Acculturation and adaptation of first and ... - Wiley Online Library

I N T E R NAT I O NA L J O U R NA L O F SOCIAL WELFARE

DOI: 10.1111/ijsw.12079 Int J Soc Welfare 2014: 23: 410–420

ISSN 1369-6866

Acculturation and adaptation of firstand second-generation South Asians in Hong Kong Tonsing K.N. Acculturation and adaptation of first- and second-generation South Asians in Hong Kong This study investigates the experiences of psychological and sociocultural adaptation among 404 first- and secondgeneration South Asian immigrants in Hong Kong. Results indicate that for first-generation immigrants, lack of host language fluency, fewer contacts and friendships with host members, the strategy of marginalisation, and perceived discrimination are all related to higher psychological distress, lower self-esteem and less competence in sociocultural adaptation. For second-generation individuals, although they reported higher knowledge of the host language and higher preferences the for assimilation strategy, the levels of psychological distress were higher compared with the firstgeneration group. An interesting finding of this study is the preference for the marginalisation strategy as opposed to the assimilation and/or separation strategy. The findings of this study highlight the importance of considering the unique experiences of the second generation in order to further our understanding of immigration and acculturation processes.

Despite the proliferation of studies over the past several decades regarding the acculturation of immigrants, review of the literature reveals a lack of research on the cultural adjustment of South Asians in the context of Hong Kong. The South Asians in Hong Kong consist of people coming from the Indian subcontinent of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Local studies on South Asians in Hong Kong have highlighted the many challenges in their everyday lives, especially in employment, education and housing (e.g., Ku, Chan, Chan, & Lee, 2003; Ku, Chan, & Sandhu, 2006; Loper, 2001), which are compounded by experiences of discrimination (Crabtree & Wong, 2012; Tang, Lam, Lam, & Ngai, 2006). However, none of these studies have explored the process of acculturation and adaptation outcomes among first-generation (FG) and secondgeneration (SG) immigrants. The present study sought to extend previous studies by focusing on two subgroups of FG and SG South Asians in Hong Kong: the Pakistanis and the Nepalese. Specifically, this study examined the relationship between acculturation strategies and adaptation outcomes in terms of psychological well-being and sociocultural adaptation among FG and SG South Asian immigrants in Hong Kong, in order to determine whether there are differences between the FG and the SG groups. Additionally, the role of discrimination in this relationship was also examined. 410

Kareen N. Tonsing Department of Social Work, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Key words: discrimination, acculturation, adaptation, first- and second-generation immigrants, South Asian Kareen N. Tonsing, Department of Social Work, Faculty of Arts & Social Science, Block AS3, Level 4, 3 Arts Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117570 E-mail: [email protected] Accepted for publication 25 December 2013

Acculturation strategies Acculturation is a complex construct, as it encompasses various factors including socioeconomic, historical, political and psychosocial variables. The concept of acculturation has been used to define the process of change that occurs when different cultural groups come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups due to the mutual influence of this intercultural contact (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936. Although acculturation implies that changes occur in both groups that are in contact, in practice these changes tend to occur more within the acculturating groups than in the host group (Berry, 1997). Such changes may include change in values, attitudes and behaviours, and occur at both individual and group levels, and there are variable outcomes to acculturation that include both psychological and sociocultural adaptations (Berry & Sabatier, 2011). Berry (1997) proposed a bi-dimensional model of acculturation that was subsequently validated in various studies (e.g., Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006; Neto, 2002; Schwartz & Zamboanga, 2008). According to Berry’s model, acculturating individuals must deal with two issues that pertain to maintaining (or rejecting) their heritage culture and maintaining positive

Int J Soc Welfare 2014: 23: 410–420 © 2014 The Author(s). International Journal of Social Welfare © 2014 International Journal of Social Welfare and John Wiley & Sons Ltd

South Asians in Hong Kong

relations with the host society. Crossing these two dimensions, equivalent to a 2 × 2 combination of heritage culture maintenance (high/low) and maintaining relations with the host society (high/low) results in four strategies or modes: assimilation, integration, marginalisation and separation. Assimilation refers to a preference for maintaining relations with the host members only and little interest in one’s heritage culture. Integration refers to maintaining the heritage culture and participating in the host society. Separation pertains to a higher preference for one’s heritage and little interest in maintaining a relationship with the host society. Marginalisation is said to occur when an individual has little interest in his/her heritage culture and little interest or possibility to maintain relations with host country members (because of being discriminated against or excluded) (Berry, 1997); this is often associated with personal anxiety, alienation and confusion. Numerous research has been conducted among various immigrant groups based on these acculturation strategies whereby integration has been shown to be the most preferred mode of acculturation, whereas the order of preference for the other three strategies varies depending on the acculturating group (Berry, Kim, Power, Young, & Bujaki, 1989). However, there has been little research examining the acculturation attitudes between FG immigrants and SG immigrants. In a study among FG and SG South Asians in Canada, Abouguendia and Noels (2001) found no significant differences in the preference for acculturation strategies among the whole sample. However, they noted that the separation strategy predicted lower self-esteem and high depression among the FG sample and high depression among the SG sample (Abouguendia & Noels, 2001). Studies among South Asians in Britain found that the FG sample showed a higher preference for the separation strategy (e.g., Anwar, 1998; Robinson, 2003). In addition, other studies showed that the SG sample had a higher preference for the assimilation strategy (e.g., Modood, Beishon, & Virdee, 1994; Stopes-Roe & Cochrane, 1990). Adaptation Numerous studies on cross-cultural literature have examined acculturation and its outcome – adaptation. Researchers have drawn a distinction between psychological (affective) and sociocultural (behavioural) adaptation (Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1993). Psychological adaptation is best understood within the stress and coping framework and refers to feelings of satisfaction and physical and psychological well-being. It is commonly evaluated using measures of depression or mood disturbances and life satisfaction (Berry et al., 2006; Te Lindert, Korzilius, Van de Vijver, Kroon, & Arends-Tóth, 2008). Sociocultural adaptation, on the

other hand, refers to an individual’s level of competence and ability to manage practical day-to-day life in the new cultural milieu. Although both psychological and sociocultural adaptations are conceptually interrelated, they are empirically distinct and predicted by different variables (Ward, 1996). Whereas the former is predicted by personality variables such as life changes, psychological distress and social support, the latter is predicted by host language fluency, cultural knowledge and cultural distance (Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1993). In the present study, psychological adaptation was examined in terms of self-esteem and psychological distress. Sociocultural adaptation was evaluated in terms of behavioural competence within the individual’s new cultural context. Perceived discrimination Results from several studies have also highlighted that perceived discrimination is significantly associated with forms of psychological distress such as depression and anxiety (Araujo & Borrell, 2006; Gee, Spencer, Chen, Yip, & Takeuchi, 2007; Tummala-Narra, Alegria, & Chen, 2011) and is one of the main predictors of acculturative stress (Abouguendia & Noels, 2001; Berry, 1997). Past studies among various immigrant groups found that experiences of discrimination and prejudice vary across generations, with the SG or those who have lived for longer periods of time in the host country reporting that they experience more acts of discrimination or prejudice (Gil, Vega, & Dimas, 1994; Rumbaut, 1994). It is probable that SG immigrants have higher expectations and therefore tend to feel more deprived. The present study This study sought to examine the acculturation experiences and adaptation among FG and SG Pakistani and Nepalese immigrants, two subgroups of South Asians in Hong Kong, and to examine whether there were differences between the FG and the SG group. According to the 2011 Hong Kong Census, there were 18,042 Pakistani residents in Hong Kong, 38.7 per cent of whom had been born in Hong Kong (Census and Statistics, 2012) at the time of the census. The history of Pakistanis in Hong Kong can be traced to the early migrants who arrived in the territory during the early 20th century as part of the overall British operation in China and the Far East when most of the Indian subcontinent was still under British rule (Vaid, 1972). Many of these early migrants were employed by the British mainly as police officers and prison guards, whereas there were some who engaged in trade and commerce (Pluss, 2005; Vaid, 1972). After the end of


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their contract, many returned to their home country, but a few remained and their family subsequently came to join them. The Nepalese first came to Hong Kong as Gurkha soldiers in 1948, having been recruited by the British army to aid in the security management of the territory (FEONA, 2000). A majority of the present-day Nepalese are ex-Gurkha soldiers and their families, as well as recent migrants who have migrated for economic reasons. According to the 2011 Hong Kong Census, there was a total of 16,518 Nepalese residents in Hong Kong at that time. However, it has been estimated that the actual number could be much larger in that those who held a British or other national passport were not listed as nationals of their home country. Of the total Nepalese population, 39.5 per cent were born in Hong Kong (Census and Statistics, 2012). Looking at the percentage of ‘place of birth’ from the Census record, it can be observed that nearly half of the total population in each respective group was born in Hong Kong. In summary, this study compared FG and SG immigrants with regard to their acculturation attitudes and adaptation outcomes in terms of psychological (self-esteem and psychological distress) and sociocultural adaptations in order to determine whether perceived discrimination and acculturation strategy preferences differentially predicted the adaptation outcomes for these two groups. Second, it examined the relations between acculturation attitudes, perceived discrimination and adaptation outcomes among the FG and SG groups. Methods Procedures Data for this study were collected during July– December 2010, after obtaining ethical approval from the University of Hong Kong. Data were collected mainly from social service agencies but also ethnic communities and religious organisations by means of a convenience sampling method. An information sheet and consent form explaining the research was included in the self-administered questionnaires. Participants were also informed of the voluntary nature of participation and were assured of the confidentiality of their responses. A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed, and a total of 407 were received (81.3% response rate). However, three were rejected due to excessive missing data (more than 60% of the data were incomplete). Thus, the total number of participants in the final analyses was 404. All scales were translated from the original English to Urdu and Nepali based on the back-translation method (Brislin, 1970). Bilingual translators then examined and compared the original and translated 412

versions. After slight modifications were made to some item wordings, the questionnaires were sent to the participants. Participants A total of 404 South Asians participated in the study, 305 of whom were FG and 99 SG immigrants. In general, FG immigrants are broadly defined as those born in their home country and immigrated as adults, whereas SG refers to children born to FG parents (Abouguendia & Noels, 2001; Jensen & Chitose, 1994; Maani, 1994). However, ‘country of birth’ as an indicator of generational status has not been consistent, with some researchers employing ‘age at time of arrival’. For instance, some researchers have argued that children who immigrated at age 4–13 years should be included as SG because it is assumed that their socialisation process in the family, the school and the society would be dissimilar to those experienced by the FG cohort who immigrated in adulthood (e.g., Allensworth, 1997; Hirschman, 1996). It has been suggested that researchers should modify the standardised definition of generational distinction to suit their research needs (Jantzen, 2008). In the present study, 11.3 per cent of the total sample were born in Hong Kong but returned to their home country at age 2 years or younger and immigrated to Hong Kong at age 14 years and above. If ‘country of birth’ was utilised, this group of children would be termed as ‘second generation’; however, their experiences would not be similar to those SG who were born and lived in Hong Kong or who migrated at a younger age. On the other hand, 17.3 per cent of the participants had immigrated to Hong Kong at age 13 years or younger. Hence, in the present study, those who immigrated at age 13 or younger were in the SG cohort. At the time of the study, the mean number of years of living in Hong Kong for the SG group was 18.14 [standard deviation (SD) = 7.97] and the mean number of years of living in Hong Kong for the FG group 9.53 years (SD = 6.77). Among the FG, there were 146 males (47.9%) and 159 females (52.1%), whereas the SG group consisted of 51 males (51.5%) and 48 females (48.5%). Further details on their demographic variables are presented in Table 1. Although the Census data do not provide information by generational status, some observations between the study sample and the overall Pakistani and Nepalese population in Hong Kong are highlighted based on the 2011 Census data (Census and Statistics, 2012). There, the median age of the overall Pakistani and Nepalese groups is 26 and 31 years, respectively, which is slightly younger compared with the study sample (FG Pakistanis median age = 29; FG Nepalese median age = 33). In terms of educational qualification, the majority of the participants had completed


South Asians in Hong Kong Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and t-values for all the background variables. FG (n = 305)

Age (years) Host language proficiencya Heritage language proficiencya Co-national friendsb Host national friendsb In-group contactc Out-group contactc Length of residence in Hong Kong Median years of residence in Hong Kong Educational qualification (%) Primary High school Some college University Employment status (%) Employed Not employed Occupation (%) Elementary occupation Office work Professional Others

SG (n = 99)

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

t-value

33.19 1.98 3.90 3.48 2.26 2.43 1.73 9.53 8.5

8.35 0.71 0.30 0.67 1.02 0.51 0.64 6.76

25.52 2.56 3.81 3.54 2.55 2.42 1.87 18.14 16.0

7.69 0.89 0.39 0.58 0.98 0.54 0.60 7.97

8.09*** −5.79*** 2.08* −0.80 −2.52** 0.03 −1.90

13.4 45.2 16.5 24.9

10.1 53.5 24.2 12.2

64.3 35.7

53.5 47.5

40.0 20.0 4.3 35.7

14.1 34.3 5.1 46.5

a Response range from 1 to 4. bResponse range from 1 to 4. cResponse range from 1 to 3. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001 FG, first generation (n = 305); SG, second generation (n = 99); Elementary occupation, waiter/waitress; construction; security guard; Office work, salesperson; small business owner; Professional, doctor; teacher; etc; Others, unemployed; homemaker; retiree; student; etc.

high school and above, which is also comparable with the overall population of Nepalese (73.7%) and Pakistanis (53.2%). The majority of the study participants were employed (FG = 64.3%; SG = 53.5%), with a higher proportion of the FG group in an elementary occupation and a higher proportion of the SG group in office-related jobs (Table 1). From the 2011 Census data, it can be observed that the majority of South Asians were employed at the time of the census, with a higher proportion of them engaged in an elementary occupation (Census and Statistics, 2012). These two subgroups of South Asians were chosen because they are both understudied and underrepresented within the discourse of acculturation research in Hong Kong. Although the South Asians have been living in Hong Kong for decades and consider Hong Kong their home, Ku et al. (2003) remarked that they do not enjoy being with the local residents, and hence tend to live ‘their own way’ (separation strategy). It is probable that this may be due to their being discriminated or feeling rejected by host country members. Thus, the present study can extend and contribute to the existing body of research on South Asians. Participants were recruited through several means, mainly through social service agencies, but also through community and religious organisations, ethnic shops and restaurants.

Measures Acculturation attitudes The 32-item Stephenson Multidimensional Acculturation Scale (SMAS; Stephenson, 2000) was utilised to assess the two acculturation attitudes, that is, the attitude towards maintaining the heritage culture and towards maintaining positive relations with the host society. The SMAS is a general-purpose scale with two subscales: the Ethnic Society Immersion (ESI; 17 items), which assesses attitudes towards the heritage culture, and the Dominant Society Immersion (DSI; 15 items), which is intended to assess attitudes towards the host culture. Items in both subscales tap respondents’ knowledge, attitudes and behaviours towards the language, social interactions, media and food of both the heritage culture (ESI) and the host culture (DSI). Sample items include, ‘I am familiar with the history of my native country’ (ESI) and ‘I feel accepted by local Chinese people’ (DSI). Items are scored on a 4-point scale: 1 = false, 2 = partly false, 3 = partly true and 4 = true. Higher scores indicate higher orientation in each subscale. The reliability of the scale is a reported α = 0.86 for the entire scale, 0.97 for the ESI and 0.90 for DSI (Stephenson, 2000). In the present study, the coefficient alphas were DSI = 0.81 and ESI = 0.68 for the Pakistanis (0.76 for the


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entire scale) and DSI = 0.80 and ESI = 0.75 for the Nepalese (0.77 for the entire scale). The classification of the four acculturation strategies was derived based on median split of the ESI and DSI scores. High scores in the DSI and ESI represent an integration strategy; low scores in the DSI and high scores in the ESI reflect an assimilation strategy; high scores in DSI and low scores in the ESI represent a separation strategy; and low scores in both the DSI and the ESI reflect the marginalisation strategy. Perceived discrimination Four items were adapted from the Measure of Perceived Discrimination Scale developed by Phinney et al. (Phinney, Madden, & Santos, 1998) to assess perceived discrimination based on Likert response options (1 = almost never, to 5 = very often). Sample items included ‘I often feel that other people treat me unfairly or negatively because of my ethnic background’. Higher scores indicate higher perceived discrimination. In prior research, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.81 (Phinney, Madden, & Santos, 1998). In the present study, the alpha was 0.86 for Pakistanis and 0.81 for Nepalese. Psychological distress This was assessed using the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Items in the DASS-21 are designed to assess negative emotional states that are indicative of depression, anxiety and stress, and not as a diagnostic tool for mental disorders. Responses to items are scored on 4-point Likert scales (0 = does not apply to me at all, to 3 = applied to me very much or most of the time). Examples include ‘I feel downhearted and blue’, ‘I felt I was close to panic’. High scores are indicative of higher levels of psychological distress. This scale has been used among both clinical and non-clinical groups and reported to be acceptable Cronbach’s alpha (e.g., Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998; Henry & Crawford, 2005; Norton, 2007; Tonsing, Zimet, & Tse, 2012). Cronbach’s alphas of 0.94 and 0.92 were obtained for the Pakistani and Nepalese samples, respectively. Self-esteem Rosenberg’s (1979) 10-item Self-Esteem Scale, with a 4-point response scale, was used to measure general self-esteem. Sample items included ‘I feel I have a number of good qualities’. Cronbach’s alphas were 0.70 for the Pakistani and 0.72 for the Nepalese samples, respectively. Sociocultural adaptation This was measured with the 22-item Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS) developed by Ward et al. 414

(Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1999). Various versions of the SCAS have been used in numerous studies among diverse ethnic groups, and most versions, based on the characteristics of the study participants, have contained 20–23 items from the original 29-item SCAS (e.g., Chen & Choi, 2006; Simic & Tanaka, 2010; Ward & Chang, 1997; Ward & Kennedy, 1999). Items on the scale examine the skills required to manage everyday life in the new cultural milieu and include such items as ‘Following rules and regulations’ and ‘Adapting to local accommodation’. Answers to the scale items are given on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = no difficulty, to 5 = extreme difficulty). Cronbach’s alphas of 0.90 and 0.89 were reported for the Pakistani and Nepalese samples, respectively. Background information A demographic information sheet was developed on which participants noted their age, gender, educational level, employment status and length of residence. Additionally, participants were asked to rate their level of proficiency in speaking the host language on a 4-point scale (1 = not at all, to 4 = very well); the number of co-nationals and host national friends they have on a 4-point scale (1 = none, to 4 = many); and their frequency of meeting with these friends on a 3-point scale (1 = never, to 3 = daily). High scores indicated higher proficiency in the host language, a larger number of friends and higher frequency of contact. Results Preliminary analyses A series of independent t-tests were conducted to explore the possible differences between the two groups. Table 1 provides the means and standard deviations on background variables for the FG and SG groups. Results showed that there is statistically significant difference in both age and proficiency in speaking the host language. Generally, the FG was older, less fluent in the host language and reported having fewer numbers of host national friends compared with the SG group. The FG also reported higher proficiency in heritage language proficiency, although the difference was minimal. Comparison among participants recruited from social service agencies versus those recruited from other sources did not reveal any significant differences in the variables in question. To examine gender differences in the measures of interest, including the three adaptation measures, acculturation attitudes and perceived discrimination, a number of t-tests were also performed. Results showed that overall, the sampled males, M = 32.92 (SD = 6.88), reported slightly higher orientation to the host culture



reported a slightly higher mean (2.53; SD = 0.88) than did the FG (M = 2.46, SD = 0.89).

Table 2. Mean and SD of the study variables for FG and SG.

Self-esteem Psychological distress Sociocultural competence

FG (n = 305) M (SD)

SG (n = 99) M (SD)

F(1,402)

2.86 (0.41) 1.55 (1.04) 2.17 (0.62)

2.88 (0.42) 1.74 (1.74) 2.00 (0.59)

0.10 2.34 5.61*

* p < .05 (two-tailed). Note: FG, first generation; SG, second generation.

(DSI) than did the sampled females, M = 31.53 (SD = 6.77); t (402) = 2.04, p = 0.04. No significant gender differences on the other variables were found, either for the whole sample or for the FG and SG groups, separately. Thus, both genders were combined for the major analyses. Comparison between FG and SG groups The dependent variables in this study were self-esteem, psychological distress (as a function of psychological adaptation) and sociocultural adaptation. Analysis did not reveal any significant differences between the two groups on these variables, except in sociocultural adaptation (see Table 2).

Acculturation attitudes. A 2 × 2 repeated measure of analysis of variance was conducted on generational status (FG and SG) and acculturation attitude (heritage culture orientation and host culture orientation). Results showed significant differences between the two groups, F(1,402) = 3.55, p < 0.001, with the FG group reporting higher levels of orientation to their heritage culture, M = 3.49, SD = 0.22, than did the SG group, M = 3.34, SD = 0.24. On the other hand, the SG individuals showed higher orientation to the host culture, M = 2.36, SD = 0.39, than did the FG individuals, M = 2.07, SD = 0.45.

Acculturation strategies. A cross-tabulation with generational status and the four acculturation strategies presented in Table 3 revealed that the order of preference among the FG individuals was integration, separation, marginalisation and assimilation. On the other hand, a higher proportion of SG individuals showed a preference for assimilation, followed by the integration, marginalisation and separation strategies. The chi-square tests revealed statistically significant differences between the two groups in their mode of acculturation preferences.

Psychological adaptation. To compare the FG and SG individuals on both indicators of psychological adaptation – self-esteem and psychological distress1 – a multivariate analysis of variance was conducted. Results did not indicate a significant effect, Pillai’s = 0.008; F(1,402) = 1.53, p = 0.21, partial Eta2 = 0.008, although inspection of the mean revealed that the SG reported a slightly higher mean on psychological distress, M = 1.74, SD = 1.16, than did the FG individuals, M = 1.55, SD = 1.04.

Sociocultural adaptation. A univariate analysis was conducted to compare the FG and SG individuals regarding sociocultural adaptation. The analysis indicated a moderate main effect, F(1,402) = 5.61, p < 0.05, with the FG group reporting a slightly higher level of difficulties in managing their everyday life activities, M = 2.17, SD = 0.62, than did the SG individuals, M = 2.00, SD = 0.59 (see Table 2).

Perceived discrimination. Results of univariate analysis comparing the FG and SG groups on perceived discrimination yielded no significant differences, F(1,402) = 0.56, p = 0.45, although the SG group 1

Correlation between self-esteem and psychological distress was r = −0.32, p < 0.01 (two-tailed) for FG group and r = −0.30, p < 0.01 (two-tailed) for the SG group.

Predicting psychological and sociocultural adaptation

Perceived discrimination. To examine the relationships between perceived discrimination and adaptation outcomes, correlational and standard regression analyses were conducted, which are presented in Tables 4 and 5. In the regression analysis, perceived discrimination was entered as the independent variable to predict each of the adaptation outcome variables. Results of the analyses revealed that perceived discrimination was significantly related to all three adaptation outcomes. The bivariate correlation revealed that perceived discrimination was a significantly related to all three adaptation outcomes for the FG group. This indicates that higher perceived discrimination is related to lower self-esteem, higher levels of psychological distress and more difficulties in sociocultural adaptation. For SG individuals, perceived discrimination showed a stronger relationship to psychological distress and sociocultural adaptation.

Acculturation attitudes. Regression analyses were also performed with the two acculturation attitudes as the independent variable in order to examine its relationship to the adaptation outcomes (Table 6). Results revealed that, for both the FG and SG groups, adherence to their heritage culture was associated with higher self-esteem, lower psychological distress and


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Tonsing Table 3. Generational status by acculturation strategies. Whole sample

Acculturation strategies Integration Assimilation Separation Marginalisation Total

First generation

χ2

Second generation

n

%

n

%

n

%

(3, 404)

127 89 105 83 404

31.4 22.1 26.0 20.5

102 43 94 66 305

33.4 14.2 30.8 21.6

25 46 11 17 99

25.2 46.5 11.1 17.2

49.03***

*** p < .001.

Table 4. Correlations between perceived discrimination, acculturation attitudes and adaptation variables. Self-esteem

Psychological distress

Sociocultural competence

First generation (n = 305) Perceived discrimination Host culture orientation Heritage culture orientation

−0.18** 0.10 0.18**

0.30** −0.04 −0.16**

0.31** −0.33** −0.24**

Second generation (n = 99) Perceived discrimination Host culture orientation Heritage culture orientation

−0.21* 0.20* 0.25*

0.26** −0.09 −0.33**

0.28** −0.19 −0.21*

* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001 (two-tailed).

Table 5. Summary of linear regression analyses: perceived discrimination predicting self-esteem, psychological distress and sociocultural adaptation. Self-esteem

First generation (n = 305) Second generation (n = 99)


Sociocultural adaptation

R2

F

β

R2

F

β

R2

F

β

0.03 0.05

9.73 5.20

−0.18** −0.22*

0.09 0.07

30.74 7.12

0.30*** 0.26**

0.10 0.08

32.3 8.14

0.31*** 0.28**

* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

Table 6. Summary of multiple regression analyses: acculturation attitudes predicting self-esteem, psychological distress and sociocultural adaptation. Self-esteem


Sociocultural adaptation

F

β

R2

F

β

R2

F

β

First generation (n = 305) Host culture Heritage culture 0.04

5.60**

0.07 0.16**

0.03

4.34*

−0.01 −0.16**

0.14

25.55***

−0.30*** −0.19***

Second generation (n = 99) Host culture Heritage culture 0.10

5.38**

0.19 0.23*

0.11

6.06**

−0.06 −0.32**

0.08

3.96*

−0.17 −0.19*

R2

* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

fewer difficulties in sociocultural adaptation. However, only for FG individuals, orientation to the host culture was significantly related to sociocultural adaptation. However, the bivariate correlations revealed that host culture orientation was positively related to self-esteem for the SG group (r = 0.20, p < 0.05). 416

Acculturation strategies. In terms of acculturation strategies, the mean scores on self-esteem, psychological distress and sociocultural adaptation for each of the acculturation strategies are presented in Table 7. From the pattern of means, the acculturation variables for the FG group can be listed in order as


South Asians in Hong Kong Table 7. Mean and standard deviations of self-esteem, psychological distress and sociocultural adaptation by acculturation strategies. First generation (n = 305)

Acculturation strategies Integration Assimilation Separation Marginalisation

Second generation (n = 99)

Self-esteem M (SD)

Psy distress M (SD)

SCAS M (SD)

Self-esteem M (SD)

Psy distress M (SD)

SCAS M (SD)

2.91 (0.43) 2.82 (0.33) 2.88 (0.45) 2.79 (0.33)

0.71 (0.54) 0.87 (0.52) 0.75 (0.52) 0.84 (0.48)

1.93 (0.56) 2.25 (0.78) 2.18 (0.58) 2.46 (0.62)

3.03 (0.41) 2.85 (0.41) 3.05 (0.48) 2.61 (0.29)

0.68 (0.48) 0.94 (0.64) 0.65 (0.52) 1.09 (0.50)

1.87 (0.65) 1.99 (0.55) 1.83 (0.35) 2.30 (0.65)

Note: Psy distress, psychological distress.

integration, separation, assimilation and marginalisation for self-esteem and sociocultural adaptation; and integration, separation, marginalisation and assimilation for psychological distress. To test whether there were any significant differences among the mean scores of each of the acculturation strategies on the adaptation outcome, a series of independent t-tests were conducted. The mean score of each acculturation strategy was compared with the means of the other three cells combined for all the adaptation variables. Results of the t-tests showed no significant mean differences except on sociocultural adaptation. Integrated participants reported significantly fewer difficulties in sociocultural adaptation, t(1,303) = −4.90, p < 0.001, whereas the marginalisation strategy was associated with more difficulties in sociocultural adaptation, t(1,303) = 4.42, p < 0.001. No other significant differences were observed between the mean scores of the separation and assimilation strategies on sociocultural adaptation. For the SG group, based on the pattern of means as observed in Table 6, the acculturation strategies can be arranged as follows: the separation strategy was associated with the highest self-esteem, lower levels of psychological distress and fewer difficulties in sociocultural adaptation, followed by integration, assimilation and marginalisation. A series of t-tests results indicated that only the marginalisation strategy showed any significant difference on sociocultural adaptation, t(1,97) = 2.36, p < 0.05; integration strategy on selfesteem, t(1,97) = 2.07, p < 0.05; and marginalisation strategy on self-esteem, t(1,97) = −2.89, p < 0.01. Relationship between perceived discrimination and acculturation attitudes Correlations among the variables revealed that, for the FG group, perceived discrimination was related to lower orientation to the host culture (r = −0.12, p < 0.05). For SG individuals, perceived discrimination was significantly related to lower orientation to the host culture (r = −0.24, p < 0.05) and lower orientation to the heritage culture (r = −0.21, p < 0.05).

Discussion There were two main objectives in this study: (i) to examine FG and SG immigrants with regard to their adaptation outcomes and whether perceived discrimination and the acculturation strategies differentially predicted psychological and sociocultural adaptation among these two groups; and (ii) to examine the relationships between acculturation attitudes, perceived discrimination and adaptation outcomes. Perceived discrimination, acculturation, adaptation and generational status Regarding the first objective, analysis of the data indicated that there was no significant difference on the effect of perceived discrimination among the FG and SG groups, although the SG group reported a slightly higher mean (M = 2.53, SD = 0.88) (although not statistically significant) than did FG (M = 2.46, SD = 0.89). In terms of acculturation attitudes, consistent with the findings of Anwar (1998) and Robinson (2003), the FG group tended to have higher preference for their heritage culture. Resonating with the findings of Stopes-roe and Cochrane (1990) and Modood et al. (1994), the SG group showed higher adherence to the host culture than did the FG group. Findings also revealed that the FG group tended to favour the integration strategy, with assimilation being the least favoured. On the other hand, the assimilation strategy was the favoured mode among the SG group, with separation strategy being the least favoured. Although the predictive effects of perceived discrimination on the adaptation outcomes were significant for both groups, immigration status is important in this relationship. The more one lacks proficiency in the host language, and the fewer contacts and relations one has with host members, the higher is the level of psychological distress, and lower self-esteem, and the more the person experiences difficulties in sociocultural adaptation. As FG individuals have less fluency in the host language, have fewer co-national friends


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and less contact with host members, they may experience more difficulties in managing or negotiating effective interactions within their host society, and hence are more likely to experience lower self-esteem relative to their SG counterparts. Paralleling these differences, the SG group was found to report slightly higher levels of psychological distress than the FG. There was no significant difference in terms of self-esteem, although it was noted that both groups reported only a moderate level of selfesteem (FGMean = 2.86, SD = 0.41; SGMean = 2.88, SD = 0.42). However, when examining the predictive effects of perceived discrimination on adaptation outcomes, it can be observed that perceived discrimination does in fact have significant effects on adaptation outcomes (see Table 4). This finding is also consistent with earlier studies that have revealed that perceived discrimination is a significant predictor for higher psychological distress and for more difficulties related to sociocultural adaptation (e.g., Berry, 2006; Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind, 2001; Te Lindert et al., 2008). A recent study among South Asians in Canada (Shariff, 2010) also observed the direct effect of perceived discrimination on psychological distress. The findings of previous studies, as well as the current findings pertaining to the effects of perceived discrimination on the psychological health and well-being of immigrants, highlight the concern attached to the psychological consequences that discrimination can have on individuals, especially those belonging to minority groups. Several reasons can be put forth to account for the above findings. First, the generational differences observed with regard to language and friendship with host members, and the higher levels of psychological distress experienced by the SG group, may be due to a loss of heritage culture, which may in turn result from having more host member than co-ethnic friends. A possible alternative explanation is that the SG reported higher psychological distress because they have to negotiate both the demands of their heritage culture and those of the host culture. Additionally, earlier studies have also observed that the differences between the more ‘traditional’ FG who tends to endorse the separation strategy and the SG, who tend to show higher preference for either the assimilation or integration mode, often lead to intergenerational conflict or tension (e.g., Anwar, 1998; Farver, Bhadha, & Narang, 2002). It is also probable that the SG group, who reported higher preferences for the assimilation strategy (see Table 3), may have higher expectations than the FG individuals and thus feel more deprived and distressed (due to perceived discrimination or feelings of rejection by host members) that could lead to heightened psychological distress. Although there were few correlations between host culture orientations and adaptation outcomes, 418

acculturation strategies were found to be related to the adaptation variables. For FG individuals, the integration strategy was related to higher sociocultural competence. As expected, the marginalisation strategy was related to more difficulties in sociocultural adaptation. Among the SG group, there was a higher proportion of individuals who endorsed the assimilation strategy. Generally, earlier studies reported that integrated and/or assimilated individuals tend to experience less psychological stress (e.g., Berry et al., 1989). On the contrary, the present study found that SG individuals who endorsed the assimilation strategy also reported higher levels of psychological distress compared with the FG group. It is probable that the new culture to which the SG individuals are assimilated may be inconsistent with the family’s traditional values, and hence may be problematic for SG individuals. Factors such as perceived discrimination could also lead to heightened psychological distress despite adopting aspects of the host cultural norms. In his study of Asian youths in the UK, Ghuman (1999) also found that while many participants identified themselves in a hyphenated way (e.g., British-Indian), they also reported experiencing abuse both in and out of school, and feelings of alienation. In terms of self-esteem, the integration and separation strategies were found to be associated with higher self-esteem for the SG group. As both integration and separation entail maintaining one’s heritage culture, it is probable that the strong affinity to the culture of origin provided the SG individuals with in-group support and networks and hence, a higher self-esteem. An interesting finding of this study is that, contrary to earlier studies, the marginalisation strategy was preferred over the assimilation (in the FG group) and separation (in the SG group) strategies. Although the classic definition of marginalisation implies a rejection of both heritage and the host culture (Berry & Sam, 1997), it is probable that the preference for the marginalisation strategy in this study might not necessarily imply a rejection of both cultures, but rather might be due to influences from another outside culture. For instance, disagreement about an item-statement such as ‘I listen to the music of my ethnic group’ (SMAS, Stephenson, 2000) might reflect a preference for other types of music than that of one’s own ethnic group. Moreover, with increasing globalisation, the influence of Western culture (e.g., Western products, media, ICT and food) also cannot be discounted. Furthermore, with advances in technology and communications, the influence of other cultures tends to transcend national boundaries. Thus, the preference for marginalisation over assimilation/separation might be due to the influence of elements from other outside cultures. In summary, perceived discrimination plays a significant role in the psychological and sociocultural



adaptation of both FG and SG individuals. Those who perceive higher discrimination tend to report lower selfesteem, higher levels of psychological distress and more difficulties in managing or negotiating their everyday life within their host society. The findings demonstrating that the FG group shows higher endorsement of the integration strategy highlight their desire to identify with their own heritage culture while also trying to interact effectively in the new cultural milieu. Additionally, the findings of this study also show that for the SG group, the assimilation strategy is related to higher psychological distress. This finding highlights the importance of considering the acculturation experiences of SG immigrants as being unique from that of their FG counterparts. Limitations and directions for future research Although this study extends previous research by exploring and highlighting the differential patterns of relationships in terms of the effects of perceived discrimination and acculturation attitudes on the adaptation outcomes for both FG and SG individuals, there are also certain limitations. Due to the correlational nature of the study, causality cannot be assumed, and the findings of this study may not be generalisable beyond the study sample groups. Additionally, the use of self-administered questionnaires may have excluded those who were illiterate. This study focused on two subgroups of South Asian immigrant groups. In order to delimit the contextual variations in the issues discussed here, future studies could include other ethnocultural groups in comparing FG and SG individuals. Nevertheless, this study provides a preliminary exploration of the experiences of acculturation and adaptation of FG and SG South Asian immigrants in Hong Kong and enhances our understanding of the varied factors that are interrelated in a complex way. It also gives a reasonable picture of the differential patterns of their acculturation experiences and settlement outcomes in Hong Kong. Conclusion It is thus clear that perceived discrimination is relevant for the psychological adaptation of this community. Considering that this group experiences varied challenges and difficulties in terms of employment, housing and education (e.g., Ku et al., 2003, 2006), as well as other interpersonal factors such as language barriers and family separations, it is notable that perceived discrimination can impact on one’s adaptation outcome. Practitioners can help to empower ethnic minorities in various aspects of social life such as in employment and education. Although in recent years the Hong Kong government has taken measures to support the ethnic

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