Education Tech Research Dev (2008) 56:1–3 DOI 10.1007/s11423-007-9066-1 RESEARCH ARTICLE
Advances in scaffolding learning with hypertext and hypermedia: theoretical, empirical, and design issues Michael J. Jacobson Æ Roger Azevedo
Published online: 6 November 2007 Ó Association for Educational Communications and Technology 2007
Of the uses of globally distributed hypertext and hypermedia technologies in education, it might be said that we live in the best of times and the worst of times. Over approximately two decades, we have seen hypermedia technologies (i.e., hyperlinks between nodes of digitally encoded information such as text, images, video, simulations, animations, and so on) advance from obscure military and basic research projects on specialized computers to form the basis of a globally distributed networked hypermedia environment known as the World Wide Web. In addition, commonly available and inexpensive multimedia handheld devices, laptop, and desktop computers allow students and teachers to connect to this global hypermedia environment using wired and, increasingly, wireless networks, thus providing countless opportunities for access to educational hypermedia and information resources. On the negative side, however, a critical look at principled research into learning with hypermedia, in contrast to information dissemination and access, has been decidedly mixed. Many earlier hypermedia systems were criticized for focusing on the technology rather than cognitive and learning issues and for being atheoretical (Dillon and Gabbard 1998; Jacobson 1994; Tergan 1997). Of course, there has been research documenting factors associated with educationally effective hypermedia systems (including new adaptive hypermedia approaches), but there continues to be theoretical and methodological criticisms of much of the hypertext and hypermedia literature (Azevedo 2005; Shapiro and Niederhauser 2003). Given that research on the design of powerful and educationally effective hypermedia systems appears to have reached an impressionistic vista, how might work in this area advance? A central goal of this Special Issue of ETR&D is to illustrate how recent theoretical and research perspectives from the learning sciences and educational technology can provide a foundation upon which powerful and effective hypertext and hypermedia systems for learning may be designed, researched, and used to address significant learning challenges M. J. Jacobson (&) National Institute of Education, Learning Sciences Laboratory, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore e-mail:
[email protected] R. Azevedo Department of Psychology, Institute for Intelligent Systems, University of Memphis, Memphis, USA e-mail:
[email protected]
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in education. In particular, recent research has focused on difficulties that students experience when using hypermedia environments to learn about complex topics. To address such difficulties, hypermedia researchers have attempted to facilitate student learning of challenging conceptual topics by using different types of scaffolding techniques, or learning aids, that are intended to support students as they are constructing new understandings and building knowledge. Although there have been studies of how scaffolding may be used in computer-based and non-computer-based learning environments (Azevedo and Hadwin 2005; Collins 1989; Davis and Miyake 2004; Guzdial 1995; Jackson et al. 2000; Pea 2004; Quintana et al. 2004), there is little empirical evidence that deals specifically with which types of scaffolds are effective in assisting student learning with hypermedia (Azevedo et al. 2005; Jacobson and Archodidou 2000; Tergan 1997), hence the importance of this theme in the Special Issue. In this Special Issue, the authors present their theoretical models or frameworks for hypermedia learning environments and empirical data on student learning with their particular systems. They also discuss how their theories or models of learning with hypermedia were used to inform the design of scaffolding techniques in their systems and the ways in which these scaffolds were found to support learner centered pedagogies. For example, Shapiro provides a historical summary of various conceptualizations of scaffolding and then proposes an approach she refers to as embedded scaffolding that uses the affordances of elements of the hypermedia interface as support features for the learner. Azevedo and colleagues discuss research based design principles for scaffolding metacognitive strategies as part of adaptive hypermedia learning environments, while Jacobson provides an overview of a hypermedia design framework that employs representational, conceptual, ontological, and problem solving scaffolds for systems intended to support pedagogical approaches such as problem-based learning. Still another approach to scaffolding is discussed by Gerjets, Scheiter, and Schuh who report on research in which the learners were scaffolded in their interaction with worked out examples. We conclude optimistically, that, in terms of learning, we have the potential to live in the best of times. We are witnessing a dramatic transformation in the fundamental infrastructures of education due to the increasing availability of powerful mobile and intelligent computational and communications technologies that are globally networked. Emerging technologies and practices may well mean we must reconceptualize definitions of educational hypertext and hypermedia, or that other constructs such as ‘‘distributed learning and collaboration’’ technologies (a phrase inspired by views on ‘‘distributed cognition’’ that was employed at recent advanced technology and learning symposia in Shanghai the first author attended) may better convey the dynamically interconnected nature of adaptive information rich resources and transparent collaboration in virtual environments that may well be basis for the educational infrastructures of the future. However, regardless of the labels we use for particular learning technologies, it is vital that the design of these systems be based on theoretically grounded and research-informed principles of learning. Overall, we hope that the work reported in this Special Issue will advance and stimulate the theoretical, design, and evaluative foundations for researchers and developers of learning technologies such as educational hypermedia, in particular for those systems that focus on helping student learn in conceptually challenging domains. References Azevedo, R. (2005). Using hypermedia as a metacognitive tool for enhancing student learning? The role of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 199–209.
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Azevedo, R., Cromley, J. G., Winters, F. I., Moos, D. C., & Greene, J. A. (2005). Adaptive human scaffolding facilitates adolescents’ self-regulated learning with hypermedia. Instructional Science, 33, 381–412. Azevedo, R., & Hadwin, A. F. (2005). Scaffolding self-regulated learning and metacognition: Implications for the design of computer-based scaffolds. Instructional Science, 33, 367–379. Collins, A. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship and instructional technology (Technical No. 474). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Center for the Study of Reading. Davis, E. A., & Miyake, N. (2004). Explorations of scaffolding in complex classroom systems. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 265–272. Dillon, A., & Gabbard, R. (1998). Hypermedia as an educational technology: A review of the quantitative research literature on learner comprehension, control, and style. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 322–349. Guzdial, M. (1995). Software-realized scaffolding to facilitate programming for science learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 4(1), 1–44. Jackson, S., Krajcik, J., & Soloway, E. (2000). Model-it: A design retrospective. In M. J. Jacobson & R. B. Kozma (Eds.), Innovations in science and mathematics education: Advanced designs for technologies of learning (pp. 77–115). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Jacobson, M. J. (1994). Issues in hypertext and hypermedia research: Toward a framework for linking theory-to-design. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 3(2), 141–154. Jacobson, M. J., & Archodidou, A. (2000). The design of hypermedia tools for learning: Fostering conceptual change and transfer of complex scientific knowledge. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9(2), 149–199. Pea, R. D. (2004). The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning, education, and human activity. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 423–451. Quintana, C., Reiser, B. J., Davis, E. A., Krajcik, J., Fretz, E., Duncan, R. G., et al. (2004). A scaffolding design framework for software to support science inquiry. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 337–386. Shapiro, A., & Niederhauser, D. (2003). Learning from hypertext: Research issues and findings. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for education communications and technology (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Tergan, S. O. (1997). Conceptual and methodological shortcomings in hypertext/hypermedia design and research. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 16(3), 209–235.
Michael J. Jacobson is a faculty researcher at the Singapore Learning Sciences Laboratory and an Associate Professor in the Learning Sciences and Technology Academic Group at the National Institute of Education (NIE), Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. His research has focused on the design of learning technologies such as 3D multi-user virtual environments and hypermedia to foster deep conceptual understanding, conceptual change, and knowledge transfer in challenging conceptual domains. Most recently, his work has explored cognitive and learning issues related to the design of learning technologies to help students understand new scientific perspectives emerging from the study of complex and dynamical systems. Roger Azevedo is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Memphis. His research interests include the role of self-regulated learning about challenging science topics with openended learning environments and using computers as metacognitive tools for enhancing learning.
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