through lifestyle and consumption (with tourism being a key example of this). The Arendtian (1958) view of an agonistic public sphere through which republican citizens can exercise their freedom collectively and in public through politics is replaced by essentially personal and private encounters and experiences (Butcher and Smith, 2015). It is only in this context that an activity considered until recently as politically facile as tourism can be part of a narrative of something as vital as citizenship (Butcher and Smith, 2015). Through critiquing the narrative of tourists as global citizens, the paper aims to do two additional things: (1) To restate the importance of the assumptions of republican citizenship (for both tourists and hosts) in the way we understand tourism. (2) To suggest that the positive potential in leisure travel as an open ended and experimental experience through which moral and personal autonomy are developed is in fact constrained by linking it to the goals associated with global citizenship. References Arendt, H. 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Butcher, J. And Smith, P. 2015. Volunteer Tourism: the lifestyle politics of international development. London: Routledge

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Furedi, F. 2005. Politics of Fear: Beyond Left and Right. London: Continuum. Furedi, F. 2013. Authority: A Sociological History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jacoby, R. 1999. The End of Utopia: Politics and Culture in an Age of Apathy. New York: Basic Books, Krippendorf, J. 1987. The Holidaymakers: Understanding the Impact of Leisure and Travel. London: Butterworth-Heinemann. Lyons, K., Hanley, J., Wearing, S. and Neil, J. 2012. ‘Gap Year Volunteer Tourism: Myths of Global Citizenship?’. Annals of Tourism Research. 39 (1), 361–378. Mowforth, M. & Munt. I. 2015. Tourism and Sustainability: Development, globalisation and new tourism in

the third world. Routledge: London Palacios, C. 2010. ‘Volunteer tourism, development, and education in a postcolonial world: Conceiving global connections beyond aid’. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18 (7), 861–878. Parekh, B. 2003. ‘Cosmopolitanism and global citizenship’. Review of International Studies. 29, 3-17 Phi, G, Dredge, D. and Whitford, D. 2013. Fostering global citizenship through the microfinance-tourism

nexus. Paper presented at the conference ‘Tourism Education for Global Citizenship: educating for lives of consequence’. Oxford Brookes University, Oxford. April 13-16. Simpson, K. 2005. ‘Dropping out or Signing Up? The Professionalisation of Youth Travel’. Antipode. 37 (3), 447–469. Standish A.

2012. The False Promise of Global Learning: Why Education Needs Boundaries . London:

Continuum About the author Jim Butcher is a Reader in the School of Human and Life Sciences at Canterbury Christ Church University in Kent, UK. He has written three books and a number of journal articles looking at the moral and political claims made for ethical tourism and the problematisation of mass tourism. He has also written for the Times Higher, Spiked and other publications. Currently he is keen on developing a humanist counter to the essentialising emphasis on cultural, racial and gender identity in contemporary discussions of geography and tourism. Jim occasionally blogs at www.politicsoftourism.blogspot.co.uk/ and tweets from @jimbutcher2.

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8 Disorienting Dilemmas for Critical Thinking: A Praxis of Critical Pedagogy in Tourism Christina T. Cavaliere, Stockton University, United States of America

[email protected] Karla Boluk, University of Waterloo, Canada

[email protected] Lauren Duffy, Clemson University, United States of America

[email protected] This research responds to the gap exposed by Stone & Duffy (2015) regarding the limited application of Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) within traditional travel and tourism classrooms. Accordingly, this paper is theoretically grounded in the work of John Mezirow’s (1978) TLT and critical pedagogy, and utilizes Stephen Brookfield’s (1987; 2012) Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ), as a tool and method for teaching critical thinking (CT). CT is about identifying the assumptions that frame our thinking, understanding the degree to which these assumptions are accurate, looking at our ideas and decisions from various perspectives, and taking informed actions (Brookfield, 2012). Critical pedagogy is teaching in a way that incorporates these same principles of CT and extends them into specific situational contexts that require students to analyse ideas in a way that moves them towards transforming the inequitable. Thus, it is unsurprising that there is also a relationship between transformative learning experiences and critical pedagogy – both engage students as critical thinkers and “envisioners of alternative possibilities of social reality” (Nagada, Gurin, & Lopez, 2003, p.167). Students are most primed for CT when some kind of unexpected event or “disorienting dilemma” (Mezirow, 1978) and students engage in more complex levels of transformative thinking when presented with disorienting dilemmas (Brookfield, 2012). The researchers present a case study of an intentionally designed critical learning activity they collaboratively developed and implemented in their respective classrooms.

This activity positioned

students to engage with points of ethical and hegemonic contention and contemplation; specifically, three contemporary issues were utilized to create potential disorienting experiences for tourism students at three North American Universities (e.g., the Northwest Passage cruise and climate change, LGBTQ+ communities and inclusivity, Syrian refugee crisis). All three topics require critical discourse of important ethical issues and were intended to provide opportunities for deeper analysis of power structures that are both impacted by, and from the phenomenon of international tourism. Students were provided with resources to explore each dilemma and become experts on their topic in small groups. Subsequently, they presented their initial reactions, divergent perspectives, and core ethical dilemmas in each case. After the discussions, the instructors administered the CIQ. The CIQ is a practical tool for instructors to ascertain moments of student engagement and/or confusion regarding course content.

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Data analysis included independent open coding of the student responses on the CIQ. A further analysis of the data was to group codes into themes; the researchers then met to discuss their interpretations and search for agreement of emerging themes. This study found three primary research themes. The first theme involves transformations in student perspectives; student responses suggested that their views were evolving, or they were thinking about things in a way they had not previously. The second emerging theme involves relevancy, connectivity and translational thoughts. This encompasses students’ capabilities in contemplating their own tourism behaviours, and how it is important to their own community. The third theme focuses on the success of a student-centred learning approach, evidenced by participant responses that suggested diverse delivery mechanics for different styles of learning along with the integration of various subject topics are important. Supporting data of each of these emerging themes will be provided in the presentation, as well as discussion of the utility of the CIQ, and the important of furthering academic discourse regarding critical pedagogy in tourism studies. References Bain, K (2004). What the best college teachers do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing critical thinkers. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Brookfield, S. (2012). Teaching for critical thinking: Tools and techniques to help students question their assumptions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ennis, R.H. (2011). Critical thinking: Reflection and perspective—Part I. Inquiry, 26, 1. Facione, P. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. Millbrae, CA: The California Academic Press. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking fast and slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Strauss, & Giroux. Habermas, J. (1981). A theory of commutative action: Lifeworld and system; a critique of functionalist reason. Foundational information. Translated by Thomas A. McCarthy. Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-1401-X. Mezirow, J. (1990). How critical reflection triggers transformational learning. In J. Mezirow and Associates (Eds.), Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to transformative and emancipatory learning (pp.1-20). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (1978). Education for perspective transformation: Women’s re-entry programs in community colleges. New York, NY: Centre for Adult Education, Teacher’s College, Columbia University. Nagda, B. R. A., Gurin, P., & Lopez, G. E. (2003). Transformative pedagogy for democracy and social justice. Race, ethnicity and education, 6(2), 165-191. Rotherham, A. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2010). “21 st-century” skills: Not new, but a worthy challenge.

American Educator, 34(1), 17-20. Stone, G.A., & Duffy, L.N. (2015). Transformative learning theory: A systematic review of travel and tourism scholarship. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 15(3), 204-224.

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About the authors Christina Cavaliere is an environmental social scientist with expertise in international sustainable development specifically involving linking tourism and conservation. Her research interests include tourism and climate change, local economies, ecogastronomy, permaculture, agritourism and critical pedagogy for sustainability. She currently serves as an Assistant Professor in the programs of Hospitality and Tourism Management Studies and Sustainability at Stockton University. Karla Boluk, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Applied Health Sciences at the University of Waterloo. Karla’s research challenges the dominant discourse in higher education, examining ways to facilitate critical pedagogy. Furthermore, she explores ways to sustainably engage and empower communities’ effectively positioning tourism as a mechanism for the creation of positive change. In praxis, Karla is involved in the creation of student platforms to encourage reflection and action via critical interventions. Dr. Lauren Duffy has research interests in tourism development, particularly in Latin American contexts, with a focus on the power dynamics and distribution of impacts/resources throughout the tourism planning process. She is also interested in critical pedagogy, transformative learning, international education, and service-learning; she is a Clemson University Critical Thinking Fellow.

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9 Bridge to Freedom: Creating the Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Interpretive Center Thomas A. Chambers, Niagara University, United States of America

[email protected] In November 2017 an Underground Railroad Interpretive Center is scheduled to open in Niagara Falls, New York, and will be located inside the Intermodal Transportation Center, whose primary tenant is Amtrak, the government sponsored passenger rail service in the United States. Intended to become a tourist attraction, the Interpretive Center will present the history of self-emancipated slaves who fled the American South during the 1840s-1850s. Immediately across the street from the Interpretive Center, which is housed in a restored 1863 structure that served as an active border control station, are the historic abutments of the 1855 Whirlpool Suspension Bridge. That structure carried Underground Railroad conductor and American hero Harriet Tubman, along with many slaves who she helped liberate, across the Niagara River to freedom in Canada, then a possession of Great Britain where slavery had been abolished. This paper will investigate the ways in which this controversial history of enslaved Africans and sympathetic free whites broke the law of the United States. It addresses the ethics of borders and controlled mobility when human beings are seeking to escape oppression—in this case being owned as property and forced to labor—and gain greater opportunity and freedom. Efforts to incorporate heritage tourism at a transportation site allows for theoretical investigation of the intersections of mobility, tourism and history. Furthermore, there are ethical responsibilities in telling stories of past trauma, especially when the intended visitors will be the African-American descendants of slaves. The political controversy surrounding the Interpretive Center—some critics claim that Harriet Tubman never stopped there and that the history of freeing slaves is not worthy of commemoration—will also be discussed. Finally, part of the interpretive plans include gaining permission from U.S. and Canadian officials to allow tourists to walk out onto the current bridge between the two nations and view Niagara Falls as self-emancipated slaves would have done 160 years ago. In re-enacting history these tourists would be defying borders and asserting the morality of illegality when faced with injustice. More than simply a museum, the Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Interpretive Center will be a physical expression of human mobility and the ability of travel to assert the basic human right to freedom. About the author Thomas A. Chambers is Professor of History at Niagara University, New York, USA, and President of the Niagara Falls National Heritage Area. That affiliate of the U.S. National Park Service is a non-profit entity charged with interpreting the history of the Niagara Falls region and developing heritage tourism; “Borderlands and Border Crossings” is a key interpretive theme that emphasizes the Underground Railroad. The group is leading to development of the Underground Railroad Interpretive Center.

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His research focuses on tourism and memory, most recently in Memories of War: Visiting

Battlegrounds and Bonefields in the Early American Republic (Cornell University Press, 2012). Chambers is also co-author, with William H. Siener, of “Harriet Tubman, the Underground Railroad, and the Bridges at Niagara Falls,” Afro-Americans in New York History and Life 36, 1 (January 2012): 34-63. Chambers holds a Ph.D. and M.A. in History from the College of William and Mary (Virginia, USA) and a B.A. in History from Middlebury College (Vermont, USA).

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10 On War Remembrance and Global Citizenship: A Critical Semiotic Analysis of Two Touristic Contexts Joseph M. Cheer, Monash University, Australia

[email protected] Irina Herrschner, University of Melbourne, Australia Keir Reeves, Federation University, Australia The remembrance of past wars is an intrinsic narrative that pervades national histories, identities, folklores and nationalisms across the globe. Importantly, and of relevance to this paper, it also inspires international and domestic tourist visitation. Evidently, the ways in which war heritage is imagined, performed and retold appears diverse with underpinning narratives shaped largely by cultural, political and historical drivers. Of particular focus are narratives underlined by ‘war’ or ‘peace’ - the use of one or the other and the allied semiotics of each, forms the canvas for this discussion. In this interdisciplinary interrogation, we argue that the use of the term ‘peace’ instead of ‘war’ is a marker for the way war heritage storylines are propagated and that this has a distinct influence in the way citizenry in general, and international visitors interact with and learn from particular devices, spaces and performance modes. Several key questions are posed: Why is it that in some countries war heritage is feted and valorized while in others, remembrance is heavily accentuated with regret and solemnity? Furthermore, are the ways in which war heritage is offered distinguished by the way nations who, as history dictates are the defeated, tend to commemorate war under the overarching theme of peace and the mantra of ‘never again’, while the perspectives of victors are underlined by victory, profitable sacrifice and nationalistic fervor? In offering a critical semiotic analysis, a comparative, cross-cultural semiotic approach is taken to two prominent global sites that characterize the use of ‘peace’ and ‘never again’ as underlying narratives – the Holocaust Memorial in Berlin and the Peace Park in Hiroshima. The research problem in this paper hinges on the fact that the two sites happen to belong to countries that were defeated during World War II, and as such, this paper is a deliberate attempt to critically probe how the use of the ‘peace’ narrative (as opposed to war) is performed in touristic contexts and what this means for global citizenship. Accordingly, we ask: what are the implications for the construction of contemporary international relations, cultural diplomacy and notions of global citizenship? This paper is one part of a larger forthcoming work that examines the performance of the ‘war’ narrative in touristic and cultural heritage contexts and what the implications for global citizenship are. Overcoming simplistic generalizations in understandings concerning the performance of war heritage is a critical contribution to the related extant discourse that blends war remembrance and global citizenship. In turn we offer a conceptual framework for war remembrance that centers enhanced global citizenship as

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a key outcome. Following Winter (2009), social memory theory is applied alongside critical semiotic analysis to exemplify transnational distinctions in war memory with the intention of advancing theoretical development around the social construction of war memory through tourism. About the author Dr Joseph M. Cheer is lecturer at the National Centre for Australian Studies, Monash University and directs the activities of the Australia and International Tourism Research Unit. Joseph’s research draws from transdisciplinary perspectives, especially human geography, cultural anthropology and political economy with a focus on the Asia-Pacific region. As a former practitioner, he is focused on research to practice with an emphasis on resilience building, sustainability and social justice. His forthcoming books with Alan Lew include Lew, A.A. & Cheer, J.M. (Eds.) (2017) Tourism Resilience and Adaptation to Environmental Change. London: Routledge and Cheer, J.M. & Lew, A.A. (Eds.) (2017) Tourism Resilience and Sustainability: Adapting to Social, Political and Economic Change. London: Routledge.

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11 A Meta-Analysis of the Direct Economic Impacts of Cruise Tourism on Port Cities Jamie M. Chen, VU University Amsterdam, the Netherland s

[email protected] James F. Petrick, Texas A&M University, United States of America Alexis Papathanassis, Bremerhaven University of Applied Sciences, Germany Xinjian Li, Beijing International Studies University, China  Tourism has become one of the fastest growing economic sectors in the world and cruise tourism is an increasingly important segment. The cruise industry generates a substantial positive economic impact globally and it is widely deemed that cruise tourism can generate money for ports. From the local community perspective, it, however, lacks a systematic investigation to quantify the influences on the port cities. This research provides a meta-analysis of a selected sample of 180 observations based on 30 studies since the 1990s. Regarding the comparatively small size of samples, the current study focused on the direct impact of cruise tourism on port cities, called here port profit, using a panel data model. This study conducted the panel data model on a 30-study ID cluster and the fixed- effects of four port dummy variables, which can minimize the data bias between and within samples. The results show a positive elasticity between the port profit and the passenger expenditures, passenger number, crew number, cruise line number, and off-ship duration of time in port. It is surprising that crew expenditures and cruise line expenditures do not have statistically significant influence on port profits, and cruise passenger excursion expenditures may be influenced by the mediating effect of cruise lines’ duration of stay in port (cruise passenger off-ship time). From a port typology perspective, home ports and port-of-calls both have a significantly higher profit than hybrid port. It is worth noting that the port profits from survey data are significantly higher than the ones from industry data and official data. However, it seems that the port profit in different areas are statistically homogeneous, and it is the same case in island economy, land- based economy, and mixed economy. As one of the most important stakeholders, the local communities in port cities will receive the majority of the direct expenditures of cruise passengers, crew members, and cruise lines, and this study provides some new insights of the critical determinants of the direct economic impacts on the local communities in port cities. About the author Jamie M. Chen, is PhD candidate in Department of Spatial Economics at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL) and visiting scholar in Department of Recreation, Park & Tourism Sciences at Texas A&M University (USA).

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Her research interests cover cruise tourist consumer behavior, cruise line decision making, cruise port economics, and cruise tourism marketing. She focusses on empirical research in particular on quantitative methods and econometric modelling. James F. Petrick, PhD, is professor in Department of Park, Recreation, & Tourism Science, Texas A&M University (USA). Dr. Petrick focuses on exploring the applicability of psychology and marketing principles in the context of leisure services, and his research is concentrated on predicting tourists’ and recreationists’ repurchase behaviors by better understanding their perceived value, satisfaction, perceptions of quality and loyalty. Other research areas include the analysis of Jimmy Buffett fans’ behaviors and advertising effectiveness. Alexis Papathanassis, PhD, is professor in Faculty of Management & Information Systems at Bremerhaven University of Applied Sciences (Germany). Dr. Papathanassis has played an active role in the Institute for Maritime Tourism, Cruise Research Society, and German Tourism Society. His research interests are mainly about Cruise Tourism Management, Internet and Cruises, Tourism Mergers & Acquisitions, Systems Development Practices & Information Management in Tourism, and Tourism Innovation Practices and Patterns. Xinjian Li, PhD, is Professor and Dean of the School of Tourism Management at Beijing International Studies University (China). His research interests include the economic development strategy of tourism industry, outbound tourism market research, transnational business, and management of tourism enterprises.

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Institutionalised Racial Prejudice: The Encounter Between

Chinese Students and UK Host Families Man Tat Cheng, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau; University of Exeter Business School, United Kingdom

[email protected] The aim of this paper is to reveal how racial prejudices are observed in the production and consumption of educational tours in the UK for the Chinese market. ‘Home-stay’ experience has become popular for Chinese youngsters to learn English and experience British cultures. The problem is that the some Chinese consumers sought a white family or proactively avoided a black family. The loss of an equal opportunity being a host, given that a family is entitled to take part in the business, is regarded as discrimination (Simpson and Yinger, 2002). The theme of this paper nevertheless revolves around prejudices. Vickery and Opler (1948) define prejudice as a prescribed and distorted misjudgement that one defends. The analytical standpoint of this study is that racial prejudices are historical structures: i.e. Imperialism in the early twentieth century and anti-Black sentiments (Fanon, 1986), mediating the misjudgement at present time, which have even become institutionalised. Tourism offers spaces where tourists could also carry wider social discourse from home society (Moore: 2002; McCabe; 2005). Therefore, the encounter between Chinese participants and their host families is a space in which ethical issues could be observed and analysed. It was also opportune to find to what extent these visitors could undergo transformation through a reflexive process in a different place (Desforges, 2000; Haldrup and Larsen, 2003). The author volunteered to travel with fifteen Chinese students who came to London for three weeks during their summer holiday. The findings about racial prejudices are based on observations of the interactions between these students and their host families, and also an interview with the owner of an educational tour firm in the UK. For this tour firm, one important area for the study trip production is to source “suitable” host families for the Chinese consumers. According to the owner, his partners in China (Chinese firms that are responsible for recruiting participants in China) requested him to avoid Black host families and some of them even signed a “racial contract” with the participants’ parents. This contract involves an agreement which specifies that only White families are hosting the participants. The owner was once moaned by a Chinese firm for being unable to filter out Black families for some Chinese participants, which led to compensation to the customers, borne by that Chinese firm. What are the ‘home-stay’ experiences felt by the Chinese students? It is found that these experiences are conditioned by three factors. The first one is the personal characters of the host families (regardless race and ethnicity). Second, it is the standard of material provisions for the participants (concerning the profit the hosts aimed to gain from the service provided). The third aspect is the racial prejudices held by the youngsters, which are reflected in the discourses observed from their verbal description of the host families relevant to their races. These students expressed insensitive comments

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about the hosts without any awareness of the ethical implication of their comments, or in other words, the necessary political correctness involved. About the author Man Tat Cheng has just finished his first year working in Macau University of Science and Technology. He gained a PhD in Management at the University of Exeter Business School in 2015. His thesis explores the intersection between tourist consumption and the cultural politics of the Chinese state. Man Tat is interested to investigate the working of cultural authority in tourism spaces and how individuals are structured and respond to it.

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13 Tourism Workplace HIV and AIDS Programmes in South Africa: A Long Walk to Implementation? Adlai Davids, Human Sciences Research Council, South Africa

[email protected] Dimitri Tassiopoulos, Human Sciences Research Council, South Africa and Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa Tourism remains a major source of foreign currency income and employment in South Africa. In 2015 the country’s direct contribution to the GDP was USD 702.8million and directly employed an estimated 703 000 people in the same year. These positive outcomes for tourism were achieved against a backdrop of a generalized HIV-epidemic where an estimated 12.2% of the population (about 6.4 million persons) were HIV positive in 2012. Given the inherent risks that HIV poses to the health and productivity of tourism (and other) employees, it would be expected that tourism workplaces would consider HIV and AIDS programmes to mitigate against potential losses in tourism revenue. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and Fair Trade Tourism (FTT) as organisations that promote best practice in the (tourism) workplace, stress the importance of treating HIV and AIDS as a workplace issue. For example, when advocating for a general human rights approach to labour matters, the ILO emphasizes the importance of links between the world of work and a country’s HIV and AIDS responses. FTT on the other hand encourages and certifies ethical, fair and responsible business practice that includes respect for human rights. In the light of the above considerations, this study set out to investigate whether tourism workplaces in South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province heeded the guidance of the ILO and FTT by implementing suitable workplace programmes through integrated wellness programmes that, amongst other diseases, promote HIV treatment, care, disclosure and de-stigmatization of HIV. The Eastern Cape had a HIV prevalence of 11.6% in 2012 and is known for its advancement of workers’ rights in many sectors. The study’s methodology included a situational analysis, quantitative surveys and in-depth interviews (IDIs) and looked to determine the extent of the implementation of HIV and AIDS programme in the tourism sector in the province. The study found very few tourism HIV and AIDS workplace programmes (WPPs), but uncovered extensive reasons for the non-implementation of WPPs. These reasons were premised on replies to statements regarding the availability of capacity and resources, knowledge of HIV and AIDS, applicable formal legislation and views on the sources of funding for the implementation of WPPs. In addition, the views of key national tourism and workplace stakeholders gathered through in-depth interviews, offer possible reasons why the current scenario regarding the non-implementation WPPs is being played out in the two study sites.

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The presentation will conclude by reflecting on good outcomes from WPPs in the automotive sector, as well as South African views on corporate social responsibility in the tourism sector. Since there has been a greater shift towards responsible tourism purchasing in major markets, the implementation of HIV and AIDS WPPs as part of ethical tourism business practice, can serve to enhance tourism offerings in the Eastern Cape. Ethical tourism business practice is especially relevant for South Africa where HIV and AIDS are characterized as being a generalized epidemic, as well as for other tourism destinations globally where HIV infection may pose a significant risk to tourists. About the authors Mr Adlai Davids is a senior research manager in the SAHARA unit of the HIV/AIDS, STIs and TB (HAST) research programme, Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC).

He holds a Master of Science (MSc)

degree in geographical information systems (GIS) from the Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (formerly ITC) of the University of Twente, The Netherlands. He is currently participating as a researcher in the HSRC’s niche research area on workplace HIV/AIDS programmes in South Africa, as well as being the Eastern Cape’s research coordinator for the South African National Household Survey on HIV/AIDS and health. Mr Davids serves as editorial assistant of the Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS (SAHARA-J). Dr Dimitri Tassiopoulos is a Chief Research Manager with Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS Research Alliance (SAHARA) within the HIV/AIDS, STIs and TB (HAST) research programme of the HSRC. He holds a BA (Hons.) degree in Political Science from the University of Stellenbosch, and obtained an MBA and PhD in Management and Administration from the University of Stellenbosch Business School in South Africa. Before joining the HSRC in May 2011, he was an Associate Director at the School Tourism and Hospitality of Walter Sisulu University (WSU) in East London, South Africa. Dr Tassiopoulos has been involved as an International Reviewer for the European Council on Hotel, Restaurant & Institutional Education (EuroCHRIE), Dubai 2008 Conference, session chair for the 2008 International Council for Small Business (ICSB) Conference, Canada and the 7th International Conference for Consumer Behaviour and Retailing Research (CIRCLE), Portugal. Dr Tassiopoulos has served on the editorial boards of Tourism Today and the European Journal of Tourism Research and serves as a reviewer for the Tourism Management Journal. He is also the managing editor of the Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS (SAHARA-J)

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14 Identity Politics in Rural Cyprus: Tourism, Power and Ethics Evi Eftychiou, University of Nicosia, Cyprus

[email protected] This paper focuses on the disputed identity of rural Cyprus. It is an ethnographic study on tourism that argues that the power of western hegemony, not only defines but also reverses the definition of ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ identity in the cultural setting of Cyprus in a way that its authority is maintained and legitimized. By focusing on identity politics and tourism in Troodos mountainous region, this study examines the conflict between native elites and locals over the definition of local identity. The data for this study were collected by conducting fieldwork for nine months in Troodos region, personal in depth interviews with native elites and archival research. In the postcolonial setting of the 1960s, native elites reproduced the western vision of ‘development’, ‘progress’ and ‘modernity’, as expressed in Europe after the Second World War. The invented concept of ‘modernity’ was introduced by native elites and was translated into policies and strategies towards the achievement of rapid ‘progress’ and the development of mass tourism in the coastal zones of Cyprus. As a result, the Cypriot authorities neglected Troodos mountainous region as a low-priority area and its residents were exposed as underdeveloped, backward peasants. The economic boom of the 1970s and 1980s, provided to rural residents the opportunity to, finally achieve ‘progress’, by reproducing the mass tourism model. In the meantime though, the native elites reversed the definition of modernity, which reproduced the western principles of sustainable development, environmental and cultural heritage protection. The ‘underdeveloped’ region of Troodos, was now identified as ideal for the implementation of environment and heritage conservation projects, with the ultimate goal of developing small scale, cultural tourism in the area. The denial of locals to reproduce the new paradigm of development and their persistence to strive for material modernity left them once again exposed as ‘backward’, ‘ignorant’ and ‘parvenus’ peasants. This paper will explore the extent to which identity politics at the local level are intertwined with global unequal power relations by critically approaching the dominant discourse. To address this issue, I will explore the flow of power, from Northern European experts to local native elites and from local experts to rural residents of Troodos region. It is argued that local cultural conditions are involved in a constant interplay with western or universal principles, to such a degree that local and global processes are now intertwined and interconnected. In other words, not only are local conditions influenced by globalization, but global principles and processes are also influenced by local cultural configurations, even in the West itself. The purpose of this paper is to give an insight to the ethical issues concerning the idea that identity politics in rural Cyprus are intertwined with unequal power relations at a local and global level. The definition and negotiation of rural identity is involved in a vicious cycle of producing, maintaining, legitimizing and normalizing western hegemony.

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About the author Dr. Evi Eftychiou is a Lecturer at the Department of Law, University of Nicosia (Cyprus), where she teaches courses on Legal Anthropology, Sociology of Law, Cultural Anthropology, Principles of Sociology, European Cultures and Principles and Methods of Qualitative Research. She holds a BA in Sociology (Minor degree in Political Science) from the University of Cyprus and an MSc in Social Anthropology from the London School of Economics and Political Science. Dr. Eftychiou obtained her PhD from the University of Hull in UK and her thesis in entitled “Power and Tourism: Negotiating Identity in Rural Cyprus”. The ethnographic research explored the relationship between identity politics and tourism in the Troodos mountainous region and the conflict between native elites and locals over the definition of modernity. In 2010, she co-authored a chapter with Nicos Philippou, Coffee-Houses Culture and Tourism in Cyprus: a Traditionalized Experience, published by Channel View Publications in the edited volume “Coffee Culture, Destinations and Tourism”. Over the past years she participated in more than 30 projects funded by the Research Promotion Foundation, the European Union and the United Nations Development Programme.

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15 Kindness and Gratitude in Tourism Sebastian Filep, University of Otago, New Zealand

[email protected] Julian Macnaughton, University of Waterloo, Canada Troy D. Glover, University of Waterloo, Canada Academic investigations of kindness and gratitude are of interest to scholars in moral and positive psychology, normative ethics and political philosophy, yet they are largely absent from tourism studies. Such investigations may help explain tourist well-being and social capital in tourism. In particular, looking at this topic allows us to develop knowledge on eudaimonic well-being in tourism, and to understand the interpersonal value of seemingly frivolous social encounters which could happen to have more durable, long term effects. We adopted a positive psychology lens to explore how acts of kindness in tourism play out, and subsequently, to gain an understanding of gratitude or a felt sense of thankfulness in tourism. In so doing, our intent was to understand how tourism encounters work toward building greater bridging social capital in society. To meet that aim, we conducted a research study with twenty Canadian tourists, using a convenience sample. Through thematic analysis of semi structured, in-depth interviews, we identified the following themes: trust in the other person when an act of kindness is received; a sense of adventure; novelty; and eudemonic growth, that is, receiving kindness from strangers led to increases in well-being beyond pleasures. In all the interviews, gratitude always occurred in response to an exogenous shock—that is, in response to a situation in which tourists found themselves. These situations were typically contexts in which tourists were in unfamiliar environments and/or in which tourists needed to resolve a particular practical problem related to travelling (such as accommodation arrangements). The exogenous shock led to the interaction between tourists and strangers. The interview findings suggest certain precursors are required, such as a need for help by tourists and a certain level of trust, or faith in humanity, that the tourist has in the stranger (benefactor). On the benefactor’s side, there needs to be a willingness to help the tourist and an altruistic intention to do so, knowing that there will be costs to the offer of help. If those conditions were met, an act of kindness occurred, such as an offer of free accommodation, advice on finding a location at a destination, and so on. There are benefits to tourists and costs to benefactors as a result of the acts. Benefits to tourists, based on the respondents’ quotes were the perceived authenticity or novelty of the kind acts and the sense of adventure due to the risks involved in accepting help. The perceived costs to the benefactors, as reported by tourists, included: perceived physical effort by strangers in helping the tourist, like carrying luggage; perceived cost of time needed to help the tourist; and perceived financial costs to benefactors in providing assistance. Overall, it seems that while acts of kindness from one stranger to another in tourism may be temporary, these acts feed the enduring kindness bank helping to build a civic community in which gratitude, when understood as an emotional response, is more than a simple thank you.

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About the author Dr Sebastian Filep is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Otago, New Zealand. He is developing a humanist platform of research focusing on investigations of well-being, happiness and flourishing in tourism, primarily drawing from the field of positive psychology. Filep is a co-author of Tourists, Tourism

and the Good Life (Routledge, 2011), the lead editor of Tourist Experience and Fulfilment: Insights from Positive Psychology (Routledge, 2013) and the lead editor of Positive Tourism (Routledge, 2016). Dr Filep is an Associate Editor of Leisure Sciences, a member of the Editorial Board of the Journal of Hospitality and

Tourism Management (JHTM) and a member of the Editorial Review Board of Tourism Review.

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16 Gendered Violence, Tourism, and Global Citizenship Sue Frohlick, University of British Columbia, Canada

[email protected] Adriana Piscitelli, University of Campinas, Brazil In this paper we problematize the idea of tourism as an important contributor to the development of the attributes of global citizenship. We draw on the interpersonal, embodied tensions arising at the level of the body and intimacy in some locations in the Northeast of Brazil and in the Caribbean coast in Costa Rica, where we have carried extensive ethnographical research since 2007.

These touristic towns are

visited by Euro-North American “alternative” and volunteer tourists whose notions about their styles of travel are connected with the idea of tourism as a platform of global citizenship. The accounts of transnational intimacies and sexual encounters in these contexts point to numerous forms of violence occurring within heterosexual interracial relations between predominantly white foreign women and racialized local men from minority Afro-Caribbean populations. Such manifestations of gendered violence within local touristic communities in the global South Gendered could be considered the “collateral damage” of the pursuit of global citizenship through tourism. Yet, in this paper we take a different approach, making analytical connections between global citizenship and gendered violence.

While

international tourism is widely regarded as “an exemplary manifestation of cosmopolitanism and a facet of a new, emergent concept of global citizenship” (Bianchi and Stephenson 2014: 18), geopolitical analyses of violence against tourists (e.g. Phipps 1999), such as the terrorist attacks against tourists in Bali or Egypt, underscore the horrific implications of differential citizenship and the politics of mobility. In our paper we expand on these analyses by taking a transnational feminist anthropological approach to the examination of tourists as political agents in the realm of sexuality, subjectivity, and, even, domesticity. We pay attention to how violence is motivated by everyday gendered forms of structural, physical, and symbolic violence that occur as repercussions to the rights to travel and to claim global citizenship by privileged groups seeking sexual and intimate connections with minority populations. Through this path we look at the ethics of global citizenship as that which is negotiated through bodies in specific historical, social, and cultural contexts of tourism and where violence to, from, and between those bodies reveals complex gendered power struggles that are not transcended but rather intensified within the framework of global citizenship. About the authors Sue Frohlick is a cultural anthropologist and Professor at UBC in Kelowna, British Columbia, and researches and teaches in the areas of tourism, migration, heterosexuality, subjectivity, and ethnography. Her research has been published by Routledge in a monograph, Sexuality, Women, and Tourism: Cross Border

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Desires through Contemporary Travel, as well as international interdisciplinary journals including Annals of Tourism Research, Anthropological Quarterly, Tourist Studies, and Gender, Place and Culture. Adriana Piscitelli is a feminist social anthropologist, Professor at the University of Campinas (Brazil), National Science Research Council Researcher (CNPq/Brazil), Senior Researcher and Associate Coordinator of the State University of Campinas/Unicamp’s Centre for Gender Studies - PAGU. During the last fifteen years, she has been engaged in studies focusing the transnationalization of sex and marriage markets and the expansion of anti-trafficking regimes.

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17 Loving Place: Domestic Tourism and Affect as Identity in Divided Cyprus Pauline Georgiou, Goldsmiths, University of London, United Kingdom

[email protected] Following a Turkish invasion and a violent exchange of populations in 1974, the island of Cyprus remains divided by a border separating its two major ethnic groups. The trauma of displacement clashes with emotional and ancestral ties to the land, compromising the possibility of a shared expression of belonging. The unique political situation provides grounds for inquiry on the significance of place and affect in the search for identity. By targeting the oxymoron of domestic tourism within a divided country, not sufficiently challenged in the existing literature, as well as the moral limitations of new borders, this research investigates the circulation of those scattered elements that form the potential for a collective identity. On the political and ethical statement of having to present identification documents at the border crossing, Cypriots express their frustration as ‘forced to be tourists in their own land’, while socioeconomic developments find them increasingly roaming their respective sides as Agrotourists. With pride in their tradition of hospitality and a deeply rooted affect for the land, Cypriots try to embrace domestic tourism as a building block for their future, while the border itself forms a physical and emotional divide, challenging notions of belonging and the possibilities of a global identity. Through ethnographic evidence and empirical data collected over the course of one year, the research explores Cypriot notions of place, based on local conceptualisations such as the plasticity of borders, cultural perceptions of ownership and the rise of the domestic tourism market. This paper encounters the nostalgic, post-traumatic narratives of the new generation of Cypriots meeting where the status of guest and host blends. In their attempt to reconstruct their global and local identities through tourism, the link between place, affect and identity is established. This paper contributes to the anthropology of Cyprus during politically decisive times, as well as to the wider study of human-place relations. About the author A Doctoral Candidate in the Department of Anthropology at Goldsmiths, University of London, Pauline Georgiou recently returned from Cyprus where she conducted a year-long ethnographic research. Her interests include Tourism, Place and Affect and she is currently in the process of writing up.

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18 India Myanmar Partnership in Tourism for Development Makarand Gulawani, MacEwan University, Canada

[email protected] The objective of this paper is to study tourism in Northeast India and in Myanmar. As relationship between the two countries continue to evolve, this paper helps understand potential of India-Myanmar partnership in tourism for development. This paper is based on secondary data sources. Geographic and cultural proximity between India and Myanmar is an indisputable fact. Myanmar is the only ASEAN country India shares a land border with (Parmeshwaran, 2014). Myanmar is strategically important for India because of its geostrategic location linking the regions of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Myanmar is the gateway to Southeast Asia and a vital component for the success of India’s Look East policy, hence, India cannot ignore and requires positive engagement with Myanmar (Gogoi, 2007). The projected growth by Euromonitor in domestic tourism in India provides potential for development of tourism in North East India. In addition, considering cultural proximity of India and Myanmar, with appropriate infrastructure, tourist in India will have easy access to religious destinations in Myanmar. As growth in tourism in India is primarily driven by religious tourism, Myanmar with its ancient temples offers exactly what Indian domestic tourists are looking for. Myanmar provides Indian tourists an opportunity parallel only to Nepal (External Affairs Ministry of India, 2014). India’s support for tourism and associated activities in Myanmar represents a huge potential for India in return. Tourism has proved to be a substantial potential to spur employment and economic growth.

Tourism also supports heritage

management and preserving culture (Chhabra, 2010). The relationship between politics and tourism is complex and multi-faceted, and a subject which is assuming higher priority in the research literature. Tourism in Myanmar has been shaped by internal and external political forces. It was also a highly visible and contested political issue (Henderson, 2003). Domestic tourism in India recorded steady growth in 2013 of 18% in terms of the number of trips. Growth in domestic tourism in India continued to be driven primarily by religious tourism (Euromonitor International, 2014). Myanmar provides huge opportunity for religious tourism for Indian population with several religious sites and destinations. There is huge potential for Indian tour operators for clustering activities in Northeast India and in Myanmar. This paper highlights how Indian government’s partnership with the government of Myanmar for the development of infrastructure and for fostering understanding between people of both the countries has created good foundation for further development of tourism in Myanmar. This paper suggests that the two countries need to achieve much closer partnership with further actions for the success in tourism in Northeast India and in Myanmar to be able to address economic and political challenges of both the countries.

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About the author Makarand Gulawani is associate professor at MacEwan University. He teaches international marketing and consumer behavior. Makarand’s research interest is in tourism in South East Asia. He is particularly interested in understanding role of tourism in development in South East Asia.

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19 Is Visiting Kibera Slum, in the Frame of Guided Tour Organized by Its Residents, Ethical? Aleksandra Gutowska, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland

[email protected] Slum tourism is global trend. Poor urban areas considered as the places of 'otherness', 'moral decay' or 'deviant liberty' have always enticed the popular imagination. Since the beginning of the 90's we have witnessed fast growth of this controversial touristic practice in terms of economics, emerging new destinations and the numbers of guided tours and visitors (Frenzel, Koens, Steinbrink: 2012). From 2014 to 2016, I have been conducting ethnographic research on slum tours around Kibera which is considered to be the largest impoverished area of Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. My fieldwork fills the gap in the slum tourism research because I focused on the perspective of the slum inhabitants which is underinvesigated. They are often considered to be powerless victims of this phenomenon whereas results of my research show that they are active and creative entrepreneurs involved in the organization of Kibera tours. In my presentation, I will briefly sketch the program of the tours. Secondly, I will provide the reasons slum dwellers have decided to organize such tours. Finally, I will analyse the ways visitors address the problem of ethical issue of visiting the slum in frame of guided tours based on the assumption that slum inhabitants not only give their permission to be visited but by the organization of the tours they invite foreigners to come to Kibera. My field research was partially financed by the National Science Centre of Poland (the project's website: http://imagesofkibera.com/). About the author Aleksandra Gutowska is a Phd student at the Graduate School for Social Research at Polish Academy of Sciences. Since 2014 she has been conducting research on slum tourism in Kibera, considered to be the largest impoverished area of Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. She received the grant entitled: Mediation and redefinition of the meanings of poverty during the slum tour around Kibera in Kenya financed by National Science Centre in Poland.

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20 Tourists Aren’t Label Conscious - Rethinking Certification in Sustainable and Responsible Tourism John Hummel, Bureau Wyser, Bangladesh

[email protected] Adriaan Kauffmann, Bureau Wyser, the Netherlands There has been a lot of attention for sustainability certification in tourism during the last few decades. Research showed that despite some successes of sustainability labels in tourism, such as agenda setting and building networks, for the vast majority of tourism businesses and tourists, labels are not a factor in their decision-making. It is the lack of incentive for tourism businesses and the lack of interest from tourists that led to its insignificance. This paper answers the question whether there is still a role for sustainability certification, and if so what would this role be. This paper is based on the outcomes of two recent evaluations of sustainable and responsible tourism certification projects. The aim of this paper is to contribute to the sustainability debate in tourism, through lessons learned from certification in development practice. In this paper two critical assumptions in sustainability certification are contested; standardising sustainable tourism development into a static model seems to have decreased the value and legitimacy of these labels for its cause as well as for tourism businesses; and the marketing value of labels seems highly overestimated. To make labels commercially relevant and more effective in sustainability, these assumptions need to be re-studied. Most of the interviewed tourism businesses expressed mainly moral arguments for being certified. In this highly competitive industry, which is in need of becoming more sustainable, economic arguments are important to persuade corporates to enrol in certification programmes. To build an economic argument for certifying as a tool, research shows that certification programmes should focus on the process of becoming certified, rather than on the audit. Certification standardised sustainable tourism developments into static frameworks which did not acknowledge the local context of the tourism businesses. Assisting businesses in making their operation sustainable instead of forcing them to adopt a static set of rules seems much more valued among tourism businesses and also more effective for sustainable tourism development. Over the past decades, little evidence has been found that certification has played a role in the decision-making process of tourists. It seems that only in the destination itself, tourists consider sustainability and fairness. Using the results of the mentioned project evaluations, and reviewing the recent ‘visitor journey’ approach and marketing knowledge in service industries, leads to a new assumption: investing in product development and the tourist experience might be an interesting focus point for tourism businesses and labelling organisations to further build the economic argument of being and becoming certified.

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The two evaluations and debates among scientists and tourism practitioners show the limited use and value of certification in fair and sustainable tourism development, but also where sustainability certification could be more useful and valuable. This paper recommends that certification in fair and sustainable tourism development needs to become more process (certification programme) and product (tourist experience) oriented in in order to be more effective in sustainability and remain relevant as an approach. About the authors John Hummel has been working in tourism, poverty reduction and sustainable development for over 25 years. At the end of 2015, he defended his PhD, titled ‘the rise and fall of tourism for poverty reduction within SNV Netherlands Development Organisation’, at Wageningen University, and since has been evaluating tourism development donor projects, developing strategic development plans for fair and sustainable tourism, conservation and development organizations, in Asia and Africa. Before his PhD defence he was senior adviser and lecturer at the Community Based Tourism International Research for Development Centre (CBT-IRDC) at Payap University in Thailand, a tourism adviser for SNV Netherlands Development Organisation in several countries in the Himalaya, the Mekong, and the Balkans, a project researcher at Wageningen University, and a tour leader for a Dutch nature tour operator. He has been guest-lecturing in Europe and Asia, and published articles in, for instance, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Tourism Management, and Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research. Adriaan Kauffmann, director of Bureau Wyser, is an experienced consultant in international development and sustainable tourism. After his studies in international development (Radboud University, 2006) and sustainable tourism (Wageningen University, 2008) he carried out various researches and evaluations worldwide for NGOs, the private sector and governments. Currently Adriaan Kauffmann is an impact advisor to the CSR programme of Booking.com and thesis examiner for the Hospitality Business School of Saxion University. Recently he conducted the final evaluations of The (Child Protection) Code and Fair Trade Tourism. For further information on his background and experience, please visit his LinkedIn page: https://www.linkedin.com/in/adriaankauffmann/.

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21 Tourism as a Tool for Colonization, Segregation, Displacement and Dispossession: The Case of East Jerusalem, Palestine Rami K. Isaac, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] Edward Said had warned in 1995 that “only by first projecting an idea of Jerusalem could Israel then proceed to the changes on the ground [which] would then correspond to the images and projections”. Israel’s idea of Jerusalem, as elaborated in its master plans – for ethnic cleansing – involves maximizing the number of Jews and reducing the number of Palestinians through a gradual process of colonization, displacement and dispossession. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to examine how Israeli master plans for Jerusalem aiming to shape the city into a tourism and high-tech center, and the ways in which they use urban planning to reshape city’s demography. It will also shed some light on Israel's deliberately engineered economic breakdown of East Jerusalem, which renders the city essentially unliveable for Palestinians so as to ensure Jewish control over it. Tourism in this context is used as a tool to control the narrative and ensure the projection of Jerusalem in the outside world as a “Jewish city”. Israel used various methods to achieve its goal: isolating East Jerusalem from the West Bank; in part by the Segregation Wall; discrimination in land expropriations, planning and building and demolitions of houses; revoking residency and social benefits of Palestinians who stay abroad at least seven years or who are unable to prove that their center of life is Jerusalem; high taxation imposed to Palestinians and unfairly dividing the budget between two parts of the city, with harmful effect to infrastructure and service in East Jerusalem. Since the beginning of the 20th century Palestine has seen complicated changes in its political circumstances. These have included the creation of Israel in 1948 and 1967 war. Consequently, of the latter, Israel occupied the West bank including East Jerusalem and the Gaza strip. These events have created catastrophic political, economic, psychic, and social facts which have deeply affected the life of the Palestinian people, many of whom became refugees dislocated to neighbouring countries and indeed the world as a Palestinian diaspora. In many ways Palestine itself was simply wiped off the map (Isaac, 2010a, 2010b) historic Palestine coming to be known as Israel. In this context tourism became a political tool in the supremacy and domination of the Israel establishment over land and people, and an instrument for preventing the Palestinians from enjoying the benefits of the fruits of the cultural and human interaction on which tourism thrives. Although Ethnically-based segregation is by no means a new phenomenon in cities (Nighttingale, 2012), the urban studies literature in recent decades has paid specific attention to class-based segregation corresponding to the worldwide neoliberal turn (Castells, 1996; Davis, 2007). Enclaves are often subject to special governance regimes and access and movement restrictions, their etymological

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root in the Latin word clavis (key) points to the fact that their closed-off perimeter is a definition aspect. Therefore, the emergence of rich gated communities alongside marginal areas is understood to have created new forms of inclusion and exclusion in the post-industrial cities and towns (Douglas, Wissink & van Kempen, 2012). Despite of the recent ‘mobilities turn’ (Urry, 2007; Sheller, 2004), the literature on urban segregation, borders and enclaves have not paid adequate attention to activities and im/mobilities, focusing its analysis mainly on residents patterns (Kwan, 2009, 2013). Palestine has experienced division and occupation for several decades with severe effects on tourism to that area and to the Holy sites such as Bethlehem, Jericho, Nablus, Ramallah and East Jerusalem (Isaac et al., 2016). References Castells, M. (1996). The rise of network society. Oxford: Blackwell. Davis, M. (2007). Planet of the slums. London: Verso. Douglass, M., Wissink, B., & van Kempen, R. (2012). Enclave urbanism in China: Consequences and interpretations. Urban Geography. 33(2), 167-182. Isaac, R. K. (2010a). Alternative tourism: New forms of tourism in Bethlehem for the Palestinian tourism industry. Current Issues in Tourism, 13(1), 21–36. Isaac, R. K. (2010b). Moving from pilgrimage to responsible tourism: the case of Palestine. Current Issues

in Tourism, 13(6), 579–590. Isaac, R.K., Hall, C.M. & Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2016). The Politics and Power of Tourism in Palestine. London: Routledge. Kwan, M.P. (2009). From place-based to people-based exposure measures. Social Science & Medicine, 69(9), 1311-1213. Kwan, M.P. (2013). Beyond space (as we knew it): Towards temporary integrated geographies of segregation, health and accessibility. Annals of the Association of American Geographies, 103(5), 1078-1086. Nightingale, C. (2012). Segregation: A global history of divided cities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sheller, M. (2004). Mobile publics: Beyond the network perspectives. Environment and Planning, D, 22 (1), 39-52. Urry, J. (2007). Mobilities. Cambridge: Polity Press. About the author Born in Palestine, Rami Isaac did his undergraduate studies in The Netherlands, graduate studies in the U.K. and has earned his PhD from University of Groningen, in Spatial Sciences, in The Netherlands. He is currently a senior lecturer in tourism teaching at the undergraduate as well as postgraduate levels at the Academy for Tourism at the NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences in The Netherlands. In addition, he is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management at Bethlehem University, Palestine. He was the external assessor of Bethlehem TEMPUS (2004-2006) curriculum development project in Palestine in the field of pilgrimage, tourism and cultural industries. Currently he is the President of the Research Committee 50 on International Tourism, International Sociologist Association ISA (2014-

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2018). His research interests in the area of tourism development and management, critical theory, and political aspects of tourism. He published numerous articles and book chapters on tourism and political (in)stability, occupation, tourism and war, dark tourism, violence and transformational tourism.

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22 Treesleeper, the Researcher and the State: Ethics of Power and Paternalism in Indigenous Community-Based Tourism in Namibia Stasja Koot, Wageningen University & Research, the Netherlands

[email protected] Mariska Bijsterbosch, Wageningen University & Research, the Netherlands Verina Ingram, Wageningen University & Research, the Netherlands In this presentation, I raise two connected, ethical issues in relation to the Treesleeper Eco-camp in Tsintsabis, northern Namibia, a community tourism project run by indigenous Bushmen (or San) people. Both issues address paternalist relations with these people in. The first issue is a methodological one. My ideas are based on longitudinal ethnographic case material in Tsintsabis between 1999 to 2015, as well as a practical work engagement in relation to Treesleeper. This practical engagement in itself raises my first (methodological) ethical issue, namely that of my researcher position as a former development field worker, when writing about these days at a later stage based on memory. Based on autoethnography, I retrospectively investigate my role as a development fieldworker at Treesleeper, where I have worked from 2002 to 2007. Despite the epistemological value of this experience, also for my later academic career, the knowledge that I gained then is problematically connected with the crucial fact that I was unaware of ‘doing research’ at the time. I argue that this experience reveals a strong role for the researcher’s memories, which means that the researcher who uses such a type of retrospective analysis puts her/himself in a central position of power. The second ethical issue concerns the relation between Treesleeper and the Namibian state, most actively the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET). MET has been promoting community-based tourism since the early 1990s, thereby aiming to implement an ethical form of tourism in a post-colonial and post-apartheid context. However, this does not seem to be an easy task when analyzing the MET’s practices on the ground at Treesleeper, where I investigate their aim to support and strengthen this type of tourism. At first, the community had become self-sustaining (between 2003 and 2009), but this changed after the MET had accepted a community-initiated grant proposal in 2010 to upgrade Treesleeper. The project was until then mainly a camp site, and the EUfunded grant was supposed to change it into a middle-class eco-lodge. As it turned out, however, the upgrade failed; in 2015, half-finished buildings and security issues have led tourists and tour operators to stay away from Treesleeper, and therefore most employees have now lost their jobs. I suggest that the MET has shown a strong tendency to control the upgrade process, thereby diminishing the community’s agency. Moreover, the grant money, under the control of the MET, has now finished and MET does not want to continue its involvement in the project, while the current status of Treesleeper has also led to an

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intensification of community struggles and disputes. I explore the ethical implications of this current state and its misbalance between power and agency. I argue that the MET has been unable to implement its own ethics and ideologies because also they show a strong sense of paternalist behavior. About the author Stasja Koot, PhD, has been working with Bushmen people in Namibia since the late 1990s, when he did fieldwork for his MA in anthropology. Between 2002 and 2007, he worked at the Treesleeper Camp, Tsintsabis; and in 2013 he wrote his PhD dissertation “Dwelling in tourism: Power and myth amongst Bushmen in southern Africa”. He then worked for two years as a postdoctoral fellow at the International Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, where he also started research into the political economy of conservation in online and southern African environments. In 2015, he moved to Wageningen University where he now works as a lecturer and a postdoctoral fellow. His current research concentrates on the rhino poaching crisis and the effects this has on tourism in and around the Kruger National Park, South Africa.

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23 We Are Happy to Help: Exploring the Socio-Economic Impacts of Voluntourism on Local Residents in Cusco, Peru Tiffany Low, Aberystwyth University, United Kingdom

[email protected] Sally Everett, Anglia Ruskin University, United Kingdom

[email protected] Inge Hermann, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] Roberta Jonuškytė, Aberystwyth University, United Kingdom Until relatively recently, research on volunteer tourism has predominantly focused on the phenomenon itself and the volunteers, their personal motivations, profiles and experiences (see for example: Heath, 2007; Snee, 2014) or the rise of rapidly expanding niche of a so-called (new) ‘moral’ tourism industry (see for example: Butcher, 2003; Jones, 2004). Unfortunately, perspectives and experiences of local residents in the host community has remained an under-researched and rather neglected area of study. Volunteer tourism has been criticised for their attempts to open up new markets for consumption by emphasising the competitive advantages for customers (Binnie and Skeggs, 2004) and ultimately reproducing, rather than challenge, dichotomies about the global North/South division and views of the Self/Other, Help/Receiver and Modern/Authentic. Recent studies (see for example: Mostafanezhad, 2014; Snee, 2014; Lyons, Hanley, Wearing & Neil, 2012; Hermann, Peters & Van Trijp, 2017) have illustrated how seemingly altruistic desires of voluntourists are being promoted by the industry and/or pursued voluntourists at the expense of the needs of locals and the lack of skills and training; often leading to sub-standard or incomplete projects. The aim of the presented study is to explore the socio-economic impact of voluntourism projects on local residents in Cusco, Peru. By adopting a grounded theory approach, qualitative methods were used to generate in-depth data, which sought to capture and analyse the feelings of local residents towards volunteer tourists and the perceived impacts of hosting volunteer tourists. Between December 2011 and February 2012 several focus groups, semi-structured interviews and participant observation were conducted to elicit insights from the host community. The findings of this study illustrate the privileged and often superior positions volunteer tourists hold relative to their hosts questions the value of such interactions between tourists and guests, and shines a light on the contentions arising from such unequal power relations.

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References Binnie J and Skeggs B (2004) Cosmopolitan knowledge and the production and consumption of sexualized space: Manchester’s gay village. The Sociological Review 52 (1): 39-51. Butcher J (2003) The moralisation of tourism: Sun, sand…and saving the world? London: Routledge. Heath S (2007) Widening the gap: Pre-university gap years and the “economy of experience”. British

Journal of Sociology of Education 28(1): 89-103. Hermann I, Peters K & Van Trijp, E (2017) Enrich yourself by helping others: A web content analysis of providers of gap year packages and activities in the Netherlands. Tourist Studies, 17(1): 75-93. Jones A (2004) Review of gap year provision. London: Department for Education and Skills. Lyons K, Hanley J, Wearing S and Neil J (2012) Gap year volunteer tourism: Myths of global citizenship?

Annals of Tourism Research 39(1): 361-378. Mostafanezhad M (2014) Volunteer tourism: Popular humanitarianism in neoliberal times . Farnham: Ashgate. Snee H (2014) A cosmopolitan journey? Difference, distinction and identity work in gap year. Aldershot: Ashgate. About the author Dr Tiffany Low is a Lecturer in Tourism Marketing at Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK. She holds a PhD in luxury tourism funded by the Lord Forte Foundation and her research adopts a critical perspective focusing on issues of ethics, (in) equality and power on a range of tourism-related topics. Dr Low is the co-editor of The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism (CABI) and her published work includes articles on industry research collaboration and the influence of gatekeepers and political challenges in sustainable tourism. Her current research focus is on investigating luxury tourism experiences, firstly establishing a critical research agenda for future work in the area examining the sector in relation to wealth, power, mobilities and consumption; secondly, she is exploring the role of time in the consumption of luxury tourism experiences. Tiffany has also collaborated with colleagues examining the barriers to and negotiation strategies for participation in women’s mountaineering tourism. Dr Sally Everett is Deputy Dean at the Lord Ashcroft International Business School, Anglia Ruskin University (Cambridge and Chelmsford) and a Principal Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. She is the chair of the university’s Disability Working Group, co-founder of its BME staff network and is co-lead of the Women’s Network which promotes gender equality in Higher Education leadership. Dr Everett was Head of Marketing, Tourism and Hospitality at the University of Bedfordshire (2009-13) before becoming a Deputy Dean at Anglia Ruskin University with responsibility for learning, teaching, quality and curriculum development. Her research interests include innovation in business education, inclusive and accessible learning and pedagogies, and food and drink tourism. Dr Everett has published work on folklore tourism, food tourism events and festivals, sustainability, research journeys, and has recently published her singleauthored textbook ‘Food and Drink Tourism: Principles and Practices’ (2016) with Sage Publications.

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Inge Hermann is an associate professor at the Hospitality Business School, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, where she has been a faculty member since 2012. Her research interests are in the field of ethics in tourism, with a particular focus on global citizenship debates and alternative forms of tourism aiming particularly at young people, such as voluntourism and gap year programmes.

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24 Bicycles and Leisure, Bicycles and Labour: Tourists and Migrant Workers on the Niagara Parkway Kristin Lozanski, King’s University College at UWO, Canada

[email protected] Niagara-on-the-Lake (NOTL) is quaint region in Southern Ontario, Canada that known for its scenic countryside, wineries, and fruit production. Given the relatively short distances between towns in the area and the clustering of wineries, bicycles provide a popular means for tourists to move through the area. In addition to these touristic cyclists in NOTL, there is another significant cohort of people who ride bikes: migrant workers. Virtually all of the area’s farms are supported by off-shore labour – typically men, though sometimes women, from Mexico and Caribbean countries who come to Canada through the Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program. These migrant workers spend up to eight months pruning, thinning, tending, and harvesting the fruit produced in the area. These workers use bicycles, which are sometimes sold by local residents and sometimes provided through NGOs, for errands such as grocery shopping and the more general opportunity to leave their farms. Through the lens of bicycles, this paper will draw upon ethnographic research in the area to render visible the differences of class, racialization, and citizenship status between tourists and migrant workers who navigate the roads of NOTL by bicycle. For tourists, bicycles represent a commitment to the environment, to leisure and time for leisure, and to intentional and embodied mobility. These ideals of the environment, leisure, and intentional experiences map directly onto NOTL’s tourist ethos as a heritage destination that is committed – through local agriculture and wineries – to an intimate and authentic experience. For workers, bicycles provide the opportunity for connection, but also expose experiences of transnationality, displacement, isolation, and vulnerability. Despite their vital contribution to agriculture in the region, these workers are sometimes (wilfully?) rendered invisible while at other times made hypervisible, especially when on their bicycles, as problematic features of an otherwise picturesque landscape. Given this contrasting signification of bicycles and the metonymic status of bicycles as access to mobility more broadly, I draw upon critical and post-colonial theory to argue that the ‘ethical’ local experience of tourism in NOTL (and other such locales) must be contextualized by the broader global asymmetries that are foundational to such leisure experiences. The (bicycle) tourism on which NOTL depends is itself dependent upon the lack of opportunities for workers in other countries and the relatively poor conditions they accept in order to work in Canada, conditions which are revealed through the semiotics of bicycles. About the author Kristin Lozanski is an Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology at King’s University College in London, Ontario, Canada. Her work focuses broadly on globalization, citizenship, and inclusion/exclusion

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within the Canadian context. Currently, she is working with Mexican and Caribbean migrant agricultural workers in Southwestern Ontario to challenge the conditions of their inclusion in the Canadian agricultural sector as well as their de facto exclusion from Canadian society. Her past work in critical tourism studies has appeared in the Annals of Tourism Research, Critical Sociology, and Social Identities.

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26 ‘It’s a personal thing’: Voluntourism, Social Media and the Creation of Global Citizens in Fiji Sharon McLennan, Massey University, Institute of Development Studies, New Zealand

[email protected] As a practice that focuses on providing help and assistance to communities around the world, volunteer tourism, or voluntourism is often considered to be an inherently ethical practice that contributes to the development of global citizens. This assumption contributes to the rapidly growing popularity and visibility of volunteering as a niche tourism market, with estimates of up to 10 million volunteers spending up to US$2 billion per year internationally (Popham, 2015) while providing medical assistance, teaching English, building homes and doing other ‘good works’. The belief that this is ‘doing good’ also underpins the marketing of voluntourism. New communication technologies are an integral part of this: as a significant site for the marketing of voluntourism, as a platform for voluntourists to share their experiences and images on a global stage, and as the facilitator of ongoing relationships between volunteers and host communities. However, as the 2014 Pacific Standard article #InstagrammingAfrica, and the more recent White Saviour Barbie satirical account on Instagram show, there is a growing critique of voluntourism in general, and more particularly of the marketing of voluntourism and the perceived narcissism of voluntourists’ posts on social media. This paper reports on recent fieldwork with voluntourists in Fiji, a country reliant on tourism but which is a relatively new market for voluntourism. The research aimed to examine the way in which discourses of global solidarity and development were articulated by volunteers, voluntourism organisations and tourism businesses, and were reflected in the volunteering activities. Data collection included 35 interviews with volunteers, staff, and hosts; analysis of the marketing of the experience, including the social media posts of the organisation; the collection and analysis of images taken and shared by the volunteers themselves on Instagram and Facebook; and participant observation. From this research it became clear that although voluntourists have very personal motivations for volunteering including self-improvement and building individual autonomy, they do enact a limited form of collective global citizenship and solidarity through their volunteering activities and social media posts. In addition, a complex picture emerged of the multiple relationships formed between volunteers and hosts and the learning that took place, and of significant contradictions between the marketing and media portrayals of volunteering and popular perceptions of voluntourism, and local-volunteer engagement in Fiji and the way in which volunteers shared this online. This paper therefore argues for a more nuanced and reflective approach to voluntourism and voluntourists, one which does not overlook the critiques, but which reflects the multi-directional engagement and the often surprisingly critical ways in which the volunteers and hosts understand and present their own experience.

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References Popham, G. (2015) Boom in 'voluntourism' sparks concerns over whether the industry is doing good. Accessed from http://www.reuters.com/article/us-travel-volunteers-charitiesidUSKCN0P91AX20150629#3DwsHGjWXL5TydDz.97 About the author Dr Sharon McLennan is a lecturer with the Institute of Development Studies at Massey University in New Zealand. Sharon’s current academic interests build on a concern with how those in the global North understand and engage with issues of global development and social justice both overseas and at home. She has undertaken research in Central America, the Pacific and New Zealand on international volunteering and volunteer tourism, ICT (information and communication technology) and social media in development contexts, and the role of multinational corporations in corporate community development projects. Sharon teaches global citizenship in the Massey University citizenship core, as well as teaching and supervising in Development Studies

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26 First Do No Harm: What Fieldwork Ethics Can Contribute to Voluntourism Practice Sharon McLennan, Massey University, Institute of Development Studies, New Zealand

[email protected] Rochelle Stewart-Withers, Massey University, New Zealand At first glance travellers undertaking post-graduate fieldwork and those doing voluntourism may appear to have little in common other than a shared interest in travel beyond traditional tourism, however there are a surprising number of parallels including a desire to engage with others and to make a contribution, and an individual interest in building cultural capital and career advantages. For development studies students undertaking research fieldwork this is evident in the choice to undertake research that they hope will be associated with “positive social change and enhanced wellbeing, particularly for the poor, oppressed or marginalised” (Scheyvens & McLennan, 2014, p. 1), as a part of the process of completing a research degree and building a career in the development industry. Voluntourists, who are primarily tourists travelling with the aim of assisting others in need (McGehee & Santos, 2005), are also often motivated by career advantages and the prospect of enhancing their CV (McGloin & Georgeou, 2015). As such these forms of travel both contribute to the development of global citizenship in a variety of ways. Both also require the building of mutually beneficial relationships with the host community, and sensitive and respectful behaviour from the traveller. There is a moral imperative to as they should not only “do no harm”, but also have potential to “do good” (Banks & Scheyvens, 2014; Corbridge, 1998). However both these forms of travel have been critiqued for reinforcing inequitable relationships between the global North and South, and for their emphasis on the development of the traveller over the needs of the host community (Banks & Scheyvens, 2014; Butcher & Smith, 2015; Epprecht, 2004; McGloin & Georgeou, 2015; McLennan, 2014). Voluntourism in particular has been criticised for unethical practices, and for perpetuating a ‘thin’ form of global citizenship (Cameron, 2014), one premised on the travellers ability to ‘make a difference’ and on a ‘white saviour’ complex rooted in neo-colonialism. This paper explores the way in which an ethics process can address these concerns and contribute the development of better travel experiences, and more critical and engaged global citizens, in order avoid the pitfalls of thin global citizenship and to facilitate more positive outcomes for both traveller and host communities. Drawing on qualitative research in Fiji which included participant observation and over 35 interviews with volunteers, Fijian staff and host families, we highlight the way in which volunteer expectations of ‘doing good’ and normative approaches to global citizenship can lead to unrealistic expectations and dis-satisfaction, and have the potential to cause harm to host communities. We then use examples from our post-graduate students, and our experiences of teaching, research and chairing an ethics committee to explore how

Development Studies students are encouraged to

think through

potential ethical issues and how they would address these, with a focus is on the principles of respect,

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responsibility, reciprocity and relationships (Stewart-Withers, 2016)). This process has both minimised ethical complications in fieldwork, and contributed to the completion of many quality research projects. Arguably, it also contributes to the development of critical global citizens, who are aware of their position and power, and who are able to engage appropriately and productively both during fieldwork and afterwards. A pre-trip ethics process, in which students are guided through reflections on the purpose of travel, and they might avoid doing harm, particularly when working with vulnerable people, is largely absent in voluntourism despite the focus on ‘doing good’ and the need for highly ethical travel practices. We argue that incorporating elements of this process into pre-trip preparation for voluntourists would help minimise harm in voluntourism, and lead to more positive and satisfying outcomes for volunteers and host communities. References Banks, G., & Scheyvens, R. (2014). Ethical issues. In R. Scheyvens & D. Storey (Eds.), Development

Fieldwork: A Practical Guide (pp. 160–187). London: Sage Publications Ltd. Butcher, J., & Smith, P. (2015). Volunteer Tourism: The Lifestyle Politics of International Development. Milton Park: Routledge. Cameron, J. D. (2014). Grounding experiential learning in “thick” conceptions of global citizenship. In R. Tiessen & R. Huish (Eds.), Globetrotting or Global Citizenship? Perils and potential of international

experiential learning. Toront: University of Toronto Press. Corbridge, S. (1998). Development ethics: Distance, difference, plausibility. Ethics, Place and Environment,

1(1), 35–53. Epprecht, M. (2004). Work-Study Abroad Courses in International Development Studies: Some Ethical and Pedagogical Issues. Canadian Journal of Development Studies/Revue Canadienne D’études Du

Développement, 25(4), 687–706. McGehee, N. G., & Santos, C. A. (2005). Social change, discourse and volunteer tourism. Annals of Tourism

Research, 32(3), 760–779. McGloin, C., & Georgeou, N. (2015). “Looks good on your CV”: The sociology of voluntourism recruitment in higher education. Journal of Sociology. http://doi.org/10.1177/1440783314562416 McLennan, S. (2014). Medical voluntourism in Honduras: “Helping” the poor? Progress in Development

Studies, 14, 163–179. http://doi.org/10.1177/1464993413517789 Scheyvens, R., & McLennan, S. (2014). Introduction. In Development Fieldwork: A Practical Guide (pp. 1– 16). London: Sage. Stewart-Withers, R. (2016). Edge Walking Ethics. New Zealand Sociology, 31(4), 28–42. About the authors Dr Sharon McLennan is a lecturer with the Institute of Development Studies at Massey University in New Zealand. Sharon’s current academic interests build on a concern with how those in the global North understand and engage with issues of global development and social justice both overseas and at home. She has undertaken research in Central America, the Pacific and New Zealand on international volunteering

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and volunteer tourism, ICT (information and communication technology) and social media in development contexts, and the role of multinational corporations in corporate community development projects. Sharon teaches global citizenship in the Massey University citizenship core, as well as teaching and supervising in Development Studies Dr Rochelle Stewart-Withers is a senior lecturer with the Institute of Development Studies at Massey University in New Zealand. Rochelle’s interest in ethics and fieldwork stems from her position as Chair of a University Ethics Committee, teaching a post-graduate methodology course and being involved in preparing students to undertake fieldwork. Rochelle is actively involved in supervision at the Masters and PhD level.

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27 Responsible Opportunities for Van Gogh Europe Ondrej Mitas, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] Wesley Put, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] Bernadett Papp, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands Tourist attractions vary tremendously in reputation, visitor flows, and resulting budgets and political power they wield in their respective destinations. The present study analyzes the implications of differences between attractions for their responsibilities toward one another in a context where large and small attractions cooperate. We conducted our research in the context of a European Union-funded project, titled Promoting International Tourism for Culture and Heritage, which aimed to assess and develop the potential of collectively marketing cultural and heritage sites associated with the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh. Many of these sites cooperate in a network known as Van Gogh Europe. We examined the roles of network member attractions in marketing other network members and packages based on the story of Van Gogh, from the perspective of corporate social responsibility, asking what the responsibilities of large and small attractions are. While each member of the network has business goals in terms of attracting and serving visitors, the Van Gogh Europe network also has a responsibility to maintain and preserve Van Gogh heritage for future generations. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is defined as a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a self-regulatory mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards, and national or international norms. Additionally, many definitions of CSR (summarized in Blowfield & Murray, 2008) add stakeholder collaboration and concern for the environment as relevant standards. We asked how the Van Gogh Europe network could operate in a corporate socially responsible way, how larger and smaller attractions are ethically bound to one another, and what resources they needed to realize network goals in the future. Specifically, Blowfield & Murray (2008) imply that for smaller businesses, business success is also a component of their CSR. Their approach omits responsibility of preserving heritage, however. The question driving our study was how these components interact in the potential tourism marketing efforts of Van Gogh Europe. We conducted a mixed method study at Van Gogh locations in the Netherlands, Belgium and France. We used a diversity sampling approach to collect questionnaires measuring visitors’ emotions, intent to recommend, familiarity, and intent to visit Van Gogh attractions. Over three different days per week, in a period of four weeks, we collected 1844 responses. We also conducted in-depth interviews with a subsample of 15 questionnaire respondents. Interviews were transcribed and analysed using inductive

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thematic analysis. Furthermore, 32,591 messages tagged with Van Gogh content across several social media platforms were monitored and analysed for a period of seven weeks. Findings highlighted the limited but interesting possibilities of developing cross-border tourism to Van Gogh sites across European countries based on the tourists’ needs, preferences, and behaviours. Raising awareness of heritage attractions linked to the painter Vincent Van Gogh is fundamental to the success of the network, as awareness turned out to be generally low, yet predictive of likelihood to visit. Close collaboration of members of the VGE network is also needed for long-term success, as visitors reported many missed opportunities to learn about other sites from the site they visited. Social media proved to be a very efficient platform for knowledge sharing and creating awareness. The analysis revealed the lack of collaboration between the VGE members, which appear to be a missed opportunity to attract visitors. These findings give a sense of the responsibility each attraction bears toward the success of the network. While ethical arguments for (equity of opportunity) and against (free market and fair competition) the responsibility of larger attractions to market the smaller ones can be made, as the larger attractions also expend resources on the network for the sake of its success, we concluded based on the data that it not only exemplifies good CSR for larger attractions to raise awareness of smaller ones, consistent with the implications of Blowfield and Murray (2008), but it is also in larger attractions’ own self-interest. Furthermore, such asymmetrical cooperation is crucial to preserve the multi-national heritage of Van Gogh. Thus, our findings extend understanding of CSR in tourism by situating heritage preservation as an essential aspect of CSR, and demonstrating that attractions of differing stature bear asymmetrical responsibilities in this context. References Blowfield, M., & Murray, A. (2014). Corporate responsibility. Oxford University Press About the authors Dr. Ondrej Mitas, born 1982 (Bratislava), researches tourists’ emotions. His ultimate goal is to guide the tourism industry, governments, and tourists themselves to make choices that will maximize their enjoyment of life. To that end, his research explores the psychology of tourist and leisure experiences with a focus on emotions and well-being and quality of life outcomes. Specifically, he examines positive emotions in leisure and tourism experiences over time and the mechanisms of enjoyment, positivity, and flow in tourism and leisure experiences, and innovative research methods using longitudinal, biophysical, and mixed-method approaches. Ondrej brings an eclectic background to his research, with qualifications in arts studies with a minor in computer programming (BA), tourism with a minor in landscape architecture (MS), and PhD from Penn State (2008) on tourists’ emotions with a minor in psychology. Besides working as a lecturer in research methods and an applied academic researcher at NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences since 2008, Ondrej has been an active artists of flying kinetic sculptures and mixed graphic media all his life. Bernadett Papp studied (BSc.) Economics specialised in Tourism and Hotel Management at Budapest Business School University of Applied Sciences in Budapest, Hungary followed by a Master’s degree (MA) in Tourism Destination Management at the NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences in Breda, The Netherlands.

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Bernadett has a background in hotel management and tourism development. She has gained a wide range of experiences on the operational side of the industry and worked for different tourism and hospitality businesses around Europe. After stepping into the field of applied tourism research, she has participated in small-scale research projects in Australia and South-East Asia and has contributed towards several tourism development projects in Europe. Besides working as a research assistant for NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences on project basis, Bernadett is also involved in several on-going projects at the European Tourism Futures Institute in Leeuwarden. She undertakes both qualitative and quantitative research and provides support for other project management related tasks. Bernadett’s main area of interest is destination management with special focus on applied tourism research and product development. In recent years Wesley has built up her expertise in the field of online marketing and market research. She started her career working for GfK, an international market research agency specialised in consumer behaviour research. This gave her the opportunity to build up expertise in the field of consumer insights research and advice for mainly retail related companies. It is a great pleasure for her to be able to share this expertise on a daily basis with NHTV students and industry partners. Her passion nowadays lies in combining education and research. As a Bachelor track Coordinator, Lecturer International Marketing Research and Researcher at NHTV in Breda Wesley is able to share her knowledge in online marketing and market research with international bachelor and master students studying International Tourism Management. Additional to this she has expertise focused on customer engagement management, conversion optimization, social media strategies, marketing communications. Next to this she is certified trainer in MBTI step 1. It is her personal interest to train individuals and groups in social skills, teambuilding and personal development.

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28 Tourism and Global Citizenship: A Perspective of Domestic Tourists Visitation Profile and Social Media in Udzungwa National Park, Tanzania. Kezia H. Mkwizu, the Open University of Tanzania, Tanzania

[email protected] Tourism as an economic activity is increasing with more tourists visiting attractions worldwide. The UNWTO press release of January 2017 reports that during 2016 there were over 1.2 billion people who travelled around the world for tourism purposes while another 6 billion people travelled domestically. Global citizens do not abandon their national identities and are thus both international and domestic tourists as they travel to various destinations and interact with different environments such as visits to national parks. The national parks in Tanzania continue to receive domestic tourists who use various media including social media as a source of information. Stakeholders in the tourism industry also use globally and locally interactive social media as new media channel to inform domestic tourists about national parks. However there are limited studies on the impact of social media among domestic tourists visiting national parks. This study focuses on tourism and global citizenship from the perspective of domestic tourist’s visitation profile to national parks and their use of globally popular media to source information about national parks. Hence this study aimed at assessing visitation profile and social media. The first specific objective was to assess domestic tourists’ visitation profile. The second objective was to analyze the impact of social media as a source of information on domestic tourists’ visitation. The study area was Udzungwa National Park in Tanzania which is endowed with mountain fauna and flora biodiversity as well as waterfalls. Based on the theoretical approach of informative view, a quantitative data collection method was applied and semi structured survey questionnaires were given to a total sample size of 107 domestic tourists. Data analysis was done using descriptive analysis and Pearson Chisquare test. Findings indicate visitation profile with (46%) of respondents aged between 25 to 36 years old, males (68%), income (49%), and have college education (41%). On the other hand, the majority (69%) of domestic tourists who visited Udzungwa National Park did not use social media. Further results showed that social media as a source of information has no statistically significant impact on domestic tourists’ visitation to Udzungwa National Park.

The outcome of the study can assist stakeholders, policy and

decision makers in the tourism sector to persuade domestic tourists to make more use of social media as a source of information. About the author Kezia Herman Martin Mkwizu, Tanzanian, PhD Student, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Education: Primary & Secondary in England, Tanzania, Uganda & Kenya. University - B.Com (Ed) Hons, The Open University of Tanzania (2005); MBA International Business, Schiller International University (2009). Countries of Temporary Residence: UK (1974-1976); Uganda (1982-1988); Kenya (1985-1989). Countries Visited:

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Belgium, Botswana, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Norway, Palestine, Rwanda, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UAE, USA, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Career: Customer Services (1997-1998) & Sales Consultant (1998-1999), Walford Meadows Ltd; Airfreight Manager (1999- 2008) & Acting General Manager (Sep 2005-Jan 2006 & Jun 2006- Apr 2008), Regent Tanzania Ltd; Management Consultant (Sep 2008- present), Winners Trading International Ltd; Founder & Managing Director (Dec 2012- present), African Gifts. Hobbies: Photography, Mountaineering (Climbed Mt. Kilimanjaro in 2008 & 2012), Travel and Tourism.

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29 A Discursive Analysis of Power/Knowledge in Township Tourism Meghan L. Muldoon, University of Waterloo, Canada

[email protected] Township tourism is an increasingly popular activity for foreign tourists visiting South Africa. Townships are zones of racial and economic exclusion, politically constructed spaces borne out of the racist policies of the apartheid government. Although South Africa abolished apartheid with their first democratic election in 1994, townships remain to this day – for all intents and purposes – exclusively black spaces. Ignored and oppressed under the apartheid regime, townships are increasingly being perceived as spaces of social and cultural value by the tourism industry. Tourists can engage with these spaces through driving, walking, biking, or culinary tours, and also have the option of spending the night in a local guesthouse. The tours are constructed as being a lot of fun, but also as an opportunity to engage authentically with very poor people and places, as Freire-Madeiros put it: “An amalgamation of suffering and leisure, misery and fun” (2013, p. 1). This form of tourism has naturally garnered a great deal of controversy and inspires highly polarized opinions. Proponents of the tours suggest that they create income for local people and bring money directly into the community, they can be empowering, they are an avenue of education for both tourists and hosts, and they shed a much needed light on issues of urban poverty (Freire-Maderios, 2013; Frenzel, 2012; Frenzel, Koens, & Steinbrink, 2012; Manfred, 2010; Scheyvens, 2011). My own research found that some people also place great value in “being seen” by the tourists. Critics, on the other hand, argue that the tours are exploitative, voyeuristic, a form of “poverty porn” (Frenzel, 2012, p. 57), akin to viewing animals in a zoo, and may also place downward pressure on development (Freire-Madeiros, 2013; Frenzel, Koens, & Steinbrink, 2012, Manfred, 2010; Scheyvens, 2011). Taking a Foucauldian discursive analysis approach, this presentation explores issues of power and race and how they are informed, shaped, and potentially transformed through the touristic encounter. Foucault was interested in exploring the productive effects of power: not only the ways in which power can be wielded and oppress, but primarily the ways in which power is fluid and multiple (Foucault, 1975, 1979; Lynch, 2011). Much tourism work is embedded in the power of the tourist, the imposition of the tourist gaze, the postcolonial nature of many of our vacation choices. In taking a Foucauldian approach, I attempt to understand the deployment of power and how this power is used to shape our knowledge of our Selves, the Other, and the touristic encounter (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012). My presentation is based in my 5 months of undertaking a PhotoVoice research project in the townships of South Africa, working with local hosts to attempt to understand their perspectives on tourism. From my embedded and situated position as foreigner/researcher/student/tourist, I understood much of what was told to me to be deeply implicated in issues of race, settler colonialism, oppression, silencing, and dependency. My presentation aims to explore and shed light on some of these issues.

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References Foucault, M. (1975). The birth of the clinic: An archaeology of medical perception , A.M. Sheridan Smith (trans.). New York: Vintage. Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison , Alan Sheridan (trans.). New York: Vintage. Freire-Medeiros, B. (2013). Touring Poverty. New York: Routledge. Frenzel, F. (2012). Beyond ‘Othering’: The political roots of slum tourism. In F. Frenzel, K. Koens, & M. Steinbrink (eds.) Slum Tourism: Power, poverty and ethics (49-65). New York: Routledge. Frenzel, F.; Koens, K.; Steinbrink, M. (Eds.) Slum Tourism: Power, poverty and ethics. New York: Routledge. Jackson, A.Y. & Mazzei, L.A. (2012). Thinking with theory in qualitative research. Routledge: New York. Lynch, R. (2012). Foucault’s theory of power. In D. Taylor (Ed.). Michel Foucault: Key concepts (p. 13-26). Durham, UK: Acumen publishing. Manfred, R. (2010). Poverty tourism: theoretical reflections and empirical findings regarding an extraordinary form of tourism. GeoJournal, 75(5), p. 421-442. Scheyvens, R. (2011). Tourism and Poverty. New York, NY: Routledge. About the author Meghan Muldoon is a Ph.D. Candidate in the Department of Recreation and Leisure studies at the University of Waterloo, in Waterloo, Ontario. Her doctoral research is focused on tourism and its impacts on people living in townships in South Africa. Her areas of research interest include power in tourism encounters, the host gaze, postcolonial feminisms, and creative and arts-based methodologies. She is currently on track to complete her Ph.D. in 2017.

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30

Globalization of Tourism in Rural Areas in Japan

Munehiko Asamizu, Yamaguchi University, Japan

[email protected] Tourist destinations in Japan used to be concentrated in large urban areas around Tokyo, Osaka and Kyoto. International airports, accommodations with multilingual staff, and tourist information centers offering foreign language assistance were also heavily concentrated in these metropolitan areas. Recently, though, regional growth in international tourism is growing. For example, due to their geographical proximity, Korean tourists are a major market for tourism destinations on Kyushu Island, located in the far west of Japan (MLIT 2016: 3). Australian skiers visiting Hokkaido Island, in the far north of Japan, can also be explained geographically, because Hokkaido is more accessible to them than North America and Europe (METI 2015: 7). Geographers and economists are studying these tourist destinations with an abundance of statistics and questionnaires. However, there are some exceptions where factors other than geography and economics come into play. Sometimes mass media and social media have been used to create inbound tourist traffic. Jigokudani Snow Monkey Park in Nagano Prefecture (Snow Monkey Resort: web) and Motonosumi Inari Shrine in Yamaguchi Prefecture (JNTO: web) are good examples of this. Due to aging and depopulation, the domestic market in various areas is seen to be shrinking in Japan. To cover the shortfall of domestic tourists, many regions are working to attract international visitors. However, before the tourists arrive, there is the problem of finding out what these tourists want. Until the tourists arrive, questionnaires cannot be easily used, for example. However, some remote areas in Japan are seeing increasing numbers of foreign students. Some municipalities have initiated tourism research by using these international students as virtual tourists and monitors. References METI (2015) Hokkaido Kokusai Kankou Kyousouryoku Koujyou ni Muketa Chousa, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry MLIT (2016) Kyushu he no Gaikokujin Nyukokushasuu no Suii ni Tsuite, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism JNTO (n.d.) 123 RED SHRINE GATES, A SIGHT TO SEE! LET’S GO TO A SEASIDE SHRINE, http://japanmagazine.jnto.go.jp/en/1505_motonosumi.html, Accessed March 1, 2017 Snow Monkey Resorts (n.d.) Homepage, http://www.snowmonkeyresorts.com/, Accessed March 1, 2017 About the author Munehiko ASAMIZU is an Associate Professor in Yamaguchi University, Japan. He received his Ph.D. from the Graduate School of International Studies, J. F. Oberlin University, Tokyo. He has published several books such as World Travel and Japanese Tourists (Gakubunsha), Human Mobility in Asia Pacific (Office SAKUTA) and Global Tourism (Kumpul).

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31 Touring the refugee: The Galang Vietnamese Camp as a tourist laboratory Chin-Ee Ong, National University of Singapore, Singapore

[email protected] Claudio Minca, Wageningen University, the Netherlands

[email protected] This paper examines the production and consumption of a former Vietnamese refugee camp as a ‘laboratory’ for tourism. By tourist ‘laboratory’ we mean an enclave and space where various complementary and conflicting ideals and ideas of tourism were and still are experimented and tested. To do this, we draw on literature in tourism ethics, heritage from below and the geography of violence to argue that such a site should be seen beyond straightforward notions of ‘dark tourism’. Specifically, we argue that contrary to the positioning of the camp as an attraction of horror, the violence and pain of the site have been diplomatically repackaged as one of Vietnamese culture and diaspora and of Indonesia’s generous humanitarianism. An island refugee processing centre on Indonesia’s Galang Island (Pulau Galang) between 1976 and 1996, Galang Camp was made accessible to visitation in 1998. Since then, it has been variously ‘Vietnam Village’ for tourists on general multi-attraction Batam day tours, an ex-Vietnam Camp for history buffs, a genealogical site for ex-refugees and their descendants, a tragic and haunted site (due to the real or perceived rate of refugee suicides) for paranormal tourists from neighbouring Singapore and a ‘contact zone’ for Indonesia’s local ethnic Chinese gamblers to seek lottery advice and inspirations from the deceased. Drawing on field interviews with camp museum curator and staff, residents, tour operators and tourists and analysis of tour promotion and cyberspace materials, we investigate what constitutes and defines the tourism experience at this repackaged camp site and the ethics of production and consumption of such a site and the implications for a broader network of refugee camp tourism in Southeast Asia. In doing so, we seek to provide a more critical approach to the study of tourism sites of past pain and horror and contribute to understandings of how various groups negotiate painful and controversial heritage from ‘below’. About the author I am a cultural geographer based in the Department of Geography, The National University of Singapore. I have an interest in the dynamic interface between heritage, tourism and urban spaces. Much of my work is based on heritage, tourism and urban processes in Amsterdam, Arnhem, Macau and Zhuhai. In these cities, I have explored issues concerning actor-networks, carcerality, freedom, violence, care, governmentality and control in urban, heritage and tourism spaces and the beautification and

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‘cuteification’ of animals and spaces and the hyperreal performance of cultures within theme parks and themed spaces broadly defined. I also have strong ongoing interest in pedagogic research concerning the teaching of cultural geography and landscape-based subjects in the academia (technologies, approaches and curriculum), the training of tourism and heritage professionals (labour geography, capacity building and Foucauldian power-knowledge) and the ways Geography and geographers feature (or not) in these real-world centred knowledge fields. The second of these trajectories has built on my decade long pedagogic involvements as writer and teacher in a series of UNESCO World Heritage training project for tourism and heritage professionals in about 15 World Heritage sites.

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32 Volunteer Tourism: A Path to Global Citizenship Steven Owen, University of St Andrews, Scotland

[email protected] There has been increasing interest in the linkages between tourism and the development of global citizenship, particularly within the volunteer tourism literature.

This paper argues that this reflects a

growing dissatisfaction with modernist notions of development embedded within volunteer tourism discourses, and that global citizenship is now viewed as one of the principle aims of this activity. Despite this, there is still little agreement within the literature as to the extent that volunteer tourism is conducive to achieving a sense of global citizenship within the volunteer. The aim of this paper is to explore how global citizenship is influenced by the ‘volunteer space’ that is encountered by volunteers during their stay in a host community.

In particular how different actors aim to shape this space to convey particular

meanings and instigate feelings within the volunteer. This is a novel approach, as to date research has focused on how the volunteers’ interpret the experience, without considering how the space they encounter has been sculptured for their consumption. In bringing this to the fore, the paper argues that new insights can be gained in understanding the relationship between volunteer tourism and global citizenship.

Exploring this, the paper draws on a four month empirical study in two indigenous

communities in Ecuador.

The study conducted in the summer of 2015 involved qualitative research

methods, including semi-structured interviews and participant observation. Participants included not only volunteers, but also innovatively the host community members and tour guides. The results indicate that as a consequence of a series of processes and negotiations involving indigenous host members, volunteers and tour guides a particular space is created for volunteers to consume. Analytically the paper utilises the notions of hyperreality (Baudrillard, 1986) and Disneyifcation (Fallon, 1991) to underpin the empirical analysis.

It is concluded from the empirical evidence that to

ensure an enjoyable experience volunteers expectations are met rather than challenged. The result is that volunteers gain an understanding of indigeneity that is rooted in a mystical past, rather than a modern dynamic present. The implications of this in relation to building a sense of global citizenship within the volunteer is explored, as well as the wider applicability of linking volunteer tourism to the notion of global citizenship. About the author Following a degree in Geography and Masters in Sustainable Development, Steven is now in the fourth year of his PhD at St Andrews University. Interest in notions of community development and tourism led him to St Andrews University, where he received funding via the Universities 600 th Anniversary scholarship. The focus of his PhD is volunteer tourism within indigenous communities in Ecuador, particularly in relation to the notion of global citizenship and the alternative knowledge system of Buen Vivir. He has presented this research widely in conferences in Latin America and Europe.

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33 Tourism and Ethics in SESC São Paulo Carolina Paes de Andrade, SESC (Social Service of Commerce), Brazil

[email protected] Fernanda Alves Vargas, SESC (Social Service of Commerce), Brazil

[email protected] Silvia via Eri Hirao, SESC (Social Service of Commerce), Brazil

[email protected] The presentation aims to expose the practice of social tourism at Serviço Social do Comércio (Sesc - Social Service of the Commerce), in São Paulo, Brazil. Sesc is a private entity, maintained by workers in the trade of goods, services and tourism in Brazil, which for 70 years has worked in the promotion of socio-cultural action as a strategy for the promotion of well-being and, above all, social transformation. In 2015, it became the first Brazilian institution to sign the Global Code of Ethics in Tourism. Its program includes a huge variety of languages, integrating areas such as theater, music, visual arts, cinema, digital culture, literature, sports, health education, environmental education and social tourism, which are intended for all audiences, of all ages and all social strata. The proposed action is based on the social development of people in several dimensions: in favoring critical thinking and creative thinking, in the ability of participation and interaction, in the development of their self-esteem and their identity. It considers education beyond the transmission of teachings, including the propitiation of a series of experiences and significant contacts: this involves encouraging skills and abilities through interaction between people, through contacts with new and different ideas, and of approximation with various realities. It is a vast educational process in progress, based on informality, on free choice and on the value of creativity. This introduction is necessary to understand the Program of Social Tourism: based on the same proposal of sociocultural action, its actions are supported by the democratization of access to tourism principles, education for and through tourism, the protagonist role of the participants, and the ethical and sustainable implementation. These are activities that offer participants the opportunity to develop their intellectual and physical skills, of acquiring knowledge, of strengthening self-esteem and interacting as individuals, always by offering products and services accessible to their purchasing power or adapted to possible special needs of customers. With the average participation of 28.000 people per year on its trips, as well as 47.000 people at its center of social accommodation, in Bertioga (São Paulo); Sesc fulfils an important role in democratizing access to travel of workers in the trade of goods, services and tourism in Brazil (82% of this audience with a salary range of 0 to 6 minimum wages).

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The educational action seeks both to guide their programmatic actions and encourage reflections on the constituent processes of travel, for travellers or providers of tourist services, fostering the critical eye for tourist activity. This is achieved through a wide diversity of actions, such as: - lectures and open discussions to the public on models of tourism, emphasizing ethical aspects which the activity faces too often (in 2016, some examples of topics addressed were "Tourism and resistance"; "Tourism in post conflict areas"; "Dilemmas of collaborative economy in tourism"); - for itineraries that change perspectives on places, having communities presenting their own places (that are not necessarily touristic sights) and sharing with travellers the dilemmas of tourism in destinations during the visit; - for training meetings for service providers, such as tour guides, putting its role and its way of working at stake based on current and critical issues of tourism; - through the adoption of an operating model that prioritizes the transparency and ethical and sustainable implementation, both of its equipment of accommodation and in its itineraries. Therefore, tourism as an educational action acts as an important instrument of formation of critical citizens as to their travel consumption or practice in tourism, strengthening the entire production chain in the sector and fostering greater quality and responsibility regarding the impacts of the activity. About the authors Carolina graduated in Tourism at the School of Communications and Arts of the University of São Paulo (ECA-USP) and holds a Master's degree in Physical Education from the Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba (UNIMEP, Brazil), in the line of Corporality and Leisure research. She worked in both the travel procurement market for eight years, participating in research that related to the sector, and in the area of tourism planning for the city of São Paulo. Carolina also founded the Rosa dos Ventos university extension project, at the University of São Paulo. The project is dedicated to promoting experiences for tourists, through the education of young residents of the poor communities that are located near the University. Currently, she works as a technical assistant within the Social Tourism program of Serviço Social do Comércio (SESC - Social Service of Commerce) in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Since 1948, the program has developed actions that democratize the access to tourism from a social and educational perspective. Fernanda is a Master's degree student in Humanities and Social Sciences from the Universidade Federal do ABC, and is currently a cultural programmer at the Center for Research and Training of SESC (Social Service of Commerce, São Paulo, Brazil). She works in the areas of knowledge production, training and dissemination, related to themes of transversal, emerging and permanent natures, involving Education and Culture. Furthermore, Fernanda possesses experience in Education and Culture, especially in projects with a focus on social memory, cultural diversity and human rights. Silvia holds a bachelor's degree in Tourism from the School of Communications and Arts at the University of São Paulo (ECA-USP) and a Master's degree in Education from the same university. Since 2001, when she founded the Rosa dos Ventos university extension project, at the University of São Paulo, she has

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possessed a constant dedication to research and to actions relating to social tourism, leisure and education. The project is dedicated to promoting experiences for tourists, through the education of young residents of the poor communities that are located near the University. Since 2008, Silvia has been part of the coordination team for the Program of Social Tourism of SESC (Social Service of Commerce) in São Paulo, Brazil. Since 1948, the program has developed actions that democratize the access to tourism from a social and educational perspective.

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34 The Responsible Cruise Tourist: Sustainability Awareness, Values, Attitudes and Behaviour at Home and On-Board Judith Römhild-Raviart, University of Brighton, United Kingdom [email protected] Cruise tourism is on its way to becoming the new mass tourism product. About 23 million people chose a cruise for their holiday last year (CLIA, 2016) and in Europe alone, 48 new ships are being built to go into service by 2020, adding the opportunity for another 117.888 passengers to go on a cruise (Neumeier, 2016). As the cruise industry continuous to expand, concern has risen about the sustainability of ocean cruising and the fact that the negative social, economic and environmental impacts of cruise tourism often outweigh the positive ones. Criticism includes e.g. the contribution of cruise ship activity to environmental pollution, the limited economic benefits for cruise destinations, or the exclusion of local communities (see e.g. Johnson, 2002; Lester & Weeden 2004; Klein 2009; Klein, 2011; Weeden, Lester & Thyme, 2011; Maher, 2012; Weeden, 2015). While previous studies focus on the negative impacts of cruise tourism, and how these can be managed by the industry and cruise destinations alike, little is known about how or whether cruise tourist’s judge their responsibility to mitigate any negative impacts of their cruise holiday. Research in other fields of tourism shows that consumers are aware of the negative impacts of their travel behaviour, e.g. the contribution of flying to climate change (Cohen and Higham, 2010; Gössling et al., 2009). However, despite their declared ‘green’ attitudes and the increasing application of sustainable behaviour in everyday life (e.g. energy saving or recycling), people are reluctant to buy more sustainable tourism products (Budeanu, 2007). As tourism advances to become an ever more important part of people’s lifestyles (at least in the developed countries) and cruise tourism is evidently becoming an increasingly attractive form of leisure tourism, the question arises why acting sustainably appears to be less important when on holiday. Increasingly tourists are making holiday decisions based on information retrieved from the Internet. These include tourism-related forums and rating sites (e.g. Tripadvisor), but also social networking sites (e.g. TravBuddy), generic social media platforms (e.g. Facebook) (Mkono, 2016), as well as weblogs (blogs). The increasing trend of consumers engaging in online discussions and information search both prior to, during and after their holidays, make social media a valuable field site to research cruise tourist’s awareness of the impacts of cruise tourism. Taking a netnographic approach, this PhD project uses the example of cruise blogs to identify the issues discussed online in regards to social, economic, and environmental impacts of a cruise holiday. In an initial phase it is planned to analyse cruise passengers’ reviews and comments from three of the most visited cruise blogs to reveal their opinions about, and attitudes towards these issues. Additionally, it is planned to build an online community that allows cruise tourist’s to reflect upon their behaviour and share their experiences, which in turn will help to determine the key motivational factors that influence

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sustainable consumers’ social, economic, and environmentally responsible behaviour at home, on-board and in port. References Budeanu, A. (2007), “Sustainable tourist behaviour? A discussion of opportunities for change.”

International Journal of Consumer Studies, Vol. 31 No.5, pp. 499-508. CLIA (2016) “Cruise Lines International Association Releases Official 2015 Global Passenger Numbers and Increases 2016 Projections“. Retrieved from http://www.cruising.org/about-the-industry/pressroom/pressreleases/cruise-lines-international-association-releases-official-2015-globalpassenger-numbers andincreases-2016-projections Cohen, S.A. and Higham, J.E.S. (2010), “Eyes wide shut? UK consumer perceptions on aviation climate impacts and travel decisions to New Zealand”. Current Issues in Tourism, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 1-19. Gössling, S., Haglund, L., Kallgren, H., Revahl, M., and Hultman, J. (2009), “Swedish air travellers and voluntary carbon offsets: towards the co-creation of environmental value?”, Current Issues in

Tourism, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 1-19. Johnson, D. (2002), “Environmentally sustainable cruise tourism: a reality check.” Marine Policy, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 261-270. Klein, Ross A. (2009), “Getting a grip on cruise ship pollution”. Washington: D.C. Friends of the Earth. Klein, Ross A. (2011), “Responsible Cruise Tourism: Issues of Cruise Tourism and Sustainability.” Journal of

Hospitality and Tourism Management, Vol. 18 No.1, pp. 107-116. Lester, J. A. and Weeden, C. (2004), “Stakeholders, the natural environment and the future of Caribbean cruise tourism.” International Journal of Tourism Research. Vol. 6 No.1, S. 39-50. Maher, P. T. (2012), “Expedition cruise visits to protected areas in the Canadian Arctic: Issues of sustainability and change for an emerging market”. Tourism, Vol. 60 No.1, pp. 55-70. Mkono, M. (2016) Sustainability and Indigenous tourism insights from social media: worldview differences, cultural friction and negotiation. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 24, No. 8-9, pp. 13151330. Neumeier, F. (2016), “Neue Kreuzfahrtschiffe und neue Schiffsnamen”. Retrieved from http://www.cruisetricks.de/neue-kreuzfahrtschiffe-neue-schiffsnamen/ Weeden, C., Lester, J.-A. and Thyme, M. (2011), “Cruise tourism: emerging issues and implications for a maturing industry.” Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Vol. 18 No. 1. pp. 26-29. Weeden, C. (2015), “Legitimization through Corporate Philanthropy: A Cruise Case Study.” Tourism in

Marine Environments, Vol. 10 No. 3-4, pp. 211-223. About the author Judith Römhild-Raviart is a PhD student at the University of Brighton and works as a research fellow at the Jade University of Applied Sciences in Wilhelmshaven, Germany. Her PhD project concentrates on sustainable consumption, responsible tourism, and the influence of online communities on proenvironmental decision-making in cruise tourism. Judith gained several years of experience as a teaching fellow, teaching undergraduate courses online and offline in the fields of tourism marketing and international tourism management. She is a certified E-Moderator and enjoys making education available

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for everyone. Before working in academia, she got some hands-on experience in the tourism industry from working for an internationally renowned hotel chain and a small German cruise operator.

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35 The Effects of Clubbing and Party Tourism in Ayia Napa, Cyprus Alexis Saveriades, Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus

[email protected] One of the strongest growth areas on the EU tourism market, especially in the Mediterranean region, has been the rise of ‘clubbing and party’ tourism. This has added to the tourism experience the elements of music and dance culture (Malbon, 1999; Saldanha, 2002; Saldanha, 2008; Feifan Xie et al, 2007); heavy alcohol consumption (Josiam et. al., 1998; Sonmez et. al., 2006), and the use of recreational drugs (Bellis et. al. 2002; Bellis et. al. 2000; Kubacki wt. al. 2007), to the existing ‘sun, sand, sea’ tourism. Clubbing is an overwhelmingly urban form of leisure and is now a major cultural industry (Lovatt, 1996). Once a lifestyle choice which was considered deviant from mainstream society, the term now refers to a plethora of ‘nights out’ whilst on vacation, ranging from visits to the local pubs to following DJ’s to the destination. ‘Clubbing’ was once centered around ‘the music’ and a hedonistic attitude dedicated only to the pursuit often associated with recreational drugs. Furthermore, the term is associated with activities such as ‘drinking’, ‘dancing’, and ‘having fan’ adding to the use of drugs and of course to music (Bellis et al, 2002). Clubbing is now also an increasingly international leisure pastime, and it is not uncommon for clubbers to spend their annual holidays clubbing in another, usually warmer and often cheaper, part of the world (Malbon, 1999). In recent years, Ayia Napa heads (along with Faliraki in Rhodes and Malia in Crete) the Clubbing and Party Tourism scene in the Mediterranean (Smith et al, 2014). Ayia Napa has witnessed an increased influx of young tourists, mainly Britons and Scandinavians, whose main motivation for visiting the resort, is Clubbing. According to the TravelWeekly Group Gazateer ‘Ayia Napa is now a clubbing scene that has grown out of control since the mid 1990’s with masses of young people gathering in the central square before starting their late night revelry. Drunkenness and drugs are evident’. At the same time, Ayia Napa capitalizes on its golden beaches and aims to attract other types of tourists, primarily families with young children. This paper endorses a qualitative methodological framework by utilizing participant observation, indepth interviews and focus groups. More specifically the methodology adopted comprises of in-depth interviews with clubbers; in-depth interview with tour reps of companies that offer both ‘Clubbing’ and ‘Traditional’ holidays to Ayia Napa; focus group discussions with (a) professionals from the entire hospitality and tourism industry spectrum, (b) the local authorities and (c) the indigenous population. The utilization and application of the methodological framework provides answers to the following research questions: 

‘Can the diverse groups of Clubbers co-exist with other forms of tourism (especially family

tourism), both spatially and temporally? 

Is clubbing here to stay, or will it gradually fade out?

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

Is the Clubber type of holidaymakers the ones that Ayia Napa wishes to sustain and develop’?



What are the implications (ethical, moral) resulting from the extensive use of alcohol and the

subsequent antisocial (and on many occasions, uncontrollable) behaviour considering the fact that the same resort attracts families with young children? 

What are the implications on the indigenous population of the aforementioned unsavoury

behaviour? Are there social and economic repercussions for those that make a living from tourism? 

Does the projection by European media of images of the Clubbing scene in Ayia Napa deter

prospective family tourists’? About the author: Dr. Alexis Saveriades is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, Faculty of Management and Economics, at the Cyprus University of Technology (CUT). Dr. Saveriades is a University of Surrey (UK) graduate (B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.) in the fields of Tourism Planning and Development. Under a Fulbright Commission Scholarship, he also studied in the field of Strategic Management at Cornell University in the US. Dr. Saveriades enjoys extensive teaching experience (24 years) at undergraduate and postgraduate level in the fields of Hospitality and Tourism, in leading private and public tertiary education institutions in Cyprus as well as extensive experience in curriculum design, curriculum evaluation and in managing educational organisations. Moreover, in his capacity as Visiting Professor with the University of the Aegean in Greece, he teaches on the postgraduate programme in Tourism Policy, Management and Planning. Dr. Saveriades served for 8 years from the position of Member and Vice Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Cyprus Tourism Organisation (CTO) where he was actively involved in strategic planning and policy formulation for the development of Tourism in Cyprus. In March 2010 he was appointed to head the National Strategic Plan for Tourism for the period 2011-2015. Additionally, he was actively involved in the setting up of the Cyprus Convention Bureau, the advisory board of which he chaired during its initial three years of operation. Dr. Saveriades also served (2009-2015) on the Board of the Cyprus Hotel Managers Association and on the Board of the ‘Cyprus Association for Cultural and Special Interest Tourism. His research activities and subsequently his publications focus on policy formulation and strategic planning for the development of tourism with emphasis on Island economies, the impacts emanating from tourism development with particular emphasis in the social dimension of these impacts, as well as in sustainable and alternative forms of tourism development, and tourism carrying capacity.

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36 And the Beneficiary Is… Hospitality in Terms of Interpersonal Communication Leanne Jansen- Schreurs, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] This study focuses on the problematic relationship between speech acts and the linguistic forms involved to construct these acts. In our study of the linguistic expression of hospitality, in which this relationship appears to be particularly problematic, we focus on the speech acts of inviting and ordering. In many languages, invitations are regularly performed in imperative mood, as in ‘Come in’ (Brown and Levinson 1987). Yet, this verb form is iconically related to orders (Butt and Benjamin 2000). Although both acts are clearly different, this difference has not been made clear to date. Quite the contrary: both invitations and orders have been classified as directive speech acts. As such, they both are an attempt to influence the future actions of the interlocutor (Searle 1979). The categorization under directive speech acts indicates what the two have in common, but to date, no clear analysis has indicated what their fundamental differences are. In an attempt to address this issue, we conducted a qualitative analysis of the meaning of ‘to invite’ and ‘to order’ (Wierzbicka 1987). Since both speech acts are used in different ways, several definitions are attributed to them. Therefore, we first determined the intended definition. Then, the individual components in the schematic representation of the meaning of invitations and orders were examined. It was found that there appears to be a fundamental difference as to the identity of the beneficiary in relation to the interlocutors with each of the speech acts. It was argued that invitations are intended to be beneficial for the interlocutor, whereas the performance of orders is fundamentally in the interest of the speaker. It is the latter that has specifically been overlooked, and precisely this contrast appears to lie at the very heart of the difference between both speech acts. Consequently, the models of ‘to order’ and ‘to invite’, as originally provided by Wierzbicka (1987), were slightly adapted to introduce the notion of the beneficiary. The proposed models seem to resolve the apparent difficulty to distinguish theoretically between invitations and orders. Both are identified as directive speech acts, and both can be performed in the imperative mood. Yet, they clearly differ in beneficiary of the act. The role of the beneficiary may be useful to explore the effects of the application of various linguistic means and strategies in the process of interpersonal communication. More specifically, if the interlocutor is able to infer the intended beneficiary from the context, it explains how a directive speech act using the same linguistic form, the imperative, may be interpreted as an invitation, despite its linguistic form. And so, it is concluded that hospitality, at least in terms of interpersonal communication, seems to be a strategy aiming to give the guest the feeling of being the beneficiary.

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References Brown, P. and Levinson, S.C. (1987), Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage, New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press. Butt, J. and Benjamin, C. (2000), A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish , 3rd edn., New York: McGraw-Hill. Searle, J.R. (1979), Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wierzbicka, A. (1987), English Speech Act Verbs: a Semantic Dictionary, Sydney: Academic Press. About the author Leanne Schreurs, MA, is a PhD candidate at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands, since 2013. In her PhD research in the field of Linguistics she investigates how language usage may be related to hospitality experiences. In addition, Leanne works as a lecturer / researcher at the Hospitality Business School, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, where she has been a faculty member since 2010. Leanne teaches Second Language Spanish courses and she is an active member of the research centre Hospitality, specifically in the research group Ethics & Global Citizenship.

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37 Benefits for Local Communities through Tourists’ Consumption of Local Food Products Sarah Seidel, Stenden University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] The consumption of local food products has long been promoted as a more sustainable and ethical way of consuming food. Particularly in the process of the increasing globalisation, it has been considered in the ‘Think global, act local’-movement promoted in so many disciplines, which many hospitality and tourism businesses changed to ‘Think global, eat local’. The purpose in mind is to promote the sustainable benefits of local food, such as fewer food miles, economic prosperity of the host destination and social benefits such as pride and community forming within the host population. This research argues that specifically the social benefits for the community in the tourism destination are still underestimated in prior research and that there is a lot of potential for the development of tourism destinations by using local food products and engaging the producers more intensively. To explore the benefits of tourists’ consumption of local food for the local community in more detail, this research concentrated on regions in the Netherlands, Germany, Austria and Switzerland with distinct local food products (such as wine, apples, cheese) that might be rather described as a commodity than an exclusive or scarce culinary speciality. These regions also show a small-scale to moderate tourism development and tourism is mainly dependent on tourists coming from neighbouring regions including many day-trippers. Interviews with locals, local food producers, tourists (including day-trippers) and tourism stakeholders were conducted on their perceived benefits and challenges. The results only allow the conclusion that there are general more benefits and that social benefits are more significant than mentioned in prior research. These social benefits stand out with four main points: Firstly, the producers’ pride in their product due to the ‘external’ valuation by the tourists while locals might take the products for granted. Secondly, the preservation of family structures as young people do not leave the country side but take over their parents’ businesses. Thirdly, all four interviewed target groups, find it important that the landscape and the traditional industries are preserved. Indeed, the unchanged landscape and industries such as fisheries and farmers have a long history and therefore represent a ‘constant’ in a world where everything else changes and develops in an increasing speed. Lastly, tourists feel that the consumption of local food adds to their experiences and perceive the products to have a higher value (both in terms of willingness to pay and that they allow them to connect stronger with the region). Concluding on these results while looking at the topic of moral consumption and responsibility, it needs to be stated that tourists consuming local food mean a significant benefit for the local population and very few challenges – at least in regions with the mentioned characteristics, where tourism supply is mainly owned by locals and where there is no scarcity of the regional food produced. The most important

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perceived benefits where social benefits, in particular for the stakeholders in the local, often family-owned businesses of the primary industries. About the author Sarah Seidel is a member of the Research Group Sustainability in Hospitality and Tourism and a lecturer in Tourism Management at Stenden University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands. After studying business administration and tourism in Hannover and Tenerife and completing a Master degree in Leisure and Tourism Studies in London and Leeuwarden, she started teaching research methods at the School of Leisure and Tourism at Stenden. Parallel she started her work as a researcher for the Research Group Sustainability in Hospitality and Tourism with a research focus on local food products and sustainable regional tourism development.

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38 Promoting Sustainability in Feudalistic Festivals: The Nobel Manager and the Peasant Vendor Susan L. Slocum, George Mason University, United States of America

[email protected] Ethical tourism implies an inclusive form of development that equally privileges all stakeholders (Weeden & Boluk, 2014).

Modern scholarship has documented the development of social capital, bottom-up

planning and policy, and the importance of collaboration in the tourism product development process that empowers individuals and unites communities (Cote & Healy, 2001; Everett & Slocum, 2013; Lee, 2013). While much research has focused on community-based tourism, environmental protection, or niche tourism, the role of inclusionary practice in event management is still scarce (Stevenson, 2016). Furthermore, the outsourcing of labor, in the form of contract employment and vendor services, leaves festival organizers with limited responsibility, yet increasing authority, over working conditions and/or inclusionary decision making in festival planning. Renaissance festivals are a growing phenomenon across the United States and offer visitors an opportunity to escape to a medieval world of fantasy and history.

Often situated within a specific

timeframe (Plantagenet or Tudor England), the event provides reenactments, costumes, and characters that exist in a timeless environment. Visitors are intrigued by the unique ethos of jousters, musicians, craftsman, and historic interpreters, where staying in character is one of the most important things to those involved (Korol-Evans, 2009). This motley crew of vendors spends a great deal of time perfecting their performance and artisan skill through workshops, acting classes, apprenticeships, and reading. In turn, these vendors follow the renaissance circuit, travelling to faires around the country over a 10-month period and working for festival management teams. In effect, these vendors are the product that the faire sells to visitors. This paper documents the management practices of a renaissance festival in rural Texas to show that festival owners and organizers still possess the power, similar to renaissance feudalism, which inhibits entrepreneurship and sustainable practice within the event management field. Furthermore, many profit-based policies directly affect the livelihoods of the very actors that make the festival experience possible. Using a mixed methods approach, including 27 surveys and 18 semi-structured interviews, this paper showcases the growing conflicts between vendors that value sustainability principles, corporate social responsibility, and inclusionary practices and management that focuses on the bottom-line. Results imply that the lack of ethics, a short term perspective of profitability, and a growth in attendee numbers could potentially distance the very attractions (e.g. artisans, performers, and food vendors) that constitute the tourism product, resulting in an unsustainable development path for the industry as a whole. References Cote, S., & Healy, T. (2001). The wellbeing of nations. The role of human and social capital. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

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Everett, S., & Slocum, S.L. (2013). Food and Tourism, an Effective Partnership? A UK based review. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21 (7), pp. 789–809. Korol-Evans, K. (2009). Renaissance festivals: marrying the past and present. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson, NC Lee, B.C. (2013). The impact of social capital on tourism technology adoption for destination marketing, Current Issues in Tourism, 18(6), 561-578. Stevenson, N. (2016). Local festivals, social capital and sustainable destination development: experiences in East London. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(7), 990-1006. Weeden, C. & Boluk, K. (2015). Managing Ethical Consumption in Tourism (Eds.). Oxon, UK: Routledge. About the author Susan L. Slocum is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism and Event Management at George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia. Sue has worked on regional planning and development for 15 years and worked with rural communities in Tanzania, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Her primary focus is on rural sustainable development, policy implementation, and food tourism, specifically working with small businesses and communities in less advantaged areas. Sue received her doctoral education from Clemson University and has worked at the University of Bedfordshire and at Utah State University.

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39 Tourism for Development: A Discussion of Volunteer Trips and Global Citizenship Arielle Stirling, Carleton University, Canada

[email protected] Postsecondary institutions and independent volunteer-sending organizations increasingly promote international experiential learning as a way of rounding out students’ education and fostering global citizenship. International experiential learning provides an opportunity for students to apply their skills in the real world, while developing an increased understanding of inequality, poverty, and global justice (Tiessen & Huish 2013). There are many types of international experiential learning including internships, field courses, and study abroad. I focus on international service learning and volunteer tourism, where participants engage in a community service activity intended to benefit their own learning while also benefitting the community. Through its emphasis on civic engagement and its concern with global justice, international service learning seems to be an excellent tool to promote global citizenship. However, these programs are often developed with little consultation and offer international experience without the appropriate contextualization and critical analysis (Benham Rennick & Desjardins 2013). Through an examination of documented testimonial evidence from international service learning participants, and a survey of the philosophical literature on cosmopolitanism and global citizenship (Held 2010, Young 2011, Tully 2014, Dower & Williams 2002), my goal is to explore the ways in which international service learning can be both a catalyst and a barrier to the development of global citizenship. My analysis of the learning and development outcomes of international service learning projects is informed by the Capabilities Approach to international development (Sen 2001, Nussbaum 2011). My discussion will focus on two facets of international service learning: cultural experience, and development outcomes. I contend that participants’ perceptions of their cultural experience as “authentic” or not, and the general quest for “authenticity” in tourism, can lead to misunderstandings and cultural essentialism (Chabra et al 2003, Gotham 2007, Liston-Hayes and Daley 2016). Similarly, participants’ estimation of the impact of their service activity can grossly oversimplify the needs of a community and their role in global power dynamics. I aim to demonstrate that global citizenship as expressed through international service learning needs strong theoretical grounding in cosmopolitanism in order to promote mutual benefit and sustainable, ethical development, rather than benefit reaped by trip participants alone. To that end, I argue that including pre-departure training in cosmopolitanism—specifically, awareness of distributive and social injustice across a global moral community—can mitigate some of the deleterious outcomes of international service learning both on the participants and on the communities they claim to serve. Even with modifications, however, I maintain a critical perspective on the contributions that these trips make to development and cross-cultural understanding. Just because we can, does not necessarily mean that we should—and as people dedicated to justice, equality, and human rights, cosmopolitan global citizens are obligated to undertake these critiques and ask “Should we?” with regard to international service learning and other forms of tourism for development.

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References Balarin, Maria. “Global citizenship and marginalisation: contributions towards a political economy of global citizenship.” Globalisation, Societies and Education 9:3-4 (2011): 355-366. Benham Rennick, Joanne, and Michel Desjardins. The World is my Classroom: International Learning and

Canadian Higher Education. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013. Chabra, Deepak, Robert Healy and Erin Sills. “Staged Authenticity and Heritage Tourism.” Annals of

Tourism Research 30.3 (2003): 702-719. Crocker, David A. Ethics of Global Development: Agency, Capability, and Deliberative Democracy . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Davies, Ian, Mark Evans and Alan Reid. “Globalising Citizenship Education? A Critique of ‘Global Education’ and ‘Citizenship Education.’” British Journal of Educational Studies 53.1 (2005): 66-89. Dower, Nigel, and John Williams, eds. Global Citizenship: A Critical Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2002. Escobar, Arturo. Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011. Gotham, Kevin Fox. “Selling New Orleans to New Orleans: Tourism Authenticity and the Construction of Community Identity.” Tourist Studies 7.3 (2007): 317-339. Held, David. Cosmopolitanism. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010. Khoo, Su-ming. “Ethical globalisation or privileged internationalisation? Exploring global citizenship and internationalisation in Irish and Canadian universities.” Globalisation, Societies and Education 9:34 (2011): 337-353. Liston-Heyes, Catherine, and Carol Daley. “Voluntourism, sensemaking and the leisure-volunteer duality.”

Tourist Studies (2016): 1-23. Nussbaum, Martha. Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011. Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Tiessen, Rebecca, and Robert Huish. Globetrotting or Global Citizenship? The Perils of International

Experiential Learning. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014. Tully, James. On Global Citizenship: James Tully in Dialogue. New York: Bloomsbury, 2014. Young, Iris Marion. Responsibility for Justice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. About the author Arielle Stirling is a graduate student at Carleton University in Ottawa. Her research interests lie primarily in the area of development ethics and include international experiential learning, global citizenship, solidarity, and moral psychology.

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40 Conservation and Culture: Change and Continuity in the Use of Hawk-Eagle Feathers Among Taiwan’s Rukai Communities Sasala Taiban, I-Shou University, Taiwan

[email protected] In Rukai culture, the mountain hawk-eagle is a very significant bird of prey and can be regarded as the symbolic privilege of the noble family. Recently, as the idea of wildlife conservation has gained momentum, some scholars have called for the government to acknowledge the near extinction of the hawk-eagle and to limit the indigenous use of it. They have also requested a strengthening of law enforcement to restrict the hunting and trapping of this species. This research focuses on the sustainability of tribal cultures in modern society, drawing on interviews and discussions with local residents in Taiwan’s Rukai communities. Focusing on the use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers among the Rukai, this research discusses the conflict between traditional use and environmental conservation, from the perspective of ethnoecology and political ecology. The findings indicate that local people are willing to follow conservation rules based on community ethics and that they intend to develop alternative economic activities, such as bird-watching and ecotourism, to replace the traditional uses of the mountain hawk-eagle. About the author Dr. Sasala Taiban is currently an Associate Professor of Indigenous Program of College of Communication and Design, I-Shou University, Taiwan and was previously an Assistant Professor at the Department of Tourism, Tajen University. Dr. Taiban graduated with a doctor degree in Anthropology at University of Washington, USA in 2006 and started his academic career in Tajen University in2007. As an indigenous scholar, Dr. Taiban focus his research on traditional environmental knowledge and community-based conservation in the past ten years, and tried to find the ways of maintain indigenous culture which has been slowly declining in modern society. Dr. Taiban is currently the chair of the Indigenous Program of Communication and Design and also the dean of College of Indigenous Studies in I-Shou University.

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41 Philanthropy and the Commodification of Volunteering: Voluntourism According to Local Beneficiaries in Arequipa, Peru Pauline van der Valk, Vrije Universiteit, the Netherlands

[email protected] In the last decades a new term has entered the tourism sector: ‘voluntourism’. Voluntourism is viewed by many as a promising sector of tourism benefitting both tourists and host communities (Guttentag 2009). Globalisation facilitated the development of voluntourism. Young people, families, active pensioners, as well as employees who take a gap year, increasingly are interested in learning how other people in other countries work, and most of them want to contribute to reducing poverty in developing countries (Czarnecki et al., 2006). Nevertheless, voluntourism has also led to considerable debate among researchers in the field of philanthropy, development, tourism, and the third sector as to whether such activities are part of the rise of ethical consumption. Some authors draw parallels between voluntourism and fair trade, corporate social responsibility (CSR), and sustainable tourism (e.g. Vrasti, 2012). Others see voluntourism as a unique product that bring together the producer (host community) and the consumer (volunteer tourist) (e.g. Goodman, 2014). Overall, research on voluntourism has mainly focused on the positive and negative impacts of voluntourism on broader societal and economic structures (McGehee and Santos 2005, Vrasti, 2012, Mostafenazhad, 2014); and on the volunteer tourists themselves. In this paper, however, a bottom-up approach will be used. The entry-point for examining the impacts of voluntourism will be attitudes of the local beneficiaries towards the volunteers and the voluntourist organisations. Over the past years, voluntourism has increasingly gained attention, however, not from the perspective of the intended target group, i.e. the local beneficiaries (Guttentag, 2009; Burrai & Cochrane, 2015). The aim of this paper is to analyse how local beneficiaries experience voluntourism projects in Arequipa, Peru, and if and how they try to influence this environment of both philanthropic and commercial ideals. This study will offer a new perspective to the debate on the impacts of voluntourism. The data for this study are collected through three months of fieldwork with beneficiaries, and volunteers of social projects of international sending organisations, and citizens in Arequipa. Peru. Arequipa, the second largest city in Peru, is home to numerous voluntourist organisations. For decades, Peruvians are experiencing a lack of state’s efforts in providing social services like education, and health services. Due to this, Peruvians have stepped up to take care of social services themselves. Next to this, international development organisations and voluntourist organisations have emerged, assisting in the provision of social services. The fieldwork is conducted at voluntourist organisations with social projects providing educational assistance, and therapy sessions, both to children from the age of four up to fifteen. The local beneficiaries entail the children and their parents or caretakers. The research methods consist of interviews, informal talks and participant observations. The key topics being addressed are the encounters between local beneficiaries and volunteers; the attitudes of local beneficiaries towards international and

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local volunteers; and the attitudes of local beneficiaries concerning the impact of the voluntourist organisations. References Burrai, E., Font, X., & Cochrane, J. (2015). Destination Stakeholders' Perceptions of Volunteer Tourism: An Equity Theory Approach. International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(5), 451-459. Czarnecki, D. et al. (Eds) (2015). From Volunteering to Voluntourism (Profile 18). Berlin: Bread for the World. Guttentag, D. (2009). The Possible Negative impacts of Volunteer Tourism. International Journal of

Tourism Research, 11, 537-551. DOI: 10.1002/jtr.727 McGehee, N.G. & Andereck, K. (2009.) Volunteer tourism and the “voluntoured”: the case of Tijuana, Mexico, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(1), 39-51. DOI: 10.1080/09669580802159693 McGehee, N. G., & Santos, C. A. (2005). Social change, discourse and volunteer tourism. Annals of tourism

research, 32(3), 760-779. Vrasti, W. (2013). Volunteer tourism in the global south: Giving back in neoliberal times. Routledge. Mostafanezhad, M. (2014). Volunteer tourism and the popular humanitarian gaze. Geoforum, 54, 111118.

Retrieved

from:

www.researchgate.net/profile/Mary_Mostafanezhad/publication/262304513_Volunteer_tourism_an d_the_popular_humanitarian_gaze/links/552ebea10cf22d437170c07b.pdf About the author Pauline van der Valk is a student of the Master ‘Anthropology of mobility, development, and diversity’ at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. Her main interests are ethical responsibility, development, CSR, tourism, neoliberalism,

and local

beneficiaries.

She

studies

anthropological perspective.

83

development and

tourism

issues

from an


42 The Ethicality of the Hotel Management Agreement: From Agency to Stewardship Rob van Ginneken, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands

[email protected] Andrew Mzembe, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands An important business model in the international hotel industry is the hotel management agreement. These contracts are now considered the fundamental mechanism by which hotel properties with more than 200 rooms are controlled. This form involves the hotel owner retaining the services of a management company - often referred to as the operator – and, if applicable, its brand name. Such a relationship has often been described, in academia, as one of agency, where the operator agent has far-reaching fiduciary duties to the owner principal, and should act wholly in the latter’s interest. Agency theory (see e.g. Eisenhardt, 1989) predicts that principal and agent will to some extent have different goals and as such, opportunistic agent behavior may occur. In hotel management agreements, alignment between owner and operator interests is typically achieved by making the operator’s fees dependent on the revenue and operating profit achieved by them, for the property. However, literature is rife with assertions that this alignment has only been achieved partially (e.g. Eyster & deRoos, 2009; Schlup, 2005), and provides examples of how an operator may exhibit opportunistic and self-interested behavior if not controlled by the principal (Turner & Guilding, 2010; Dev, Thomas, Buschman, & Anderson, 2010). Using qualitative interviews to understand management agreement perceptions of 19 owners (institutional investors such as real estate investment trusts and private equity funds; but also high net worth individuals) and operators (development officers, area and general managers of branded and independent management companies) of hotels in Europe, our study confirms that there is an inherent conflict of interests and often a lack of trust between parties to such agreements. Operators are often perceived to be largely pursuing maximization of management fees and brand reputation, and less so the financial performance of the hotel property. These findings go beyond the mere observation of the existence of misalignment, and therefore raise a fundamental question about the ethicality and sustainability of such agreements, in particular when large branded operators do not consider the interests of their partners – the owners. Drawing on stewardship theory (e.g. Muth & Donaldson, 1998), we argue that there is a scope for integrating ethical principles and stewardship behaviours into the management agreements in an attempt to address opportunistic behaviors. The stewardship theory posits that stewardship behaviours can be shown when each party in a relationship places the long-term best interests of the ‘community’ ahead of its self-interests. The central issue in our study therefore is the striking of a balance by the operators between the fiduciary and moral obligations they have to the owners. This can ultimately lead to the establishment of long term relationships between the owner and operators which are based on trust,

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mutual respect and goodwill. A better alignment of interests and expectations of both parties emanating from such a new form of relationship can reduce the likelihood of disputes from arising. References Dev, C., Thomas, J., Buschman, J., & Anderson, E. (2010). Brand rights and hotel management agreements: lessons from Ritz-Carlton Bali’s lawsuit against the Ritz-Carlton hotel company, Cornell Hospitality

Quarterly, 51(2), 215-230. Eisenhardt, K. (1989). Agency theory: An assessment and review. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 57-74. Eyster, J., & deRoos, J. (2009). The negotiation and administration of hotel management contracts. New York: Pearson Custom Publishing. Muth, M.M., & Donaldson, L. (1998). Stewardship theory and board structure: a contingency approach,

Scholarly Research & Theory Papers, 51 (6), 5-28. Schlup, R. (2004). Hotel management agreements: balancing the interests of owners and operators. Journal of Retail and Leisure Properties 3(4), 331-342 Turner, M., & Guilding, C. (2010). Hotel management contracts and deficiencies in owner-operator capital expenditure goal congruency, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research. 34(4), 478-511. About the authors Rob van Ginneken is a senior lecturer in Hospitality Finance at NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences in the Netherlands. His main teaching and research interest is the separation of hotel ownership and operation and the relationship thus created between hotel owners and operators, specifically in the context of management agreements. He has published in peer-reviewed hospitality and tourism journals, and contributed to CHME and EuroCHRIE conference papers. Dr Andrew Ngawenja Mzembe is a lecturer in Sustainable Business Models at NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences in the Netherlands. His areas of expertise are CSR in the developing world, business ethics, corporate governance and international development. Some of his work on CSR in Malawi has appeared in edited books and peer-reviewed international journals in the field of business and management.

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43 The Power of Experience: Framework of City Image, Ethics in Tourism, Satisfaction and Word of Mouth Angga Pandu Wijaya, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia

[email protected] Devi Yulia Rahmi, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia In tourism, a city’s image reflects perceptions and expectations of tourists. These perceptions and expectations in the highest point will generate satisfaction, which moderated by experience. A metaanalysis conducted by Szymanski & Henard (2001) stated that if performance meets the expectation, it will produce satisfaction. The word of mouth which is derived from satisfaction is useful to develop trust among tourists to visit (Filieri, 2015). Performance will perceive tourists’ point of view as an experience. This research attempts to explore the experience of performance based on ethics. Ethics play an important role in tourism and indirectly affect the current experience of tourists. The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism issued by the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) can be used as reference to organize tourism around the world. Ethics in business continue to grow over the last half century with different perspectives (Schlegelmilch & Öberseder, 2010). Not only business, ethics constitute a responsibility as a citizen of the world, especially in a tourism city. The theory of ethical hedonism puts pleasure as a value that must be obtained by humans, by avoiding pain (Malone, McCabe, & Smith, 2014). Based on the theory, citizens should treat tourists as a honourable guest to make them satisfied. The host should maintain a simple but ethical thing, for example, not littering to keep the environment healthy, smiling at the tourist, and keeping the city secure. As for the research originality, it is the first research capturing the image of a city to the actual ethical or unethical experience and the way it brings about satisfaction so as to make tourists willing to tell others their travelling story. Previous research in tourism had not propose an emphasis on the relationship between ethical aspect and satisfaction as well as the word of mouth. This research was conducted in Yogyakarta City, which is one of the main tourism destinations in Indonesia, besides Bali. The research involved 156 selected respondents selected using purposive random sampling. The obtained data were processed using PLS-SEM. The results reveal that a good perception of a city’s tourism destination coupled with a good experience of ethics perceived by tourists will affect satisfaction. It is confirmed that the experience perceived by them accords with their perception. In the view of these tourists, the citizens of Yogyakarta demonstrate ethics of tourism. In addition, the findings show that tourists’ experience affects their satisfaction and the word of mouth. Research findings reinforce the findings of the previous research that satisfaction leads to a positive word of mouth. The essential discovery is that ethics should be embedded in tourism to give an enjoyable experience and sustain tourism. As the research implications, it is imperative that city stakeholders, including the government,

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businesses, and citizens, maintain ethics, not only in business but also in the daily life as a host considering their vital role in sustainable tourism in Yogyakarta City. References Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Agency theory  : An assessment and review. Academy of Management Review,

14(1), 57–74. http://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.1989.4279003 Filieri, R. (2015). Why do travelers trust TripAdvisor? Antecedents of trust towards consumer-generated media and its influence on recommendation adoption and word of mouth. Tourism Management, 51, 174–185. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.05.007 Nyberg, A., Fulmer, I., Gerhart, B., & Carpenter, M. (2010). Agency theory revisited: CEO return and shareholder

interest

alignment.

Academy

of

Management

Journal,

53(5),

1029–1049.

http://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.54533188 Pepper, A., & Gore, J. (2015). Behavioral Agency Theory: New Foundations for Theorizing About Executive Compensation.

Journal

of

Management,

41(4),

1045–1068.

http://doi.org/10.1177/0149206312461054 Schlegelmilch, B. B., & ??berseder, M. (2010). Half a century of marketing ethics: Shifting perspectives and emerging trends. Journal of Business Ethics, 93(1), 1–19. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-0090182-1 Szymanski, D. M., & Henard, D. H. (2001). Customer Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence.

Journal

of

the

Academy

of

Marketing

Science,

29(1),

16–35.

http://doi.org/10.1177/009207030102900102 About the authors Angga Pandu Wijaya was born on 12th July 1993 in Tulungagung, East Java, Indonesia. He pursued his undergraduate degree in Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Brawijaya. His undergraduate thesis topics is predicting consumer compulsive behavior by analysing hedonism and materialism character. His research interests are consumer behavior, luxury brand, online marketing, satisfaction and loyalty. Now, he is M.Sc student, focus on marketing, in Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada Devi Yulia Rahmi was born on 28 July 1993, in Kubu Apa, West Sumatera, Indonesia. She pursued undergraduate degree in Department of Management, Faculty of Economics, Andalas University. She interesting discuss and research about green marketing, halal tourism, sport event. Her competence in small medium enterprises. Her undergraduate thesis topics is the role of green trust, green perceived value, green perceived risk, and perceived price as a examine green purchase intention on green product. Now, she continuing her study as a master of science student, in Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada with focus on strategic management

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44 The Risks of Pro-Social Tourism Lourdes L. Zamanillo, Monash University, Australia

[email protected] Joseph M. Cheer, Monash University, Australia With trends looming towards ‘socially responsible’ products, tourism now promises to strengthen intercultural bonds and increase travellers’ understanding on social, cultural and even environmental issues; adding a moral component to consumption. As consumers, tourists hold the capacity to choose the products they purchase. Could empathy (an emotional prerequisite for cross-cultural understanding according to Hazel Tucker) also become subject to ‘choice’ and therefore, become a way to assert power? Hazel Tucker and other academics like Carolyn Pedwell and Jodi Halpern have previously explored this issue, stating that trying to empathize with others entails the risk of appropriation and projection. Empathy could only be a way to minimize uncertainty and demonstrate moral superiority instead of serving as a tool for understanding. Based on these premises, prosocial tourism it entails important moral risks that should be addressed. Following a critical approach, the present research assessed the conditions that ignite empathy in tourism encounters; its manifestations, evolution, and subsequent effects. To achieve this, the perspectives and sentiments of 13 tourists that took a 10 day prosocial tour to Cambodia were assessed through semi-structured, in-depth interviews. Interviews were held prior, during and after their trip to review changes in the interviewees’ perception throughout time. In addition, the researcher undertook the pro-social trip herself in October to engage in participant observation and gather further data on the social interactions that occur. She also used auto-ethnography to gauge her own process and cultural predispositions. Preliminary findings suggest that tourists interpreted the foreign reality according to their own cultural constructs and did little effort to empathize or actively engage with locals. Furthermore, they expressed feeling empowered to make critical decisions in the future based on their visit, which risks generalized judgements based on a particular experience and justifies the concern about prosocial tourism becoming a tool to strengthen feelings of moral superiority. Further research should explore means to prevent these negative effects. The present study is timely and relevant from a critical perspective because it fills the research gap between empathy, prosocial tourism and social change. While current research focuses on the relationship between empathy and tourism, it fails to address its role in prosocial tourism specifically and whether it contributes to a positive social impact within this segment or not. It responds to emerging consumer behaviour trends that focus on social responsibility and addresses the risks that could prevent social change. Its findings could also inform policy-makers, local communities and social organizations on the ethics of pro-social tourism and thus, help them tailor their products to build a truly socially responsible industry.

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About the author Lourdes Zamanillo is currently undertaking a Master’s thesis in the Master in International Sustainable Tourism Management at Monash University, Australia. Her work focuses on the impacts of pro-social tourism and addressing the role of empathy as a catalyst for change. Lourdes has worked as a journalist in her

home-country,

Mexico,

specializing

in

social

enterprise,

solutions

journalism

and

social

entrepreneurship. At present she is a tourism practitioner and has forthcoming publications with Joseph Cheer. She is looking to commence PhD studies in 2018. Dr Joseph M. Cheer is lecturer at the National Centre for Australian Studies, Monash University and directs the activities of the Australia and International Tourism Research Unit. Joseph’s research draws from transdisciplinary perspectives, especially human geography, cultural anthropology and political economy with a focus on the Asia-Pacific region. As a former practitioner, he is focused on research to practice with an emphasis on resilience building, sustainability and social justice. His forthcoming books with Alan Lew include Lew, A.A. & Cheer, J.M. (Eds.) (2017) Tourism Resilience and Adaptation to Environmental Change. London: Routledge and Cheer, J.M. & Lew, A.A. (Eds.) (2017) Tourism Resilience and Sustainability: Adapting to Social, Political and Economic Change. London: Routledge.

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Documentaries

1 Bali’s Paradise Paradigm Britta Boyer, University of Brighton, United Kingdom

[email protected]

"Design can offer the translating of this knowledge between fast and slow layers of society. Artefacts that involve use of skills, rather than passive watching or consuming, are more likely to meet a human need than spending money. Design can help to address this and slow things down" (Thorpe, 2013). This 20-minute film, Bali's Paradise Paradigm, seeks to explore and connect the dots between fashion, travel, tourism, culture, sustainable development and our own spiritual development in Bali. The film explores the western concept of Paradise with its tendency of hyper visuality and the Balinese concept of ‘Suarga’, an internalized concept of Paradise, heaven, driven by the principles of Tri Hita Karana. For the Balinese there is no word for paradise. It is shot during and after Nyepi, Balinese New Year (March 28th 2017). Through experiencing the island and its people through Nyepi, a ritual of one-day silence, it gives us the opportunity to build knowledge by exploring different concepts of time, values and our interaction with the world - taking the lead from local wisdom. Through interviews, and conversations with local residents the film seeks to uncover personal narratives, cultural values, and perceptions of the future of this small island. It will reflect on the cultural history of Bali, discuss Bali in the present day as a hotspot for ‘spiritual tourism', and present a series of

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speculative futures for the island - one based on current trends, another based on cultural values and heritage. From these, key observations, experiences and insights can be highlighted for opportunity to build tourism knowledge and generate conditions of wellbeing for all. The work embodies possible attitudes towards the other in the context of Bali's Paradise Paradigm. It can help define more clearly our understanding of the Other in the past, present and of the Us in the future in context of tourism and travel. The mission is to translate values of emotion and human value systems into a new linguistic currency, a lexicon for global citizenship, for the benefit of an authentic culture and tourism education. About the author I have a proven track record with 25 years of extensive knowledge of the Fashion Industry from running own businesses to working at both Designer and High Street level. I also work as a visiting lecturer in fashion in HE. This experience includes; managing whole product life cycle, licensing print and design work, consultancy, running own signature brand and retail outlet, collections, interior design projects such as multi-brand superstores in Bali, Indonesia, for Religion Clothing, Renovation of KuDeTa Boutique and founder of a minimal waste, vegetarian slow food business Green Ginger Noodle House. My visual portfolio can be found here: www.brittaboyer.wixsite.com/201 The MA research website for the film Paradise Paradigm can be found here www.tokenproject.co.uk. This is a platform set up to build upon research and create a soul for my new business proposition; it will evolve in the coming months to unfold as an agency to work collaboratively on design projects and initiatives that have embedded in them a respect for human, economic and environmental rights and welcome opportunity for cultural exchange and creative collaborations at both a local and an international level.

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