Afghanistan Chilgoza Pine Forests

Afghanistan Chilgoza Pine Forests Sustainable Use Plan

Assistance in Building Afghanistan by Developing Enterprises (ABADE) Program Leader-with-Associate Cooperative Agreement No. EEM-A-00-04-00002-00 Associate Cooperative Agreement No. AID-306-LA-13-00001

Afghanistan Chilgoza Pine Forests: Sustainable Use Plan May 2016

Written by: Safiullah Khurram, Mohammad Nasir Shalizi, Ethan Myer & Abdullah Hurmat

Submitted by: Volunteers for Economic Growth Alliance (VEGA) 734 15th Street NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20005

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Its contents are the responsibility of the Volunteers for Economic Growth Alliance (VEGA) and the International Executive Service Corps (IESC) and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

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Photographs: a) Chilgoza forest stand in Khost province (http://www.panoramio.com). b) Chilgoza pine tree; growth on rocky slopes of Laghman Province (Photo: Attaur-Rahman). c) Chilgoza cone collection with a traditional hook (Photo: Izattullah). d) Chilgoza cone piles after collection (Photo: Paktia province Facebook page). e) Habit of young chligoza tree in understory layer of forest (Photo: Izattullah).

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Table of Contents Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... 4 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 6 1. Value of chilgoza pine forests.................................................................................................... 7 2. General features ....................................................................................................................... 8

2.1 Flowering and cone production ............................................................................................. 9 3. Distribution and ecology ......................................................................................................... 10

3.1 Vegetation structure ............................................................................................................ 12 3.2 Stand characteristics ............................................................................................................ 13 3.3 Soils and site quality ............................................................................................................. 14 4. Cone harvesting techniques .................................................................................................... 14

4.1 Cone removal equipment ..................................................................................................... 15 4.2 Cone harvesting timing ........................................................................................................ 18 4.3 Cone processing and seed extraction .................................................................................. 19 5. Problems in natural regeneration ............................................................................................ 21 6. Local practices and beliefs regarding chilgoza .......................................................................... 24

6.1 Perceptions on chilgoza forest health .................................................................................. 25 7. Natural regeneration strategies and sustainable harvesting techniques ................................... 26

7.1 Rationale for sustainable harvesting .................................................................................... 26 7.2 Rotational cone harvesting .................................................................................................. 27 7.2.1 Stand selection (size and location) ................................................................................ 27 7.2.2 Rotational cycle ............................................................................................................. 27 7.2.3 Protection and monitoring of human activities ............................................................ 30

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7.3 Individual tree protection .................................................................................................... 30 7.3.1 Seed releasing tree selection ........................................................................................ 31 7.3.2 Number of trees protected for seed dispersal .............................................................. 31 7.3.3 Protection and monitoring ............................................................................................ 32 7.4 Partial cone harvesting ......................................................................................................... 32 7.4.1 Number of cones to be left ........................................................................................... 33 7.5 Integrated harvesting ........................................................................................................... 33 7.6 Other strategies .................................................................................................................... 34 8. Artificial regeneration ............................................................................................................. 34

8.1 Nursery considerations ........................................................................................................ 34 8.2 Outplanting ........................................................................................................................... 36 References ................................................................................................................................. 37 Figure / Photograph References.................................................................................................. 44

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Introduction Chilgoza pine is one of the most valuable tree species of Afghanistan. Pine nuts are the main non-timber forest product yielded from these trees. The income generated from the sale of pine nuts and other ecological services provided by chilgoza forests contribute to local communities’ livelihoods in the Eastern Forest Complex (EFC) of Afghanistan. Overharvesting of female cones in combination with livestock grazing and fuelwood collection has resulted in chilgoza forest degradation in many regions of the EFC. Severe cone collection has led to poor natural regeneration of chilgoza pine in many forest stands. The long-term effects of overharvesting are that trees in chilogza stands are on average getting older and that new cohort recruitment is poor. Therefore, the forest health is not in good condition. Most local communities understand that chilgoza forests are becoming degraded, however they have very little knowledge on how to mitigate these negative trends in forest heatlh. Over exploitation of pine nuts and mismanagement of chilgoza stands have brought the species to a “near threatened” status according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. This sustainable use plan is designed to assist field trainers and chilogza pine forest managers in imparting knowledge on communities and village leaders to sustainably manage the forests. Since most of the local villagers involved in pine nut harvesting are illiterate, field trainers and forest managers will need to become familiar with this plan in order to orally train local communities on sustainable harvesting and regeneration. The contents of this plan are divided into eight sections. At the beginning a brief introduction about the value of chilgoza pine is provided along with an overview of pine forest biology, ecology and stand characteristics. Next, harvesting techniques, cone collection equipment and processing methods are presented. Later, we address problems in natural regeneration and villager perceptions based on surveys and interviews. The crux of the manual is presented in Section 7; Natural regeneration strategies and sustainable harvesting techniques. Finally we touch on some of the artificial regeneration techniques that are discussed in the literature. It

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should be noted that this plan is based on research conducted by the authors over a six month period in 2015 – 2016 that culminated in the generation of a full research findings report that is publicly available. This plan represents a condensed version of the research report focused on key material for use in educational outreach by field trainers and forest managers.

1. Value of chilgoza pine forests Chilgoza pine forests are very important to communities living in the EFC of Afghanistan. Among the non-wood forest products (NWFPs), pine nuts are considered by most villagers as the most important and valuable natural resource. Local villagers harvest and roast the nuts for their own use or sell them on local markets (Alam, 2011). Chilgoza pine nuts are traded worldwide and used raw, roasted or mixed with other ingredients (Sharma et al., 2013). The nuts of chilogza pine are a good source of unsaturated fatty acids with zero cholesterol (Distaillats et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2009; Venkatachalam & Sathe, 2006), and are rich in carbohydrates, proteins and minerals as well (Malik et al., 2012; Troup, 1921). Chilgoza pine plays an important role in socio-economic development of rural communities living nearby chilgoza forests (Malik et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2013; WWF-P, 2014). Chilgoza pine forests not only provide pine nuts as an economic commodity, but also provide fuelwood, medicinal plants, pasture and shelter for livestock as well as wildlife habitat and other environmental services. Nuts of chilgoza pine are highly prized, collected and sold by poor local villagers (Eckenwalder, 2009). Empty cones are used as fuelwood (Anonymous). Also wood is used as firewood in areas where no other tree species are found near villages (Anonymous). Sometimes its wood is used in construction at the domestic level as well (WCS, 2008). Chilgoza pine stands are usually controlled by local tribes within its range. Cones are harvested by villagers and by contractors/outsiders. After seed extraction, pine nuts are sold to local traders or contractors. Most of the villagers and pine nut harvesters sell their pine nuts directly to local traders and only a small percentage sell their commodity to contractors. The revenue generated from pine nuts is distributed among village or community members. Most of the communities divide the revenue equally between all members, however in some communities

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the money earned from pine nuts is distributed based on the amount of labor contributed. Likewise, some communities use the income generated from pine nuts for local projects such as bridges, Mosques, roads etc. Mean per kilogram payoff for unshelled pine nuts was 890 Pakistani rupees in 2015 – 2016 based on a limited survey. The quality (size, taste and amount of damage incurred during processing) of pine nuts differs among provinces and high quality pine nuts are sold for better prices than low quality pine nuts. On average, each family receives 130,934 Pakistani rupees ($1,251) per year from pine nuts. The yearly income from chilgoza pine nuts varies between provinces and from year to year.

2. General features Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don is one of the pine species of the genus Pinus L. These are medium sized trees with height ranging from 5 – 27 m (Bhattacharrya et al., 1988) and diameter at breast height (DBH) of 0.3 m to a maximum of 1.3 m (Alam, 2011; Bhattacharrya et al., 1988; CAB International, 2002; Chandy, 2002; Critchfield & Little, 1966; Eckenwalder, 2009; Saeed & Thanos, 2006). In Afghanistan, the DBH of the largest trees is normally in the range of 24 to 52 cm. The crown of chilgoza pine trees varies depending on environmental conditions and may be deep, wide and open with long erect branches in open conditions or narrow and shallow with short horizontal branches forming a compact habit in dense forest (Farjon, 1984; Gupta & Sharma, 1975). Each fascicle contains three needles, 5 – 10 cm long (Alam, 2011; Eckenwalder, 2009; Mirov, 1967). Bark of the chilgoza pine tree is glabrous and silvery grey in color (Gupta & Sharma, 1975) and is generally thin, scaly and produces flakes (peels off) as it becomes older (Alam, 2011; Eckenwalder, 2009; Gupta & Sharma, 1975).

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Figure 1. Growth habit of chilgoza pine tree in its natural environment in Khost province. Seeds of chilgoza pine are cylindrical in shape, attached to a wing and covered with a shell (Alam, 2011; Dalhmore & Jackson, 1974; Eckenwalder, 2009; Khan & Khan, 1992; Kuhn et al., 2006). Seeds range from 16 – 25 mm in length and 5 – 7 mm in width, weighing on average 0.3 g. The number of seeds per cone ranges from 30 seeds/cone to a maximum of 118 seeds/cone according to the literature reviewed (Alam, 2011; Eckenwalder, 2009; Khan & Khan, 1992; Kuhn et al., 2006; Saeed & Thanos, 2006; WCS, 2008).

2.1 Flowering and cone production Like other pines, chilgoza pine trees are monoecious, bearing male and female reproductive organs at different locations on the same tree. Both female and male cones are produced in the spring between May – June (Chaudri, 1963). The tree relies on wind for pollination, which also occurs in the spring (WCS, 2008). Female cones mature in the autumn (September – October) of the following year (Chandy, 2002; Chaudhri, 1963; Khan & Khan, 1992; Krugman & Jenkison, 1974). The seeds are released from cones in November, generally within 30 days following cone

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maturity (Krugman & Jenkison, 1974). Chilgoza pine trees begin bearing female cones between 25 – 30 years of age (Chandy, 2002).

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Figure 2. a) Opened female chilgoza cone; and, b) seeds under each cone scale.

3. Distribution and ecology Chilgoza pine forests grow on dry temperate rocky sites (Ahmed & Sarangzai, 1992; Critchfield & Little, 1966). They are native to dry temperate forests of the Hindukush – Himalayan region which includes eastern and southeastern Afghanistan, northern and northwestern Pakistan, northwestern India and Tibet and Xizhang provinces of China (Critchfield & Little, 1966; CAB International, 2002; Dogra, 1964; Eckenwalder, 2009; Farjon, 1984; Farjon, 1998; Khan et al., 2015; Khan & Khan, 1992; Krugman & Jenkison, 1974; Malik et al., 2012; WWF-P, 2014). In Afghanistan, chilgoza pine is distributed in eastern and southeastern provinces. Scattered populations are distributed in Paktika, Paktia, Khost, Nangarhar, Kunar, Laghman, Logar, Nuristan and Kapisa provinces (MAIL, 2012). In Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, Kapisa and Nangarhar, the chilgoza is distributed between 2100 – 3350 m asl (Farjon, 1984) and in Paktia, Khost and Paktika provinces it is found between 1800 – 2300 m asl (Alam, 2011; Nedialkov, 1973). Chilgoza pine becomes dominant between 2100 – 2500 m above mean sea level (UNEP, 2008).

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Figure 3. Map of chilgoza pine distribution in Afghanistan. o

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Temperatures in chilgoza pine ecosystems range from a maximum 39 C to a minimum -12 C (Lakhanpal & Kumar, 1996). These trees can tolerate cold winters and dry hot summers (Khan & Khan, 1992). Precipitation within the range of chilgoza pine is generally scanty; little is received during summer (July – September) from the monsoon effect and the rest is in winter by heavy snowfall (Akbar et al., 2014; MAIL, 2012).

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Figure 4. A chilgoza pine forest near Musa Khel, Khost Province.

3.1 Vegetation structure Within its altitudinal range, chilgoza pine trees create pure and mixed stands. Chilgoza pine is often mixed with other conifers and hardwood species (Eckenwalder, 2009). At lower elevations, it is usually mixed with hardwood species such as Quercus ilex, Olea ferruginea, Pistacia khinjuk and Fraxinus xanthoxyliodes (Ahmed et al., 1991; Ahmed, 2007; Chaudhri 1963; Poynton, 1977; Khan & Khan, 1992; Richardson & Rundel, 2000). At upper elevations, it is mixed with Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Juniperus excelsa and other Juniperus spp, (Ahmed, 2007; Chaudhri, 1963; Poynton, 1977; Khan & Khan, 1992; Richardson & Rundel, 2000). In Kunar, Nuristan, Lagman, Nangarhar, Paktia and Khost, chilgoza pine is mixed with oaks, deodar cedar, blue pine, fir, spruce, walnut (lower elevations) and gurgura (Reptonia buxifolia). The forest communities in Paktika and Kapisa provinces are less diverse and only oak (Quercus baloot) and chilgoza pine are predominant in forest stands.

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Figure 5. Oak – chilgoza forest in Paktia province.

3.2 Stand characteristics Chilgoza pine is a slow growing and shade intolerant tree species (CAB International, 2002; MAIL, 2012). Natural regeneration of chilgoza pine occurs by dispersal of seeds released from cones. Natural stands of chilgoza pine are usually opened canopy and are mostly uneven-aged (CAB International, 2002; Kuhn et al., 2006). Tree density differs from stand to stand, usually affected by various environmental factors. Within its altitudinal range, chilgoza tree density is higher in chilgoza dominated forest stands. In Afghanistan chilgoza tree density ranges on average from 320 trees/ha to 640 trees/ha.

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Figure 6. A chilgoza pine forest in Zazai Aryob district of Paktia Province.

3.3 Soils and site quality Chilgoza pines grow on dry shallow soil and bare rocks with little rainfall but with heavy winter snowfall (Khan & Khan, 1992; Malik et al., 2012; Poynton, 1977; Singh et al., 2009). It needs little soil fertility and is able to grow on barren hillsides (CAB International, 2002). It likes well-drained sandy, loamy and clayey soils and can tolerate drought (WCS, 2008). The ability to grow on shallow rocky soils and its deep, large root system allow the tree to both create soil by breaking down rock through physical weathering while also improving soil stability by protecting soil particles from erosion with its roots (Kant et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2012 & 2013; MAIL, 2012; Sehgal & Khosla, 1986).

4. Cone harvesting techniques Chilgoza pine nuts are harvested unsustainably in many areas within its range (Akbar et al., 2014; Poynton, 1977). Local villagers or outside contractors try their best to collect every single cone

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from trees. Cone collectors do not consider natural regeneration during harvesting season and do not leave cones on the crowns for seed dispersal. Often times heavy cone collection is associated with cutting and beating of branches leading to crown and bark injuries (Kuhn et al., 2006; Said, 1959).

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Figure 7. a) Damaged branch from cone collection; and, b) branch cut for firewood in Paktia province.

4.1 Cone removal equipment In Afghanistan, cones of chilgoza pine are commonly collected with a sharp hook attached to the end of a long stick (Figure 8a, b & c) and in some areas small axes are also used. Local villagers and/or contractors use these hooks to detach cones from tree branches. Although these hooks ease cone collection, they can also be used to cut or break off the meristematic tips and ends of branches in order to down multiple cones. This type of incidental pruning can significantly impact seasonal growth patterns and affect the natural growth habit of the tree. The long-term effects of this type of harvesting on lifetime cone productivity is not well understood.

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Figure 8. (a) Traditional chilgoza pine cone removal hook used in Khost province, (b) hook attached to pole; and, (c) cone collection with hook in Paktika province. There is other equipment that may increase time efficiency and reduce damages to branches during cone collection. Pole pruners (Figure 9a, b & c) are designed to prune upper branches of trees. These can be used to prune pine cones from branches instead of breaking branches with common hooks. With this equipment cones can be pruned and detached from branches easily. Also, the efficiency of common hooks may be enhanced if another blade with a pulley is attached below the hook. Harvesting cones with pruners can decrease damages and injuries to the tree if used correctly, however they must be used with care as they are also capable of cutting off the tips and ends of branches. Modifications to traditional tree pruners have been suggested to reduce damage to trees. For example, it may be possible to sheath the cutting blades with a plastic cover or resin so that individual branches can be gripped and shaken to drop the cones as opposed to cutting.

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Figure 9. a) Pole pruner blades and pulley, b) pruner attached to pole; and, c) cone removal with pole pruner. Another tool that may have significant potential to reduce tree damage during harvesting is the tree tong (Figure 10a & b). This device attaches to the end of a long pole and plucks cones from the tree with a set of hands that are opened and closed by pulling on a cord attached to the tongs. Using the tree tong, no cutting or breaking of branches is incurred as individual cones are removed from the tree, or branches are shaken. While this tool has not been field tested in Afghanistan it is recommended that trial tests be conducted to determine its applicability compared with traditional methods. Climbing ladders can also reduce waste of time and enhance cone collection efficiency. If ladders are used carefully, cones of upper branches can be easily pruned without exerting any damage to the branches. Other protective equipment such as safety harnesses, ropes, gloves, helmets

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and goggles may also bring significant safety improvements for those climbing trees to collect cones.

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Figure 10. a) Tree tong with cord for opening and closing; and, b) tree tong being used to remove pine cone from branch.

4.2 Cone harvesting timing Cones of chilgoza pine reach maturity in September (Said, 1959) and should be collected before the outer scales open or loosen (Chandy, 2002). At the time of maturity, cones first turn to green and then to brown colors (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). Cone collection starts in September and continues for two months (Said, 1959). As the quality and price commanded for pine nuts are partially dependent upon harvesting cones at the correct stage of maturity, training harvesters on cone development and proprer harvesting time can increase value for villagers, traders and exporters. Additional research on optimum harvesting time is recommended.

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Figure 11. Heavy cone production by a chilgoza tree in Paktika Province.

4.3 Cone processing and seed extraction Once cones are collected, they are generally transported to the village in large jute or burlap sacks and piled together (Figure 12). After some time, cones are spread over the ground and exposed to the sun to air dry. Sun/air drying is the most common method of cone drying in Afghanistan, however use of fire or coals to aid in drying has been reported. In some areas, cones are piled on rooftops to dry naturally in the sun. In some areas villagers bury the cones in meter-deep pits for some time and then move them to the open-air for drying. Alternatively, some people store the cones inside a room and then expose them to the sun for drying. They believe that cones stored in soil and/or shade for some time will cause resin to ooze out and allow the scales to open more quickly in the sun. The drying process is completed between 2 –

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60 days by spreading the cones on dried ground exposed to air and sunlight (Khan & Khan, 1992; Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). This drying process is slow and depends on the climatic situation. On average it takes 15 days for cones to dry in open air (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974; Troup, 1921; Young & Young, 1992).

Figure 12. Cone piling after harvesting and transporting to nearby village. The modern, improved method of cone drying and nut extraction is through the use of cabinet driers, wherein the duration of time until seed extraction can be reduced and the quality of the nut is improved by reducing moisture content (Thakur et al., 2009, 2014). Cabinet driers expose the cones to a controlled amount of heat, while in traditional methods, cones are exposed to the sun or fire heat and the temperature is not controlled. Once dried, the scales of the cones open naturally and pine nuts are extracted by placing the cones in a sack and beating with a stick or over a hard surface (Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). During the

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extraction process, some seeds are damaged and wasted by striking and beating. Cones that do not open their scales after the drying process are cut open with shears or clippers.

5. Problems in natural regeneration Natural regeneration of chilgoza pine is affected by biotic and abiotic factors (Kumar et al., 2016). Chilgoza pine forests naturally regenerate via seed dispersal. Most of the time, seeds are dispersed around the mother tree. Rodents and birds also carry and disperse seeds. Seed production of chilgoza trees is not uniform every year (Malik & Shamet, 2008). Like other tree species, chilgoza pine cone production may vary between failure, light, medium, heavy or bumper crop years (Boyer, 1998). The major recognized threat to natural regeneration of chilgoza pine is human related activities. Over harvesting of cones is one of the greatest threats to natural regeneration (Ahmed, 2007; Kuhn et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2016; CAB International, 2000; Chandra & Khushdil, 1977; Harrison, 1951; Peltier & Dauffy, 2009; Sheikh, 1993; Said, 1959; Tandon, 1963; Singh et al., 1973; WCS, 2008; WWF-P, 2014). Even in good crop years often the vast majority of cones are collected from trees and nothing is left on the tree for seed dispersal. With lack of seed numbers, natural regeneration is suppressed while standing trees continue to age. Most older trees have crown diebacks, stump scars and their branches are highly damaged during cone collection (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010). In some areas of Paktia, natural chilgoza pine stands are converted into nut producing orchards and not treated as natural ecosystems (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010). Depending on site characteristics, disturbance history, environmental factors and forest management practices, natural regeneration of chilgoza pine varies from village to village. Overall in Afghanistan, natural regeneration of chilgoza pine is poor or fair. In wetter areas where livestock grazing and fuelwood collection are controlled, natural regeneration of chilgoza pine is acceptable. However, in most areas livestock grazing and fuelwood is not controlled and natural regeneration is poor (Figure 13a & b).

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Figure 13. a) Over-mature chilgoza tree in Khost Province; and, b) a degraded chilgoza pine forests in Paktia Province. Overgrazing is another factor that contributes to poor natural regeneration (Beeson, 1941; Kumar et al., 2016; Shegal & Sharma, 1989; Luna, 2006; Groninger & Ruffner, 2010; Peltier & Dauffy, 2009; Said, 1959; WWF-P, 2014). The small number of seedlings that do germinate and establish are often eaten by livestock. The worst case is goat browsing, where goats climb short twisted pine trees and consume leaves and branches, leaving nothing in the understory layer (Chauhan, 1986). Fuelwood collection also contributes to lower natural regeneration of chilgoza pine trees by reducing the number of cone bearing branches or disturbing nutrient transport by hacking out segments of trunk wood. Rarely are whole chilgoza removed due to the value of pine nuts. Research indicates that on undisturbed and inaccessible sites, natural regeneration of chilgoza pine is acceptable (Chandra & Khushdil, 1977; Malik et al., 2012). However, with human intervention, especially cone harvesting, natural regeneration is suppressed. There are other biotic and abiotic factors that lead to poor natural regeneration as well. Harsh climatic conditions and lower seed germination rates can also result in poor regeneration (Malik

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& Shamet, 2008; Malik et al., 2008) especially during dry periods when soils are shallow, sandy and the microclimate is not suitable for germination and seedling establishment (Singh et al., 1973). Generally, a chilgoza pine seedling requires two years to establish its taproot into soil. A dry spring and summer will inhibit seed germination and when germination does occur late, seedlings are not able to establish their tap root system (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009). Other factors such as drought, irregular seed year, low soil fertility, intense sun heat and soil erosion might affect natural regeneration (Kumar et al., 2016). Furthermore, both in natural settings and seed orchards the impact of seed and cone insects plays a key role in overall seed production rates. It is thought that the irregular and cyclic patterns of cone production in many pine species may have coevolved to some degree with insect pressures (Boyer, 1998; Coulson & Witter, 1984). Insects and diseases may contribute to lower and poor regeneration (Beeson, 1941; Shegal & Sharma, 1989; Luna, 2006), however, insect pressure may also increase production rates by reducing the number of reproductive structures allowing the tree to conserve and concentrate limited resources later in the reproductive cycle (Coulson & Witter, 1984). Cone borer, cone worm, grote, cedar cone moth, bark beetle, fungal disease and parasitic plants are major pests and diseases that directly or indirectly affect natural regeneration (Akbar et al., 2014; Chandy, 2002; Chaudhry & Badshah, 1984; Sheikh, 1993; Shegal & Sharma, 1989; Beeson, 1941; Said, 1959). There are also birds, rodents and reptile species that consume nuts of pine and contribute to lower natural regeneration (Singh & Gupta, 1989; WWF-P, 2014). With regard to climate change, historic trends in Afghanistan have demonstrated increasing temperatures, and future projections indicate further warming relatively uniformly across the country. Precipitation has decreased slightly and projections indicate a continued decrease in annual precipitation, notably occurring in March, April and May (UNDP, 2012). While direct causal effects between climate change and chilgoza pine forest decline has not been linked in any literature reviewed as part of this research, it is possible that increasingly dry springtime weather will negatively effect seed germination and natural regeneration, particularly in years with low winter snowfall when soil moisture levels are abnormaly low.

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Figure 14. a) Naturally regenerated chilgoza pine seedlings; and, b) saplings in understory of forest stands in Paktika and Khost Provinces.

6. Local practices and beliefs regarding chilgoza In the effort to foster change in chilgoza forest management practices it is critical to understand the beliefs and attitudes of the local affected populations in advance of an intervention. In order to better understand local practices and beliefs a series of interviews and surveys was conducted with individuals involved in various aspects of the pine nut market, including harvesters, traders, forestry officers and others from across all eight pine nut provinces of Afghanistan. In the pine nut region of Afghanistan most forests are managed by individual villages or tribal shuras. In the northern range of the chilgoza (Nangarhar, Laghman, Nuristan, Kunar and Kapisa) it is more common for villagers to harvest the pine nuts themselves while in the southern range (Paktia, Paktika and Khost) it is more common for villagers to contract pine nut harvesting duties to outside contractors. In some cases villagers share responsibilities with contractors or

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harvesting duties change from year to year. In most cases villagers sell their pine nuts (unshelled) to local traders and the particular trader that is sold to can vary from year to year.

6.1 Perceptions on chilgoza forest health The majority of local villagers in the chilgoza pine region do not have knowledge about the threatened status of chilgoza pine trees, however over half of villagers surveyed as part of this research thought that their pine forests were degraded or in decline. They believe that the reason for this decline is due to human activities such as cone collection, tree damage during cone harvesting, grazing, fuelwood collection and other biotic / abiotic factors (insects, diseases and drought). It should be noted that the majority of villages and communities reported that they also collect fuelwood and graze their livestock in chilgoza forest stands. When asked to rate the level of natural regeneration occurring in the forests that they manage, village survey participants were given a 5-point graded scale consisting of (1) no regeneration, (2) poor, (3) fair/medium, (4) good, or (5) very good. 96.4% of villagers responded that regeneration was poor or fair/medium, while the remaining 3.6% responded that no regeneration was occurring. The survey data also indicated that villages that allow grazing and fuelwood collection in their pine forests also reported the lowest levels of regeneration, while in villages that prohibit grazing and fuelwood collection reported the greatest regeneration. These results are indicative of the knowledge of local villagers on the health of their chilgoza forests. However, few of the villagers surveyed reported that they have rules on the amount of cones that may be collected. Unfortunately, these villagers seem to be aware that severe cone collection in association with uncontrolled grazing and trampling lead their forest stands to gradual decline, however they do not appear to have the knowledge or skills to change the situation. The following section provides techniques in sustainable harvesting that support natural regeneration of the chilgoza forests. Nevertheless, these techniques and strategies will be fruitless unless informed parties conduct outreach and education with local communities.

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7. Natural regeneration strategies and sustainable harvesting techniques 7.1 Rationale for sustainable harvesting Chilgoza pine is listed as a Near Threatened species across its range. Based on research, it appears that the majority of chilgoza forest stands in Afghanistan are not in good condition. Although chilgoza tree logging is not allowed by local communities, standing trees get older and natural regeneration is mostly poor. Over exploitation of pine cones is believed to be the leading factor in poor natural regeneration in chilgoza stands. Since chilgoza pine nuts are the most important NWFP for local communities, a sustainable pine cone harvesting plan is required as part of a community based natural resource management plan. With the use of a sustainable harvesting plan, both local communities and forest stands benefit in the long-term. This sustainable harvesting plan proposes several different harvesting and forest management techniques that are aimed at maintaining the financial benefit that communities receive from the sale of pine nuts while simultaneously enhancing natural regeneration and forest health. Although not scientifically tested in Afghanistan, the following cone harvesting techniques do represent generally accepted forestry management practices and should act as an immediate measure that can be implemented by communities that are interested in preserving their pine forests for future generations. With these methods, local communities can harvest pine nuts in a more sustainable manner allowing forest stands to naturally regenerate. Ultimately each village should be presented with all of these techniques so that they can provide input and become integral in the planning, protection, harvesting and monitoring of their forests. Since the research surveys have clarified that communities in the EFC consider the forests their property, successful forest management is only likely to be successful if these communities are the primary decision-makers in any new harvesting strategy. This is the essence of community based natural resource managment.

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7.2 Rotational cone harvesting The objective of rotational harvesting is to assist natural regeneration of chilgoza pine forest stands via rotating cone harvesting and other human activities such as grazing and fuelwood collection in patches of lands within a time scale. This will allow untouched stands to release the full bounty of seeds and naturally regenerate the understory layer in a protected forest patch.

7.2.1 Stand selection (size and location) Under this technique, each village or community that owns and manages a chilgoza forest is responsible to protect at least one chilgoza patch (stand) within their forest. Within the selected forest stand(s), cone collection and other human activities should be banned for a given time period. Based on how large the chilgoza forest is, villagers can designate one stand or more of forest for protection every year or every 5 years. If the forest area is relatively large, it is better to designate a patch of forest every year. Otherwise in the case of small total forest areas at least two patches of forest should be designated for protection every five years. Regardless of

the total forest size, the area of each protected stand should be between 2 to 5 hectares or 10 to 25 jeribs (20,000 – 50,000 m2). The average chilgoza tree density in chilgoza dominated stands is 445 trees/ha. However, in mixed stands and degraded forests, the number of chilgoza trees per hectare is lower. In this case it is better to delineate and protect 5 hectares of forest stand in order to increase seed dispersal and enhance regeneration. The shape of the protected forest patch can be circular, rectangular, square or amorphous. The boundaries of a protected forest patch can be marked with ribbons, signage, or by painting the bark of trees on the bordering edges of the patch.

7.2.2 Rotational cycle At least three years is required for each rotation cycle. However, since cone production fluctuates every year, five years of rotation cycle is recommended. During these years, cone collection, fuelwood collection and grazing is not allowed within the protected forest patch so that trees have the opportunity to release seeds and naturally regenerate the stand (Figure 15).

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Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

Seed dispersal

Germination and seedling establishment

Growth and survival

Rapid growth and dominance

Growth and sapling stage

First three years of protection are important and critical for natural regeneration.

Success rate will be higher if we allow protection two more years.

Figure15. Mechanism of natural regeneration within the protected forest stand during five year time scale. Variant A: If areas of forest are designated for protection every year, then the rotation cycle will appear as in Figure 16. In this variant, every year a new patch of forest area is designated for protection and is not exploited by humans until the completion of the 5-year rotation cycle. The advantage of this variant from a conservation point of view is that it maximizes natural regeneration of large scale areas of the foreset. However, it minimizes yield and income of local villagers.

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Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Protect 2016

Harvest 2016


Harvest 2017


Harvest 2018


Harvest 2019


Harvest 2020

Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Harvest 2021 Protect 2021 Harvest 2021

Figure 16. Enhancing natural regeneration via designation and protection of forest patches every year. Variant B: If the total forest area is relatively small, then one or two forest stands can be designated for protection for a 5-year period. After 5 years then cone harvesting is allowed and two different locations are designated for protection as shown in Figure 17. This variant may be good for local communities that rely heavily on the forest for annual income.

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Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Protect 2016Protect 2016Harvest 2016-2020 Harvest 2016-2020 Harvest 2016-2020 2020 2020


Protect 20212025

Harvest 2021-2025

Harvest 2021-2025

Figure 17. Enhancing natural regeneration via designation and protection of two forest patches every five years.

7.2.3 Protection and monitoring of human activities In order for rotational harvesting to be effective, villagers and community members are obliged not to intervene in protected stands until the rotation cycle ends. Within the protected forest patches, grazing should not be allowed until the rotation cycle is completed. However, based on the decision of the community, livestock can be allowed to graze in non-protected areas of forest. Fuelwood collection should also be prohibited within the protected stands. Although newly regenerated seedlings are not of interest for fuelwood, during fuelwood collection there are chances of seedling trampling. Thus, it is recommended not to collect firewood from protected forest patches. Villagers may collect fuelwood from non-protected sites, however this practice is not recommended if it can be avoided. In order to monitor human activities, forestry association members or tribal shuras should assign individuals (forest guards) for each protected stand of the forest. In case of violations, individuals may be fined if they deliberately harvest cones, graze livestock or collect fuelwood from protected stands.

7.3 Individual tree protection The objective of the individual tree protection method is to assist natural regeneration by not harvesting cones from a certain number of trees in the entire forest area. This will allow the protected trees to disperse seeds onto the ground and naturally regenerate the forest. The advantage of this method is that a number of trees throughout the forest are able to disperse

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seeds and create new cohorts. However, since both harvesting and regeneration occur every year in each stand, regeneration and survival rate of seedlings may be challenged by human activities.

7.3.1 Seed releasing tree selection In order to enhance success of natural regeneration, healthy mature cone bearing trees should be selected. The trees must be selected in different parts of each forest stand. Each protected seed releasing tree should be marked with a ribbon, paint or signage indicating that it has been selected for non-harvesting. Cones of protected trees should not be collected for at least two consecutive years. During these years, trees release seeds and naturally regenerate around mother trees as shown in Figure 18. After completion of the protection period, these trees can be harvested and other trees must be chosen as protected seed producing trees.

7.3.2 Number of trees protected for seed dispersal The number of protected seed producing trees chosen for each 2-year period depends on the stand density. Tree density in chilgoza dominated stands is 445 individuals per hectare and is lower than that in mixed or degraded stands. Thus, it is recommended that at least 20% of the stand density should be designated for acceptable natural regeneration. For instance, if a stand contains 300 trees, then 60 trees should be protected and the rest can be harvested for pine nuts. The protected seed producing trees should be well scattered around the stand.

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Figure 18. Mechanism of natural regeneration of chilgoza pine using individual tree protection method.

7.3.3 Protection and monitoring Protected tree should be marked or painted, so harvesters would know not to collect cones from these trees. Fuelwood collection, grazing and other activities must be prohibited in an area surrounding the protected trees crowns. Community members or shura members must monitor protected trees, especially during harvesting season. After germination, newly regenerated seedlings must be protected from grazing, browsing and trampling until seedlings become viable saplings.

7.4 Partial cone harvesting The objective of this method is to assist natural regeneration by leaving a certain number of cones on each tree of a given stand or within the entire forest. The advantage of this method is that it will allow all trees to take part in natural regeneration by dispersing seeds from the remaining cones. An additional advantage of this method is that the genetic diversity would be greater among all the new cohorts. The disadvantage of this system is that since villagers are harvesting cones from the stand every year, there is a higher chance of seedling trampling, as well as grazing and browsing if animals are allowed into the forest.

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7.4.1 Number of cones to be left Under this technique it is recommended that at least 20% of cones be left on each tree crown. It is recommended that cones on the upper branches are better to leave unharvested than those on the lower branches since they are unreachable and difficult to harvest. Likewise, trees can more easily be damaged when such cones are harvested from upper branches. Once seeds are dispersed, the stand should be managed to minimize grazing and trampling of seedlings for at least 2 years to create successful new cohorts. In the autumn of year-1, seeds are released, in the following spring they germinate and from spring of year-2 to fall of year-3, the seedling will have two growing seasons to grow and establish.

Figure 19. Amount of cones to be left at upper crown for seed dispersal.

7.5 Integrated harvesting An integration of the above alternatives can also be implemented to enhance natural regeneration. For instance, variant B of rotational harvesting can be applied in one spot of the forest and at the same time scattered individual trees are protected in the rest of the forest area. Application of two or more strategies may be successful, however it may minimize yield and revenue of local villagers. Likewise, it might make forest management somewhat more complicated.

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7.6 Other strategies The above alternatives mainly focus on sustainable harvesting of pine cones in order to improve natural regeneration in chilgoza forest stands. Along with sustainable use, other strategies such as declaration of lands as protected or preserved sites, nursery establishment and reforestation projects, and raising awareness through outreach campaigns (media, newspaper, radio etc.) may also be effective. Raising awareness may be one of the most important factors to play a role in chilgoza pine conservation and sustainable use. Both experts and local villagers suggest this component as part of conservation activities in the future. Establishment of nurseries and out-planting projects (artificial regeneration) along with natural regeneration is important too. There are highly degraded forest stands (very few scattered trees) where natural regeneration may not be successful. Also, in some areas chilgoza pine might have completely disappeared and thus it is important to establish chilgoza pine nurseries and out-plant seedlings in such areas.

8. Artificial regeneration Besides natural regeneration, direct seeding and/or outplanting seedlings can be used to regenerate chilgoza stands artificially (CAB International, 2002). Planting seedlings generally produces better results than seed broadcasting.

8.1 Nursery considerations Seedlings can be produced either in containers or with bareroot methods, however containerized seedlings give better results than bareroot stocks (Chandy, 2002). Container seedlings can be produced in polyethylene bags or modified plastic beverage bottles (Khurram, 2015) using mixtures of compost, sand and soil as growing media (Chandy, 2002). The growing media with a mixture of 50% sand, 25% compost and 25% native top soil may give better results (Shalizi, 2015).

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Figure 20. Containerized chilgoza pine seedlings. Seedling quality is important for better field survival. Seeding quality and site survival can be improved by using drought hardy genotypes, fertilizers and drought conditioning in the nursery. It is better to collect seeds from healthy trees in order to propagate naturally improved individuals. One of the issues with propagation of chilgoza pine through seeds is low seed viability (Chandy, 2002). Seed source and storage can also affect germination percentage (Negi et al., 2006). Thus, right after collection, seeds need to be stored in cool, dry conditions and sown in April of the o

following year (Chandy, 2002). Storage of seeds in earthen pots or canvas bags at 0 ± 1 C is beneficial (Malik et al., 2013). Not only vigor, but germination of chilgoza seeds is low as well (Alam, 2011; Dalhmore & Jackson, 1974; Troup, 1921). Fresh seeds of chilgoza pine do not need stratification and simply germinate, however stored seeds require stratification (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). o

Germination of chilgoza seeds can be improved using a 60-day stratification period at 4 C temperature (Singh et al. 2009). Once seeds germinate, seedlings have to be regularly irrigated and fertilized in the first growing period. In the second and/or third growing periods, seedlings should be conditioned with

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induced drought and lower nutrient levels so they can be ready to withstand site stresses. Seedlings are kept in the nursery 3 – 4 years until they reach a height of 25 – 30 cm (Chandy, 2002).

8.2 Outplanting The newly planted seedlings are often exposed to different environmental stresses such as drought, intense sunlight, extreme temperatures and biotic agents. Thus, it is important to create a better microsite for newly planted seedlings in order to enhance survival rates. If possible, first outplanted growing season irrigation is important for seedling establishment. Likewise, artificial shade and mulch can also increase survival chances onsite. Likewise, seedlings need to be protected from livestock grazing and other human related interference until their crowns occupy mid story level in the forest stand. Irrigation is often an unfeasible component of outplanting projects in drylands. It is better to improve drought hardy genotypes as opposed to using regular seed material of unknown genotypes. However, currently it is time consuming and costly to improve drought hardy families. Most of the time newly planted seedlings are under soil moisture stress and demand a minimum amount of water for survival. Thus, inevitably seedlings need to be watered at least for one growing season and chances of survival can increase if irrigation is extended for several years.

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Figure / Photograph References Figure 1: Baitullah Figure 2: a) http://www.pinetum.org/cones/PNgerardiana.jpg, b) https://www.flickr.com/photos/ss154aa/5130947727/in/faves-35590821@N07/ Figure 3: Adapted from Troup, 1921 Figure 4: http://www.panoramio.com Figure 5: Dinagul Shafiqi Figure 6: Dinagul Shafiqi Figure 7: a&b) Safiullah Khurram Figure 8: a&b) Baitullah, c) Izattullah Figure 9: a&b) http://www.wesspur.com/pole-tools/pole-pruners.html, c) http://www.fs.fed.usrmhighelevationwhitepinesAboutphoto-tourcone-collect.htm Figure 10: a&b) Davies and Murray, 2006 Figure 11: Izattullah Figure 12: http://mintonsunday.livemint.com/news/the-chilgozas-laststand/2.5.105412650.html Figure 13: a) Baitullah, b) http://www.panoramio.com Figure 14: a&b) Baitullah Figure 19: Baitullah Figure 20: htt://www.ppermaculturenews.orgforumsindex.phpthreadscaliche-and-thegreenhouse.14504

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USAID/Afghanistan U.S. Embassy Cafe Compound Great Masood Road Kabul, Afghanistan Tel: 202.216.6288

ABADE Q Kabul Hotel Old Taimany Square, 40M Road  Kabul, Afghanistan Phone: +93 (0) 797 957 209 www.abade.org

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