International Journal of Disability, Development and Education
ISSN: 1034-912X (Print) 1465-346X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cijd20
Addressing the Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China: Perspectives from the Field Dorothy Zhang & Vicky G. Spencer To cite this article: Dorothy Zhang & Vicky G. Spencer (2015) Addressing the Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China: Perspectives from the Field, International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 62:2, 168-181, DOI: 10.1080/1034912X.2014.998175 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2014.998175
Published online: 13 Mar 2015.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 330
View related articles
View Crossmark data
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=cijd20 Download by: [Panjab University]
Date: 31 March 2016, At: 02:49
International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 2015 Vol. 62, No. 2, 168–181, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2014.998175
Addressing the Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China: Perspectives from the Field Dorothy Zhang and Vicky G. Spencer*
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
College of Education & Human Development, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA Autism is a developmental disability that has gained increasing attention during the past several decades in China. The two case studies presented in this article examined the perspectives of two school leaders on educating students with autism in China. Two school principals, one from a public school and one from a private school, were interviewed during this study using 10 open-ended questions. Responses generated the following areas of discussion: teacher recruitment and training, curriculum and teaching methodology, parental involvement, and factors that contribute to success and present challenges. This study provides the readers with an update from the perspectives of two school leaders on the school system in China for children with disabilities, particularly for students with autism. Implications of the study and further suggestions for future research are also discussed. Keywords: autism; China; interventions; methods; parents; special education; teachers; training
Introduction China, one of the fastest growing countries in the world, is a country that deeply values education. “Influenced by the Confucian’s theory, education is more honored than any other vocational training in young children and adults” (Pang & Richey, 2006, p. 77). The People’s Republic of China is made up of more than 1.3 billion people and accounts for one-fifth of the world’s population. In 2006, a national survey indicated that nearly 84 million people or 6.34% of its population had disabilities (Anastasiou & Keller, 2011). However, special education has not received adequate attention until recent years, and it continues to be a work in progress. The influence of western educational approaches, natural disasters, and an increase in global participation has provided incentives for the Chinese government to begin developing strategies and policies to address the needs of persons with disabilities (Campbell & Uren, 2011). As a result, there has been an increase in exploring ways to better educate students with special needs. The Development of Special Education Legislation When Chairman Mao founded the People’s Republic of China in 1949, there were already 42 special schools serving more than 2000 students with both visual and hearing impairments (Yang & Wang, 1994). American and European missionaries in China had established these special schools after 1840. While in leadership, Chairman Mao *Corresponding author. Email:
[email protected] © 2015 Taylor & Francis
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China
169
believed that people with disabilities could be trained to be socialist labourers, which were highly needed at that time (Deng & Harris, 2008). The Resolution on the Reform of the School System (1951) was the first education policy stating that government of all levels should establish special schools (Yang & Wang, 1994). As a result of this policy there was an increase in the number of special schools from 42 in 1949 to 266 in 1965. The number of students served grew from 2000 to 22,850 (Gu, 1993). Unfortunately, the continued development of special schools was limited because of political unrest until the late 1970s. Under the open reform policy of Deng Xiaoping, the government was instructed to give more attention to the rights of people with disabilities (Deng & Poon-McBrayer, 2004). For the first time, equal rights of people with disabilities were addressed. Additional schools were established by the government to serve children with visual, auditory, and cognitive impairments (McCabe, 2003). The “Open Door Reform” led to three pieces of important law and policy, which led to changes in the educational system. In 1986, the Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, commonly known as the Nine Year Compulsory Law, stated that all children with or without disabilities who reach the age of six should be enrolled in school to receive nine years of compulsory education (Pang & Richey, 2006). The law was a critical piece of legislation that provided extensive guidelines for parents, teachers, and facilities and also established requirements and deadlines for attaining universal education (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2004). In 1990, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Protection of Disabled Persons attempted to improve the current instructional practices by addressing teaching materials, teaching methods, and even accommodations that could be made in general education classrooms (National People’s Congress, 1990). In addition, vocational schools were to be included in the curriculum for students with disabilities (Deng & Harris, 2008). In 1994, the Regulations on Education for Persons with Disabilities made further regulations on curriculum and instructional practices for those students in the general education classrooms (National Education Committee of the People’s Republic of China, 1994). In summary, these initiatives have come together to form a cohesive and comprehensive plan for providing education and care for children with special needs, but implementation continues to be a gradual process throughout the nation. These policies broadened the categories for disabilities, increased the number of public special schools, private non-governmental schools, and mainstream classrooms to accommodate students with special needs, and addressed some of the instructional needs for teacher training. Despite these positive changes, there is no national agreement on how to implement services for these students (McCabe, 2008). People with disabilities constitute a “hidden population” that has had, and continues to have, the lowest status in society (Campbell & Uren, 2011). Those with more traditional belief systems view people with disabilities as being “cursed”, believing that their disabilities resulted from bad things they did in their past lives or curses from some Gods. However, this traditional view is beginning to fade, particularly in major cities, as the country is becoming more industrialised and influenced by western ideas (Campbell & Uren, 2011; Chiang & Hadadian, 2010). Autism Spectrum Disorders in China With regards to the number of children with disabilities identified in China, the 2006 Disability profile in China showed that there were 3.87 million children from age zero
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
170
D. Zhang and V. G. Spencer
to 14 with disabilities (Campbell & Uren, 2011). According to the most current data published by the China Disabled Persons’ Federation (2013), “there were 186 special education classes at senior high schools nationwide, with an enrollment of 7043 students. Among the schools, 121 were for the deaf with 5555 enrolled students, 22 were for the blind with 1488 enrolled students.” “By the end of 2012, there were 91,000 disabled children and youth at school age who did not have access to education” (China Disabled Persons’ Federation, 2013). One disability area that has gained much attention in China is autism spectrum disorders. In this article, the terms autism spectrum disorders and autism are used interchangeably, referring to a group of developmental disorders that include autism, childhood disintegrated disorder, Rett syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified, and Asperger’s syndrome (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—Revised; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The characteristics exhibited include deficits in social development, communication, and stereotypic and repetitive behaviours (Li, Chen, Song, Du, & Zheng, 2011). Communication deficits include language delay, difficulties with maintaining conversation, and play skill impairments. Social deficits among children with autism may include poor eye contact, impairment in facial expressions and body language, and difficulties with identifying emotions in self and others. Behavioural difficulties may include having a strong interest toward particular objects or activities, and a strong preference in routine and sensory challenges (Clark & Zhou, 2005). The most recent survey data identified were from the Second National Sample Survey on Disabilities, which revealed that the prevalence rate for autism was 2.38/10,000 for an age range of zero to 17 and was 6.37/10,000 for children between the ages of four and six years (Li et al., 2011). Clearly, this is much lower than the estimated rates of autism in the United States; recent reports from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008) suggest that autism affects 1 in 88 births and is the fastest-growing developmental disability. However, Li et al. stated that, “a lack of professionals able to identify and diagnose autism was the main reason for the low estimate of autism in China and that the process of diagnosing autism in China is not yet systematic” (2011, p. 3). “Currently, the official diagnostic criteria for autism in China are listed in the Category of Mental Disorders (CCMD-3) (2001)” (Huang & Wheeler, 2007, p. 356). This measure is a Chinese version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—Revised (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) that is used in the United States, but it is used by medical personnel in the field of psychiatry who are responsible for making a diagnosis of autism in China (Mcloughlin, Zhou, & Clark, 2005). Not only are there concerns regarding identification of autism, but the laws previously discussed do not address autism and other severe disabilities directly by the school system. In fact, it was not until 2006 that autism was mentioned as a disability covered by the China Disability Law (Gu, 2007). Until then, all disabilities and learning impairments were only referred to broadly as a “disability”. Without such specification and classification, services for children with autism can be difficult to formulate and implement (McCabe, 2003). The Status of Special Education Services Focusing on Students with Autism The attempt to search specifically about autism-related educational services in China yielded limited research. Searching for empirical studies focusing on autism and
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China
171
education in China was challenging because of the limited research that specifically used the term “autism”. Most of the literature discussed children with disabilities in general without identifying autism as a disability area and were descriptive or informational articles (for example, Chiang & Hadadian, 2007, 2010; Kritzer, 2011; McCabe, 2003, 2013). There were some common areas of discussion among the articles, including the history of special education, the current status of services for children with special needs, the challenges educators and policy-makers face to better serve these children, and suggestions about how to overcome these challenges in the future. One of the first empirical studies identified examining the issues around education and children with disabilities was conducted in 2011 by Campbell and Uren, who used a qualitative approach to examine this “invisible population”. Conducted in two parts, they first recorded the experience of a foreign teacher in China during a five-year period. During that time, the teacher talked to people in the Chinese community about disabilities. The conversations were described as informal and were experienced as part of a conversation by someone trying to understand more about Chinese life. Second, the researchers conducted a formal interview with a university professor whose child was disabled. The professor did not identify the child’s disability. An analysis of their data provided updates about legislative changes for people with disabilities and demonstrated changes in people’s attitudes toward people with disabilities in China. In an attempt to refine the search for literature with a focus on children and autism in China, we found that most of the literature was informational, discussing various treatments for children with autism (Clark & Zhou, 2005), training for parents and professionals (Guo, 2006), and the burden of raising children with autism (Xiong et al., 2011). However, in 2011 Li et al. examined the prevalence of an autism-caused disability among Chinese children and explored family environmental factors associated with autism based on a national population sample. Based on data that were obtained from the Second China National Sample Survey on Disability (2007), results suggested that the prevalence was underestimated due to the lack of professionals who can accurately identify and diagnose autism. Most recently, Wang et al. (2012) examined autism awareness and attitudes towards treatment in caregivers of children aged three to six years in Harbin, China while McCabe and Barnes (2012) used a qualitative case-study design to examine the experiences of a family evaluating the decision to have a second child when the first child was identified with autism, but the focus was on sibling issues and not educational issues. McCabe (2013) conducted a qualitative research study to examine autism interventions currently used in China. Interviews with Chinese experts in the field of autism and participant observations at autism intervention organisations were conducted. Findings revealed that while the “knowledge of research-based practices continues to coexist with self-designed interventions” (2013, p. 6), the focus has typically been on young children, and there continue to be challenges to providing effective services. With the information and research that is continuing to expand in China concerning not only the identification and diagnosis of autism, but also the educational needs for these children, the specific aims of this study were to examine the perspectives of two school leaders in China on educating students with autism. However, we quickly learned that the responses were going to be much broader in terms of the disability area. We were interested in knowing what kinds of services schools are providing for these children and their families, particularly for children with autism.
172
D. Zhang and V. G. Spencer
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
Method Design Two qualitative case studies (McMillan, 2012) were used to document the experiences of two school principals in Beijing, one in a private special education school and one in a public school. Semi-structured interviews were conducted by the first author in Mandarin Chinese, the native language of the participants and the first author. The initial interview questions were guided by a general interview protocol, but as the interviews progressed the questions were also shaped and modified following the focus of the interviewee (McMillan, 2012; Merriam, 1998). In addition, the first author also spent some time informally observing in each of the schools during art and music class: four hours at Changyu Chuntong and three hours in the Haidian Training School. Interviews lasted approximately one hour each. Prior to the interviews, the Institutional Review Board of the university where both researchers are located approved the study. The first author also explained the goals and objectives of the study and reviewed the consent form with both interviewees before obtaining the participants’ written consent to participate in the study. Participants and Setting Two female principals, one from a private special education school and one from a public school, participated in the study. Ms Yu is principal of a public school, Haidian Training School, located in the Haidian District in Beijing, an area known for its high quality of education and information technology. She holds a bachelor’s degree in education and has been in the field of special education for approximately 25 years. To further her knowledge in special education, she has attended advanced training for special education principals during the holidays for a two-year period and has attended several workshops on educating students with special needs. The Haidian Training School, established in 1987, is considered a “model school” for schools both within and outside of Haidian District. In 2009, it was awarded the National Pioneer School in Special Education by the Ministry of Education and the China Disabled Persons Federation, and Ministry of Civil Affairs. The school is also the guidance and resource centre for inclusive practices within the district and is known for its excellent services for students with special needs. All school districts in Beijing offer parents of children with disabilities a choice between sending their child to a special public school or a public school depending on the severity of the disability. The Haidian Training School currently has 274 students enrolled with moderate to severe disabilities, including intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, and autism, and who range in age from 3 to 18 years. About one-quarter of the student population is female and 70% of the total school population have autism. The other 30% of students have cerebral palsy or other moderate to severe disabilities. Most students are educated there five days a week. Students with mild disabilities in the district, based on their parents’ decision, may attend designated regular schools during the day and come to the Haidian Training School for additional one-on-one therapy during after-school hours if needed. The Haidian Training School is the leading school and guidance centre in the district that provides guidance for inclusive education in the district. The second school leader, Ms Liu, was from a privately funded school, Changyu Chuntong, established in December 2010 and located in an outlying district in Beijing
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China
173
that borders the Haidian District. Although parents have the option of sending their child with disabilities to a special public school or, for children with milder disabilities, a public school, there are some parents who choose to send their child to a private school that focuses on children with disabilities. Ms Liu holds a bachelor’s degree in education and has been in the field of special education for approximately 14 years. She has taken additional courses to learn about teaching children with special needs. For example, in 2004 she trained at Xiangyang Child Development Centre for two months on individualised educational curriculum for children with disabilities. In 2009, she attended a three-day training on the administration and interpretation of the Psychoeducational Profile: Third Edition (Schopler, Lansing, Reichler, & Marcus, 2005), which is a common assessment used in China for assessing children with disabilities. In 2010, she attended a two-day workshop conducted by Heep Hong Society from Hong Kong that focused on curriculum and children with autism. These are just two examples of the types of training she has attended over the years. Changyu Chuntong began as an inclusive preschool only; however, due to the increasing need from families with children who have more significant disabilities, a rehabilitation centre was established to provide more intense one-on-one therapy and small group instruction for these children. The preschool now has 50 students with six students with special needs (four boys and two girls). Among the four boys with disabilities, three of them have autism. In the rehabilitation centre, there are 15 students, ages two through nine, currently enrolled as either full-time or part-time students. Ten out of the 13 boys in the centre have autism and two girls have other types of disabilities. Data Collection and Analysis A colleague referred both school leaders from the Academy of Social Sciences of China. They were selected purposefully due to convenience in establishing contact and their locations, one located in an inner county and one located in an outlying district. The researcher had previously visited and observed in both of the schools, and therefore had established a rapport with the principals prior to the study. Data were collected from both school leaders in a semi-structured telephone interview conducted by the first author who spoke fluent Mandarin Chinese. The interviews lasted approximately one hour each. A complete list of the interview questions can be found in Appendix 1. Responses were recorded using an iPad application named REC for later analysis. REC is a voice-recording application installed on an electronic device such as an iPhone or iPad. During the interviews, the researcher asked for clarification and restated all responses to ensure accurate recording. For example, when the researcher asked “How are the teachers trained?”, Ms Liu said that the teachers received multiple opportunities to receive internal and external training. A follow-up question was then asked about the types of training opportunities the teachers received. In another question asking about the areas that contribute to success, Ms Yu said that the school could not be successful without the current law that protects the students. A follow-up question was then asked about how the law protected the students. Ms Yu explained that the Nine Year Compulsory Education Law guaranteed that all students with special needs could receive a free education, and the law also provided sufficient funding. Interviews were transcribed immediately after listening to the recordings two more times to increase familiarity with the transcription and to ensure accurate translation.
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
174
D. Zhang and V. G. Spencer
According to Yin (2013), case studies are used to chart the unique case in its natural environment. “From this research method’s point of view, triangulation or the use of different angles to find a meaningful structure is always part of the process of analysis” (Ghesquiere, Maes, & Vandenberghe, 2004, p. 172). Therefore, data and investigator triangulation were key aspects of the analysis. Data analysis involved three steps: organising the data, summarising the data as codes, and interpreting the data to search for patterns (McMillan, 2012). Because of the small number of transcriptions, the coding was done manually. After the interviews, the initial step was to code the data based on the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). This method involves breaking down the data into discrete “incidents” (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) or “units” (Lincoln & Guba, 1990) and coding them into categories. The first author translated the interviews into English, coded the data, and developed categories. The second author provided crosschecks in order to compare results that were derived independently (Creswell, 2009). Because of the translating and transcribing in Chinese and English, member checking (Glesne, 2010) was a necessary part of the data collection and analysis. Member checks were done not only during the interview process, but also numerous emails and follow-up telephone calls were made to confirm, negate, or clarify information they had provided in the initial interview. In addition, both principals were asked to review their responses at the conclusion of the study to increase the credibility and validity of the study. Additional memos were written to aid in data interpretation and analysis (Creswell, 2009; Maxwell, 2012). Through this process, key terms and phrases were identified to document the participants’ language, themes, and views. Results Categories emerged from the data through analysis and refinement using a grounded theory approach (McMillan, 2012). Data analysis revealed five categories that will be discussed and supported with examples in the following section. Teacher Recruitment and Training Currently there are 69 teachers serving at the Haidian Training School and the majority of the teachers have a degree in special education. The school has a high retention rate for teachers. School principal Ms Yu explained: The public schools provide teachers with job stability and benefits. Once they are hired they don’t want to leave. I’ve been working here for about twenty years now and only a few teachers have left due to non-work-related reasons.
New teachers receive one month of initial training followed by regular continuous training. Ms Yu commented that newly graduated teachers may have all the “book knowledge” about special education but they do not have the practical experience needed for this job. Therefore, the initial training is very crucial. When the researcher asked Ms Yu “what happens if teachers leave?”, she answered with confidence: “then we will hire more teachers by going to colleges and universities. That is not a problem.” The Haidian Training School also provides training for teachers from other schools in the district if they have a student or several students with disabilities. The school is referred to as the “resource school” for the district.
Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China
175
The private school principal, Ms Liu, commented that she recently took a trip to the southern part of China to recruit more teachers after losing two of her most experienced teachers, who moved to public schools. She said that the recruitment trip was productive and she was able to recruit graduating students for internship opportunities from vocational schools with a focus on special education and interns with a degree in social work and counselling. However, she expressed concern that their limited practical experience will mean that they require a longer training period. In addition, she stated:
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
My goal was to employ occupational therapists, physical therapists, speech therapists, and behavioral therapists much like the schools in the United States instead of having many social workers and counselors whose specialties may not match the true needs of the school.
In addition, Ms Liu worried about the school’s retention rate of staff because working at Changyu Chuntong may only be their “passage way” to go to Beijing. How long they will stay is a question that may influence the quality of educational services at the school in the future. Similar to the public school, newly hired teachers receive training at least once a week for two hours before they start leading classes, and they received free training through the Beijing Federation of Persons with Disabilities. The new teachers are observed and evaluated by the principal once they begin teaching independently. They also receive ongoing training by attending outside workshops, by listening to speakers who come to the school, or by having discussions with experienced teachers in the school to improve the quality of teaching. Curriculum and Teaching Methodology Both schools provide students with an Individual Education Program (IEP) to address the student’s specific needs. According to the school leaders, there are no standardised forms or processes in place for developing a student’s IEP. Teachers develop their own form for each individual student with special needs. Both schools utilise a variety of teaching strategies and incorporate one-on-one instruction and group instruction. Ms Yu indicated that there is a standardised curriculum guideline generated by the Department of Education that all schools have to follow. However, schools can decide which textbooks to use based on the guidelines with the aim to deliver effective services. One of the methodologies that the Haidian Training School uses for students with autism is applied behaviour analysis (ABA). However, Ms Yu noted that teachers are not formally trained in ABA and there are limited training opportunities. Because the school also teaches students with other disabilities besides autism, the teachers also use the “life and experiential model” and the “recovery model” to educate students. These are not standardised programmes/models, but lessons that the teachers have developed with a particular focus on life skills. For example, in the “life and experiential model” teachers plan their lessons based on a chosen theme of the week to teach students essential skills for living. The “recovery model” focuses on specific challenges students face, such as emotional regulation and physical difficulties. Ms Liu explained that Changyu Chuntong uses a “combination of TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children), visual supports, and a bit of ABA”. This preschool also collaborates with teachers from Taiwan to incorporate social skills training for students with higher ability levels. Teachers at the school and the rehabilitation centre also design their lessons based on a
176
D. Zhang and V. G. Spencer
theme of the week. However, students’ programmes at the rehabilitation centre are more individualised and more intense compared with the preschool. Ms Liu explained:
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
Generally, Changyu Chuntong does not follow the same curriculum that is used by the Haidian Training School. Children are initially screened using the PEP-3 [Psychoeducational Profile: Third Edition], and if needed, we meet with the parents to develop an IEP.
Parent Involvement Parent involvement is an important component for both schools. At the Haidian Training School, each student has his or her own IEP and their parents are active participants in the IEP process. Ms Yu said: “We design educational programs together with the parents.” The teachers talk to the parents to generate realistic and achievable goals for the students. There is a communication log that goes home to the parents daily, explaining what happened during the day and how the student performed. Ms Yu further explained that during non-school hours they hold teacher–parent conferences and parent training sessions on a regular basis to ensure that parents are engaged in their child’s education. Changyu Chuntong receives and offers parental support as well. Parents are involved in the IEP process initially and they communicate “freely” with the teachers and with Ms Liu. Ms Liu said: The parents help me a lot! They come and fix the door when it is broken. They help each other during difficult situations, and they provide me with the most updated information about treatment and therapy for autism. They buy toys and teaching materials for us to use and they ask their friends to donate too. We really have established great relationships with each other. They want to help me because they know I’m trying my best to work with their children.
Factors Contributing to Success Ms Yu from the Haidian Training School commented that one of the factors that contribute to the success of the school is the impact of the Nine Year Compulsory Education Law. Because of this law that requires schools to accept all students with or without disabilities, schools in Beijing cannot reject any child from receiving a free and appropriate education. All children with or without disabilities are guaranteed to receive nine years of free education. This law also ensures that schools receive adequate funding to provide services to every student. “It is nice not having to worry about funding so we can focus on doing what’s best for our students. It is great for parents too, because they don’t have to worry about paying for school”, commented Ms Yu. Ms Liu used an old Chinese word of wisdom, “Tianshi, Dili, Renhe”, to describe the reasons for her success, which is a combination of “time, geographic location, and manpower”. She established the school in the winter of 2010 and, according to Ms Liu, when the school was ready to recruit, it was the perfect time for recruiting students (time, “Tianshi”). Changyu Chuntong is in the Changping district, one of the outlying districts in Beijing neighbouring Haidian district. Due to its geographic location (“Dili”), it has a different culture to the inner districts. In the Changping district, Changyu Chuntong is one of the only two schools to accept typical children and children with disabilities. She said that her school is “much needed” as people are
Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China
177
becoming more aware of children with disabilities and parents want them to be educated. Finally, Ms Liu said that she has a strong network of family and friends that support and encourage her to keep working hard. As Ms. Liu explained, “without them I don’t think I will get to where I am now. I feel truly grateful and thankful to have them on my side.” She also mentioned the importance of parental acceptance that she received from parents of typical children. During the interview she said: “At first some parents were worried if autism was ‘contagious’. Now they are ok with sending their typical child to our school. The initial ‘worrisome’ has turned into ‘curiosity’ or ‘understanding’” (manpower, “Renhe”).
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
Factors that Present Challenges Despite the efforts made by both schools to create the most effective educational environment for their students with autism and other disabilities, both schools are concerned about their overall expertise in special education. Both principals struggled with answering the question “Do you know enough about special education in order to serve your students?” They both expressed that having expertise in the area of special education is more critical when it comes to “facing the extreme and difficult cases among students with special needs including autism”. The Haidian Training School has a stable teaching team, has adequate funding from the government, and has some effective teaching models to accommodate its students. The school also welcomes researchers from local universities to serve as a research site. However, the problem of how to bridge the gap between research and practice remains. Ms Yu said: “We don’t know how to use research findings to better serve our students at this point.” Changyu Chuntong has to complete the government’s registration process required for private schools. According to Ms Liu, registration is a “tricky” process. In order to register a private school, there are specific procedures involving a number of steps. It is her hope that the school will be registered soon so she can pass the “Standardised Evaluation for Privately Owned Organisations” that the Beijing Disabled Persons’ Rehabilitation Service and Guidance Centre recently initiated. Passing this evaluation will bring funding for students as well as financial support for parents. Currently, parents pay to send their children to private schools. Unlike the Haidian School, Changyu Chuntong is challenged by unstable enrolment. Ms Liu commented: Because our school is new many people still don’t know about us, or they have doubts about sending their child[ren] to us. Many parents still keep their child at home due to financial problems, an inability to face their child’s diagnosis, or misconceptions about disabilities. Right now recruitment is driven by what the parents of our current students say. As a school leader, I should be doing more to “spread the word” about the school.
Additional Findings During the conversation with the school leaders, Ms Yu mentioned the Nine Year Compulsory Law that mandates public schools to accept all students with or without a disability. She stated: “We cannot turn down any student. They are guaranteed to receive education.” This was not clear in the literature. According to Wang, Rule, Latham, and Fiechtl (1993), the law mandates that all children are entitled to an education but it does not “mandate” schools to accommodate all students.
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
178
D. Zhang and V. G. Spencer
Additionally, Ms Liu from Changyu Chuntong commented about a registration process that was not mentioned in any of the research, and after further examination the researchers were unable to identify additional information regarding this process. It appears that establishing a private school in Beijing can be a time-consuming and complicated process. According to comments made by Ms Liu, a systematic regulatory procedure at the Beijing government level is beginning to take effect, which regulates all private schools and the rehabilitation centres serving students with disabilities. Both principals state that there is an increased public acceptance for children with disabilities. This is similar to what Campbell and Uren (2011) discovered in their study, suggesting that there is an increase in awareness for people with disabilities. Haidian Training School has its own bakery that opens to the community during the weekdays. This attracts support from people living in the neighbourhood by purchasing baked goods from the store. Private schools are located outside Beijing for cheaper rent. Changyu Chuntong has also experienced attitude change in people, particularly in parents. As Ms Liu stated, “Parents went from an initial ‘doubtful and rejecting’ mentality to an ‘accepting with curiosity’ stage.” Last of all, the United States currently has several effective methodologies based on the principles of ABA that are used in teaching children with autism. In 2005, Clark and Zhou stated that ABA was “used” rarely in China. However, both Ms Yu and Ms Liu said that they use components of ABA to educate students with autism (e.g., discrete trial instruction), although both of the principals were only able to express a limited understanding of the ABA methodology. Discussion In this study that examined the perspectives of two school leaders on educating students with autism in China, they described many aspects involved in serving the needs of this population of students. Areas of discussion included teacher recruitment and training, curriculum and teaching methodology, parental involvement, and the successes and challenges they encounter as leaders of the schools. The Haidian Training School was more established with a source of stable funding, sufficient number of teachers, and some effective teaching methods, while Changyu Chuntong was not as stable since it depends on funds from the parents. Special schools struggle with a lack of well-trained teachers, inadequate policies, and a lack of funding from the government (Chiang & Hadadian, 2010). In addition, Changyu Chuntong is currently in the process of registering with the Chinese government, and is hopeful that this will provide some funding for the parents and the school. Despite the challenges both schools face, the principals expressed optimism about their schools’ current status and future, and expressed the importance of continuous learning in both theoretical and experiential knowledge in the field of autism for themselves and for the teachers. As with any case studies, there were some clear limitations to this process. First, the information expressed in the interviews cannot be generalised to other schools in Beijing or in China. Only two school leaders participated in this study, and there is great variation in the schools. The Haidian Training School is located in one of the best districts in Beijing for education, while Changyu Chuntong is located in one of the outlying districts of Beijing. Although Changyu Chuntong is still considered to be in the city of Beijing, the area is less developed than in the inner city where the Haidian Training School is located and has limited resources. According to Huang and Wheeler (2007), 80% of the Chinese population live in the rural areas where resources and
Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China
179
communications with the outside world are limited. Therefore, with regards to special education there is a vast difference between the urban schools and more rural schools even in Beijing itself. It is important to keep in mind that the experiences shared by the two school leaders may only represent the schools that they serve. Second, the findings of the study could be supported more effectively if it involved a more in-depth observation component. Spending a few hours at each school does not capture the day-to-day reality of how a school runs, which should be taken into consideration for future research.
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
Future Implications Even though autism is not considered a new disability in China, it began to gain people’s attention only recently, leaving room for further investigation in many areas (Gu, 2007). Thus far, researchers have touched on but have not examined thoroughly areas such as parent training (Guo, 2006), teacher training (McCabe, 2008), diagnosis (Yu & Takahashi, 2009) and educational interventions (McCabe, 2013). Further, research in autism in China is difficult due to the lack of a standardised diagnosis process and methodological problems (Clark & Zhou, 2005; McCabe, 2013). At the same time, the prevalence of autism in China requires further investigation (Li et al., 2011), which is crucial for both medical and educational purposes. With the information obtained from these two case studies and the findings of McCabe’s (2013) qualitative study examining autism interventions in China, this type of research has the capacity to provide the information needed for researchers in China to continue expanding the diagnostic and educational services for children with autism. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Funding There was no research funding for this study, and no restrictions have been imposed on free access to, or publication of, the research data.
References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author. Anastasiou, D., & Keller, C. (2011). International differences in provisions for exceptional learners. In J. M. Kauffman & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Handbook of special education (pp. 773–787). New York, NY: Routledge. Campbell, A., & Uren, M. (2011). ‘The invisibles’… Disability in China in the 21st century. International Journal of Special Education, 26, 12–24. Category of Mental Disorders (CCMD-3). (2001). Nanjing, China: Southeast University Press. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders. Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, United States. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm Chiang, L. H., & Hadadian, A. (2007). Chinese and Chinese-American families of children with disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 22, 19–23. Chiang, L. H., & Hadadian, A. (2010). Raising children with disabilities in China: The need for early interventions. International Journal of Special Education, 25, 113–118.
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
180
D. Zhang and V. G. Spencer
China Disabled Persons’ Federation. (2013). Education. Retrieved from http://www.cdpf.org.cn/ english/education/content/2013-11/21/content_84923.htm Clark, E., & Zhou, Z. (2005). Autism in China: From acupuncture to applied behavior analysis. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 285–295. Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China. (1986). Ren Min Re Bao [People’s Daily], p. 1. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Deng, M., & Harris, K. (2008). Meeting the needs of students with disabilities in general education classrooms in China. Teacher Education and Special Education, 31, 195–207. doi:10.1177/0888406408330631 Deng, M., & Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (2004). Inclusive education in China: Conceptualisation and realization. Asia-Pacific Journal of Education, 24, 143–157. Ghesquiere, P., Maes, B., & Vandenberghe, R. (2004). The usefulness of qualitative case studies in research on special needs education. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 51, 171–184. doi:10.1080/10349120410001687382 Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine. Glesne, C. (2010). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (4th ed.). New York, NY: Longman. Gu, D. Q. (1993). Te shu jiaoyu li fa de fazhan [The changes of legislation on special education in China]. Research on Special Education, 1, 1–9. Gu, Y. (2007, January 11). Gudu zheng ertong qidai geng duo guanzhu [Children with autism look forward to more attention]. Xinwen Shijie (News World). Guo, Y. (2006). Training parents and professionals to help children with autism in China: The contribution of behavior analysis. International Journal of Psychology, 41, 523–526. doi:10.1080/00207590500492575 Huang, A. X., & Wheeler, J. J. (2007). Including children with autism in general education in China. Childhood Education, 83, 356–360. Kritzer, J. B. (2011). Special education in China. Eastern Education Journal, 40, 57–63. Li, N., Chen, G., Song, X., Du, W., & Zheng, X. (2011). Prevalence of autism-caused disabilities among Chinese children: A national population-based survey. Epilepsy & Behavior, 22, 786–789. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1990). Judging the quality of case study reports. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 3, 53–59. Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. McCabe, H. (2003). The beginnings of inclusion in the People’s Republic of China. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, 16–22. McCabe, H. (2008). Effective teacher training at the autism institute in the People’s Republic of China. Teacher Education and Special Education, 31, 103–117. McCabe, H. (2013). Bamboo shoots after the rain: Development and challenges of autism intervention in China. Autism, 17, 510–526. doi:10.1177/1362361312436849 McCabe, H., & Barnes, R. E. (2012). Autism in a family in China: An investigation and ethical consideration of sibling issues. International Journal of Disability, Development & Education, 59, 197–207. Mcloughlin, C. S., Zhou, Z., & Clark, E. (2005). Reflections on the development and status of contemporary special education services in China. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 273–283. doi:10.1002/pits.20078 McMillan, J. H. (2012). Educational research: Fundamentals for the consumer (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2004). Survey of the educational reform and development in China. China education and research network website. Retrieved from http://www.edu.cn.Researchedu_1498/20060323/t20060323_113688.shtml National Education Committee of the People’s Republic of China. (1994). Educational guidelines for persons with disabilities. Beijing, China: Law Publisher.
Downloaded by [Panjab University] at 02:49 31 March 2016
Needs of Students with Autism and Other Disabilities in China
181
National People’s Congress. (1990). Law of the People’s Republic of China on the protection of disabled persons. Beijing, China: Legal System Publisher. Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21, 77–86. Schopler, E., Lansing, M. D., Reichler, R. J., & Marcus, L. M. (2005). Psychoeducational profile: Third edition (PEP-3). Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services. Second China National Sample Survey on Disability Office. (2007). Handbook on the main data of the second China national sample survey on disability. Beijing, China: Huaxia. Wang, H. B., Rule, S., Latham, G., & Fiechtl, B. (1993). Legal foundations of special education: A comparison of the United States public law 94–142 and the China compulsory education law. The Division of International Special Education and Services, 2, 5–9. Wang, J., Zhou, X., Xia, W., Sun, C., Wu, L., & Wang, J. (2012). Autism awareness and attitudes towards treatment in caregivers of children aged 3-6 years in Harbin, China. Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 1301–1308. doi:10.1007/s00127-011-0438-9 Xiong, N., Yang, L., Yu, Y., Hou, J., Li, J., Li, Y., … Jiao, Z. (2011). Investigation of raising burden of children with autism, psychical disability and mental disability in China. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 306–311. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.10.003 Yang, H. L., & Wang, H. B. (1994). Special education in China. The Journal of Special Education, 28, 93–105. Yin, R. K. (2013). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Yu, X., & Takahashi, S. (2009). Problems of establishing an early diagnosis and detection system for autism in China: A survey of doctors at medical institutions. Japanese Journal of Special Education, 46, 489–502.
Appendix 1. Interview Questions (1)
Describe how you became a school principal. What was your educational background and experience relating to working with children with special needs? Describe a typical working day for you. (2) How many students attend the school? (3) What are the age, grade, and disability area(s) of the students? (4) How many teachers are at the school and what is their level of education? (5) How are the teachers trained? Are there further staff development opportunities? (6) Is there a guiding philosophy of methods and curriculum for this school? (7) Who provides funding for the school? (8) What is the level of parent involvement and how do they participate in their child’s education? (9) What are some areas that contribute to the success of the school? (10) What are some of the challenges of being a school leader in a school that teaches children with disabilities?
