Adapting Classroom Materials Using Process Drama ...

91 Foreign Languages Education, 20(4), 2013년 겨울

Adapting Classroom Materials Using Process Drama Strategies*

Hae-ok Park International Graduate School of English 4)

Park, Hae-ok. (2013). Adapting classroom materials using process drama strategies. Foreign Languages Education, 20(4), 91-120. This study explores a group of 26 Korean EFL secondary teachers' experience with process drama during an intensive teacher training program conducted in the spring of 2013. The drama session consisted of five two-hour classes which introduced the main features of process drama by implementing it with the participants. Questionnaires, trainees' reflections, trainee's adaptation materials and researcher's teaching log were used to find out how the teachers perceived process drama and in what ways they wanted to adapt it in their teaching context. The result of the study shows that all of the teachers want to use process drama techniques in their classroom since it offers meaningful context as well as engaging atmosphere for the students to communicate spontaneously. The combination of tableau and thought-tracking is regarded as the most useful technique to adapt their classroom materials because it would provide opportunities not only to practice productive skills but also to develop creativity. More teacher training program and teaching materials about process drama were suggested to be developed for the convenient use of teachers. [materials adaptation/process drama/teacher training, 교재개작, 과정극 기법 활용, 교사교육]

* This paper was supported by International Graduate School of English in 2013.

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I. Introduction The importance of adapting ELT classroom materials cannot be overemphasized as every classroom is unique, and it is almost impossible to satisfy every member of a class using only one kind of teaching materials over an entire course (Cunningsworth, 1995; Hong & Kim, 2011; Islam & Mares, 2003; McDonough, Shaw, & Masuhara, 2013; McGrath, 2002). According to Cunningsworth (1995), each teaching/learning context is unique due to a range of factors, including classroom dynamics, the people involved, the chosen syllabus, and the learner’s motivations and expectations. The idea of it being impossible to meet teaching goals using only a published coursebook has resulted in conflicting opinions about even one's use (Allwright, 1981; Brumfit, 1979; Nunan, 1988; Ur, 1996). For instance, Allwright (1981) claimed that "the management of language learning is too far complex to be satisfactorily catered for by pre-packaged set of decisions embodied in teaching materials" (p. 9). As an alternative, he recommended active learner training and teacher training to yield more highly prolific results in L2 learning instead of relying on a commercially published coursebook. O’Neill (1982), however, argued in favor of using a coursebook on the condition that its use be limited to a "jumping-off point" for teachers and the class. According to O'Neill, a great deal of the core teaching in a class should initiate with the coursebook “but end outside it, in improvisation and adaptation, in spontaneous interaction in the class and the development from that interaction” (p. 110). This idea supports using process drama techniques when adapting classroom materials in Korean secondary classrooms. Since Korean in-service teachers should teach classes consisting of varied language levels using the same text, knowing how to adapt a textbook to their current students' needs and wants is necessarily an important part of their work. The effective use of process drama in L2 classrooms has been reported by a number of researchers outside Korea (e.g., Dunn & Stinson, 2011; Kao, Carkin, & Hsu, 2011; Kao & O’Neill, 1998; Piazolli, 2011; Rothwell, 2011; Stinson, 2008; Stinson & Freebody, 2006), and recently inside of Korea studies have examined the effectiveness of process drama in Korean EFL classrooms (e.g., Hong, 2011; Kim, J. S., 2012; Kim, M. D., 2012; Kim, S. Y., 2013; Lee, 2013; Park, 2006, 2010, 2012).

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For instance, Park (2010, 2012) described how she adapted classroom materials in order to implement a process drama in a Korean EFL middle school classroom. The study, however, focused on analyzing classroom discourse to discover how teacher questioning changes from one classroom environment to another: from her regular class to her process drama class. However, in spite of the number of studies conducted, a rationale and approaches for adapting classroom materials by using process drama have not been appropriately explored. Furthermore, as Park (2012) indicated, the majority of Korean English teachers are not aware of process drama and its effectiveness in teaching and learning English since only a few teacher training programs offer courses about process drama. According to the 2009 revised national curriculum, the improvement of English speaking and writing ability is one of the four issues which should be emphasized in the English classroom. Regarding the improvement of students' productive skills, Park & Park (2013) recommended increasing opportunities to practice speaking and writing in class not practicing each skill separately but rather by integrating the four language skills in tasks. However, how can teachers integrate all four language skills in their classes unless their text books provide appropriate materials? (Rha & Song, 2010) In fact, without knowing how to adapt the given materials to match their students' needs and wants, successful language teaching would not occur. This study, therefore, explores a group of secondary English teachers' experience with process drama aiming to investigate the possibility of using it in their classroom, and finally to help them to adapt their textbook materials according to their students' needs and wants using process drama.

II. Literature Review 1. Process Drama and L2 Learning Process drama is a process-oriented drama approach where teacher and students cooperate to create dramatic elsewheres by responding to a pretext or a given context. Bowell & Heap (2013) defined process drama as follows;

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Process drama is a term used to describe the type of drama in which performance to an external audience is absent but presentation to the internal audience is essential. Whereas in some other ways of working, the meaning is made by the theoretical ensemble of actors, playwright, director and designers and communicated to a watching audience, in process drama the participants, together with the teacher, constitute the theoretical ensemble and engage in drama to make the meaning for themselves. (Bowell & Heap, 2013, p. 6) Process drama first appeared in the second language teaching arena in the 1990s and has been slowly receiving more attention from language teachers and learners with the increasing number of research studies both outside and inside Korea. The main features of process drama, represented as “absent of script, an episodic structure, an extended time frame, and an integral audience” (O’Neill, 1995, p. xvii), clarify the difference from traditional drama techniques, many of which have been used in L2 classrooms, such as scripted role-play or dramatized story. Kao and O’Neill (1998) illustrated the difference between drama approaches in the L2 classroom by placing them on a continuum from the controlled approaches of the scripted role-play to the open communication of process drama. Unlike other drama approaches, process drama offers new learning contexts allowing both teacher and learners to experience different roles, attitudes and perspectives. In fact, a teacher plays a special role in process drama by performing a drama convention known as teacher-in-role. By changing identities through moving in and out of roles, a teacher leads and facilitates learners in drama, and she functions not only as a facilitator but also as a co-maker of drama. Kao and O’Neill (1998) argue that teacher-in-role drastically changes the classroom from the typical discourse approach of display or restricted questions, to a place where teachers and students interact inside the drama (Park, 2012) and transform the classroom discourse into authentic conversation. Likewise, it offers different interaction patterns and learning experience to participants from those of their previous L2 learning. Park (2010) described a beginning scene of process drama that was conducted in a Korean EFL secondary classroom where a teacher invited her students to a

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dramatic elsewhere by playing in role. Here is a group of Korean middle-school students who are excitedly waiting for the drama to begin. No scripts to memorize and no costumes to wear. They have just heard that they are going to do a drama activity and the drama will start when the teacher wears a cap, glasses or a scarf. Suddenly, the teacher puts on a cap and talks to the class. ‘Hi guys, I’m Jay, the hotel receptionist. You remember me? You probably heard about my story, right?’ At that moment the students realize that the teacher has become Jay, the hotel receptionist in the story who kicked President Jefferson out of a luxury hotel because he was wearing dirty clothes. Having read the story in the previous class, they all quickly notice what the teacher is talking about. (Park, 2010, p. 155) As described above, immediately after the teacher changes her identity into a role in the drama, the whole class moves to a place where everybody in the classroom experience a new identity in a new context. In doing so, the drama magically transforms the classroom into a public performance stage where teachers and students interact, experience and develop their thinking and speaking skills through negotiation and reflection of each other’s opinions and viewpoints (Kao & O'Neill, 1998; Park, 2012). Considering the effectiveness of process drama in L2 classrooms, Hong (2011) developed process drama materials using a chapter from middle school freshmen English textbook and received a positive response from the students after piloting the materials. Notably, students who exhibited little interest in English class showed greater enthusiasm during the drama class. Similarly, Kim (2012) carried out a research to find out how much improvement and impact process drama can give to Korean high school first year students. Toward that goal, she adapted two lessons from her textbook using process drama techniques and implemented the lessons with two different levels of students. The post-test results showed that the participants' learning accomplishment was higher than the pre-test. Lee (2012) developed not only process drama materials for a Korean middle

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school English classroom but also a teacher's manual using questioning techniques, which were categorized into confirming, informing, and inspiring questions. The piloting of the materials shows that students improved in terms of their productive skills, speaking and writing, and felt confident and enjoyed communicating in English throughout each process drama class. However, despite the positive results of recent studies of process drama in Korean EFL secondary classrooms, studies about process drama teacher training has been rarely reported (Park, 2012). This study, therefore, attempts to establish a process drama teacher training course for Korean secondary teachers confirming its necessity and utility to help them adapt their classroom materials and, as a result, maximize their students' opportunities to learn English communicatively.

2. Adaptation Principles and Techniques The adaptation stage normally comes after adoption of a textbook (McDonough et al., 2013). Once decided on which textbook to use, a teacher starts to think about how to implement the chosen materials for the specific learner group. Byrd (2001) states that after adoption, the basic question for implementation would be “How do I as a teacher working with particular students in a particular class in a particular program make this book work to ensure effective and interesting lessons?” (p. 418). As Madsen and Bowen (1978) ascertain that "the good teacher is constantly adapting" (p. vii), since the scope of adaptation comprises a wide range of activities from adding a simple exercise to responding to the raised eyebrows of his students. Systematic ways of adapting ELT materials have been suggested by a number of researchers (e.g., Cunningsworth, 1995; Islam & Mares, 2003; Madsen & Bowen, 1978; Maley, 2011; McDonough et al., 2013; McGrath, 2002; Richards, 1985; Saraceni, 2003; Tomlinson, 2003; Ur, 1996). McDonough et al. (2013), for instance, summarized the principles of adapting materials into four basic concepts such as personalizing, individualizing, localizing and modernizing. According to these researchers, based on these four concepts we can utilize adaptation techniques and these techniques can be applied to contents areas such as language practice, texts, skills, and classroom management. Maley (2011) exemplified nine generalizable pedagogical procedures for adapting

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or designing materials. He called them flexi-materials that could be used flexibly whenever a teacher needed to provide learners with materials that did not fit their levels or interests. The suggested procedures are expansion, reduction, media transfer, matching, selection/ranking, comprehension/contrast, reconstruction, reformulation, interpretation, creating text, analysis, and project work. These procedures can be applied not only to short written raw materials such as diary entry, short poems, or prayers but also pictorial material or audio recordings. Similarly, Saraceni (2003) presented a range of key features in adapting materials that are represented as learner-centered, flexibility and choice, open-ended, relevant, universal, and authentic. Her views on materials adaptation, which are exemplified and illustrated in her adapted materials (p. 80), interestingly, coincide in many respects with the procedures in the principled framework of the text-driven approach by Tomlinson (2003). Both Saraceni (2003) and Tomlinson (2003) recognized that literature is a good resource for teaching materials as it stimulates human feelings in an authentic manner and helps learners not only communicate but also express themselves. They also noted that the topic of the selected materials should be “universally appealing” and “culturally provoking” but at the same time be present in all cultures (Saraceni, 2003, p. 77). The importance of the selected topics has been emphasized repeatedly, because affective and cognitive engagement is essential in SLA (Anderson, 1993; Arnold, 1999; Green, 1993; Masuhara, 2003; Pavlenko, 2005; Schumann, 1999; Tomlinson 2003, 2013). According to Tomlinson (2013), learners who learn language through emotional responses such as “smile, feel joy, feel excited, and feel empathetic”, and cognitive engagement such as “inferencing, connecting, predicting, and evaluating” will have more possibility to acquire communicative competence than learners who learn language without any stimulation (p. 12). Teachers, therefore, should be aware of the importance of thinking and feeling in the process of acquiring the second language since it facilitates deep processing and eventually leads to second language acquisition. Not many materials, however, appear to encourage learners to think and feel in the process of acquiring an additional language. Knowing and implementing adaptation techniques, which help learners feel and think, therefore, will play an important role in L2 learning and teaching. Since process drama invites learners not only to feel but also to express and communicate their feelings in a meaningful

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situation (Kao & O'Neill, 1998; Park, 2012), using process drama techniques to adapt classroom materials could provide opportunities for learners to acquire language not only by feeling and thinking but also in multi-dimensional ways such as miming or creating a still-images.

III. Methodology The researcher carried out this study as the instructor of a course attempting to improve current Korean secondary English classrooms by investigating the participants' on-going reflections, questionnaire results, adapted materials completed by the participants, and instructor's teaching log throughout the course.

1. Participants The participants in this study are a group of 26 secondary English in-service teachers from Gyeonggi Provincial Office of Education. They participated in an intensive teacher training program that started the first of March, 2013, and finished at the end of August, 2013. The training program consists of two months of training at Gyeonggi-do Institute of Foreign Language Education, three months of training at a domestic university and one month of training at an overseas university. This study was conducted during the three months of training at a domestic university. The participants' teaching experience ranged from 13 teachers with 5-10 years of teaching experience, 10 teachers with 10-15 years of teaching experience and up to three teachers with more than 15 years of teaching experience (see TABLE 1). TABLE 1 Teaching Experience Frequency

Percent

less than 5 years

0

0

5-10 years

13

50.0

10-15 years

10

38.5

more than 15 years

3

11.5

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Adapting Classroom Materials Using Process Drama Strategies

Prior to the drama session, the first questionnaire was conducted (see Appendix 1). It mainly asked about the participants' teaching experience and their awareness of process drama. Regarding the awareness of process drama, only two teachers answered that they had learned about process drama before but their knowledge is considered basic, and the other teachers answered that this is the first time for them to encounter process drama or that they had heard about it but do not know what it is. Nobody answered that they had learned about it or had experimented with process drama with their students (see TABLE 2). TABLE 2 Awareness of Process Drama Frequency

Percent

20

76.9

I heard about it but I do not know what it is

4

15.4

I learned about it but my knowledge is basic

2

7.7

I learned about it and I tried it with my students

0

0

This is the first time I heard about process drama

Regarding the question about teaching English in a communicative way in high school classrooms (Ministry of Education, Science & Technology, 2011), the majority of the teachers answered positively, only two teachers answered that they disagree with the idea (see TABLE 3). Considering the positive answers about teaching communicatively in their classrooms and the participants' willingness to implement innovative ways to teach English in their classrooms (see TABLE 4), their answers about how often they use improvisational role-play in their classrooms reveals a large contrast (see TABLE 5). More than half of the teachers answered that they rarely use it or they haven't done so yet. Three teachers added in the questionnaire that they want to use improvisational role-play with their students but they do not know how to implement it. There were some other comments such as 'if the textbook guided me to use improvisational role-play, I would use it regularly' and 'I did a musical with my students and after learning about process drama I want to open a drama club in my school'. In sum, the participants wanted and needed to learn about how to use drama techniques effectively in their classrooms, and they were ready to explore new

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teaching techniques such as process drama during the teacher training session.

TABLE 3 Teaching High School English in a Communicative Way Frequency

Percent

Strongly Agree

7

26.9

Agree

17

65.4

Disagree

2

7.7

Strongly Disagree

0

0

TABLE 4 Willingness to Use Innovative Ways of Teaching English Frequency

Percent

I love implementing innovative ways to teach English in my classroom

14

53.8

I like the idea of using innovative ways but I don't use them in my class

12

46.2

I don't use innovative methods because most of them are not appropriate for my students

0

0

I don't like innovative methods or techniques

0

0

TABLE 5 Using Improvisational Role-play in the Class Frequency

Percent

I did it regularly

1

3.8

I did it sometimes

7

26.9

I did it rarely

13

50.0

I haven't done it so far.

5

19.2

2. Research Aims and Data Collection The study was conducted from May 3 to June 24 of 2013 during an intensive

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teacher training program at a teacher training institute in Seoul. The drama course was composed of five two-hour classes, and the data was collected from questionnaires, participants' learning reflections, the instructor's teaching log, and participants' adapted material completed in class. The study schedule is detailed in TABLE 6. The questionnaires were administered twice, one at the beginning of the course and the other at the end of the course. Regarding the learning reflections, the participants were asked to write three times at the end of the classes and each learning rationale asks three questions: (1) 'What were the three most important things you took away from today's lesson? And why do you think so?' (2) 'How would you apply today's lesson to your own class?' and (3) 'Is there any suggestion about today's lesson?' The instructor kept a teaching log to fulfil her role as a reflective practitioner (Schön, 1983). The main aim of this research is to explore the teachers' experiences with process drama and to investigate how much they are able to increase their awareness of process drama through the training course. Consequently, the researcher wanted to find out which process drama strategy they regarded as the most adaptable for their teaching context and how and why they would adapt it. Additionally, the possible challenges in implementing process drama will be discussed. TABLE 6 Study Schedule Class Date

Topic

Classroom Activities

Collected Data

1st class May 3

Introduction to process drama

Lecture & group work Performing a process drama: AJAY'S STORY

Questionnaire 1 Learning Reflection 1 Teaching Log

2nd class May 24

Process drama & language learning

Lecture & group work Performing a process drama: TINA'S STORY

Learning Reflection 2 Teaching Log

3rd class May 31

Process drama conventions

4th class Jun. 14

Adapting textbook using process drama

Lecture & group work Learning Reflection 3 Performing a process drama: Teaching Log A BOY WHO CRIED WOLF Lecture & group work Adapting textbook materials: THAT'S REAL BARGAIN!

Teaching Log Adapted Materials

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5th class Jun 24

Readers' theatre & course review

Lecture & group work Performing a readers' theater: THE THREE WISHES

Questionnaire 2

IV. Results 1. The Most Adaptable Process Drama Strategy After experiencing three process dramas, the second questionnaire was administered. The participants were asked which drama strategy would be most adaptable for their teaching context and why they thought so. The combination of tableau and thought-tracking was selected by 18 participants, role-on-the-wall was chosen by six, writing-in-role by four, and questioning-in-role by three. Because a few participants selected more than one strategy, 31 answers were counted from among the 26 participants' answers. 1) Tableau to Enhance Reading Comprehension, Creativity, and Motivation Tableau is a drama strategy that is also known by a range of other names such as group sculpture, freeze-frame, photograph, frozen picture or still image (Fleming, 2011; Kelner & Flynn, 2006). Groups create "an image using their bodies to crystalize a moment, an idea or a theme" in a tableau (Neelands & Goode, 2000, p. 25). It is commonly used in conjunction with another drama strategy named thought-tracking defined as follows; Thought-tracking reveals publicly the private thought or reactions of participants-in-role at specific moments in the action so as to develop a reflective attitude towards the action and to contrast thinking-for-self with outward appearances or dialogue. Action may be frozen and participants 'tapped for thoughts', or thoughts may be prepared to go with the presentation of a still-image (Neelands & Goode, 2000, p. 91). Ajay's story, the first process drama in this study, ended with creating an

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ending scene using tableau and thought-tracking. The participants were asked to imagine what would happen to the family of the Indian boy, Ajay, whose family came to live in Korea. However, recently, his father was fired from the factory where he was supposed to work for four more years, and his sister felt sick from leukemia which requires urgent operation. After experiencing a range of tasks such as role-on-the-wall, teacher-in-role, and questioning-in-role in the form of TV talk show, the participants were asked to create ending scenes imagining what might happen to the family of Ajay using tableau and thought-tracking. The second process drama, Tina's story, also ended in a tableau and thought-tracking in groups. Adopted by an American family when she was a baby, a 22 year-old-Korea-born girl Tina, wanted to find her biological mother, and the drama unfolded by going through a range of drama strategies and pre-tasks. The final activity was also creating a tableau and thought-tracking by representing what might happen to Tina. Likewise, the third process drama, the boy who cried wolf and its epilogue, ended with a tableau about what might happen to the shepard boy who cried wolf. The drama started with the shepard boy who lived with his mother and had a lonely, miserable life, needing attention from others. That's why he shouted twice without expecting the real wolf to come so soon. From this terrible incident, he was forced to leave the village because of the villagers anger and distrust. The drama started with the villagers looking back at the boy's lonely life and realizing that he was only a little boy who needed company. After carrying out several drama strategies, the combination of tableau and thought-tracking was performed by the participants representing what might happen to the shepard boy. The results of the questionnaire and the learning reflections showed that tableau would be the most adaptable strategy for their classroom contexts. The following table illustrates the coding results of the answers of the participants' questionnaire (see TABLE 7). Because a few participants pointed out more than one reason, those answers were coded more than once according to relevance. TABLE 7 Reasons for Using Tableau to Adapt Textbook Reason No.

helps Ss to be good for good for convenient motivating fun cooperative expressive creativity post-reading to do 5 5 5 3 3 3 1

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Among the reasons offered by participants, one answer showed a specific plan for using tableau in a future classroom. I have been teaching middle school students for seven years and I've been managing the English musical club since 2012. For my own situation in normal English class, tableau is the most suitable strategy for post reading activity, because students may be involved to make a creative tableau after reading comprehension. For my musical club, I want my musical club students to create their own process drama using TV interview or hot-seating. Actually, I want to make the six-month project including various strategies (middle school teacher M). Some teachers pointed out the passive and static learning environment of the Korean secondary English classroom showing the possibility of changing in the learning atmosphere using tableau. Most students aspire to get engaged in fun activities in class. They don't want to sit straight up looking at the board all the way of class. To get students involved in 'text' and 'class' at the same time, teacher will utilize tableau & thought-tracking at certain stage of lessons (high school teacher K). One high school teacher's thought on the benefit of using a tableau in her class summarized a comprehensive opinion about its possibility of use. In tableau, each student takes a role and shares what he/she learns. This has two obvious advantages. One is we can cover long text (many contents) or information in a short time without losing any part. The other is we can teach responsibility and cooperation as well as language skills simultaneously (high school teacher S). 2) Role-on-the-wall to Encourage Writing in a Meaningful Context Role-on-the-wall is a drama strategy that is used to explore or develop a

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character. An important role is represented in picture or diagram form, and the participants in groups of four or five fill out the diagram imagining the possible relationships the selected role would have with others in the drama. In this study, role-on-the-wall was used in every process drama; in Ajay story, the participants explored the character of Ajay using a role-on-the-wall diagram and later shared their picture with the other groups'. In Tina's story, they investigated the role of Tina and in the boy who cried wolf they examined the role of the shepard boy. The questionnaire results revealed that the participants found it a useful writing tool for their students since it provided a safer, meaningful and engaging context for them to write something (see TABLE 8). TABLE 8 Reasons for Using Role-on-the-Wall to Adapt Textbook Reason No.

convenient to use in class 3

offer meaningful writing good post-reading good for context task creativity 3 1 1

Some comments about the possible benefits of using role-on-the-wall in their classes follow. Role-on-the-wall makes students think about a main character and other surrounding people's thought. So it will help students understand other position and situation. Also it enhances students' creativity and improves their writing skill. Even though there are so many students in one class, writing activity is the most suitable activity in class (middle school teacher, A). I think role-on-the-wall is the most useful in English classroom. I can apply this strategy into any kind of text. According to the genre of the reading text, there are informative, descriptive, fairy tale, or story. I can use this strategy for students to summarize the contents, analyze the problems, compare good points with bad points, and systematize in a big picture. It's definitely useful for post-reading activity (middle school teacher, G).

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3) Writing-in-role and Questioning-in-role to Motivate Productive Skills In Ajay's story, the participants were asked to write a letter to a community center from Ajay's perspective. They wrote a letter in pair and later shared their letters with the class. In Tina's story, participants pretended to be Tina, and they were asked to write a letter to Tina's adoptive parents telling them that she wanted to find her biological mother. After completing the letter, they exchanged the letters with another pair and did an improvisational role-play as Tina's parents after receiving the letter. In the boy who cried wolf, the participants became the shepard boy and wrote a good bye letter to his mother. The questionnaire results showed that the participants thought a writing-in-role activity a good way of practice writing because it easily invites students into the given context by allowing them to take on a role. By taking on a role, all the surrounding information becomes a valuable source for writing, and they feel freer in writing from a different identity and not as themselves. The following comments explain about how the teachers felt about writing-in-role in drama. Based on the reading section, students can write about something they want to say in brief. To do this, they have to understand the text and the character who they pretend to be. It will be a memorable experience and good for approaching writing activities (high school teacher, S). Writing is a demanding skill. To relieve the students' stress, it will be helpful to give a specific purpose to write. By being in a certain role, they can be more motivated to write (high school teacher, H). Questioning-in-role was used in the study in the form of TV interview in Ajay's story. Teacher-in-role as a TV host invites Ajay's mother and father to the talk show, and the other participants became audience who were invited as professionals wanting to help Ajay's family. Prior to the TV talk show, the audience group were asked to create questions to ask to Ajay's parents, and make one solution to help Ajay's family. In Tina's story, questioning-in-role was conducted in the form of hot-seating. Tina's adoptive parents sat on hot-seat and

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the rest of the teachers became other adoptive parents who also had a similar experience about their adopted child. The instructor's teaching log describes the hot-seating of Tina's parents as follows; Today's highlight was the hot-seating of Tina's parents. D and P were Tina's parents, and the other teachers became other adoptive parents who had similar problems. I gave them some time to create questions in advance. Honestly, I was worried about how D and P would act out because they looked shy and introverted. Surprisingly, the two teachers acted as if they were real Tina's adoptive parents, and everybody was really surprised. I think it's the power of process drama. It changes people right away. Thanks to their authentic acting, today's hot-seating progressed successfully. In a similar fashion, the teachers thought that questioning-in-role is an effective tool for creating communicative classroom atmosphere because the students feel easier to express their feeling as a character than as themselves. One teacher's comment on hot-seating experience shows the possible use of hot-seating in her class. Students can get involved in the character's emotional state and try to deliver message they want to say. This has two benefits: first, they can live vicariously the characters so they understand others well. second, they can improve their learning autonomy because they have to speak in English in the character's position (high school teacher, D).

2. Challenging Factors to Implement Process Drama From the teachers' learning reflections and the questionnaire answers, several barriers to implementing process drama in their classrooms were found. Since the teacher's role in process drama is more active than that of conventional teachers', and it requires spontaneous and instant responses to students' talk or action, some teachers found it difficult and challenging to deal with.

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Classroom management in process drama was anticipated as a big challenge by a number of teachers as well. Since the number of students in a class exceeds 40, and the gap of students' English proficiency levels in a class is wide, several teachers noted how difficult it would be to give equal chances to speak English using drama to all the students. Choosing a suitable drama topic for teenagers and developing process drama materials were thought challenging as well. Students' passive learning attitudes were brought up by some teachers to be a further challenge in implementing process drama. TABLE 9 summarizes the anticipated barriers to implementing process drama in Korean secondary classes. TABLE 9 Challenging Factors to Implement Process Drama in Class Factors teacher-in-role No.

7

classroom finding topics motivating it's not management & materials students to act challenging at all 6 5 5 3

V. Discussion Willis and Willis (2007) argued that one of the most important things about task-based-teaching is promoting learners' confidence by offering them "plenty of opportunities to use language in the classroom without being constantly afraid of making mistakes" (p. 2). Based on this idea, they emphasized the important role of meaning in language because "in the course of meaning-focused activity learners naturally focus on language for themselves" (p. 4). Their ideas on task-based lesson, therefore, center on not a single task but a sequence of tasks since going through a range of tasks progressing with the same topic gives learners more opportunities to use language in a meaningful context. The structured approach provided by Willis and Willis (2007) demonstrated their emphasis on sequencing tasks in which learners are required to process language for meaning. A proposed sample activity starts with teacher-led instruction and learners processing language for meaning, responding to teacher's priming. It is very much similar to sequencing strategies in process drama. In process drama, a teacher commonly starts the drama in a role informing and inviting learners to the drama context. By using a range of strategies, learners' involvement in drama

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progresses allowing them to express and communicate their ideas with one another. In the meantime, a number of opportunities to practice and use the target language take place. This is clearly shown in the adapted materials by the teachers (see TABLE 10). After experiencing three process dramas, the teachers were asked to adapt a reading text from one of the authorized high school textbook (for the given text see Appendix C). Considering the materials adapted by the teachers during this study, one can notice how frequently learners have opportunities to use the language in a meaningful context while participating in the drama. As can be seen in TABLE 10, prior to conducting each drama strategy, students are required to prepare the next stage by collaborating with their group members, consequently, they use language practicing the prepared expressions or ideas in the drama. Since this is designed as a post-reading activity, background knowledge about the story and basic expressions were already covered in previous lessons. From the classroom discussions and learning reflections, it was revealed that the teachers had been looking for suitable ways to adapt their textbook materials for their classrooms. Since their classes are composed of students of various proficiency levels. in order to satisfy as many students as possible in the class, they agreed that teachers need to know various ways of adapting the given materials. In that sense, learning and experiencing about process drama provided them with an inspiring and eye-opening experience since for the most of the teachers this training session was their first experience with process drama. The instructor's teaching log revealed that the teachers enjoyed changing into new identities in drama regardless of their personal traits. Some teachers looked introverted and serious; however, when they took on a role in drama, their acting was real, and they looked like different people. This was repeatedly observed during the class, especially when they were doing questioning-in-role. In this study, questioning-in-role was done in the form of hot-seating or TV talk show, and every time the teachers took on a new role, they easily moved into the role, and enjoyed acting out. Unlike the first questionnaire results, in the learning reflections and the second questionnaire, all of the teachers were not only willing to use process drama strategies in their classes but also looking forward to using them as soon as possible.

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TABLE 10 Adapted Materials by Trainees Using Process Drama Group

1

2

Procedure

Teacher's Action

Teacher introduces Preparing for hot-seating and assign hot-seating three roles (Mr. Jones, (in the form expert, and professor), to of TV show) three student. Performing Teacher hosts a TV talk TV Talk show introducing the Show guests. Teacher asks Ss to create tableau & Preparing for thought-tracking about tableau what will happen to the ending of the story. Teacher invites each Performing group to the front and tableau tableau performance continues. Teacher asks Ss in group to conduct Role-on-therole-on-the-wall wall assigning each group a role to develop. Teacher asks Ss to choose which Choosing who role-on-the-wall is who represents who in the story. Teacher assigns parts of Preparing for the text to each group to tableau create tableau. Teacher invites each Performing group to the front and tableau tableau performance continues. Teacher suggests Ss to write a letter to anyone Writing-inin the story being one of role the characters of the story

Students Action

Language Use

The rest of the class reading & create questions to ask to writing the three invited guests. The three guests answer speaking the questions asked by & the audience. listening Students in group of four discuss how to represent reading & the new ending of the writing story using tableau & thought-tracking. Students perform tableau & thought-tracking in front of the class.

speaking & listening

Students in group of four are given a role to reading & develop its character by writing doing role-on-the-wall. Students guess who is who by examining the exhibiting role-on-the-wall papers.

reading

Students discuss the reading & given text and design a writing tableau using the text. Students perform tableau & thought-tracking in front of the class.

speaking & listening

Students in group of four choose a character of the story write a letter to any character in the story

writing

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VI. Implication and Conclusion The three process dramas used in the training session were developed by the researcher to introduce process drama to Korean English language learners, especially Korean teenagers. Ajay's story was developed to give teenagers time to reflect upon society. Since the theme of the drama is helping neighbors in need, especially helping people who have come to Korea to work but now face troubles, students would have the opportunity to look around their neighborhoods and develop empathy with non-Koreans, and finally could grow to be responsible adults. Similarly, Tina's story invites learners to consider another hot issue in Korean society: adoption. During the drama, the participants are anticipated to experience a range of roles such as an adopted girl Tina, Tina's adoptive parents, Tina's friends, and even Tina's biological parents. Consequently, they are exposed to a variety of situations and feelings. By experiencing this dilemma, students not only use language but also grow as mature persons responsible for their own actions. Drama does things with words (Kao & O'Neill, 1998; Stinson & Winston, 2011). The words in drama have special power because they convey something to do with the story of the drama. Nothing happens in vain in drama; therefore, the language used in drama cannot help being meaningful and authentic. Students in drama easily feel a desire to say something because the tension and sense of drama urge them to respond in character, and this experience as a different identity provides an opportunity to grow as maturing people who can empathize with others in society. It further promotes language practice in meaningful contexts. In that sense, exploring teachers' experiences with process drama has been an insightful and purposeful experience for the researcher as teacher trainer. There were some suggestions about this training course such as the length of the session. For some teachers, five two-hour classes were not considered sufficient to learn about process drama; they wanted more class time and more experience in process drama. Other teachers commented that they need published materials making use of process drama which deal with various topics suitable for Korean teenagers. They also showed a desire to study about process drama by themselves later. Most of the teachers commented in their reflections that they could learn a

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variety of process drama techniques through this process drama training session, and they felt now much more ready to teach a multi-leveled group of students. A more interesting comment was that their students as well as they, also language learners, want to learn English using drama techniques because now they realize more clearly than ever that learning an additional language cannot be separated from using it in meaningful situations. Since drama provides language learners with enriched experiences to use the language, they believe that knowing how to adapt textbook materials using process drama techniques would be a valuable asset for them as English teachers. To conclude, this study was designed to find out how secondary English teachers would receive process drama as a textbook adapting tool aiming to investigate the possibility of using it in their classrooms. The results showed that all participants wanted to use process drama in adapting their classroom materials, and among drama strategies, the combination of tableau and thought tracking was chosen as the most adaptable technique for their teaching context. As challenging factors to implement process drama, teacher-in-role, difficulties in classroom management, finding materials, and motivating students to act were pointed out. Additionally, more teacher training programs and teaching materials related to process drama were suggested to be developed in the near future. Improving learners' productive skills is one of the most urgent and important issues that secondary teachers are facing. It is also one of the four issues that the 2009 revised national curriculum emphasizes. By developing more teacher training programs about process drama, more teachers will have opportunities to learn not only how to adapt their classroom materials but also how to develop process drama materials for their classroom contexts, and as a result, learners could have more opportunities to improve their productive skills by participating in drama activities more often. As the teachers of the study commented, process drama is insightful, new, interesting, motivating, creative, practical, convenient, authentic, cooperative, integrating, helpful, useful, and most of all, communicative.

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References Arnold, J. (1999). Visualization: Language learning with the mind's eye. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. 260-278). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Allwright, R. L. (1981). What do we want teaching materials for? ELT Journal, 36(1), 5-17. Anderson, J. R. (1993). Problem solving and learning. American Psychologist, 48, 35-44. Bowell, P., & Heap, B. (2013). Planning process drama (2nd ed.). London: David Fulton. Brumfit, C. (1979). Seven last slogans. Modern English Teacher, 7(1), 30-31. Byrd, P. (2001). Textbooks: Evaluation for selection and analysis for implementation. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.) (pp. 414-427). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Cunningsworth, A. (1995). Choosing your coursebook. Oxford: Macmillan. Dunn, J., & Stinson, M. (2011). Not without the art!! The importance of teacher artistry when applying drama as pedagogy for additional language learning. Research in Drama Education, 16(4), 575-584. Fleming, M. (2011). Starting drama teaching (3rd ed.). Oxon: Routledge. Green, C. P. (1993). Learner-drives in second language acquisition. Forum, 31(2), 2-11. Hong, S. D. (2011). The development of middle school freshmen textbook & lesson plans using process drama techniques. Unpublished master's thesis, Korea National University of Education, Chung-Buk, Korea. Hong, J. H. & Kim, K. H. (2011). Development of high school CBI materials for teaching. Foreign Language Education, 18(2), 283-316. Islam, C., & Mares, C. (2003). Adapting classroom materials. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (pp. 86-100). Oxford: Continuum. Kao, S., Carkin, G., & Hsu, L. (2011). Questioning techniques for promoting language learning with students of limited L2 oral proficiency in a drama-oriented language classroom. Research in Drama Education, 16(4), 489-515.

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Kao, S., & O'Neill, C. (1998). Words into world: Learning a second language through process drama. Stamford: Ablex. Kelner, L., & Flynn, R. (2006). A dramatic approach to reading comprehension. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Kim, J. S. (2012). A study on improving vocabulary competence through skills of process drama in the high school English class. Unpublished master's thesis, Graduate School of Korea National University of Education, Chung-Buk, Korea. Kim, M. D. (2012). A study on the effects of process drama as a teaching method for first grade high school English classes. Unpublished master's thesis, Graduate School of Education, Hanyang University, Seoul. Kim, S. Y. (2013). A study on process drama in elementary 4th grade English classes. Unpublished master's thesis, Graduate School of Cheongju National University of Education, Cheongju. Lee, E. J. (2012). Developing process drama materials for middle school classroom and teacher's guidebook for questioning strategies. Unpublished master's thesis, Graduate School of Korea National University of Education, Chung-Buk, Korea. Lee, K. M. (2013). A study on improving writing competence using process drama techniques in high school English class. Unpublished master's thesis, Graduate School of Korea National University of Education, Chung-Buk, Korea. Madsen, H., & Bowen, J. (1978). Adaptation in language teaching. MA: Newbury House. McDonough, J., Shaw, C. & Masuhara, H. (2013). Materials and methods in ELT (3rd ed.). Oxford: John Wiley & Son. McGrath, I. (2002). Materials evaluation and design for language teaching. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Textbooks in Applied Linguistics. Maley, A. (2011). Squaring the circle-reconciling materials as constraint with materials as empowerment. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Materials development in language teaching (2nd ed.) (pp. 379-402). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Masuhara, H. (2003). Materials for developing reading skills. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.). Developing materials for language teaching (pp. 340-363). London:

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Rothwell, J. (2011). Bodies and language: Process drama and intercultural language learning in a beginner language classroom. Research in Drama Education, 16(4), 575-94. Saraceni, C. (2003). Adapting courses: A critical view. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (pp. 72-85). London: Continuum. Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books. Schumann, J. A. (1999). A neurological perspective on affect. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. 28-42). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shin, J., Yu, M., Jang, Y., & Cho, G. (2008). High school English. Seoul: YBM Si-sa. Stinson, M. (2008). Process drama and teaching English to speakers of other language. In M. Anderson, J. Hughes, & J. Manuel (Eds.), Drama and English teaching (pp. 193-212). Victoria: Oxford University Press. Stinson, M., & Freebody, K. (2006). The DoL project: The contribution of process drama to improved results in English oral communication. Youth Theatre Journal, 20(1), 27-41. Stinson, M., & Winston, J. (2011). Drama education and second language learning: a growing field of practice and research. Research in Drama Education, 16(4), 479-478. Tomlinson, B. (2003). Developing principled frameworks for materials development. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (pp. 107-129). London: Continuum. Tomlinson, B. (2013). Second language acquisition and materials development. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Applied linguistics and materials development (pp. 11-29). London: Bloomsbury. Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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APPENDIX A Questionnaire 1 The following questions are designed to investigate ways to implement process drama in the Korean EFL secondary classroom. Many thanks for our help in advance. 1. How long have been teaching English? a. less than 5 yrs. b. 5-10 yrs. c. 10-15 yrs. d. more than 15 yrs. 2. Do you think that Korean high school students should learn English in a communicative way? a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Disagree d. Strongly disagree 3. Have you ever tried improvisational role-play in your classroom? a. I did it regularly b. I did it sometimes. c. I did it rarely d. I haven't done it. 4. Are you willing to use innovative ways of teachig English such as process drama in your classroom? a. I love implementing innovative ways to teach English in my classroom. b. I like the idea of using innovative ways to teach English but I don't use them in my class. c. I don't use innovative methods because most of them are not appropriate for my students. d. I don't like innovative methods or techniques. 5. What is your awareness of process drama? a. This is the first time I heard about it. b. I heard about it but I don't know what it is. c. I learned about process drama but my knowledge about it is basic. d. I learned about it and I tried it with my students. 6. Have you ever tried any drama techniques in your classroom? If you have any, please describe how it was.

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APPENDIX B Questionnaire about Process Drama 2 1. You developed process drama lesson by adapting the given classroom materials. Which drama strategy do you think the most convenient one to adapt in the Korean secondary classroom? And why do you think the strategy is the most suitable for the Korean students? a. b. c. d. e.

Teacher-in-role Role-on-the-wall Tableau & Thought-tracking (shoulder touch) Writng-in-role Questioning-in-role (Hot-seating or Interview)

You can write the reason why you think that way:

2. You observed and practiced process drama lesson which was designed by your group members. Which aspect do you think was the most challenging part for you to conduct the drama?

3. Do you want to use any process drama strategy in your classroom? If you want to, write which one and why.

4. You attended four process drama classes and each class lasts 100 minutes. Do you think the length of the course is appropriate for you to learn about process drama? If you have any suggestion about the future course, you can write about it here.

Appendix C Reading Text from an Authorized High School Provided to Teachers for Adapting in this Study

That's Real Bargain!

Textbook

Adapting Classroom Materials Using Process Drama Strategies

A man invested $3 and earned $19.5 million. No, he didn't buy a lottery ticket. He bought a map at a thrift store where they sell used goods inexpensively. The map turned out to be an antique of great value. Ed Jones often dropped by a thrift store in Indianapolis, Indiana. If he found something valuable, he bought it and resold it to an antique dealer. One day, while visiting the shop, Mr. Jones found nothing of interest and started walking toward the door. Then something caught his eye. A large map was hanging on a wall. Mr. Jones walked over for a closer look. The map was covered with dust. When he cleaned it with his handkerchief, he could see that it was a color map of Paris. It looked old. On the back of the map, someone had written the price: $3. Mr. Jones was certain that the map was worth more than $3. He bought it, thinking could probably sell it for $40. Later, at home, Mr. Jones looked at the map more carefully. It was beautiful. He decided it was worth much more than $40. The next day Mr. Jones took the map to a professor at a nearby university. After looking at the map for a few minutes, the professor became excited. He said, "I've read about this map!" Then he told Mr. Jones what he knew. In 1671, Louis XIV, the King of France, had a cartographer make a map of Paris. The cartographer worked on the map for four years and produced a beautiful work of art. He made a several black and while copies of the map. Then, he carefully colored one of the copies. The professor said that one black and while copy of the map was in the British Museum in London, and another was in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. The professor told Mr. Jones, "I think that you've just found the color copy of the map in a thrift store in Indianapolis!" The professor suggested that Mr. Jones take the map to New York City. Experts there could tell Mr. Jones if the professor was right. The New York experts agreed with the professor. They told Mr. Jones that he had the only color copy of the map in the world. They also said it was very valuable. Mr. Jones asked the experts, "How much do you think it's worth?" "Millions," replied. "It's impossible to say exactly how much this map is worth. It's worth whatever someone is willing to pay for it." Soon Mr. Jones discovered how much people were willing to pay. Someone immediately offered him $10 million. Then someone else offered him $12 million. The most recent offer was $19.5 million. Mr. Jones has not decided whether he will sell his three-dolloar map at

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that price or wait for a higher offer. He is thinking it over. How in the world did this map find its way to a thrift store in Indianapolis? Here is what some experts think: The map was probably in the home of a wealthy family in France. Then a thief stole it, perhaps during World War II. The thief sold the map to an antique dealer in France. The French antique dealer, not knowing how much valuable the map was, sold it to an antique dealer in Indianapolis. That antique dealer, who also did not know its value, gave it to a neighbor. For ten years, the map hung on a wall in the neighbor's house. Then the neighbor got tired of it and gave it to the thrift store. The map sat in the thrift store for months until Mr. Jones found it. Mr. Jones was looking for a bargain when he went shopping that day. He wanted to find something that was worth more than its price. He paid $3 for the map, but it is worth at least $19.5 million. Now that's a real bargain! (Shin, Yu, Jang, & Cho, 2008, pp. 168-172)

예시언어(Examples in): English 적용가능 언어(Applicable Languages): English 적용가능 수준(Applicable Levels): Secondary Hae-ok Park Department of English Language Teaching International Graduate School of English 449-11 Sungnae-dong, Gangdong-gu, Seoul Tel: 02-6477-5115, 010-2764-1371 E-mail: [email protected] Received in September, 2013 Reviewed in October, 2013 Revised version received in November, 2013