Achievement Motivation of University Students - Pertanika Journal

ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Press

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 3(1): 1-10 (1995)

Achievement Motivation of University Students HABIBAH ELIAS1an d WAN RAFAEI ABDUL RAHMAN2 'Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Pertanian Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia Psychology Department Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: achievem ent m otivation, faculty o f study, gender, ethnic group, place o f origin ABSTRAK

Objektif kajian ini ialah untuk meneliti motivasi pencapaian pelajar universiti berkaitan dengan fakulti pengajian, kumpulan etnik, tahun pengajian, jantina dan tempat asal mereka. Kajian ini juga mengkaji tiga pembolehubah bersandar yang lain iaitu lokus kawalan, sikap terhadap pembelajaran dan kebiasaan belajar. Subjek terdiri daripada 1050 pelajar di Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Ujian peramatan tematik telah ditadbirkan untuk mengukur motivasi pencapaian. Alat ukuran lain termasuklah skala dalaman dan luaran Rotter, skala sikap dan skala belajar. Keputusan menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam motivasi pencapaian pelajar mengikut fakulti (F (5,939) = 13.39, k < .05), tahun pengajian (F (1,939) = 4.55, k < .05) dan kumpulan etnik (F (2,939) = 6.58, k < .05). Dari segi lokus kawalan, pelajar lelaki didapati lebih berorentasi dalaman daripada pelajar perempuan (F (1,876) = 7.22, P > .05). Perbezaan yang signifikan didapati dalam sikap subjek berhubung dengan kumpulan etnik (F (2,828) - 9.93, k < .05), tahun pengajian (F (1,828) = 5.03, k < .05) dan fakulti (F (1,888) = 818, k < .05). ABSTRACT

The achievement motivation of 1050 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia students was measured in relation to faculty and year of study, ethnic group, gender and place of origin. Three other dependent variables, locus of control, attitude towards learning and study habits, were also examined. The tests used were the thematic apperception test, Rotter’s internal and external scale, the attitude scale and the study scale. The results showed that there were significant differences in achievement motivation among students based on faculty (F (5,939) = 13.39, p < .05), year of study (F (1,939 = 4.55, p < .05) and ethnic group (F (2,939) = 6.58, p < .05). On locus of control, it was found that male students were more internal than female students (F (1,876) = 7.22, p < .05). Significant differences were also found in attitudes of subjects in relation to ethnic group (F (2,828)= 9.93, p < .05), year of study (F (1,828) = 5.03, p < .05) and faculty (F (1,888) = 8.18, p < .05).

INTRODUCTION Motivation is the process o f stim ulating and arousing o n e ’s behaviour, giving direction to b e h a v io u r a n d s u s ta in in g th e r e in f o r c e d b ehaviour (W lodkowski 1982). A chievem ent motivation as defined by M cClelland et a l (1953) is the positive an d negative effects aroused in situations involving com petition with certain standards o f excellence w here p erform ance in such situations can be assessed as success or failure. T h e affective m o d el views a ch iev em en t m otivation as an affective disposition, a capacity for experiencing pride derived from successful

com petition with a standard of excellence. O n the o th er hand, W einer (1974) views achievem ent m otivation as a cognitive disposition, a capacity for perceiving outcom es as being related to p erception o f causality. A c h ie v e m e n t m o tiv a tio n has b e e n hypothesized as one o f the driving forces for the developm ent o f a nation and considered as a m ental ‘virus’ which causes individuals to be c o m p e titiv e , h a rd w o rk in g a n d have m o re p ersisten ce (M cC lelland a n d W in ter 1969). A lschuler et a l (1970) suggested th at im proved attitudes and school perform ance were related to the developm ent o f achievem ent m otivation

Habibah Elias and Wan Rafaei Abdul Rahman

skills. A successful school perform ance can be attributed to the need to achieve excellence, the ability to set realistic goals, the skills to adapt oneself after failure and the responsibility to work persistently to achieve success. A c h ie v e m e n t m o tiv a tio n has rec e iv e d trem endous attention in research. It has been studied in relation to many variables such as ethnic group, gender, attitude, learning habits, grade level, area of study and place of origin. T he present study attem pts to exam ine the relationship between achievement motivation and the following variables: ethnic group, gender, year of study, area of study and place of origin. T h e study also a tte m p ts to e x a m in e th e relationship between d e p en d en t variables (locus o f control, stu d e n t’s attitude towards learning and study habits) and in d ep en d en t variables (ethnic group, gender, year o f study, area of study and place o f origin).

Area of Study Area of study has been shown to be related to achievem ent motivation. Kagan and Moss (1962) found that achievem ent m otivation of students was highly correlated to subjects which have constructive activities and im m ediate feedback. M ehta (1969) reported that male high school students in India had higher scores in physics, chemistry and m athem atics. Ryals (1975) also re p o rte d th at after ach iev em en t m otivation training, perform ance o f students in m athem atics and science increased m ore than in social studies. A study by Bose et al. (1979) showed th a t e n g in e e r in g s tu d e n ts h a d h ig h e r achievem ent motivation than the o th e r students. T he above findings are consistent with the theory of achievem ent m otivation which states that high achievem ent m otivation is related to challenging tasks. Year of Study

Ethnic Group Previous studies have shown that ethnic groups differ in term s of achievem ent motivation, locus of control and academ ic achievem ent. A study conducted in Malaysia (Wan Rafaei 1980) found that Chinese students have higher achievem ent motivation than Malay and Indian students. In an other study, Protes (1985) found significant differences in attribution of success and failure between Caucasian students and Black students. The Caucasians attributed their success to their ability while the Black students attributed their success to luck. Significant differences in achievement motivation between White and Black students were also found by Castenell (1983). G raham (1986) in d ic a te d th a t even w ith c o m p a ra b le o r h ig h e r self-co n cep t, Black children showed lower academ ic perform ance than W hite children. Gender G ender is an o th er variable which has attracted a lot of attention. In a study on students in a private college, MClelland (1983) found male students had significantly higher achievem ent motivation. Asm us (1986) found that female music students m ade m ore internal and stable attributions than males. A local study conducted by Norbaiti (1987) found that female students showed higher internal locus of control than males.

2

T he year o f study is a n o th e r variable w hich h as b e e n sh o w n to b e c o r r e l a t e d w ith achievem ent m otivation. T his could be d u e to th e d if fe r e n c e s in a g e a n d e x p e r ie n c e . U guroglu (1982) fo u n d th at o ld e r stu d e n ts w ere m o re s ta b le in c e r ta in p e rs o n a lity characteristics than the y o unger ones. M cClure (1986) also fo u n d th e o ld e r stu d en ts have h ig h er achievem ent m otivation an d self co n tro l th an the you n g er ones. Place of Origin Place of origin has also been shown to have some correlation with achievem ent motivation. Studies by Maznah (1974) and Wan Rafaei (1980) found a significant relationship betw een place of origin and achievem ent m otivation. Students from urban areas were found to have h igher achievem ent motivation than those from rural areas. However, Iran (1975) found that subjects with high achievem ent m otivation could com e from both urban and rural areas. Locus of Control Individuals with internal locus o f control are those who perceive themselves as able to control events in their environm ent. Studies have shown that subjects with high achievem ent m otivation have internal locus o f control (Ruiz 1982) as they take responsibility for tasks given to them . Locus of control has been found to be correlated

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 3 No. 1 1995

Achievement Motivation o f University Students

with academ ic p e rfo rm a n c e M aznah and C hoo 1984).

(K ishore 1983;

Attitude Towards Learning A ttitude is a p ro d u ct o f a p e rso n ’s feelings, beliefs o r thoughts towards a p articular object. Studies on attitude have n o t shown a consistent pattern in the relationship betw een attitu d e and variables such as school p erform ance (C annon 1983; Ibrahim 1984; Ariff 1988). Study Habits Study habits show how the students utilize th eir study tim e effectively and how they carry o u t their learning tasks. A n u m b er o f studies have shown the relationship betw een study habits and ac h iev em en t (Entw istle 1980; McKay 1984; Holmes and Croll 1986). Yusoff (1986) found that studen t learning styles such as convergers, d iv e rg e rs a n d a ssim ila to rs a re r e la te d to achievem ent motivation.

METHOD Subjects Subjects w ere 1050 second- a n d th ird -y ear s tu d e n ts fro m six fa c u ltie s o f U n iv e rsiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. C o h e n ’s (1988) sam pling procedure was used to m inim ize type II e rro r and to increase the pow er o f the findings. S u b je c ts c o m p ris e d m a le a n d fe m a le stu d en ts from th re e e th n ic g ro u p s, Malays (56.7%, n = 595), Chinese (35.2%, n = 370) and Indians (8.1%, n = 85). T he place o f origin of the students was also noted. Procedures S u b je c ts w ere a d m in is te r e d se v e ra l te s t instrum ents. T h e them atic ap p ercep tio n test used to m easure achievem ent m otivation, is a projective instrum ent consisting o f 19 pictures and one blank card. However in this study, only 4 pictures were used; (pictures R,H,A,G, Card 7BM an d 8BM). Subjects were asked to write imaginative stories based on the pictures. T he Harvard version was used and th ere was no a d a p ta tio n o f the pictu res. Subjects w ere adm inistered the them atic ap p ercep tio n test in in ta c t g ro u p s a c c o rd in g to fa c u ltie s a n d courses.To ensure consistency the same person adm inistered the test to all groups. Similar instructions were given to each g ro u p who were shown the pictures on transparencies following

M cClelland et a l.fs (1953) procedures. T he qualitative data were translated into quantitative d a ta by following th e TAT scoring m anual p rep ared by M cClelland and Steele (1972). All the test instrum ents were adm inistered at one sitting lasting one an d a half hours. T h e R o tte r in te rn a l-e x te rn a l scale was adm inistered to m easure locus o f control eith e r as an internal or an external orientation. The stu dy scale, w hich m e asu res study h ab its, consisted o f 17 items m easured on the 4-point Likert scale. Finally, the attitude scale which m easures attitude towards learning, consisted of 19 items m easured on the 5-point Likert scale. T h e them atic ap p e rc ep tio n test had an in terscorer correlation of .95, which indicates a high level of reliability. T he alpha value for the R otter internal-external scale was .83, the study scale recorded an alpha value of .87 and for the attitude scale the alpha value was .94. Data were subjected to analysis of variance to test for significant differences and the Student N ew m an K euls te st was u sed fo r f u r th e r com parison of the m eans. Anova was chosen as the test statistic to enable the d ep en d en t variables to be analysed separately in relation to the in d e p e n d e n t variables an d also because the selection of subjects was based on random sampling.

RESULTS Table 1 shows the analysis o f variance results of achievem ent motivation. T he F test showed significant differences in achievem ent motivation between faculty (F (5,939 = 13.39, p < .05), year o f study (F (1,939) = 4.55, p < .05) and ethnic group (F (2,939) = 6.58, p < .05). F u rth er com parison of the m eans between faculties using the SNK test indicated that subjects from the E ngineering Faculty had a hig h er level o f achievem ent m otivation than students from the o th e r faculties, nam ely Biological Sciences, Social Sciences, Education, Physical Sciences and Q uantitative Studies. W ith re sp e c t to e th n ic g ro u p , fu rth e r com parison o f the m eans using the SNK test showed that the Malay subjects had the highest level o f a c h ie v e m e n t m o tiv atio n ; this was significantly different from that of the Chinese and the Indian students. For the variable year of study it was found th a t th e th ir d -y e a r s tu d e n ts h a d h ig h e r


3


DISCUSSION T he differences in achievem ent m otivation am ong ethnic groups, with the Malays having the highest level of achievem ent motivation, is not consistent with McClelland et a l.’s (1953) theory o f achievem ent motivation. In Malaysia, the Chinese as an ethnic group excels in business. M cClelland’s theory suggested that the people who have developed economically have high achievem ent motivation. The results also do not support the findings o f o th er studies such as Zainab and Kwok (1970) and Ramirez and Price Wiliams (1976). However, the results are consistent with the findings of studies conducted by Iran (1975), Yusuf (1975) and Kholijah (1980). The high achievem ent motivation o f Malay students could be due to the changes that have occurred in Malaysian society as a result of economic and social development. The awareness am ong the Malays that they must change in order to progress could have been taken as a challenge to com pete with the Chinese who are better off economically. This is in line with A tkinson’s (1957) contention that achievem ent motivation can increase when stim ulated by challenging situations such as com petition and risks. The differences in achievem ent motivation between the Malays and the two o th er ethnic groups could also be due to Malay child-rearing practices. The challenges due to hardship could have h e lp e d th e ir ch ild re n to develop an awareness to progress and com pete with the other ethnic groups. T he relationship between ac h ie v e m en t m o tiv a tio n a n d c h ild -re a rin g practices was h ig h lig h ted by W in terb o tto m (1958), Rosen D’Andrade (1959) and Siti Rahayu (1984). Practices such as training children to be self-reliant and in d ep en d en t at an early age can help the children to be achievem ent motivated. The difference in achievem ent motivation between the second- and third-year students supports the research findings o f U guroglu (1982); Yusoff (1982); M cClure(1986); H am idah (1984). It could be due to the environm ent and the challenges faced by the third-year students, who m ust study very hard in o rd er to pass their e x a m in a tio n s. T o ach iev e success in th e exam ination they have to face many challenges, such as getting good grades for their coursework. Good grades will qualify them to en ter fourth (H onours) year. The results support A tkinson’s 6

(1957) contention that achievem ent motivation can in c re a se in a c tiv itie s w h ich r e q u ir e com petition and stiff challenges. In addition to ethnic group and year of study, the faculty o r area o f study show ed significant differences in achievem ent motivation. Students from the E n gineering Faculty had higher achievem ent motivation than students from the other five faculties. T he result supports the research findings by Bose et a l (1979) which indicated the superiority of engineering students in achievem ent m otivation overs tudents from o th er faculties. T h e d iffe re n c es co u ld be d u e to th e challenging courses offered by the E ngineering Faculty. This is consistent with the theory of a c h ie v e m e n t m o tiv atio n w hich state s th a t ach ie v e m en t m o tiv atio n is asso cia ted with challenging tasks of interm ediate difficulty. T he results support the findings of studies conducted by Kagan and Moss (1962), M ehta and Kanada (1969) and Abdul Nasir (1982). The research findings in relation to faculty are in line with achievem ent m otivation theory a s s o c ia tin g h ig h a c h ie v e m e n t m o tiv a te d individuals with d esire to o b ta in c o n c re te feedback on th e ir progress. T hey have the tendency to set concrete goals so that they can evaluate their achievement. Courses such as social science and literature do not have the same degree of precision in the evaluation o f progress. The results also showed that stu d en ts’ locus o f control differs significantly, with the male students having a m ore internal orientation than the female students. This supports the research fin d in g s o f F e a th e r (1 9 6 8 ), P a rso n s a n d Schneider (1974), McGinnies el a l (1974) and Chang (1989). The differences in locus of control between male and fem ale students could be due to differences in the socialization process with regard to gen d er roles. T he males are often e x p e c te d by society to be s tro n g , active, competitive, confident and in d ep en d en t. O n the o th e r hand, the females are taught to be passive, soft, modest, patient, ob ed ien t an d d ep e n d en t. Due to the socialization process, males tend to have high expectations and to be m ore optimistic than females. T he findings related to attitude showed significant differences am ong the th ree ethnic groups. Despite lagging beh in d econom ically, the Malay students had a m ore positive attitude than the Chinese and Indians. This finding



supports those o f Yusuf (1975), N ojum uddin (1978), Razak (1981) and H am idah (1984). As explained by T riandis (1971), attitudes can change th ro u g h various ways, for instance with new knowledge o r experience. In the case of the Malays, th eir attitude m ight have changed due to the c u rre n t econom ic o r social changes which are challenging to them . T he com petitive nature in various fields such as education and business could have encouraged the Malays to change th eir attitude. T he increasing progress of the Malays in the econom y, education and in various professions may be d u e to the change in attitude. T h e re su lts o n study h ab its in d ic a te d differences betw een faculties an d years o f study. Students from the E n g in eerin g Faculty showed the m ost positive study habits. This supports the findings in studies by H am id (1977) and Bose el al. (1979). T he positive study habits of Engineering students are understan d ab le as the courses offered by the faculty are com plex and challenging. To m aster the courses and ensure success, the students m ust be creative and critical an d find a system atic an d effective way o f learning. T he en g in eerin g courses could have encouraged the students to achieve success, as it is necessary for them to plan p ro p e r strategies in ord er to be successful. This is consistent with the theory o f achievem ent m otivation which states that achievem ent m otivation is associated with challenging tasks. T he year o f study also showed differences in study habits. T he third-year students had m ore positive study h ab its th a n th e second-year students. This difference could be because the third-year students have different experiences from the second-year students. T he third-year students could be b etter off in term s o f p lanning a n d se le c tin g th e m o st effective le a rn in g techniques. This finding is consistent with those of U guroglu (1982) an d M cClure (1986) which indicated th at o ld er students were m ore stable in certain personality characteristics. T he findings showed that the subjects’ place of origin, w hether urb an or rural does n o t have any significant difference in relation to the d e p e n d en t variables m en tio n ed above.

CONCLUSION The study attem pted to d eterm in e the level o f achievem ent m otivation o f university students in

term s of area o f study, ethnic group, gender, year o f study and place of origin. Students from the E ngineering Faculty have h ig h er achievem ent m otivation than students in o th e r faculties. They have freq u en t achievem ent thoughts such as the desire to achieve excellence, to progress in a particular task, to produce som ething unique, such as an invention, and also the desire to do better than others. They have pride and satisfaction after a successful achievem ent. They have positive expectations to be successful e ith e r by their own efforts or with the assistance o f others. They p refer challenging tasks which will bring g reater satisfaction when success is achieved. They are less interested in less challenging tasks. T he Malay students have higher achievem ent m otivation than the C hinese and Indians. T he Malay stu d en ts have a stro n g desire to be successful, positive ex p e c ta tio n s to achieve excellence, perseverence towards failure and have pride as well as satisfaction when successful. T he Malay students with high achievem ent motivation are mainly from the E ngineering Faculty. Com parisons based on year of study showed th a t th e th ird -y e a r s tu d e n ts have h ig h e r achievem ent motivation than the second-year s tu d e n ts . T h e y h av e a h ig h e r se n se o f co m m itm ent to work hard and achieve success. O n locus o f control, the m ale students showed a g red er internal orientation than the fem ale students. T he male students believe in factors related to themselves as determ inants of events hap p en in g in th eir environm ent. T he fem ale students, on the o th er hand, ten d to believe in external factors such as luck and task difficulty as being responsible for events that hap p en aro u n d them . T he m ore positive attitudes towards university learning such as being optimistic towards the future, and being confident of the usefulness of the course for th eir future career are m ore prevalent am ong the Malay students than am ong the Chinese and Indian students. Positive attitudes were also m ore prevalent am ong the third-year students than their juniors. T he students from the Faculty of Engineering had m ore positive attitudes than students from o th er faculties. They have the desire to obtain a good education even though they must face num erous challenges. They perceive studying in a university as interesting, challenging and stimulating. They are willing to continue studying and are not bored with campus

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 3 No. 1 1995

7


life. They are aware o f the im portance o f education for career and national development. The third-year students are also m ore positive in th e ir study habits than th e second-year students. T he engineering students show m ore positive study habits than the students from o th er faculties. They m anage th eir tim e by planning their activities in advance. They go to the library for reference work or to review the lecture contents. They hold discussions with friends and lecturers. They set certain goals which they want to achieve. They also make an effo rt to get feed b ack on assignm ents o r clarification from lecturers. T h e stu d y has b e e n su c c e ssfu l in contributing inform ation on university students’ achievement motivation, locus of control, attitude and study habits. It is hoped that the findings will benefit the teaching staff of the universities in understanding their students and assisting them to make the adjustm ents necessary for achievem ent of their educational goals.

S., S.K.D. G upta and H.C. L indgren . 1979. Achievem ent motivation o f en gineering and non-engineering students in India. Journal of Social Psychology 108: 273-274.

B o se,

R.K. 1983. R elationship am ong attitude, m otivation a n d a c h ie v e m e n t o f ability grouped, seventh grade life science students. DAI, University of Georgia.

C a nn on ,

L. 1983. Achievem ent motivation: An investigation of adolescents’ achievem ent p attern s. American Educational Research Journal 20: 503-510.

C a s t e n el l ,

S h o ck K u e n . 1989. M engukur lokus kawalan pelajar-pelajar Universiti. Latihan ilniiah Ijazah Saijanam uda Sastera, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

C hang

M.W. 1985. E nhancing motivation: an application to the preservice experience. Journal of Teacher Education 36: 40-45.

C o h en,

REFERENCES 1982. Aspirasi pekeijaan p e la ja r d a n b e b e r a p a f a k to r y ang mem pengaruhinya: Satu kajian kes di Kedah. Latihan ilmiah Ijazah Saijanam uda Sastera, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

A b d u l N asir H assan .

1985. Pertalian antara sikap pelajar terh a d a p m ata pelajaran dan kaitannya d e n g a n p e n c a p a ia n a k a d e m ik . Jurnal Pendidikan 10&11: 17-30.

A dnan K amis.

D. T a bo r , a n d J. M c I ntyre , 1970. Teaching Achievement Motivation: Theory and Practice in Psychological Education. M id d le to n ,

N.J. 1980. Styles of Learning and Teaching. New York: Wiley.

E n t w is t l e ,

N.T. 1986. C h ange in c o n fid en c e following success or failure as pred icto r of subsequent perform ance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 9: 38-46.

F ea th er,

S. 1986. Race, class an d the attributional process. Journal of Educational Psychology 78 : 4-13.

G raham ,

A l s c h u l er , A .,

C o n n .: E d u c a tio n V e n tu re s , In c .

1988. Kajian sikap pelajar tingkatan 4 terhadap m ata pelajaran fizik dan sekolah. L a tih a n ilm ia h S a rja n a M u d a S ain s, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

A riff A ffandi.

P.E. 1986. Student beliefs about the causes of success and failure in music: A study of achievem ent motivation. Journal of Research in Music Education 34: 262-278.

A smus ,

J.W. 1957. Motivational determ inants of risk taking behaviour. Psychological Revieiv 64: 359-372.

1977. Kebiasaan belajar dan sikap pelajar-pelajar D iplom a K ejuruteraan Awam T ahun Dua, Universiti T eknologi Malaysia, L atihan ilm iah M.Ed. U niversiti Malaya, Kuala Lum pur.

H amid A wang .

1984. Sikap peneroka terhadap projek pem ban g u n an sosial Felda: Satu kajian kes. Latihan ilm iah Saijanam uda Sastera, Universiti K ebangsaan Malaysia.

H amidah A b d u l N inggal .

M. and P. C r o l l . 1986. Tim e spent on h om ew ork a n d acad e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t. Research 31: 36-45.

H o l m es ,

A tkinson ,

8

1984. A ttitudes to science of pupils in Sarawak. Journal of Science and

I brahim A khbar .



Mathematics Education in South East Asia 10-35. I ran

1:

H erm an . 1975. Kesan d an p e n g a ru h kelas sosial te rh a d a p peng g erak an pen cap aian pelajar-pelajar. Latihan ilm iah S aijanam uda Sastera, U niversiti K ebangsaan Malaysia.

J. an d H. Moss. 1962. Birth to Maturity. New York: Wiley.

K agan ,

R.F. 1986. Self control and achievem ent m otivation in y o u n g a n d old subjects. Psychology, A Quarterly Journal of Human Behaviour 23: 20-22.

M cC lu re,

E., L.A. N o r d h o lm , C.D. W ard and D.L. B han tum narin . 1974. Sex and cultural differences in perceived locus o f control am ong students in five countries. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42: 451-455.

M c G in n ies ,

H a sh im . 1984. Kajian p erb an d in g an m o tiv a si p e n c a p a ia n di k a la n g a n pelajar-pelajar Melayu dan Cina di Kedah. L a tih a n ilm ia h S a rja n a m u d a S a s te ra , Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

M c K ay,

N. 1983. Locus o f control and academ ic achievem ent: E thnic discrepancies am ong Fijians. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 14: 297-308.

M eh ta, P .

K h o lija h

K ish o r e ,

D.A. 1984. S tu d e n t c h a ra c te ristic s affecting academ ic perform ance in college level in d e p e n d e n t stu d y (A ssessm en t, M otivation). DAI, University of Texas at Austin. 1969. The Achievement Motive in High School Boys. New Delhi: N ational Council of Educational Research and Training.

1978. Sikap pelajar dan ibubapa Melayu miskin luar ban d ar terh ad ap situasi sosio-ekonomi m ereka dan hubungannya dengan pencapaian di sekolah. L a tih a n ilm ia h S a rja n a m u d a S a ste ra , Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

N o jum udd in A b d u l S amad . M aznah I smail a n d C h i l d r e n ’s

C hoo

P iang F o o n g .

p e rc e p tio n

of

c o n tro l

1984. and

a c a d e m i c a c h ie v e m e n t . P a p e r p r e s e n te d a t t h e Third Asian Workshop on Child and Adolescent Development. M a z la n . 1974. Kajian p e rb a n d in g a n p en d o ro n g pencapaian pelajar Melayu dan C in a di K u a n ta n . L a tih a n ilm ia h S arjan am u d a Sastera, U niversiti Malaya, Kuala L um pur.

N orbaiti A b d u l

J.W . 1983. A study o f g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s in m o tiv a t i o n o f h ig h achiev in g stu d e n ts in a s o u th e rn private college p re p a ra to ry school. U n p u b lish e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity o f A labam a.

P arso ns ,

M aznah

M cC lella n d ,

D.C., J.W. A tkinson a n d 1953. The Achievement Motive.

M c C lellan d ,

E .L . L o w e l l . N ew Y o rk :

A p p le to n -C e n tu r y C ro fts .

R ahm an . 1987. H u bungan di an tara lokus kawalan dengan pencapaian akadem ik di kalangan pelajar-pelajar sekolah m e n e n g a h . L a tih a n Ilm ia h , J a b a ta n Psikologi, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

D.A. and J.M. S ch n e id er . 1974. Locus o f control in university students from eastern and western societies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42: 456-461. M. 1985. A chievem ent m otivation and attribution theory differentiated by ethnicity for u n d erg rad u ate fem ale business students. D o c to ra l d is s e r ta tio n , U n iv e rsity o f California.

P r o t es ,

D.C. a n d R.S. S t e e l e . 1972. Motivation Workshops: A Student Workbook for Experiential Learning in Human Motivation. New York: G eneral L earning Press.

R a m ir ez ,

D.C. a n d D.G. W in t e r . 1969. Motivating Economic Achievement. New York: Free Press.

R azak

M cC lella n d,

M cC lella n d ,

M. a n d D .R . P ric e W illia m s . 1976. Achievem ent motivation of children of three ethnic groups in the U nited States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 7: 49-61. D e r a h m a n . 1981. S atu k a jian sikap penduduk lu a r bandar te r h a d a p pem bangunan pertanian dan sosial. Latihan


9

Habibah Elias and Wan Rafaei Abdul Rahman W

e in e r ,

B.C. an d R. D 'A n d ra d e . 1959. T h e p sy c h o so c ia l o rig in o f a c h ie v e m e n t motivation. Sociometry 22: 185-218.

W

in t e r b o t t o m ,

R o sen ,

Ruiz, R.L. 1982. High school seniors’ achievement motivation in four academic award aystems, and their relation to grade point average, g e n d e r a n d lo cu s o f c o n tr o l. ED .D , University o f San Francisco. R a h a yu H a d it o n o . 1984. A ch iev em en t motivation, parents’ educadonal level and child rearing practices in four occupational groups in Indonesia. Third Asian Workshop on Child and Adolescent Development.

S iti

B. 1974. Cognitive Views of Human Motivation. New York: Academ ic Press.

ilmiah Ijazah Saijanam uda Sastera, Universiti Kebangsaaan Malaysia.

M.R. 1958. T h e re la tio n o f c h ild h o o d tr a in in g in in d e p e n d e n c e . Unpublished research dissertation, University of Michigan. R.J. 1982. Motivation. W ashington, D.C.: N ational Education Association.

W lodkowski,

1982. A study o f the relationships b etw ee n a c h ie v e m e n t m o tiv a tio n a n d learning styles of a g ro u p o f Malaysian s tu d e n ts a tte n d in g N o r th e r n Illin o is U n iv ersity . U n p u b lis h e d d o c to r a l dissertation, N o rthern Illinois University.

Y uso ff I smail .

«

1986. Motivasi pencapaian dan gaya pem belajaran di kalangan siswazah Diploma Pendidikan./w raa/ Psikologi Malaysia 2: 95-118.

Y uso ff I smail .

H.C. 1971. Attitude and Attitude Change. New York: Wiley.

T riandis,

M.E. 1982. The dynamic relationship of factors which predict achievem ent and motivation. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Chicago.

U g u r o g lu ,

R a fa ei A b d u l R a h m a n . 1980. P e ra n a n motivasi pencapaian dalam pem bentukan usahawan: Satu kajian di kalangan m uridm urid sekolah di Malaysia d an U n ited Kingdom. Kertas sem inar dalam Seminar Psikologi dan Masyarakat.

O t h m a n . 1975. Sikap p e lajar M elayu terhadap pelajaran tinggi. Latihan ilmiah Ijazah S a rja n a m u d a S astera, U n iv ersiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Y usuf

W an

and L.C. K w o k . 1970. Malay and Chinese Child Rearing Patterns: A Comparative Study. University of Singapore.

Z ainab R ahim

(Received 8 June 1993)

10
