List of Acronyms . ..... Appendix A: List of community members/village participants. ... Appendix C: List of representatives from participating GOs and NGOs .
Afghanistan Chilgoza Pine Forests Current status, anthropogenic pressure, trends in regeneration and management
Assistance in Building Afghanistan by Developing Enterprises (ABADE) Program Leader-with-Associate Cooperative Agreement No. EEM-A-00-04-00002-00 Associate Cooperative Agreement No. AID-306-LA-13-00001
Afghanistan Chilgoza Pine Forests:
Current status, anthropogenic pressure, trends in regeneration and management June 2016
Written by: Mohammad Nasir Shalizi, Safiullah Khurram, Ethan Myer & Abdullah Hurmat
Submitted by: Volunteers for Economic Growth Alliance (VEGA) 734 15th Street NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20005
This report is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.
Photographs: a) Chilgoza pine forests in Zazai Aryob District, Paktia Province (Photo: Dinagul Shafiqi). b) Chilgoza pine forests in Musakhel District of Khost Province (Photo: Baitullah). c) Mature chilgoza pine tree in Zazai Aryob District, Paktia Province (Photo: Dinagul Shafiqi). d) Dense chilgoza forest stand in Zazai Aryob District, Paktia Province (Photo: Dinagul Shafiqi). e) A damaged mature chilgoza tree in Musakhel District, Khost Province (Photo: Baitullah).
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Table of Contents Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... 4 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 7 List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ 8 List of Acronyms ........................................................................................................................... 9 Foreword ................................................................................................................................... 10 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 12 1.
2.
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Biology and botanical features ............................................................................................ 14
1.1
Taxonomy ....................................................................................................................... 14
1.2
Morphology and age ...................................................................................................... 14
1.3
Flowering and cone production ..................................................................................... 16
Ecology............................................................................................................................... 17
2.1
Range and distribution ................................................................................................... 17
2.2
Vegetation structure ...................................................................................................... 19
2.3
Growth and stand characteristics .................................................................................. 20
2.4
Soils and site quality ....................................................................................................... 22
Socio economic importance ................................................................................................ 22
3.1
Uses ................................................................................................................................ 22
3.2
Contribution to livelihoods............................................................................................. 23
3.3
Nut harvesting and processing ....................................................................................... 24
3.3.1 Nut collection ............................................................................................................. 24 3.3.2 Nut extraction............................................................................................................. 26 3.3.3 Nut storage ................................................................................................................. 28 3.4
Markets........................................................................................................................... 29
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Current status and conservation efforts .............................................................................. 32
4.1
Trends and major threats ............................................................................................... 32
4.2
Problems in natural regeneration .................................................................................. 34
4.3
Artificial regeneration efforts ......................................................................................... 37
4.3.1 Nursery and outplanting considerations .................................................................... 38 4.4 5
Management and conservation efforts ......................................................................... 39
Survey based assessment.................................................................................................... 42
5.1
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 42
5.2
Methods ......................................................................................................................... 42
5.3
Results ............................................................................................................................ 43
5.3.1 Chilgoza forest stand dynamics .................................................................................. 43 5.3.2 Importance of chilgoza pine to local communities .................................................... 46 5.3.3 Distribution and use of chilgoza forests by communities .......................................... 46 5.3.4 Cone collection, drying and nut extraction methods ................................................. 47 5.3.5 Sale of pine nuts and revenue distribution ................................................................ 51 5.3.6 Perception of status of chilgoza pine forests ............................................................. 54 5.3.7 Natural regeneration status ....................................................................................... 56 5.3.8 Conservation and restoration .................................................................................... 60 6. Natural regeneration strategies and sustainable harvesting techniques ................................... 65
6.1 Rationale for sustainable harvesting .................................................................................... 65 6.2 Rotational cone harvesting .................................................................................................. 66 6.2.1 Stand selection (size and location) ................................................................................ 66 6.2.2 Rotational cycle ............................................................................................................. 66 6.2.3 Protection and monitoring of human activities ............................................................ 68 6.3 Individual tree protection .................................................................................................... 68
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6.3.1 Seed releasing tree selection ........................................................................................ 69 6.3.2 Number of trees protected for seed dispersal .............................................................. 69 6.3.3 Protection and monitoring ............................................................................................ 70 6.4 Partial cone harvesting ......................................................................................................... 70 6.4.1 Number of cones to be left ........................................................................................... 70 6.5 Integrated harvesting ........................................................................................................... 71 6.6 Other strategies .................................................................................................................... 71 Literature Cited .......................................................................................................................... 73 Appendix A: List of community members/village participants...................................................... 89 Appendix B: Number of participants per district and province within chilgoza pine region ........... 91 Appendix C: List of representatives from participating GOs and NGOs ......................................... 92 Appendix D: Regeneration status versus livestock grazing statistics ............................................. 93 Appendix E: Regeneration status versus fuelwood collection statistics......................................... 94 Appendix F: Community member questionnaire.......................................................................... 95 Appendix G: GO/NGO questionnaire ..........................................................................................100
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List of Figures Figure 1. a) Opened female chilgoza cone; and, b) seeds under each cone scale. (Photo: http://www.pinetum.org/cones/PNgerardiana.jpg). ........................................................................................... 15 Figure 2. Map of chilgoza pine distribution in Afghanistan. (Adapted from Troup 1921). ............................................ 18 Figure 3. A chilgoza pine forest near Musa Khel, Khost Province. .......................................................................................... 19 Figure 4. Comparison of four edible pine nuts (Photo: Zonneveld 2011). ............................................................................ 25 Figure 5. Unshelled chilgoza pine nuts in wholesale market.................................................................................................... 31 Figure 6. A degraded chilgoza pine forests in Paktia Province. ............................................................................................... 33 Figure 7. Mature chilgoza tree circumference measurement (Photo: Dinagul Shafiqi).................................................. 43 Figure 8. A chilgoza pine forest in Zazai Aryob district of Paktia Province (Photo: Dinagul Shafiqi).......................... 44 Figure 9. Ownership of chilgoza pine forests of Afghanistan. .................................................................................................. 47 Figure 10. a) Harvest of chilgoza pine nuts by local villagers / contractors and, b) percentage by region. ............ 47 Figure 11. a) Chilgoza pine cone removal hook, b) hook attached to pole and, c) cone collection with hook (Photo: Baitullah and Izatullah).................................................................................................................................... 48 Figure 12. a) Pole pruner blades and pulley, b) pruner attached to pole; and, c) cone removal with pole pruner. ............................................................................................................................... 49 Figure 13. a) Tree tong with cord for opening and closing; and, b) tree tong being used to remove pine cone from branch (Davies & Murray, 2006). ...................................................................................................................... 50 Figure 14. a) Percentage of pine nut buyers in local villages; and, b) distribution of revenue generated from chilgoza pine nuts among community members. ................................................................................................... 54 Figure 15. a) Conflict level; and, b) conflict resolution during chilgoza pine forest distribution among local communities. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 54 Figure 16. a) Knowledge of local villagers on threatened status of chilgoza pine; and, b) their perception of chilgoza pine forest degradation. ................................................................................................................................ 55 Figure 17. Threat factors to chilgoza forest degradation based on villagers’ perception. ............................................ 55 Figure 18. Naturally regenerated chilgoza pine seedlings and saplings in understory of forest stands (Photos: Baitullah). ............................................................................................................................................................................. 56 Figure 19. a) Perception of local villagers on natural regeneration occurrence of chilgoza pine; and, b) rate of natural regeneration in chilgoza pine forest stands. Fair = few number of scattered seedlings, Poor = very few number of scattered seedlings, No regen = zero number of seedlings. ........................................ 57 Figure 20. Mean natural regeneration rate of chilgoza pine among provinces based on villagers’ perception. 1 = no regeneration, 2 = poor regeneration, 3 = fair regeneration, 4 = good regeneration, and 5 = very good regeneration............................................................................................................................................................. 58 Figure 21. a) Percent of livestock grazing; and, b) fuel wood collection in chilgoza pine forest stands based on villager responses. ............................................................................................................................................................. 58 Figure 22. Effect of, a) livestock grazing and b) fuel wood collection on natural regeneration status of chilogza pine forests. Fair = few number of scattered seedlings, Poor = very few number of scattered seedlings, No regen = zero number of seedlings. Fisher's exact test of association was significant for both tests at α = 0.05. P – Value of a = 0.01; and, P – Value of b = 0.03. ...................................................... 59 Figure 23. Percent of village/tribe rules for management of chilgoza pine forests among local communities. .... 61 Figure 24. Mechanism of natural regeneration within the protected forest stand during five year time scale. ... 67 Figure 25. Enhancing natural regeneration via designation and protection of forest patches every year. ............. 67
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Figure 26. Enhancing natural regeneration via designation and protection of two forest patches every five years. .................................................................................................................................................................. 68 Figure 27. Mechanism of natural regeneration of chilgoza pine using individual tree protection method. ........... 69 Figure 28. Area of cones to be left at upper crown of tree. ...................................................................................................... 71
List of Tables Table 1. Effects of different cone drying methods on chilgoza pine cone and nut attributes (Adapted from: Thakur et al. 2009). ................................................................................................................................. 28 Table 2. Mean stand density (trees per hectare) and mean diameter at breast height (dbh) of largest chilgoza trees in chilgoza dominated forest stands surveyed in 17 plots, 6 districts and 4 provinces in the eastern and southeastern forests of Afghanistan................................................................................................ 45 Table 3. Cone collection equipment, methods of cone drying and seed extraction used in Afghanistan. ............ 51 Table 4. Mean, standard error (S.E.), minimum and maximum price (Pakistani rupees) of one kilogram unshelled pine nuts sold by local villagers to local traders. .................................................................................... 53 Table 5. Mean, standard error (S.E), minimum and maximum income (Pakistani rupees) gained per family from selling chilgoza pine nuts per year. ......................................................................................................... 53 Table 6. Mean number of naturally regenerated chilgoza pine, Cedrus deodara and Quercus baloot seedlings and saplings per hectare in chilgoza dominated forest stands surveyed in 17 plots, 6 districts and 4 provinces in the eastern and southeastern forests. ................................................................................ 60 Table 7. List of provinces and important forested districts of Eastern Forest Complex where MAIL implements forest programs. ..................................................................................................................................... 63 Table 8. Number of seedlings, stock type, number of seedlings out-planted and area of seed broadcasted (hectares) of chilgoza pine afforestation / reforestation projects accomplished by Department of Natural Resources and DAILs (MAIL) in six eastern and southeastern provinces. .................................. 64
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List of Acronyms ABADE
Assistance in Building Afghanistan by Developing Enterprises
ASL
Above Sea Level
CBNRM
Community Based Natural Resource Management
DAIL
Directorate of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock
DBH
Diameter at Breast Height
DNR
Department of Natural Resources
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization
FMA
Forest Management Association
GO
Governmental Organization
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
MAIL
Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock
NBSAP
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
NEESAP
National Environmental Education Strategic Action Plan
NEPA
National Environmental Protection Agency
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
NTFP
Non Timber Forest Product
NWFP
Non Wood Forest Product
UN
United Nations
UNDP
United Nations Development Program
UNEP
United Nations Environment Program
UNOSAT
United Nations Operational Satellite
USDA
United States Department of Agriculture
WCS
Wildlife Conservation Society
WWF-P
World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan
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Foreword The USAID Assistance in Building Afghanistan by Developing Enterprises (ABADE) Program works principally with the private sector to strengthen the productivity of enterprises for sustained growth and job creation. Over the course of the past four years, the ABADE program has systematically supported Afghan companies in developing expansion plans by providing the primary equipment needed in the business expansion, including technical support as well as overall business and financial management skills building. Recognizing that environmental sustainability is crucial for the long-term economic viability of these businesses ensures that efficient natural resource use and processes that limit environmental degradation can be incorporated into project planning. In order to advance Afghan ownership over the chilgoza pine nut trade the ABADE program has engaged with the private sector to improve processing and export of high-quality pine nut kernels from eastern Afghanistan while offering Afghan harvesters better market prices and providing leadership in protecting and sustaining this natural resource. In Afghanistan, the chilgoza pine is considered protected but harvestable, and the Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) and sponsoring organizations are implementing a 5-year Chilgoza Pine Forest Conservation and Restoration Plan (2013-2017). As part of ABADE’s engagement in this sector a sustainable harvesting training program was initiated to operate in concert with MAIL’s conservation and restoration plan. Because over-harvesting is recognized as a key threat to the chilgoza pine of Afghanistan’s Eastern Forest Complex, a critical component of project implementation involved providing the stakeholders with information on sustainable harvesting strategies. As little scientific research had been conducted on the fate of the chilgoza pine in Afghanistan, ABADE contracted two faculty from the Forestry and Natural Resources Department of Kabul University to conduct research and development of sustainable harvesting strategies that can be relayed to village-level harvesters in the chilgoza pine nut region. Their research, conducted between December 2015 – June 2016 included a scientific literature review, interviews and surveys with individuals actively conducting or familiar with harvesting practices, and field investigations inside existing pine forest stands. The
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results of this work have been used to generate this research findings report as well as a condensed sustainable use plan that will be disseminated for training and educational outreach. Analysis of community-level surveys conducted in the pine nut region revealed that many villagers recognize a decline in their pine forests and desire to remedy this trend, however sustainable harvesting practices are not currently being implemented. It is believed that current unsustainable harvesting methods, if not altered, will result in continued decline of existing chilgoza forest stands. The goal of this project is innovative; essentially it attempts to leverage the long-term interests of private sector partners and their ability to incentivize conservation practices with the key players (harvesters) in the survival of the species through a community based natural resource management approach. Most critically, the challenging effort to maintain the long-term productivity of Afghanistan's chilgoza pine forests will require champions from the public and private sector, universities, and government agencies to carry on the research and associated sustainable harvesting training and outreach conducted as part of this project.
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Introduction Chilgoza pine is an important forest tree species distributed in eastern and southeastern forests of Afghanistan. Besides various environmental services, this species plays an important role in the livelihood of communities living close to the forest. Pine nuts harvested from this tree are one of the major non-timber forest products of Afghanistan and are traded internationally. Unshelled pine nuts are highly valued in international markets, however local villagers receive less than 1000 Pakistani rupees per kilogram. The current status and trends in chilgoza pine forests have not been comprehensively studied in Afghanistan. There is a lack of information in several aspects such as ecology, biology, genetics, stand structure, soils, natural regeneration and market value chain. Thus, it is important to study these aspects in order to sustainably manage this valuable natural resource. Studying these aspects requires security, budget, expertise and time. The major challenge in the study of this species is insecurity in the eastern and southeastern provinces. Scientists are not able to adequately survey or perform measurements within the chilogza forest stands across their range. Based on available literature and assumptions, chilgoza pine forests are declining due to anthropogenic disturbances. In Afghanistan, chilgoza forests appear to be degraded due to severe cone collection followed by livestock grazing/browsing and fuel wood collection. These factors challenge natural regeneration and result in gradual degradation of forest stands. Standing trees are getting old and over-mature, while the number of younger trees is lower in most chilgoza forest stands. Heavy cone collection does not allow trees to release enough seeds onto the forest floor to create new cohorts of chilgoza trees. Sometimes, unreachable cones are not harvested and seeds are released to the forest floor. These seeds germinate and establish in the understory level of the forest. Often, due to uncontrolled livestock grazing, newly established seedlings are consumed or trampled by goats and sheep. Also, saplings, poles and non-cone bearing trees are removed for firewood or used for axe and shovel handles. The USAID ABADE Program has commissioned research in order to further the understanding of several aspects of the chilgoza forests of Afghanistan. One focus of this study was to substantiate anecdotal reports on the levels of over harvesting and forest degradation occurring in Afghanistan.
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This was approached by conducting a comprehensive scientific literature review of chilgoza forests across their range and through interviews and surveys with those involved with the chilgoza pine in Afghanistan. Through these interviews and surveys an attempt was made to document current pine forest and seed harvesting management practices and to analyze local beliefs and attitudes about the status of chilgoza forests. Another focus of the research project was to make an initial attempt to explore the feasibility of conducting actual field-based research. Through contracting and training support surveyors able to access parts of this insecure region, basic site measurements, stand characteristic data and photo documentation was collected at numerous sites across the chilgoza range. With the aforementioned information at hand, an initial plan for sustainable harvesting to promote natural regeneration was generated. This report is divided into six chapters. Chapter one, two and three present information extracted from the scientific literature review dealing with biology, ecology and socio economic importance of the chilgoza pine in Afghanistan. Chapter four presents findings on the current trends and challenges to natural regeneration, and artificial regeneration strategies that have been proposed to mitigate forest degradation. Chapter five presents the objectives, methods and results of the qualitative and basic quantitative survey-based research conducted with those involved in chilgoza harvesting, sale and management as well as those organizations active in the forestry sector. Finally, chapter six provides recommendations for sustainable harvesting techniques that promote natural regeneration in light of the improved understanding on current management practices and the perceptions of those involved with the harvest and sale of chilgoza pine nuts in Afghanistan. These sustainable pine cone harvesting practices are reflective of the community based natural resource management approach that is recommended by the research team. These methods are devised to manage cone harvesting, grazing and fuel wood collection within chilgoza forest stands. Based on the nature of governance and socioeconomics in the communities surrounding and managing the chilgoza forests, a successful approach would allow for villagers to continue generating income from the sale of pine nuts while initiating naturally regenerative harvesting pratices that protect the long term health of the forests.
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1. Biology and botanical features 1.1 Taxonomy Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D.Don is one of the 110 pine species of the genus Pinus L. Based on its DNA studies, this species falls under subgenus Haploxylon (Strobus), section Parrya and subsection Gerardianae (Wang et al., 1993). Native to China, lacebark pine (Pinus bungeana Zucc. ex Endl.) is the closest relative pine species to P. gerardiana (Mirov, 1967; Wang et al., 1993). No varieties of P. gerardiana have been recognized (Khan & Khan, 1992), however genotypic differentiation may exist due to drift and selection based on environmental gradient and site variations. Within its range and in international markets, the species is called neoza or chilgoza and the valuable seeds produced by female cones are commonly referred to as pine nuts.
1.2 Morphology and age Chilgoza pines are medium sized trees in terms of height (Bhattacharrya et al., 1988). Different values for mean height have been reported, ranging from 5 – 27 m for mature trees (Alam, 2011; Bhattacharrya et al., 1988; Breckle et al., 2010; CAB International, 2002; Chandy, 2002; Critchfield & Little, 1966; Eckenwalder, 2009; Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974; Saeed & Thanos, 2006). Variation in height of this species is likely related to site quality and other environmental factors. Based on these studies an average height for chilgoza pine could be extrapolated at or around 18 m. Girth is influenced by numerous environmental factors and records of trees measuring 2.4-2.7 m and as high as 4.5 m have been recorded (Stebbing et al., 1906). More recently, diameter at breast height (dbh) has been reported in chilgoza stands ranging from a minimum of 0.3 m to a maximum of 1.3 m (Alam, 2011; Bhattacharrya et al., 1988; CAB International, 2002; Chandy, 2002; Critchfield & Little, 1966; Eckenwalder, 2009; Saeed & Thanos, 2006). An average mature chilgoza pine tree may reach 0.9 m dbh. Although Alam (2011) and Breckle et al. (2010) reported height and dbh for chilgoza pine trees of Afghanistan, no field measurements exist that report precise average height and dbh, dbh distributions, or variations across its range in Afghanistan. The crown of chilgoza pine trees varies depending on environmental conditions and may be deep, wide and open with long erect branches in open conditions or narrow and shallow with short
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horizontal branches forming a compact habit in dense forest (Farjon, 1984; Gupta & Sharma, 1975). Each fascicle contains three needles, 5 – 10 cm long (Alam, 2011; Eckenwalder, 2009; Mirov, 1967). Leaves fall and are replaced every other year (Singh et al., 2009). Bark of the chilgoza pine tree is glabrous and silvery grey in color (Gupta & Sharma, 1975) and is generally thin, scaly and produces flakes (peels off) as it becomes older (Alam, 2011; Eckenwalder, 2009; Gupta & Sharma, 1975). Like other conifer species, chilgoza trees produce male and female cones (strobili) separately. Male cones produced at lower branches are approximately 7.5 – 12 cm in length, yellowish brown in color (Eckenwalder, 2009) and function as pollen producing factories. The female cones produced at upper branches are elongated, ovoid shaped, grayish green in color while immature and develop thick brown scales at maturity (Alam, 2011; Gamble, 1902; Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). The scales of female cones are resinous and contain a hook-like spine outside the scale giving the cone a prickly shape (Alam, 2011; Eckenwalder, 2009). Female cone length ranges between 10 – 23 cm (Alam, 2011; Chandy, 2002; Eckenwalder, 2009; Kant et al., 2006; Khan & Khan, 1992; Kuhn et al., 2006; WCS, 2008), while its width ranges between 7.5 – 13 cm (Alam, 2011; Chandy, 2002; Khan & Khan, 1992; Kuhn et al., 2006). On average a mature chilgoza pine cone is roughly 16 cm long, 10 cm wide and weighs 427 g (Kant et al., 2006).
Figure 1. a) Opened female chilgoza cone; and, b) seeds under each cone scale. (Photo: http://www.pinetum.org/cones/PNgerardiana.jpg).
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Seeds of chilgoza pine are cylindrical in shape, attached to a 4 – 5 mm long wing (the wing is detached after the seed is released) and covered with a shell (Alam, 2011; Dalhmore & Jackson, 1974; Eckenwalder, 2009; Khan & Khan, 1992; Kuhn et al., 2006). Seeds range from 16 – 25 mm in length and 5 – 7 mm in width, weighing on average 0.3 g (Alam, 2011; Eckenwalder, 2009; Khan & Khan, 1992; Kuhn et al., 2006; Saeed & Thanos, 2006; WCS, 2008). The literature varies on observed number of seeds per cone with reported averages ranging from 30 seeds/cone (Chandy, 2002), 45 – 56 seeds/cone (Said, 1959) and 75 – 90 seeds/cone (Alam, 2011; Eckenwalder, 2009), while Kant et al. (2006) observed a maximum of 118 seeds/cone. The number of seeds per cone is a heritable trait of the chilgoza pine (Kant et al., 2006; Ranot & Sharma, 2015; Singh & Chaudhary, 1993) however environmental factors may also play a significant role in the observed variability between and within stands and regions. Total seed weight per cone is also variable and reportedly heritable (Kumar, 1986; Singh & Chaudhary, 1993), thus seed weight per cone should be considered as a priority when selecting high yielding genotypes (Kumar, 1986). Chilgoza pine trees can live for centuries. Ahmed et al. (2009) aged a chilgoza pine tree at 411 years and another at 288 years in Zhob District of Pakistan. Bhattacharrya et al. (1988) dated a chilgoza pine at 401 years old in India and in another study, Ahmed et al. (2011) aged a chilgoza pine tree 700 years old in northern Pakistan. The oldest chilgoza pine tree aged was 1086 years old from Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh, India, according to Yadav (2009).
1.3 Flowering and cone production Like other pines, chilgoza pine trees are monoecious, bearing male and female reproductive organs at different locations of the tree. Both female and male cones are produced in the spring between May – June (Chaudri, 1963). The tree relies on wind for springtime pollination (WCS, 2008). Female cones mature in the autumn (September – October) of the following year (Chandy, 2002; Chaudhri, 1963; Khan & Khan, 1992; Krugman & Jenkison, 1974). The seeds are released from cones in November, generally within 30 days following cone maturity (Krugman & Jenkison, 1974). Chilgoza pine trees begin bearing female cones between 25 – 30 years of age (Chandy, 2002). Cone production is related to age, height, diameter and environmental conditions. Troup (1921) observed increased cone production with increasing tree diameter.
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2. Ecology 2.1 Range and distribution Chilgoza pine forests grow on dry temperate rocky sites (Ahmed & Sarangzai, 1992; Critchfield & Little, 1966). The species is found in scattered groups, mainly distributed between 30o to 37o N latitude and 66o to 80o E longitude (Malik et al., 2012). Based on phytogeographical classification, this species falls under Northern Baluchistan and Western Himalayan Provinces (Mossadegh, 2005). It is native to dry temperate forests of the Hindukush – Himalayan region which includes eastern and southeastern Afghanistan, northern and northwestern Pakistan, northwestern India and Tibet, and Xizhang Province of China (Critchfield & Little, 1966; CAB International, 2002; Dogra, 1964; Eckenwalder, 2009; Farjon, 1984; Farjon, 1998; Khan et al., 2015; Khan & Khan, 1992; Krugman & Jenkison, 1974; Malik et al., 2012; WWF-P, 2014). The range of elevation varies throughout its range and is broadly reported between 1800 – 3350 m above sea level (Critchfield & Little, 1966; CAB International, 2002; Dogra, 1964; Eckenwalder, 2009; Farjon, 1984; Farjon, 1998; Khan et al., 2015; Khan & Khan, 1992; Malik et al., 2012). In Pakistan, chilgoza pine is distributed on northern, western and eastern slopes within its range (Ahmed et al., 2006; Ahmed et al., 1991). Mixed and pure stands are found in the Sulaiman Mountains of Balouchistan, Kurram Valley, inner valleys in the districts of Dir, Swat, Chitral, Chilas, Daimer Ghorabad, Gilgit Baltistan, Waziristan and Indus-Kohistan between elevations of 1800 – 3350 m asl (Akbar et al., 2014; Chaudhri, 1963; Khan & Khan, 1992; Rafi, 1965; Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). The largest pure stands occur in the Sulaiman Mountain range, near Takht-i-Sulaiman peak (Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). The total area of chilgoza pine forest in Pakistan is estimated between 200 – 260 km2 (Saeed & Thanos, 2006; Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). In India, chilgoza pine is distributed in dry temperate zones of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh between 1600 – 3300 m asl (Dogra, 1964; Sehgal & Khosla, 1986; WWF-P, 2014). These forests are distributed in Kinnaur District of Himachal Pradesh between 31o 05’ 50” and 32o 05’ 15” N latitudes and between 77o 45’ 00” and 79o 00’ 35” E longitudes (Chib, 1984). In Himachal Pradesh, most of the chilgoza pine forests are located in Kinnaur District (2,040 ha) and a small
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area in Chamba District (Troup, 1921). Chilgoza pine with high productivity occur only in Kinnaur and Chamba districts of Himachal Pradesh (WWF-P, 2014).
Figure 2. Map of chilgoza pine distribution in Afghanistan. (Adapted from Troup 1921).
In Afghanistan, chilgoza pine is distributed in eastern and southeastern provinces. This region is classified as the Eastern Forest Complex and comes under Palearctic realm and Himalayan Highland Province (Sayer & Van der Zon, 1981). Scattered populations are distributed in Paktika, Paktia, Khost, Nangarhar, Kunar, Laghman, Logar, Nuristan and Kapisa Provinces (MAIL, 2012). Significant stands (mixed and pure) are found in Nuristan; Alisheng & Alingar Districts of Laghman; and, Khogyani, Hisarak, Pachiragam, Sherzad, Dara-i-Nur and Shinwar Districts of Nangarhar (Kuhn et al., 2006). In Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, Kapisa and Nangarhar, the chilgoza is distributed between 2100 – 3350 m asl (Farjon, 1984) and in Paktia and Paktika Provinces it is found between 1800 – 2300 m asl (Alam, 2011; Nedialkov, 1973). Chilgoza pine becomes dominant between 2100 – 2500 m asl (UNEP, 2008). The area of Chilgoza pine forests in Afghanistan has not been estimated due to lack of information (MAIL, 2012).
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Temperatures in chilgoza pine ecosystems range between a maximum 39o C to minimum -12o C (Lakhanpal & Kumar, 1996). These trees can tolerate cold winters and dry hot summers (Khan & Khan, 1992). Precipitation within the range of chilgoza pine is generally scanty; little is received during summer (July – September) from the monsoon effect and the rest is in winter by heavy snowfall (Akbar et al., 2014; MAIL, 2012). Across its entire range, precipitation varies between 375 – 750 mm (CAB International, 2002; Khan & Khan, 1992). Mean annual precipitation in the Eastern Forest Complex of Afghanistan varies as well. The highest amount of precipitation (1000 mm) is received in Nuristan and Kunar Provinces, while the lowest amount has been recorded in Paktika Province along the southernmost edge of the Eastern Forest Complex (MAIL, 2012).
Figure 3. A chilgoza pine forest near Musa Khel, Khost Province.
2.2 Vegetation structure Within its range of elevation, chilgoza pine trees create pure and mixed stands. Based on its characteristics and environmental gradient, chilgoza pine can be dominant, codominant or not very important in forest communities. Mixed stands of this tree are often seen in upper or lower elevations, or on dry rocky and less fertile sites. Disturbance ecology of this species has not been studied however since it is a low light and fertility demanding species, it may be expected to
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occupy sites after severe disturbances (i.e. clearcut logging). Also, little is known about its behavior to natural fires and other biotic and abiotic disturbances. Chilgoza pine is often mixed with other conifers and hardwoods species (Eckenwalder, 2009). At lower elevations, it is usually mixed with hardwood species such as Quercus ilex, Olea ferruginea, Pistacia khinjuk and Fraxinus xanthoxyliodes (Ahmed et al., 1991; Ahmed, 2007; 1963; Poynton, 1977; Khan & Khan, 1992; Richardson & Rundel, 2000). At upper elevations, it is mixed with Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Juniperus excelsa and other Juniperus spp, (Ahmed, 2007; Chaudhri, 1963; Poynton, 1977; Khan & Khan, 1992; Richardson & Rundel, 2000). In upper elevations, chilgoza pine is sometimes a codominant tree mixed with dominant C. deodara (Ahmed et al., 2009). In mid elevations, it is found in pure and/or mixed stands. In the Takht-i-Sulaiman area, pure stands of chilgoza pine occur between 2000 – 2700 m asl (Ahmed et al., 2006). Akbar et al. (2014) found chilgoza pine trees as dominant species in mid elevations in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. In Kinnaur District of India, chilgoza pine replaces Pinus roxburghii or C. deodara at mid elevations (Singh & Singh, 1995). Other perennials such as; Amygdalus spp, Cotoneaster spp, Caragana spp, Sophora griffithii, Berberis calliotorys, Faragaria nubicola, Lonicera coerulea, Rosa webbiana, Tanacetum artiemisioides and Thymus spp are found in the understory layer of these forests (Akbar et al., 2011; Alam, 2011; Breckle et al., 2010). Vegetation structure, stand dynamics, composition and health of chilgoza pine forests of Afghanistan have not been extensively studied (MAIL, 2012). Vegetation structure of chilgoza forests in Afghanistan may be similar to stands distributed in India and Pakistan however differences may exist in vegetation composition due to environmental gradient and biotic/abiotic disturbances.
2.3 Growth and stand characteristics Chilgoza pine is a shade intolerant tree species (CAB International, 2002; MAIL, 2012). Thus, it is rarely found in mixed stratified stands. Ahmed et al. (1991) observed pure un-stratified stands in Balouchistan, Pakistan. Chilgoza pine becomes dominant on sites where ecological characteristics meet its needs. Pure and mixed stands of chilgoza pine were observed in Balouchistan, Pakistan (Ahmed et al., 1991). Chilgoza pine trees in Chamba District of India were mostly dominant within
20
its natural boundaries. However, most of the trees observed were mature or over-mature (Kumar et al., 2013). Natural regeneration of chilgoza pine occurs by dispersal of seeds released from cones. Diameter distribution of chilgoza pine stands is studied by Ahmed et al. (2006); Akbar et al. (2014); Khan et al. (2015); and Kumar et al. (2013). They observed wide ranges in dbh distributions. Dbh distributions may vary from site to site as well. On most stands, larger dbh classes were observed frequently which may be due to lack of younger trees and low regeneration. Tree height and dbh growth of chilgoza pine vary from good sites to poor sites (Kant et al., 2006). Chilgoza pine is a slow growing species (Ahmed & Sarangzai, 1991) and growth of these trees is affected by rainfall fluctuations and soil moisture (Singh & Yadav, 2007). Chilgoza growth rates vary by tree and by age with seedlings showing the slowest radial growth (43 years/cm) in four stands studied in Balouchistan, Pakistan (Ahmad et al., 1991). Examination of 77 core samples collected in this study revealed an average radial growth rate (dbh) of 12.2 years/cm (Ahmad et al., 1991), while Ahmed & Sarangzai (1991, 1992) reported ranges between 13.2 – 16 years/cm. Growth rate is higher on cooler, moister slopes at high altitudes (Ahmed et al., 1991; Dogra, 1964). Vertical growth rates average 0.3 m in height per year (CAB International, 2002; Poynton, 1977). Natural stands of chilgoza pine are usually open canopy and are mostly uneven-aged (CAB International, 2002; Kuhn et al., 2006). Trees are usually scattered, indicative of lower density and basal area stands (Ahmed & Sarangzai, 1992). Tree density differs from stand to stand, usually affected by various environmental factors. In their study, Khan et al. (2015) observed chilgoza pine stand density between 57.5 – 128.4 trees/ha in Daimir District, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. In another forest community of Gilgit-Baltistan, Akbar et al. (2011) observed 41.4 trees/ha. In the Goharabad area of Gilgit-Baltisan, stand density ranged between 45 – 101 trees/ha. In forest communities where chilgoza pine was dominant, the highest stand density was 301 trees/ha (Ahmed et al., 2006). In Kinnaur District of India, chilgoza pine stand density varied between 24 – 934 trees/ha with a mean of 266 trees/ha (Kumar et al., 2013). Similar results were found by Ahmet et al. (1991) in Balouchistan, Pakistan. Based on these studies, stand density of chilgoza pine forests can be affected by site characteristics, anthropogenic influences and forest community type. Based on these numbers, an average stand density of a chilogza pine forest can
21
be extrapolated as 150 trees/ha. Like trees per hectare, basal area is reported differently as well. The lowest basal area was observed by Akbar et al. (2011) at 1.9 m2/ha while the highest basal area recorded was 25 m2/ha (Ahmed et al., 2006).
2.4 Soils and site quality Chilgoza pines grow on dry shallow soil and bare rocks with little rainfall but with heavy winter snowfall (Khan & Khan, 1992; Malik et al., 2012; Poynton, 1977; Singh et al., 2009). It needs little soil fertility and is able to grow on barren hillsides (CAB International, 2002). Based on its ability to grow on rocky soils, chilgoza pine is also called the ‘Champion of the Rocky Mountains’ (Kapoor et al., 2003). It likes well-drained sandy, loamy and clayey soils and can tolerate drought (WCS, 2008). Ahmed et al. (1991) observed sandy loam and silty loam soils in stands of chilgoza pine in Balouchistan, Pakistan. The pH of these soils ranged from 7.1 – 7.8. Soil texture and fertility is not correlated with growth and density of chilgoza pine (Ahmed et al., 1991). Thus, we see this tree on very poor rocky, shallow soils with low fertility. In such kind of soils, trees are small and twisted, while under more favorable conditions they are fairly tall and straight (Khan & Khan, 1992). The ability to grow on shallow rocky soils and its deep, large root system allow the tree to both create soil by breaking down rock through physical weathering while also improving soil stability by protecting soil particles from erosion with its roots (Kant et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2012 & 2013; MAIL, 2012; Sehgal & Khosla, 1986).
3
Socio economic importance
3.1 Uses In the genus Pinus L., 18 species of pine nuts are edible (Harrison, 1951). The most important pine nut producing species are; Pinus pinea, Pinus edulis, Pinus cembra, Pinus pumela, Pinus koraiensis and Pinus gerardiana (Harrison, 1951). Among them, P. gerardiana (chigloza pine), P. koraiensis (Korean pine) and P. pinea (pinyon pine) are important pine nuts produced and traded in large quantities (Kuhn et al., 2006). Chilgoza pine is the only edible pine species in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan (Gupta, 1945; Kumar & Hamal, 2009). Chilgoza pine nuts are an important NTFP in Afghanistan. Local villagers harvest and roast the nuts for their own use or sell them to local
22
markets (Alam, 2011). Nuts are usually harvested and processed (dried and extracted) by local people unsustainably (CAB International, 2002). Chilgoza pine nuts are traded worldwide and used raw, roasted or mixed with other ingredients (Sharma et al., 2013). The nuts of chilogza pine are a good source of unsaturated fatty acids with no cholesterol (Distaillats et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2009; Venkatachalam & Sathe, 2006). Chilgoza pine nuts are rich in carbohydrates, proteins and minerals as well (Malik et al., 2012; Troup, 1921). Each 100 grams of pine nuts contain 31 grams of protein (Kuhn et al., 2006). Also, fresh seeds contain 4.1% sugar, 52.1% oils and 24.4% moisture (Malik & Shamet, 2009). The tree bark, wood, leaves and cones are resinous and produce oleoresins (Malik et al., 2013; MAIL, 2012; WCS, 2008). Oleoresins can be obtained by tapping tree bark, however it is not produced in large quantities (WCS, 2008). These chemicals contain turpine oil and other substrates that are used for different purposes such as; cosmetics, waxes, traditional medicine, cooking oil, varnishes and pitch (MAIL, 2012; WCS, 2008). The wood of chilgoza pine is very resinous, sturdy, soft, even-textured and easy to saw (Anonymous). The sapwood is white to yellowish white, heartwood is reddish brown to dark brown, and the average wood density is 580 kg/m3 (Anonymous). The wood is of low timber importance and is not used widely (CAB International, 2002; Khan & Khan, 1992; MAIL, 2012). It is used for planking, house construction, doors and windows, rafters, ceiling and other joinery work (Anonymous). Wood of chilgoza pine is used as fuel wood by local people (CAB International, 2002; MAIL, 2012).
3.2 Contribution to livelihoods Chilgoza pine plays an important role in socio-economic development of rural communities living nearby chilgoza forests (Malik et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2013; WWF-P, 2014). In India, it is valued as an important social forestry tree species due to its significant contribution to the economy of local people (Thakur et al., 2014). Chilgoza pine forests not only provide pine nuts as an economic commodity, but also provide fuel wood, medicinal plants, pasture and shelter for livestock as well as wildlife habitat and other environmental services. Nuts of chilgoza pine are highly prized, collected and sold by local villagers (Eckenwalder, 2009). Empty cones are used as fuel wood
23
(Anonymous). Also wood is used as fuel wood in areas where no other tree species are found near villages (Anonymous). Sometimes its wood is used in construction at the domestic level as well (WCS, 2008). Chilgoza pine stands are usually controlled by local tribes within its range. In Afghanistan, tribes are controlled by tribe leaders. They are responsible to distribute forest stands between villages and village members (Kuhn et al., 2006). In some areas villagers harvest and process nuts in groups and then revenue is divided among families based on their contribution during collection and processing. While in other areas, each family is designated a patch of forest before harvesting and they collect, process and sell the nuts independently. In India, all community members participate in nut collection and harvesting. The income generated is then equally divided between households based on level of participation of individuals (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009). In areas where forests were divided into sections between households, the income distribution was unequal due to variation in cone production between forest patches (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009).
3.3 Nut harvesting and processing 3.3.1 Nut collection Cones of chilgoza pine reach maturity in September (Said, 1959) and they should be collected before the outer scales open or loosen (Chandy, 2002). At the time of maturity, cones first turn into green and then to brown colors (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). Cone collection starts in August and September and continues for two months (Anonymous; Said, 1959). Both collection and preliminary processing (extraction) continue until February of the following year (Kuhn et al., 2006). In some areas, local harvesters collect the cones too early or sometimes too late, which results in low quality nuts (Kuhn et al., 2006).
24
Figure 4. Comparison of four edible pine nuts (Photo: Zonneveld 2011).
Cones of pine trees can be collected by climbing the tree with rope or ladder, ground-based, and/or through use of a tree-tong (Murray, 2007). Ground-based or use of a ladder does not harm the tree during cone collection, however climbing the tree with a rope or free climbing may damage branches (Murray, 2007). In chilgoza pine forests, local people often harvest pine cones from tree branches using a sharp metal blade attached to the end of a long pole (Kuhn et al., 2006; Harrison, 1951; Said, 1959). Cones of lower branches are removed with the long pole from the ground, while cones of upper branches are removed by climbing the tree. During cone collection, the branches, crown and even bark of trees is damaged by collectors (Akbar et al., 2014; Lakhanpal & Kumar, 1996; Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). Severe damage during cone collection in Afghanistan is reported by Groninger (2012). Most of the time cone bearing branches are broken due to beating, pulling and cutting. Cone collection is a difficult process because chilgoza trees usually grow on steep rocky slopes and climbing trees is somewhat dangerous and time consuming (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009). In some areas local people lease chilgoza pine forest to private contractors during nut harvesting season (Singh
25
& Gupta, 1989). These private contractors bring their own equipment and labor to collect every single cone and do more harm and damage than local collectors (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009). Chilgoza trees yield varying quantities of cones and seeds based on age, crown size, phenology, site productivity and intrinsic annual variation. Trees with larger and broader crowns produce a higher number of cones than smaller ones (Khan & Khan, 1992). The average number of pine nuts per cone as well as yields and weights per tree varies in the literature reviewed. According to Said (1959), on average a cone can yield 45 – 56 seeds. 100 kg of cones can yield 15 – 22 kg of unshelled nuts (Anonymous) and one kilogram of pine nuts can contain 2400 – 2900 nuts (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974; Troup, 1921; Young & Young, 1992). In general, one tree of chilgoza pine yields 20 – 40 kg of unshelled pine nuts (FAO, Pakistan country report; Sabra & Walter, 2001; WCS, 2008), however Chandy (2002) reported that an adult chilgoza pine tree can yield 1.8 kg of shelled pine nuts, and according to Thakur et al. (2015) on average, every chilgoza tree produces 7.4 kg of nuts per year in Himachal Pradesh, India. The total area of chilgoza pine including plantations in India (Himachal Pradesh) was estimated at 2500 hectares and annual yield was about 150 – 180 tons per year (Tandon, 1963). The variability in reported productivity and yields may be indicative of stand or regional genotypic differences, environmental factors and/or the general health and relative age of the stands under study.
3.3.2 Nut extraction Once cones are collected from stands they are brought to villages and piled on the ground or on roof tops (Kuhn et al., 2006). Cones are dried immediately in order to prevent mold development that results in seed deterioration (Khan & Khan, 1992). The drying process is completed between 2 – 60 days by spreading the cones on dried ground exposed to air and sunlight (Khan & Khan, 1992; Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). This drying process is slow and depends on the climatic situation. On average it take 15 days for cones to dry in open air (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974; Troup, 1921; Young & Young, 1992). Usually, cones of chilgoza pine are dried in the open under sunlight. While, in some areas collected cones are piled in pits dug into the ground and left 12 – 14 days to open (Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). Also, some people dry cones in open air but do not expose them to sunlight (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009).
26
Under traditional drying procedures, it takes about 20 days for the cones to open (Kuhn et al., 2006). Some harvesters heat the cones with fire in order to accelerate scale opening and seed release (Harrison, 1951). Once cones are heated and dried, scales completely or partially open and nuts are extracted manually (Kuhn et al., 2006). Usually nuts are extracted by beating the cone with a stick or over a hard surface (Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). During the extraction process, some seeds are damaged and wasted by striking and beating. In India, a sharp edged saw is used to cut the cones for nut extraction, which damage the seeds as well (Thakur et al., 2009). In some regions, local traders buy the cones from villagers and take care of manual processing (Kuhn et al., 2006). After seed extraction, nuts are roasted in their shell in order to improve flavor and shelf life (Kuhn et al., 2006; Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). Roasting in Afghanistan is done manually using gas or wood as a heating source, while in Pakistan it is done with sophisticated machinery (Kuhn et al., 2006). In domestic markets nuts are sold with shells and deshelling is usually done by hand (Kuhn et al., 2006). Based on scientific research, advanced methods of nut extraction have been introduced. The pinyon pine nuts in the US are extracted and deshelled using mechanized machinery (Harrison, 1951). Although expensive, use of a cabinet drier is one of the best methods of nut extraction, wherein the seeds are extracted quickly and the quality of the nut is improved by reducing moisture content (Thakur et al., 2009, 2014). Cabinet driers extract seeds by exposing the cones to a controlled amount of heat. While, in traditional methods, cones are exposed to sun or fire heat and the temperature is not controlled. Thakur et al. (2014 & 2009) observed quick cone opening at 55 - 60o C temperature in cabinet driers. Cabinet drying is considered the best drying mode based on time efficiency and consistency, however use of solar polyethylene drying tunnels may be suitable in achieving the required moisture content and significantly more resourceful and cost effective (Thakur et al., 2009 & 2012). Thakur et al. (2009) studied different cone extraction methods and a summary of these methods is given in Table 1.
27
Table 1. Effects of different cone drying methods on chilgoza pine cone and nut attributes (Adapted from: Thakur et al. 2009).
Cone opening (days)
Modes of temperature (Co)
Nut moisture (%)
1kg Nut extraction time (hours)
Glass, solar drier
19
52
17
2
Polyethylene tunnel drier
25
47
15
1.3
-
Sun
33
24
20
3
-
Shade
56
14
28
3.3
-
Putting in pit
90
10
45
7
Fungal spoilage
Burning of cones
-
-
22
1.45
Burnt/oil oozed out
Cabinet drier
7
60
10.6
1.15
-
Method
Defects Oil oozed out
3.3.3 Nut storage Chilgoza nuts can be stored, however factors such as microorganisms, metabolism of nuts, storage conditions, temperature, moisture, and gas composition can affect quality and durability of nuts (Cai et al., 2013). Seeds can become infested with different types of fungi especially during transportation and in normal open storage conditions (Singh & Gupta, 1989). The most common fungus that attacks pine nuts during storage is Penicellium citrinum (Yadav, 1992). An increase in oxygen and decrease in carbon dioxide during storage can enhance respiration of nut tissues and lead to the development of molds (Cai et al., 2013). Unshelled pine nuts are highly sensitive to lipid oxidation (Destaillats al., 2010). Higher oxidation in pine nuts indirectly leads to the formation of aliphatic aldehydes, ketones and alcohols (Bett & Boylston, 1992; Frankel, 2005). Oxidation can result in fungi development and change in nut color and taste (Gills & Resurreccion, 2000; Nepote et al., 2006). Fungus disinfections and nut quality can be enhanced using fungicides during processing (Sharma & Yadav, 1996). In order to prevent pine nut deterioration during storage (especially without shell), anti-oxidative coats are recommended. Also, with the use of edible coatings, pine nuts can be preserved from fungi attack and moisture content controlled (Nepote
28
et al., 2006; Quezada-Gallo, 2009; Haq et al., 2013). Gum Cordia can be used as a natural edible coating for chilgoza pine nuts during storage (Haq et al., 2013; Haq & Hasnain, 2012). Temperature during storage and moisture content of nuts are other factors that challenge chilgoza pine nut storage and durability. Under traditional processing and storage, chilgoza nuts have high moisture content which usually leads to mold development, and decreased quality. Generally, chilgoza pine nuts should be dried to a moisture content of 2-5 percent (Khan & Khan, 1992). Unshelled pine nuts can have longer shelf life if stored between -5o C to 2o C (Kuhn et al., 2006). Storage of pine nuts at a lower temperature (-3o C) and lower moisture content (13.3%) is very effective and decreases respiration rate during long-term storage (Cai et al., 2013). At this temperature and moisture content not only respiration of nuts is lowered, but development of molds are inhibited as well. The packaging method also affects nut quality and durability. Glass jars and aluminum laminate pouches work best for nut storage (Thakur et al., 2012). For long term and/or market storage, application of an edible coating, use of fungicides, reduction of moisture content, controlled storage temperature and humidity and air-tight (hermetic) packaging is utilized. However, for propagation purposes, normal ambient storage conditions can provide acceptable germination results (Singh, 1982; Singh et al., 1992; Bhardwaj & Gupta, 1998; Malik & Shamet, 2009). Malik (2007) reported that the viability of chilgoza pine seeds in fresh conditions was 95% with 25.4% moisture content and resulted in 85.3% mean germination. However, viability decreased to 92.5%, 90%, 80% and 64.2% after 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of storage, respectively, under room temperature.
3.4 Markets Among edible pine nut species, P. gerardiana, P. koraiensis and P. pinea are traded internationally (Distaillats et al., 2010). China, Pakistan, Russia, North Korea and Italy are the main producers of pine nuts (Anonymous). In Asia, pine nuts are harvested from two species of Korean pine (P. koraiensis) which has relatively higher commercial value and chilgoza pine (P. gerardiana) which has higher nutritional value. Due to its higher nutritional value and delicate taste, chilgoza pine nuts have a high demand in local, national and international markets (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009). Also
29
chilgoza nuts are the largest on average (15 – 25 mm long) among pine nuts (Khan & Khan, 1992). Physical and chemical characteristics of chilgoza nuts can differ from site to site and by tree attributes (Thakur et al., 2015). The seeds of this species are harvested and are an important export trade product in Afghanistan (Breckle et al.,,2010). WWF-P (2014) reported that revenue from pine nuts in Pakistan is more than the revenue generated from timber. The world pine nut production ranges between 20,000 – 25,000 metric tons per year (Anonymous). The market chain for chilgoza pine nuts has multiple steps. Generally, after nut extraction, local villagers sell their product in village or district markets. Also, there are dealers/traders that come into villages and buy the nuts directly from villagers. If the forest is contracted, then private sector actors take care of processing, cleaning and delivering to provincial markets. Both in district and provincial markets, the nuts are sold by traders within the country or exported to other countries. In Afghanistan, due to substandard processing, chilgoza nuts are exported to Pakistan, where the nuts are cleaned and/or deshelled with machinery and then sold at higher prices. Thus, the main market for Afghanistan’s chilgoza nuts is Pakistan. Per unit pricing for chilgoza nuts are reported differently. In India, chilgoza pine nut price has been increasing since 2007. One kilogram of unshelled pine nuts was priced at about 525 rupees in 2007, 500 rupees in 2009 and 825 rupees in 2015 in Indian markets (Malik et al., 2007; Malik et al., 2012; Malik & Shamet, 2009; Ranot & Sharma, 2015). In Pakistan, one kilogram of unshelled pine nuts is priced at 1200 rupees (Facebook page of Waziristan Farmers Association). A kilogram of shelled chilgoza nuts ranges from $20 – $35 USD (Anonymous). The production and pricing of chilgoza pine nuts differs between countries and from year to year. Pakistan is the largest chilgoza pine nut producer and exporter. In 2009, Pakistan was the largest pine nut producer (30%) in the world, and a major contribution to this was pine nuts of Afghanistan origin exported to Pakistan (Anonymous). The Afghan pine nut is commonly exported to China by Pakistani traders stamped as a product of Pakistan (Kuhn et al., 2006). Chilgoza pine production is insignificant in India. In 1981, India produced about 180 tons of chilgoza pine nut (Karwaskara, 1981).
30
Figure 5. Unshelled chilgoza pine nuts in wholesale market.
In Afghanistan, local harvesters collect an average of 180 kg of pine nuts (Kuhn et al., 2006). In 2006, about 5,000 metric tons of unshelled pine nuts were produced in eastern Afghanistan (Kuhn et al., 2006). The major market for Afghan pine nuts is Pakistan and local agents collect raw nuts and export or sell them to Pakistani traders (Kuhn et al., 2006). It is estimated that 75% of pine nuts produced in Afghanistan are directly sold to Pakistani traders (Kuhn et al., 2006). In Pakistan, the nuts are roasted, deshelled and then exported to other countries (Kuhn et al., 2006). Most of the time nuts are directly exported to Peshawar, Pakistan, while a small percentage are sold at local markets such as Jalalabad (Kuhn et al., 2006). In 2006, a kilogram of raw Afghan pine nuts sold by a local harvester was $2.87 USD, compared to prices of $3.58 by a local agent, $4.53 by large traders, $16 after being deshelled and roasted (international wholesale) and $30 in the international retail market (Kuhn et al., 2006). In Kabul markets, one kilogram of unshelled pine nuts was priced at $15 USD in 2008 (WCS, 2008). Wood of the chilgoza pine has been increasingly marketed and used for multiple purposes (Siddiqui et al., 1996). However, in Afghanistan its wood is not widely used for construction or other purposes. The major use of chilgoza pine wood is firewood. WCS (2008) reported that a small amount (17.4 m3) of chilgoza pine wood is sold as firewood in Kabul markets. Compared to oaks (Quercus baloot + Quercus dilatata = 18,293 m3), it is not a significant amount and indicates that this species is not under heavy pressure compared with other species. Also, based on WCS (2008) findings, only 0.6% of Kabul wood markets stocked chilgoza pine wood, which also indicates that this species is not a priority for timber. Chilgoza pine wood is cheaper than other conifer
31
species. A cubic meter of chilgoza wood was priced at $151 USD in Kabul markets in 2008 (WCS, 2008).
4
Current status and conservation efforts
4.1 Trends and major threats Chilgoza pine forests are at great risk of decline and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has classified the species as endangered (Dogra, 1964; Sehgal & Sharma, 1989). Currently, it is listed as a “near threatened” species by IUCN (Red Data Book, version 3.1) with a decreasing trend in the populations (Farjon, 2013). Mature trees are decreasing and fragmentation in populations is occurring (Farjon, 2013). Although logging of chilgoza pine trees for timber is not common in many places, there are reports that this tree is logged for timber in some parts of its range. In Balouchistan, Pakistan this tree has been logged for timber (Ahmed et al., 1991). Shengi et al. (1996) and the World Wildlife Federation office in Pakistan (WWF-P, 2014) also reported that trees have been removed for timber and fuel wood in Balouchistan. Fortunately, in Afghanistan this species is not thought to be commonly logged for timber (MAIL, 2012). The seeds of chilgoza pine are highly valuable and most of the stands are protected by local communities for nut production (Eckenwalder, 2009). While, UNEP/UNOSAT (2003) estimated severe deforestation in the EFC of Afghanistan, Delattre and Rahmani (2009) were inclined to propose that no large-scale deforestation in eastern forests has occurred. Based on available data sources the extent of deforestation cannot be quantitatively determined across the entire EFC, and anecdotal and presumptive reporting on deforestation issues is common. It is reported that forests close to communities and villages are under high human pressure in the eastern and southeastern region (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010). Oaks forests are under pressure from local people due to livelihood use, while conifer forests are cut and smuggled for timber (Bader et al., 2013). In Afghanistan, chilgoza pine forests are distributed in areas where people are very poor and their livelihood depends on natural resources. Chilgoza pine nuts are collected and sold by local communities for revenue (Akbar et al., 2014). Because of this it may be very rare that
32
people remove a entire chilgoza pine tree for timber. Also, since humans interact with this species frequently (especially during cone harvesting), many trees are crooked and twisted with injured stems. Thus, except for fuel wood they are not sold for timber due to low quality stem form. Humans have severely impacted the structure and composition of eastern coniferous forests of Afghanistan (NEPA, 2014). While deforestation of other conifer and hardwood species continues in these forests, chilgoza pine is protected for its valuable nuts. There are other threats that lead to chilgoza forest degradation. Most of these threats are human related activities in forest stands (MAIL, 2012). Chilgoza pine nuts are harvested unsustainably in many areas within its range (Akbar et al., 2014; Poynton, 1977). Overexploitation or severe cone collection does not allow stands to naturally regenerate their populations (Singh et al., 1973; Shegal & Sharma, 1989). Due to very poor regeneration, chilogza pine trees are aging with declining stand densities (MAIL, 2012). Heavy cone collection is often associated with cutting and beating of branches leading to crown injuries (Kuhn et al., 2006; Said, 1959). Uncontrolled livestock grazing is another factor that suppresses natural regeneration (Akbar et al., 2014; Beg & Khan, 1984; Ahmed, 1984 & 1988; Ahmed et al., 2009; Wahab et al., 2008; Siddiqui et al., 2009; Khan et al., 2010; Akbar et al., 2013; Hussain, 2013; WWF-P, 2014).
Figure 6. A degraded chilgoza pine forests in Paktia Province.
33
Fuel wood collection is common in chilgoza pine forests (Beg & Khan, 1984; Ahmed, 1984 & 1988; Ahmed et al., 2009; Wahab et al., 2008; Siddiqui et al., 2009; Khan et al., 2010; Akbar et al., 2013; Hussain, 2013; MAIL, 2012; Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). Lateral branches are often removed for fuel wood by local communities. This reduces the ability of trees to produce cones and indirectly contributes to poor regeneration. Also, younger trees that do not produce cones might be completely removed for firewood. Although very rare, natural and intended fire can also degrade chilgoza pine forest (Akbar et al., 2014; Beg & Khan, 1984; Ahmed, 1984 & 1988; Ahmed et al., 2009; Wahab et al., 2008; Siddiqui et al., 2009; Khan et al., 2010; Akbar et al., 2013; Hussain, 2013; WWF-P, 2014). For instance, chilgoza forest in Kunday Qaisa, Pakistan was burned during 1999 and many trees were damaged by this fire (Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). Drought, pests and diseases may also intensify chilgoza forest degradation (MAIL, 2102; Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). Poverty, increased population, insecurity, lack of management and weak government are indirect drivers of chilgoza pine forest degradation (MAIL, 2012; Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). Agriculture, aquaculture and livestock farming and ranching can be small threats to chilgoza forest degradation as well (Urooj & Jabeen, 2015). There also may be disconnections between populations via forest cover loss, which might result in higher inbreeding within a population. This might lead to higher degrees of relatedness and hence lower genetic diversities within populations. Chilgoza pine forest degradation can result in deforestation and other environmental problems. Loss of this valuable natural resource can impact livelihoods and can exacerbate soil erosion, landslides, flooding and loss of wildlife habitat (MAIL, 2012). Sustainable forest management is a key to chilgoza pine forest conservation and expansion (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010; Kumar et al., 2016).
4.2 Problems in natural regeneration Natural regeneration of chilgoza pine is affected by biotic and abiotic factors (Kumar et al., 2016). Chilgoza pine forests naturally regenerate via seed dispersal. Seed production of chilgoza trees is not uniform every year (Malik & Shamet, 2008) Like other pines, chilgoza seed production may loosely follow a multi-year pattern, but is also influenced by environmental factors that impact
34
the coincidence of mature female cone production and pollen density. Within a stand, years of high mature female cone production may or may not correlate with a year of high pollen production from male strobili as the environmental factors that influence these may be different (Boyer, 1998). In general, there is speculation over the intrinsic and environmental causes affecting pine cone production cycles as it relates to yearly seed production rates that may vary between failure, light, medium, heavy or bumper crop years (Boyer, 1998). Most of the time, seeds are dispersed around the mother tree. Rodents and birds also carry and disperse seeds. The Eurasian nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) that is found in the Himalayas (Vander Wall & Balda, 1977) might transport and disperse chilgoza pine seeds. Additionally, newly germinated seedlings are highly prone to desiccation, intense heat, frost and low soil moisture that can lead to lower survival (Ahmed et al., 1991; Kumar et al., 2013). Low seed vitality and germination percentage further result in low regeneration success (CAB International, 2002; Chaudhri, 1963; Malik & Shamet, 2008). The major threat to natural regeneration of chilgoza pine is human related activities. Over harvesting of cones is one of the major threats to natural regeneration (Ahmed, 2007; Kuhn et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2016; CAB International, 200; Chandra & Khushdil, 1977; Harrison, 1951; Peltier & Dauffy, 2009; Sheikh, 1993; Said, 1959; Tandon, 1963; Singh et al., 1973; WCS, 2008; WWF-P, 2014). Even in good crop years often the vast majority of cones are collected from trees and nothing is left on the tree for seed dispersal. With lack of seed numbers, natural regeneration is suppressed while standing trees continue to age. In Paktia province, Groninger and Ruffner (2010) observed over-mature chilgoza trees and most of them had crown diebacks and stump scars. Branches of trees were highly damaged during cone collection and no regeneration was observed (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010). In some areas of Paktia, natural chilgoza pine stands are converted into nut producing orchards and not treated as natural ecosystems (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010). Construction of roads in Pakistan has intensified cone collection, especially in remote areas (WWFP, 2014). Some communities lease the forest to private nut harvesting contractors. These contractors have no incentive to leave cones for natural regeneration and damage forest stands with their tools (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009; WWF-P, 2014).
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Overgrazing is another factor that contributes to poor natural regeneration (Beeson, 1941; Kumar et al., 2016; Shegal & Sharma, 1989; Luna, 2006; Groninger & Ruffner, 2010; Peltier & Dauffy, 2009; Said, 1959; WWF-P, 2014). The few number of seedlings that germinate and establish are often eaten by livestock. The worst case is goat browsing, where goats climb short twisted pine trees and consume leaves and branches, leaving nothing in the understory layer (Chauhan, 1986). Natural regeneration status of chilgoza pine has been studied in India and Pakistan. In undisturbed sites of Balouchistan, Pakistan and in Himachal Pradesh, India, natural regeneration of chilgoza pine was recorded as fair. (Ahmed et al., 1991; Kumar et al., 2014). On average, 494 newly regenerated seedlings per hectare was observed in chilgoza pine forest stands of Balouchistan (Ahmed et al., 1991). Said (1959) reported that protected forest of chilgoza pine near Takht-iSulaiman, Balouchistan, Pakistan had better regeneration with many young trees in stands. In another undisturbed area of Balouchistan, Ahmed et al. (2006) recorded decent natural regeneration of chilgoza pine both in pure and mixed stands. Studies indicate that on undisturbed and inaccessible sites, natural regeneration of chilgoza pine is acceptable (Chandra & Khushdil, 1977; Malik et al., 2012). However, with human intervention, especially cone harvesting, natural regeneration is suppressed. Poor natural regeneration of chilgoza pine was observed in disturbed chilgoza forest stands in India and Pakistan (Kumar et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2016; Malik et al., 2012; Richardson & Rundel, 2000; WWF-P, 2014). In Himachal Pradesh state of India, natural regeneration of chilgoza pine was poor with a success rate of 8.44 – 15.93% (Kumar et al., 2013 & 2016). Similar results of low regeneration (15%) were observed by Malik et al. (2012). These sites were severely disturbed by humans. There are other biotic and abiotic factors that lead to poor natural regeneration as well. Harsh climatic conditions and lower seed germination rate can also result in poor regeneration (Malik & Shamet, 2008; Malik et al., 2008) especially during dry periods when soils are shallow, sandy and the microclimate is not suitable for germination and seedling establishment (Singh et al., 1973). Generally, a chilgoza pine seedling requires two years to establish its taproot into soil. Dry spring and summer inhibits seed germination and when germination does occur late, seedlings are not able to establish their tap root system (Peltier & Dauffy, 2009). Other factors such as drought,
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irregular seed year, low soil fertility, intense sun heat and soil erosion might affect natural regeneration (Kumar et al., 2016). Furthermore, both in natural settings and seed orchards the impact of seed and cone insects plays a key role in overall seed production rates, and the irregular and cyclic patterns of cone production may have coevolved to some degree based on insect pressures (Boyer, 1998; Coulson & Witter, 1984). Insects and diseases may contribute to lower and poor regeneration (Beeson, 1941; Shegal & Sharma, 1989; Luna, 2006), however, insect pressure may also increase production rates by reducing the number of reproductive structures allowing the tree to conserve and concentrate limited resources later in the reproductive cycle (Coulson & Witter, 1984). Cone borer, cone worm, grote, cedar cone moth, bark beetle, fungal disease and parasitic plants are major pests and diseases that directly or indirectly affect natural regeneration (Akbar et al., 2014; Chandy, 2002; Chaudhry & Badshah, 1984; Sheikh, 1993; Shegal & Sharma, 1989; Beeson, 1941; Said, 1959). There are also birds, rodents and reptile species that consume nuts of pine and contribute to lower natural regeneration (Singh & Gupta, 1989; WWF-P, 2014). Based on phenological study of seed production, the entirety of effects imparted by insects feeding on all structures including buds, male strobili, female strobili (conelets and first-year cones) and seeds throughout the entire reproductive period affect seasonal seed production rates (Coulson & Witter, 1984).
4.3 Artificial regeneration efforts It is believed that severe biotic disturbances in chilgoza pine forests may lead to its extinction (Kumar, 1986; Shegal & Chauhan, 1989). One of the ways to attempt to conserve and expand this valuable species is to artificially regenerate the stands. Besides natural regeneration, direct sowing and/or planting seedlings can be used to regenerate chilgoza stands artificially (CAB International, 2002). In India, efforts in artificial regeneration of chilgoza pine stands were undertaken with seedling production and outplanting (Malik et al., 2009). Since 2001, the government of Afghanistan and other NGOs have implemented small-scale reforestation projects (Groninger, 2012). Factors such as insecurity, little interest in slow growing species and lack of planting stock availability (Groninger, 2012) are a few of the reasons that limit chilogza pine reforestation. However, the Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) has reportedly reforested 160 hectares of chilgoza pine in Paktika, Nangarhar, Kapisa, Laghman and Kunar
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provinces (MAIL, 2012). In most regions of Afghanistan afforestation/reforestation includes associated irrigation according to Groninger (2012). Both post-artificial regeneration and post-natural regeneration requires care and protection from grazing and other activities in the forest stand. Natural and artificial regeneration can be successful if adequate protection measures are enacted for at least a few years (FAO, 2015). Blay et al. (2004) pointed out that it can take 3 – 20 years for a forest to naturally regenerate using assisted natural regeneration strategies if no other interventions occur. Protection of newly regenerated forest stands can be very successful if livestock grazing of both sedentary and migratory herdsmen are controlled by local communities.
4.3.1 Nursery and outplanting considerations Planting seedlings generally produces better results than seed broadcasting. Seedlings can be produced either in containers or bareroot methods, however containerized seedlings give better results than bareroot stocks (Chandy, 2002). Seedlings are produced in polyethylene bags or modified plastic beverage bottles (Khurram, 2015) using mixtures of compost, sand and soil as growing media (Chandy, 2002). The growing media with a mixture of 50% sand, 25% compost and 25% native top soil may give better results (Shalizi, 2015). Seedlings are kept in the nursery 3 – 4 years until they reach a height of 25 – 30 cm (Chandy, 2002). Seedling quality is important for better field survival. Seeding quality and site survival can be improved by using drought hardy genotypes, fertilizers and drought conditioning in the nursery. Although not very common, other propagation methods such as layering (Chandra & Mahindru, 1976) and grafting can be applied in chilgoza pine as well (Singh, 1989, 1990 & 1992). One of the issues with propagation of chilgoza pine through seeds is low seed viability (Chandy, 2002). Seed source can also affect germination percentage (Negi et al., 2006). Thus, right after collection, seeds need to be stored in cool dry conditions and sown in April of the following year (Chandy, 2002). Storage of seeds in earthen pots or canvas bags at 0 ± 1 oC is beneficial (Malik et al., 2013). Not only vigor, but germination of chilgoza seeds is low as well (Alam, 2011; Dalhmore & Jackson, 1974; Troup, 1921). Fresh seeds of chilgoza pine do not need stratification and simply germinate, however stored seeds require stratification (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). Germination of chilgoza seeds can be improved using different stratification and scarification methods. Singh
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et al. (2009) observed the highest germination percentage and improved nursery growth for seeds receiving a 60-day stratification period at 4 oC temperature. Krugman and Jenkison (1974) suggest cold stratification (0.6 – 5oC) for 30 days. Banyal (2010) observed the highest germination percentage resulting from outdoor stratification (45 days at 19oC) and use of benzyl amino purine (BAP; 2000 ppm) as pre-sowing treatment. Germination of seeds can further be improved using 75 ppm gibberellic acid and 24 hours of soaking right before sowing (Kumar et al., 2014). The newly planted seedlings are often exposed to different environmental stresses such as drought, intense sunlight, extreme temperatures and biotic agents. Thus, it is important to create a better microsite for newly planted seedlings in order to enhance survival rates. If possible, first outplanted growing season irrigation is important for seedling establishment. Likewise, artificial shade and mulch can also increase survival chances onsite. Likewise, seedlings need to be protected from livestock grazing and other human related interference until their crowns occupy mid story level in the forest stand. Irrigation is often an unfeasible component of outplanting projects in drylands. It is better to improve drought hardy genotypes as opposed to using regular seed material of unknown genotypes. However, currently it is time consuming and costly to improve drought hardy families. Most of the time newly planted seedlings are under soil moisture stress and demand a minimum amount of water for survival. Thus, inevitably seedlings need to be watered at least for one growing season and chances of survival can increase if irrigation is extended for several years.
4.4 Management and conservation efforts According to FAO (2015), Afghanistan is an arid and semi-arid country. In drylands, the demand from local people on natural resources is higher than what ecosystems provide (FAO, 2015). Pine nuts are one of the important non-timber forest products (NTFPs) of Afghanistan forests (UN, 2012). It is not only pine nuts that are heavily over-harvested (Kuhn et al., 2006), but other resources such as firewood and medicinal plants. Additionally, livestock grazing is common in chilgoza forest stands of Afghanistan. The current condition of chilgoza forests has attracted attention of responsible authorities such as MAIL and the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA).
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Based on the Afghanistan Environment Law, people have the right to sustainably use natural resources (MAIL, 2012). Besides other renewable natural resources, forests of Afghanistan have to be protected and sustainably exploited by local communities (National water and natural resources program, Government of Afghanistan, 2012). The government of Afghanistan promotes community based natural resource management (CBNRM), implemented by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) within the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL, 2012). CBNRM is the key policy used by MAIL not only to protect, conserve, manage and expand forest cover, but also to enhance the livelihood of local communities by giving them the right of forest management (MAIL, 2012). With this approach natural regeneration can be enhanced by managing grazing and harvesting in chilgoza pine forest stands (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010). However, sufficient knowledge and skills are required by local people to sustainably manage and utilize natural forests (MAIL, 2012). Technical support is provided by MAIL. So far, more than 100 forest management associations (FMA) have been created by MAIL to sustainably manage forests including pine forests (MAIL, 2012). Likewise, other programs implemented by MAIL or other agencies (forest protection guards, public awareness, livelihood projects, home nurseries, terracing etc.) have contributed to forest protection and expansion (MAIL, 2012). Raising awareness in local communities about the importance of chilgoza pine can enhance conservation, regeneration and status of chilgoza pine forests (Kumar et al., 2013; Malik et al., 2012). NEPA, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and MAIL have developed a National Environmental Education Strategic Action Plan (NEESAP) in order to raise environmental awareness among communities in Afghanistan. Also, with the collaboration of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and UNEP, MAIL developed a chilgoza pine forest restoration and management plan in 2012. This management plan outlines strategies and targets determined by the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) of Afghanistan. Based on this 5-year conservation and restoration plan, by the year 2017, 100% of conservation and restoration activities will be initiated, while 200 km2 of pine nut forests will be regenerated (MAIL, 2012). Also, part of this plan includes raising awareness of members of forestry associations and other villagers connected to forests (MAIL, 2012).
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Chilgoza pine trees are considered as a protected species in Afghanistan due to severe exploitation and lack of regeneration (MAIL, 2012). Sustainable forest management can be the key to protecting and expanding chilgoza forests of Afghanistan (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010). Determining the current harvesting, marketing and value chain practices occurring in Afghanistan and encouraging a buyer monopoly is likely better able to impart incentives on conservation quotas (Pelteir & Dauffy, 2009). It is vital to conduct scientific surveys on current trends and conditions of chilgoza pine forest stands (MAIL, 2012). Data collection, ground surveys (stand density, structure, composition, regeneration and health), databases and aerial photography will provide a better understanding of trends and conditions of chilgoza pine forests (MAIL, 2012). This will allow experts to prioritize conservation and management activities across the chilgoza forest range in Afghanistan. Part of chilgoza forest conservation plan is to allow stands to regenerate naturally. However, Malik et al. (2012) propose afforestation or artificial regeneration in order to accelerate forest recovery. They believe that both natural and artificial regeneration can be successful with participation of local communities. Once a forest stand is regenerated, it is very important to protect young cohorts and monitor biotic disturbances (i.e. livestock grazing and fuel wood collection). With participation of local communities and professional experts, a grazing plan and forest management plan need to be developed in order to control grazing and harvesting (MAIL, 2012). Based on both of these plans, newly regenerated stands will be protected from any human related activity (with exceptions) until seedlings turn into saplings or poles. Rotational harvesting and grazing can be a very good option to enhance forest recovery in chilgoza pine stands (Groninger & Ruffner, 2010). Pine tree research is another key goal of MAIL, tasked with collection of genetically superior seeds, storing the germplasm, creating a gene bank, establishing research farms, and conducting scientifically based research on chilgoza pine trees (MAIL, 2012).
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5
Survey based assessment
5.1 Objectives The objectives of the survey-based research were to assess the current status, trends, exploitation, natural regeneration and conservation efforts of chilgoza pine forests of Afghanistan. Through first hand accounts and field investigations an attempt was made to accurately document village level management practices of the chilgoza pine forests as well as harvesting techniques and perceptions on trends in forest health. A second focus of the study was to ascertain the current status of other chilgoza pine conservation programs and activities being conducted in country.
5.2 Methods This study was based on interviews/questionnaires and site surveys. For interviews, two separate questionnaires were prepared for local villagers and community members inside the chilgoza range and for governmental and non-governmental organizations involved in chilgoza pine management and restoration (Appendixes F and G). For local villagers and community members, the target population was individuals living in the EFC close to chilgoza pine forest stands. Chilgoza pine has a wide but scattered distribution in eastern and southeastern provinces (Kapisa, Laghman, Kunar, Nuristan, Nangarhar, Paktia, Khost, and Paktika) of Afghanistan. Initially, a preliminary goal was set to interview at least one subject in each district of these provinces. In practice, a total of 56 subjects living around chilgoza pine forests were interviewed (Appendix A). The number of subjects varied from a low of 1 subject/province to a high of 23 subjects/province with a total of 29 districts across the 8 pine nut provinces represented by the interviews. Since many of the subjects were illiterate and were not familiar with reading and writing, the majority of questionnaires were completed through use of in-person or phone-based interviews. One representative from each governmental and non-governmental organization involved in environment and natural resources related activities was also surveyed. This included representatives from the Department of Natural Resources at MAIL, Directorate of Agriculture,
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Irrigation and Livestock (DAIL) and UNEP. The DAIL representatives were interviewed via phone calls, while the rest were interviewed in-person or filled in the survey form independently. Despite security challenges, physical forest surveys were conducted in 17 fixed-area circular plots (radius of 12.6 m = 500 m2) in six districts (Musakhel, Qalandar, Urgun, Zazai Aryob, Ahmadkhel and Alisheng) of four provinces (Khost, Paktika, Paktia and Laghman) of the chilgoza pine forest region. The surveys were basic; recorded data consisted of the number of chilgoza and other tree species ≥10 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) in each plot as well as circumference at breast height of the largest chilgoza tree in each plot. Circumference measurements were made using a tape and then converted to dbh (Figure 7). In order to roughly estimate natural regeneration of chilgoza pine, the number of seedlings (≤ 2 years in age) and saplings (≤ 5 years in age) in the understory level were counted as well.
Figure 7. Mature chilgoza tree circumference measurement (Photo: Dinagul Shafiqi).
5.3 Results 5.3.1 Chilgoza forest stand dynamics The EFC of Afghanistan is composed of conifers and broadleaved tree species. The composition and distribution of these species differ based on changes in environmental factors such as latitude, longitude, elevation, precipitation, aspect, edaphology, etc. In this survey chilgoza pine trees were found to form pure stands on dry slopes of the southern-most and western-most edges of the EFC. In Kunar, Nuristan, Lagman, Nangarhar, Paktia and Khost, the forests stands are more diverse. In
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these provinces, along with chilgoza pine other tree species such as oaks, deodar cedar, blue pine, fir, spruce, walnut (lower elevations) and gurgura (Reptonia buxifolia) are found as well. The forest communities in Paktika and Kapisa Provinces are less diverse and only oak (Quercus baloot) and chilgoza pine are predominant in forest stands. Based on basic measurements, vegetation structure in chilgoza dominated forest stands are quite similar. In most of the stands surveyed, chilgoza trees dominated the forest. The number of chilgoza trees in chilgoza dominated stands ranged from 320 trees/ha to 640 trees/ha (Table 2). In some stands, other tree species such as C. deodara, P. wallichiana and Q. baloot were found as well. In southern provinces (Khost, Paktia and Paktika), chilgoza pine dominated the overstory. Only in one stand surveyed in Laghman Province, chilgoza was mixed with Q. baloot and P. wallichiana and the oak was dominant (Table 2). Presence, absence and dominance of these tree species may be affected by factors such as elevation, latitude, precipitation and disturbances. For instance in Laghman, greater precipitation levels may have provided better growing conditions for fast growing species such as P. wallichaina and Q. baloot. Also, aside from over-harvesting of cones, young chilgoza trees are cut for firewood and their stems are used to make shovel and axe handles. Thus, anthropomorphic factors may have led the two other species to dominate the forest stand.
Figure 8. A chilgoza pine forest in Zazai Aryob district of Paktia Province (Photo: Dinagul Shafiqi).
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Based on the surveys conducted as part of this study, stand densities were much higher than numbers reported for chilgoza forests outside of Afghanistan (review of literature). Two factors may account for the greater chilgoza densities than those reported from other countries. One is that the stands surveyed in this study were generally chilgoza dominated forests within its altitudinal range. The other factor is that the chilgoza forests of Afghanistan are distributed in the western most edge of the species range and the environmental conditions (low precipitation, welldrained and sandy textured soils, and other allogenic disturbances) might be more suitable for colonization of chilgoza over other tree species. For instance, at some sites chilgoza trees occupied the understory and mid-story following C. deodara and P. wallichiana logging. Local elders who were surveyed corroborated this explanation mentioning that chilgoza trees were less common in forest stands prior to the illegal logging that proliferated during and after the political conflicts. Now that other species are removed for timber, sites may become more suitable for chilgoza, however the ecological effect of this biodiversity loss and induced succession on overall chilgoza forest health is not well understood. Diameter at breast height (dbh) of the largest chilgoza trees in each sampling plot was also measured. Dbh of the largest trees varied from 24.2 cm to 52.0 cm (Table 2). There is little variation in dbh of the largest chilgoza trees in Paktia, Khost and Paktika Provinces, however, in Laghman Province chilgoza trees were smaller and the largest tree measured was 24.4 cm dbh. Table 2. Mean stand density (trees per hectare) and mean diameter at breast height (dbh) of largest chilgoza trees in chilgoza dominated forest stands surveyed in 17 plots, 6 districts and 4 provinces in the eastern and southeastern forests of Afghanistan.
Province
District
Musakhel Qalandar Zazai Aryob Paktia Ahmadkhel Paktika Urgun Laghman Alisheng Grand Mean Khost
Largest Chilgoza P.gerardiana C.deodara P.wallichiana Q.baloot Dbh (cm) 640 0 0 0 44.6 320 5 0 0 48.5 350 0 0 0 46.8 490 0 0 0 34.0 425 65 0 165 52.0 340 0 160 440 24.2 445 16 9 65 45.0 Species (trees / ha)
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5.3.2 Importance of chilgoza pine to local communities Chilgoza pine forests are very important to communities living in the EFC of Afghanistan. Among the non-wood forest products (NWFPs) such as oak leaves, spices, walnut, medicinal plants and acorns, pine nut is the most important and valuable NWFP listed by the participants of the surveys. The livelihood of these communities is somewhat connected to chilgoza pine forests. As members of a community or village, they receive direct or indirect benefit from chilgoza forests. Based on this survey, not all villagers are actively involved with chilgoza pine forests. Most of the villagers are farmers or work other jobs while a smaller number of people are busy with pine nut collection, extraction and trade. However, at the time of harvesting a certain number of community members take part in activities and all of the community members (all families) generally receive revenue or benefit from community projects funded from the sale of pine nuts.
5.3.3 Distribution and use of chilgoza forests by communities Based on Afghanistan’s Forest Law, natural forests are government property and communities are allowed to sustainably manage and use this resource under a community based natural resource management approach. However, based on the surveys it was found that local villagers believe that forests are their own property and they have divided forests among tribes, communities or villages. According to the surveys conducted most chilgoza forests are owned and managed by a village or tribal shura while a small percentage of chilgoza forests are owned by individual families (Figure 9). Cones are harvested by villagers and by outside contractors. Most of the communities or villages (43%) contract their chilgoza forests to outside contractors (Figure 10a). The contract system is most common in Paktia, Paktika and Khost Provinces while in Nangahar, Laghman, Nuristan, Kunar and Kapisa Provinces it is more common for local villagers to directly harvest chilgoza pine cones (Figure 10b). In the contract system, chilgoza forest stands are given to the contractors for a short period of time during the harvest season. These contractors bring their own workers and equipment and harvest the cones. The reason that villagers or communities gave for contracting out their chilgoza forests to outsiders is that they are performing other jobs or are busy with agriculture. In some cases, the forest area is so large that villagers are not able to harvest all of the cones and they therefore lease out part of their forest to contractors. In other cases, some years
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the harvest is done by villagers and some years they contract it to outsiders. In some communities tribal leaders are responsible for contracting out chilgoza forests to contractors.
Figure 9. Ownership of chilgoza pine forests of Afghanistan.
a)
b)
Figure 10. a) Harvest of chilgoza pine nuts by local villagers / contractors and, b) percentage by region.
5.3.4 Cone collection, drying and nut extraction methods In Afghanistan, cones of chilgoza pine are commonly collected with a sharp hook attached to the end of a long stick (Figure 11a, b & c) and in some areas small axes are also used (Table 3). Local villagers and/or contractors use these hooks to detach cones from tree branches. Although these hooks ease cone collection, they can also be used to cut or break off the meristematic tips and ends of branches in order to down multiple cones. This type of incidental pruning can significantly
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impact seasonal growth patterns and affect the natural growth habit of the tree. The long-term effect of this type of harvesting on lifetime cone productivity is not well understood. a)
b)
c)
Figure 11. a) Chilgoza pine cone removal hook, b) hook attached to pole and, c) cone collection with hook (Photo: Baitullah and Izatullah).
There is other equipment that may increase time efficiency and reduce damages to branches during cone collection. Pole pruners (Figure 12a, b & c) are designed to prune upper branches of trees. These can be used to prune pine cones from branches instead of breaking branches with common hooks. With this equipment cones can be pruned and detached from branches easily. Also, the efficiency of common hooks may be enhanced if another blade with a pulley is attached below the hook. Harvesting cones with pruners can decrease damages and injuries to the tree if used correctly, however they must be used with care as they are also capable of cutting off the tips and ends of branches. Modifications to traditional tree pruners have been suggested to reduce damage to trees. For example, it may be possible to sheath the cutting blades with a plastic cover or resin so that individual branches can be gripped and shaken to drop the cones as opposed to cutting.
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a)
b)
c)
Figure 12. a) Pole pruner blades and pulley, b) pruner attached to pole; and, c) cone removal with pole pruner.
Another tool that may have significant potential to reduce tree damage during harvesting is the tree tong (Figure 13a & b). This device attaches to the end of a long pole and plucks cones from the tree with a set of hands that are opened and closed by pulling on a cord attached to the tongs (Davies & Murray, 2006). Using the tree tong, no cutting or breaking of branches is incurred as individual cones are removed from the tree, or branches are shaken. While this tool has not been field tested in Afghanistan it is recommended that trial tests be conducted to determine its effectiveness compared with traditional methods. Climbing ladders can also enhance time and cone collection efficiency. If ladders are used carefully, cones of upper branches can be easily pruned without exerting any damage to the branches. Other protective equipment such as safety harnesses, ropes, gloves, helmets and goggles may also bring significant safety improvements for those climbing trees to collect cones.
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a)
b)
Figure 13. a) Tree tong with cord for opening and closing; and, b) tree tong being used to remove pine cone from branch (Davies & Murray, 2006).
Cones of chilgoza pine reach maturity in September (Said, 1959) and should be collected before the outer scales open or loosen (Chandy, 2002). At the time of maturity, cones first turn to green and then to brown colors (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). Cone collection starts in September and continues for two months (Said, 1959). As the quality and price commanded for pine nuts are partially dependent upon harvesting cones at the correct stage of maturity, training harvesters on cone development and proprer harvesting time can increase value for villagers, traders and exporters. Additional research on optimum harvesting time is recommended. Once cones are collected, they are generally transported to the village in large jute or burlap sacks and piled together. After some time, cones are spread over the ground and exposed to the sun to air dry. Sun/air drying is the most common method of cone drying in Afghanistan, however use of fire or coals to aid in drying has been reported. In some areas, cones are piled on rooftops to dry naturally in the sun. In some areas villagers bury the cones in meter-deep pits for some time and then move them to the open-air for drying. Alternatively, some people store the cones inside a room and then expose them to the sun for drying. Some believe that cones stored in soil and/or shade for a period of time will cause resin to ooze out and allow the scales to open more quickly
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in the sun. The drying process is completed between 2 – 60 days by spreading the cones on dried ground exposed to air and sunlight (Khan & Khan, 1992; Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974). This drying process is slow and depends on the climatic situation. On average it takes 15 days for cones to dry in open air (Krugman & Jenkinson, 1974; Troup, 1921; Young & Young, 1992). Once dried, the scales of the cones open naturally and pine nuts are extracted by placing the cones in a sack and beating with a stick or over a hard surface (Urooj & Jabeen, 2015) (Table 3). During the extraction process, some seeds are damaged and wasted by striking and beating. Cones that do not open their scales after the drying process are cut open with shears or clippers. The modern, improved method of cone drying and nut extraction is through the use of cabinet driers, wherein the duration of time until seed extraction can be reduced and the quality of the nut is improved by reducing moisture content (Thakur et al., 2009, 2014). Cabinet driers expose the cones to a controlled amount of heat, while in traditional methods, cones are exposed to the sun or fire heat and the temperature is not controlled. Table 3. Cone collection equipment, methods of cone drying and seed extraction used in Afghanistan.
Cone collection equipment Hook attached to a long stick Small axe and hook Small axe Method of cone drying Naturally in the sun Roasting with fire Method of seed extraction By cutting the cones open By beating on a hard surface Both
Count (N) 53 2 1
% 95 4 2
56 0
100 0
0 48 8
0 86 14
5.3.5 Sale of pine nuts and revenue distribution After the extraction, pine nuts are sold to local traders or contractors. Most of the villagers and pine nut harvesters sell their pine nuts to local traders and only a small percentage sell their commodity to contractors (Figure 14a). Due to lack of local markets and the long distances to
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major markets, villagers sell pine nuts to local traders. Pine nuts are generally sold to different buyers every year. The revenue generated from pine nuts is distributed among village or community members. Most of the communities or villages divide the revenue equally between all villagers, however in some communities the money earned from pine nuts is distributed based on the amount of work done (Figure 14b). Most of the villagers surveyed reported that their access to chilgoza forests and the pine nut revenue distribution ends without any conflict. However, sometimes there are conflicts among community members for forest access or pine nut revenue distribution (Figure 15a). In the case of conflict, tribal shuras or tribal leaders are most commonly responsible to resolve the conflict. In most of the chilgoza pine region, conflicts are resolved by tribal shuras and to a lesser degree tribal leaders resolve the issues (Figure 15b). Pine nuts are sold in Pakistani rupees to local traders. Price per kilogram of unshelled pine nuts varies among provinces ranging from a low of 786 rupees reported in Laghman to a high of 1075 rupees in Paktika Provinces (Table 4). Total mean price paid per kilogram of unshelled pine nuts across the region was 890 Pakistani rupees in 2015 – 2016 (Table 4). The quality (size, taste, level of damage incurred during processing) of pine nuts differs among provinces and high quality pine nuts are sold for better prices than low quality ones. The average price per kilogram of pine nuts in 2006 was reported as $2.87 USD by Kuhn et al. (2006) compared with the higher average price in 2015 – 2016 ($8.51 USD) revealed by this study. This should not be construed as evidence of trending since price per kilogram of unshelled pine nuts is known to vary from year to year and is also dependent on supply and demand factors that are affected by yearly production levels and by time of year of sale. On average, families receive 130934 Pakistani rupees ($1251) per year from sale of pine nuts (Table 5). The yearly income from chilgoza pine nuts varies between provinces and from year to year. Lowest per family income was reported in Kapisa Province, while the highest was reported in Nuristan Province (Table 5). This data was not analyzed in relation to the total weight or number of pine nuts sold; as such, the reported differences in annual income generation per family are at least partially related to the size of the community’s forest (number of pine trees) as well as nut quality. For instance, Kapisa chilgoza forests are at the western most edge of the Eastern Forest
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Complex. Here the size of the forests is relatively small and the quality of pine nuts is lower than in other provinces. Table 4. Mean, standard error (S.E.), minimum and maximum price (Pakistani rupees) of one kilogram unshelled pine nuts sold by local villagers to local traders.
Province Kapisa Khost Kunar Laghman Nangarhar Nursitan Paktia Paktika Total
Mean (Pak Rs.) 911 880 821 786 973 874 811 1075 890
S.E. 18 62 0 21 40 45 26 48 21
Min 893 750 821 750 857 829 675 850 675
Max 929 1050 821 821 1143 964 1250 1250 1250
N 2 5 1 3 8 3 22 8 52
Table 5. Mean, standard error (S.E), minimum and maximum income (Pakistani rupees) gained per family from selling chilgoza pine nuts per year.
Province Kapisa Khost Kunar Laghman Nangarhar Nursitan Paktia Paktika Total
Mean (Pak Rs.) 37750 107500 190000 126667 138125 146667 139531 110500 130934
S.E. 7750 8752 0 13333 7315 31667 9951 14239 6713
Min 30000 50000 190000 100000 115000 115000 77500 75000 30000
Max 45500 180000 190000 140000 170000 210000 220000 160000 220000
N 2 4 1 3 8 3 16 5 42
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a)
b)
Figure 14. a) Percentage of pine nut buyers in local villages; and, b) distribution of revenue generated from chilgoza pine nuts among community members.
a)
b)
Figure 15. a) Conflict level; and, b) conflict resolution during chilgoza pine forest distribution among local communities.
5.3.6 Perception of status of chilgoza pine forests The majority of local villagers in the chilgoza pine region do not have knowledge about the threatened status of chilgoza pine trees (Figure 16a). However, most of them understand and are aware of chilgoza forest degradation. This was also realized by MAIL/DAIL forestry administration working in the region who were interviewed during research. In the present survey, 59 percent of the participants believed that chilgoza forests are degraded or declining (Figure 16b). They believe that human activities such as severe cone collection, tree damage during cone harvesting, grazing, fuel wood collection and other biotic/abiotic factors (insects, diseases and drought) lead to
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chilgoza forest degradation (Figure 17). There are several direct and indirect drivers that lead to deforestation and forest degradation. Government and non-governmental organizations (DNR, DAIL, and UNEP) involved in natural resources management and conservation reported that poverty, lack of governance, social issues (conflict), lack of education and awareness and insufficient access to science and technology are major drivers of chilgoza forest degradation in Afghanistan. a)
b)
Figure 16. a) Knowledge of local villagers on threatened status of chilgoza pine; and, b) their perception of chilgoza pine forest degradation.
Figure 17. Threat factors to chilgoza forest degradation based on villagers’ perception.
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5.3.7 Natural regeneration status One of the major factors in the decline of chilgoza forests is low or poor natural regeneration. The majority of the villagers interviewed in this study observed natural regeneration in the understory layer of chilgoza forest stands (Figure 19a). They believe that every spring a small number of seeds germinate in the understory layer. However, the overall rate of natural regeneration is not sufficient to keep the forests from declining.
Figure 18. Naturally regenerated chilgoza pine seedlings and saplings in understory of forest stands (Photos: Baitullah).
When asked to rate the level of natural regeneration occurring in the forests that they manage, village survey participants were given a 5-point graded scale consisting of (1) no regeneration; (2) poor; (3) fair/medium; (4) good; or (5) very good. 96.4% of villagers responded that regeneration was poor or fair/medium, while the remaining 3.6% responded that no regeneration was occurring. Based on this study, there are few places that natural regeneration does not occur, but most of those surveyed reported that the rate of natural regeneration is not sufficient (Figure 19b). The survey data also indicates that villages that allow grazing and fuelwood collection in their pine forests reported the lowest levels of regeneration, while the villages that prohibit grazing and fuelwood collection reported the greatest regeneration. These results are indicative of the knowledge of local villagers on the health of their chilgoza forests. However, few of the villagers surveyed reported that they have rules on the amount of cones that may be collected. Unfortunately, these villagers seem to be aware that severe cone
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collection in association with uncontrolled grazing and trampling lead their forest stands to gradual decline, however they do not appear to have the knowledge, skills or financial leverage to improve the situation. It is suspected that this condition of status quo is related to inhereted customs and practices in harvesting and the need to maximize revenue due to economic hardship. a)
b)
Figure 19. a) Perception of local villagers on natural regeneration occurrence of chilgoza pine; and, b) rate of natural regeneration in chilgoza pine forest stands. Fair = few number of scattered seedlings, Poor = very few number of scattered seedlings, No regen = zero number of seedlings.
In order to compare natural regeneration of chilgoza pine amongst provinces, the mean status ratings of natural regeneration in respected forests was calculated and compared (Figure 20). As mentioned above the overall majority of respondents reported natural regeneration as poor (50.0%) or fair (46.4%) meaning that some stands have a few number of scattered seedlings (fair regeneration) and others have very few scattered seedlings (poor regeneration). At the provincial level, Kunar and Nuristan have fair chilgoza natural regeneration. Other provinces such as Paktia, Laghman and Nangarhar have fair to poor natural regeneration, while natural regeneration of chilgoza pine in Khost, Paktika and Kapisa is poor. The cause(s) for these apparent differences may be attributable to the subjective nature of the survey question and variability in sample size per province. Other contributing factors may include the precipitation gradient from north to south through the EFC; the presence of more pure chilgoza dominated stands in the southern provinces (Paktika, Khost, Paktia); or, the greater reliance on outside contractors to conduct harvesting in these southern provinces resulting in higher levels of degradation.
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Figure 20. Mean natural regeneration rate of chilgoza pine among provinces based on villagers’ perception. 1 = no regeneration, 2 = poor regeneration, 3 = fair regeneration, 4 = good regeneration, and 5 = very good regeneration.
Pine cone collection, livestock grazing and browsing, fuel wood collection, drought, pests and diseases are all recognized issues that may limit natural regeneration of chilgoza pine. Due to the nature and persistence of cone collection, this in association with livestock grazing and browsing is likely to be the leading factor in low natural regeneration of chilgoza pine. During a harvest, it is common for cones of every cone-bearing chilgoza tree to be exploited by local villagers. Sometimes, cones are left on the top of the crown due to inaccessibility. These cones release seeds and result in some natural regeneration. The majority of villages or communities represented in the survey do collect fuel wood and graze their livestock in chilgoza forest stands (Figure 21a & b). After germination and establishment, newly regenerated seedlings are eaten by livestock or trampled during fuel wood collection to some extent, reducing natural regeneration. a)
b)
Figure 21. a) Percent of livestock grazing; and, b) fuel wood collection in chilgoza pine forest stands based on villager responses.
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Fisher’s exact test was used to test the association between livestock grazing, fuel wood collection and natural regeneration status of chilgoza pine. Based on this test, both livestock grazing and fuel wood collection are significantly associated with natural regeneration status (Figure 22a & b). In chilgoza forests with no grazing and no fuel wood collection, natural regeneration was reported as slightly better than poor or no regeneration. However, with livestock grazing and fuel wood collection no regeneration and poor regeneration are more evident than fair regeneration (Figure 22a & b). a)
b)
Figure 22. Effect of, a) livestock grazing and b) fuel wood collection on natural regeneration status of chilogza pine forests. Fair = few number of scattered seedlings, Poor = very few number of scattered seedlings, No regen = zero number of seedlings. Fisher's exact test of association was significant for both tests at α = 0.05. P – Value of a = 0.01; and, P – Value of b = 0.03.
The field survey of chilgoza pine stands also revealed that natural regeneration of this species is variable from site to site and is affected by cone collection pressure, livestock grazing and fuel wood collection as well as other disturbances and climatic variations. The number of chilgoza seedlings and saplings varied from 20 individuals/hectare in Musakhel District of Khost Province to 3030 individuals/hectare in Zazai Aryob District of Paktia Province (Table 6). In Zazai Aryob and Ahmadkhel Districts of Paktia Province, natural regeneration is good. In both districts, livestock grazing and fuel wood collection is prohibited by tribal shuras. Also, these districts receive higher precipitation than other parts of Paktia, Khost and Paktika Provinces, which may enhance growth and establishment of newly germinated seedlings. Likewise, chilgoza trees occupy gaps created by illegal logging of timber species, which might also have played a role in higher natural
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regeneration. In addition, local villagers favor chilgoza trees over oaks, and oaks are removed if growing under chilgoza trees. In contrast, the number of chilgoza seedlings and saplings was lower in other sites surveyed (Table 6). Table 6. Mean number of naturally regenerated chilgoza pine, Cedrus deodara and Quercus baloot seedlings and saplings per hectare in chilgoza dominated forest stands surveyed in 17 plots, 6 districts and 4 provinces in the eastern and southeastern forests.
Province
District
Musakhel Qalandar Zazai Aryob Paktia Ahmadkhel Paktika Urgun Laghman Alisheng Grand Mean Khost
Species (seedlings & saplings / ha) P.gerardiana C.deodara Q.baloot 100 0 0 20 0 0 3030 160 280 1530 0 210 270 0 0 240 0 260 642 19 73
Ahmed et al. (1991) reported 494 seedlings/hectare in Baluchistan Province of Pakistan. This count only included the number of newly regenerated seedlings, while saplings were counted in a separate category. The number of seedlings including saplings counted in this study was lower than this in most of the chilgoza pine stands surveyed (Table 6). At these sites, natural regeneration is suppressed not only by severe cone collection in association with livestock grazing, but also fuel wood collection and occupation of the forest floor by oaks and other hardwoods.
5.3.8 Conservation and restoration Although local villagers do not have knowledge of the IUCN threatened status of chilgoza pine, 96% of those interviewed do have some type of village/tribe rules that govern the management of their forests (Figure 23). These rules are most commonly focused on the distribution of forest stands amongst families; organization of the cone harvesting sequence and timing; and, distribution of yield and revenue. These villagers and/or their leaders or shuras do not appear to govern cone collection rates or uncontrolled grazing and trampling with respect to the gradual decline and destruction of their forest stands. However, in some cases forest management rules
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do aid in protection, such as those prohibiting logging from chilgoza stands. Furthermore, most of the villages or communities enact a penalty system where individuals are fined for premature cone collection, chilgoza tree logging, and in some cases for fuel wood collection and trampling seedlings. Some of them also ban grazing and fine people if their animals graze within the forest stands. Some of the village shuras hire several forest guards (their salaries are paid from chilgoza revenue) who are responsible to monitor the forest stands and report violations to shura leaders. It should be noted that none of the villagers reported having rules pertaining to the percentage of cones that can be harvested per tree or within a given stand of forest.
Figure 23. Percent of village/tribe rules for management of chilgoza pine forests among local communities.
The Department of Natural Resources at MAIL is the key governmental organization that is working in conservation, restoration and management of natural forests. This organization implements its projects through the forestry administration of provincial DAIL offices. Their forestry programs cover almost all EFC provinces and important forested districts (Table 7). However, due to lack of budget, security and expertise, projects are basic and short-term. Particular to chilgoza pine, the activities of MAIL are more focused on restoration than sustainable forest management. Their project objectives are to restore degraded chilgoza forest stands via out-planting and seed broadcasting; raise awareness; and, create job opportunities for local residents. Currently, there is little to no sustainable harvesting programming elicited by MAIL that relates directly to natural regeneration. Numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are working on natural resources related projects in the eastern region. Several NGOs were identified as implementing short-term forestry
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projects in Paktia, Kunar and Nangarhar where most of their activities were centered on temporary nurseries and seedling distribution. UNEP currently has a project scheduled for 2016 – 2020 in eastern Nangarhar Province. With the collaboration of governmental organizations, they will be working on ecosystem-based adaptation, forest restoration, promotion of alternative livelihoods and strengthening the value chains associated with non-timber forest products. Seedling out-planting and seed broadcasting have been an important part of the restoration efforts of MAIL since 2009. They have established temporary polybag nurseries to raise chilgoza seedlings and have conducted out-planting in chilgoza forest stands. In addition, seed broadcasting is another method they have used to artificially regenerate chilgoza stands. Overall, MAIL reports that since 2009 it has raised 291,664 polybag seedlings, out-planted 181,333 of these seedlings and broadcasted seeds on 570 hectares of chilgoza stands (Table 8). In most of the provinces both seed broadcasting and seedling out-planting were practiced, while in some only one of them was implemented (Table 8). Although the survival rate of artificial regeneration has not been studied by MAIL in terms of numbers, they observed a relatively poor survival and success rate. Very low germination rates and poor survival is prominent with seed broadcasting methods. It is worth mentioning that both out-planting and seed broadcasting are benefited by irrigation. For best results seedlings should be hardened for drought resistance in the nursery prior to outplanting and subsequently irrigated for several years in the field, which requires significant labor, time and financial resources. Another factor that leads to a lower survival rate is lack of pre-project assessment (site survey and study) and maintenance after out-planting or seed broadcasting. Due to lack of funding and budget, MAIL is only able to out-plant seedlings or broadcast seeds. Once this is accomplished, there is little to no post-planting seedling care plans as part of projects. Research is a fundamental part of forestry science. Unfortunately, both MAIL and public universities in Afghanistan do not conduct research to solve problems related to forestry issues. Therefore, little to no research has been conducted on chilgoza pine forests of Afghanistan. There are several problems in ecology, biology, genetics, regeneration methods, harvesting methods, human dimensions of chilgoza forests, grazing management, seedling and nurseries, and
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economics of chilgoza pine that need to be studied. Such work will provide important information in order to develop better strategies and plans for sustainable management for this valuable natural resource. This knowledge gap, as well as, a lacking system for public outreach and involvement contribute to the fact that villagers are not acting with an understanding of the threatened status and decline of chilgoza populations. This study suggests that because chilgoza trees are the major income generating non-timber forest product, local communities are inherently interested in chilgoza forest conservation. Those close to these communities suggest that raising awareness, law enforcement, livelihood projects, restoration projects, fuel wood and fodder alternatives, protection via forest guards, pine nut processing and pine nut market establishment would not only improve forest health but enhance the economic prospects of local communities. GOs and NGOs have indicated that in addition to restoration projects (out-planting and seed broadcasting), awareness raising, technical support, CBNRM, livelihood projects, cone harvesting management plans, grazing and fuel wood collection plans, training and capacity building, pine nut value chain enhancement and improvement of cooperation between government and communities would result in better forest ecosystems. Table 7. List of provinces and important forested districts of Eastern Forest Complex where MAIL implements forest programs.
Province
Districts
Paktia
Zazai Aryob, Ahmad Aba
Paktika
Urgun, Khairkot
Khost
Tanai
Kunar
Shegal, Asmar, Manongay, Wattapur, Dangam, Murawara
Nangarhar
Achin, Hisarak, Sherzad, Pachiragam, Khogyani
Laghman
Alisheng, Dawlatshah
Kapisa
Nijrab
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Table 8. Number of seedlings, stock type, number of seedlings out-planted and area of seed broadcasted (hectares) of chilgoza pine afforestation / reforestation projects accomplished by Department of Natural Resources and DAILs (MAIL) in six eastern and southeastern provinces.
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6. Natural regeneration strategies and sustainable harvesting techniques 6.1 Rationale for sustainable harvesting Chilgoza pine is listed as an IUCN near threatened species across its range. Based on research, it appears that the majority of chilgoza forest stands in Afghanistan are not in good condition. Although chilgoza tree logging is not allowed by local communities, standing trees get older and natural regeneration is considered poor. Over exploitation of pine cones is believed to be the leading factor in poor natural regeneration in chilgoza stands. Since chilgoza pine nuts are one of the most important NWFP for local communities in the EFC, sustainable pine cone harvesting is required as part of a community based natural resource management plan. With the use of a sustainable harvesting plan, both local communities and forest stands benefit in the long-term. This sustainable harvesting plan proposes several different harvesting and forest management techniques that are aimed at maintaining the financial benefit that communities receive from the sale of pine nuts while simultaneously enhancing natural regeneration and forest health. Although not scientifically tested in Afghanistan, the following cone harvesting techniques do represent generally accepted forestry management practices and should act as an immediate measure that can be implemented by communities that are interested in preserving their pine forests for future generations. With these methods, local communities can harvest pine nuts in a more sustainable manner allowing forest stands to naturally regenerate. Ultimately each village or functional forest management unit should be presented with all of these techniques so that they can provide input and become integral in the planning, protection, harvesting and monitoring of their forests. Since the research surveys have clarified that communities in the EFC consider the forests as their property, successful forest management is only likely to be successful if these communities are the primary decision-makers in any new harvesting strategy. This is the essence of community based natural resource managment.
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6.2 Rotational cone harvesting The objective of rotational harvesting is to assist natural regeneration of chilgoza pine forest stands via rotating cone harvesting and other human activities such as grazing and fuelwood collection in patches of lands within a time scale. This will allow untouched stands to release the full bounty of seeds and naturally regenerate the understory layer in a protected forest patch.
6.2.1 Stand selection (size and location) Utilizing this technique, each village or community that owns and manages a chilgoza forest is responsible to protect at least one chilgoza patch (stand) within their forest. Within the selected forest stand, cone collection and other human activities should be banned for a given time period. Based on how large the chilgoza forest is, villagers can designate one stand or more of forest for protection every year or every 5 years. If the forest area is relatively large, it is better to designate a patch of forest every year. Otherwise in the case of small total forest areas at least two patches of forest should be designated for protection every five years. Regardless of the total forest size, the area of each protected stand should be between 2 to 5 hectares or 10 to 25 jeribs (20,000 – 50,000 m2). The average chilgoza tree density in chilgoza dominated stands is 445 trees/ha. However, in mixed stands and degraded forests, the number of chilgoza trees per hectare is lower. In this case it is better to delineate and protect 5 hectares of forest stand in order to increase seed dispersal and enhance regeneration. The shape of the protected forest patch can be circular, rectangular, square or amorphous. The boundaries of a protected forest patch can be marked with ribbons, signage, or by painting the bark of trees on the bordering edges of the patch.
6.2.2 Rotational cycle At least three years is required for each rotation cycle. However, since cone production fluctuates every year, five years of rotation cycle is recommended. During these years, cone collection, fuelwood collection and grazing is not allowed within the protected forest patch so that trees have the opportunity to release seeds and naturally regenerate the stand (Figure 24).
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Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Year 5
Seed dispersal
Germination and seedling establishment
Growth and survival
Rapid growth and dominance
Growth and sapling stage
First three years of protection are important and critical for natural regeneration.
Success rate will be higher if we allow protection two more years.
Figure 24. Mechanism of natural regeneration within the protected forest stand during five year time scale.
Variant A: If areas of forest are designated for protection every year, then the rotation cycle will appear as in Figure 25. In this variant, every year a new patch of forest area is designated for protection and is not exploited by humans until the completion of the 5-year rotation cycle. The advantage of this variant from a conservation point of view is that it maximizes natural regeneration of large scale areas of the forest. However, it minimizes yield and income of local villagers.
Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Protect 2016
Harvest 2016
Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 6 Protect 2017
Harvest 2017
Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Protect 2018
Harvest 2018
Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 5 7 9 Protect 2019
Harvest 2019
Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Protect 2020
Harvest 2020
Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Harvest 2021 Protect 2021 Harvest 2021
Figure 25. Enhancing natural regeneration via designation and protection of forest patches every year.
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Variant B: If the total forest area is relatively small, then one or two forest stands can be designated for protection for a 5-year period. After 5 years, cone harvesting is allowed and two different locations are designated for protection as shown in Figure 26. This variant may be good for local communities that rely heavily on the forest for annual income.
Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Protect 2016Protect 2016Harvest 2016-2020 Harvest 2016-2020 Harvest 2016-2020 2020 2020
Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch Forest Patch 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 Protect 20212025
Harvest 2021-2025
Protect 20212025
Harvest 2021-2025
Figure 26. Enhancing natural regeneration via designation and protection of two forest patches every five years.
6.2.3 Protection and monitoring of human activities In order for rotational harvesting to be effective, villagers and community members are obliged not to intervene in protected stands until the rotation cycle ends. Within the protected forest patches, grazing should not be allowed until the rotation cycle is completed. However, based on the decision of the community, livestock can be allowed to graze in non-protected areas of forest. Fuelwood collection should also be prohibited within the protected stands. Although newly regenerated seedlings are not of interest for fuelwood, during fuelwood collection there are chances of seedling trampling. Thus, it is recommended not to collect firewood from protected forest patches. Villagers may collect fuelwood from non-protected sites, however this practice is not recommended if it can be avoided. In order to monitor human activities, forestry association members or tribal shuras should assign individuals (forest guards) for each protected stand of the forest. In case of violations, individuals may be fined if they deliberately harvest cones, graze livestock or collect fuelwood from protected stands.
6.3 Individual tree protection The objective of the individual tree protection method is to assist natural regeneration by not harvesting cones from a certain number of trees in the entire forest area. This will allow the protected trees to disperse seeds onto the ground and naturally regenerate the forest. The
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advantage of this method is that a number of trees throughout the forest are able to disperse seeds and create new cohorts. However, since both harvesting and regeneration occur every year in each stand, regeneration and survival rate of seedlings may be challenged by human activities.
6.3.1 Seed releasing tree selection In order to enhance success of natural regeneration, healthy mature cone bearing trees should be selected. The trees must be selected in different parts of each forest stand. Each protected seed releasing tree should be marked with a ribbon, paint or signage indicating that it has been selected for non-harvesting. Cones of protected trees should not be collected for at least two consecutive years. During these years, trees release seeds and naturally regenerate around mother trees as shown in Figure 27. After completion of the protection period, these trees can be harvested and other trees must be chosen as protected seed producing trees.
6.3.2 Number of trees protected for seed dispersal The number of protected seed producing trees chosen for each 2-year period depends on the stand density. Tree density in chilgoza dominated stands averages 445 individuals per hectare and is lower than that in mixed or degraded stands. Thus, it is recommended that at least 20% of the stand density should be designated for acceptable natural regeneration. For instance, if a stand contains 300 trees per hectare, then 60 trees per hectare should be protected and the rest can be harvested for pine nuts. The protected seed producing trees should be well scattered around the stand.
Figure 27. Mechanism of natural regeneration of chilgoza pine using individual tree protection method.
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6.3.3 Protection and monitoring Protected trees should be marked or painted so that harvesters would know not to collect cones from these trees. Fuelwood collection, grazing and other activities must be prohibited in an area surrounding the protected trees' crowns. Community members or shura members must monitor protected trees, especially during harvesting season. After germination, newly regenerated seedlings must be protected from grazing, browsing and trampling until seedlings become viable saplings.
6.4 Partial cone harvesting The objective of this method is to assist natural regeneration by leaving a certain number of cones on each tree of a given stand or within the entire forest. The advantage of this method is that it will allow all trees to take part in natural regeneration by dispersing seeds from the remaining cones. An additional advantage of this method is that the genetic diversity would be greater among all the new cohorts. The disadvantage of this system is that since villagers are harvesting cones from the stand every year, there is a higher chance of seedling trampling, as well as grazing and browsing if animals are allowed into the forest.
6.4.1 Number of cones to be left Under this technique it is recommended that at least 20% of cones be left on each tree crown. It is recommended that cones on the upper branches are better to leave unharvested than those on the lower branches since they are unreachable and difficult to harvest. Likewise, trees can more easily be damaged when such cones are harvested from upper branches. Once seeds are dispersed, the stand should be managed to minimize grazing and trampling of seedlings for at least 2 years to create successful new cohorts. In the autumn of year-1, seeds are released, in the following spring they germinate and from spring of year-2 to fall of year-3, the seedling will have two growing seasons to grow and establish.
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Figure 28. Area of cones to be left at upper crown of tree.
6.5 Integrated harvesting An integration of the above alternatives can also be implemented to enhance natural regeneration. For instance, variant B of rotational harvesting can be applied in one patch of the forest while simultaneously, scattered individual trees are protected in the remainder of the forest area. Application of two or more strategies may be successful, however it may minimize yield and revenue for local villagers. Likewise, it may make forest management somewhat more complicated.
6.6 Other strategies The above alternatives mainly focus on sustainable harvesting of pine cones in order to improve natural regeneration in chilgoza forest stands. Along with sustainable use, other strategies such as declaration of lands as protected or preserved sites, nursery establishment and reforestation projects, and raising awareness through outreach campaigns (media, newspaper, radio etc.) may also be effective. Raising awareness may be one of the most important factors to play a role in chilgoza pine conservation and sustainable use. Both experts and local villagers suggest this component as part of conservation activities in the future. Establishment of nurseries and out-planting projects
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(artificial regeneration) along with natural regeneration is also important in order to maintain genetic diversity. There are highly degraded forest stands (very few scattered trees) where natural regeneration may not be successful. Also, in some areas chilgoza pine might have completely disappeared and thus it is important to establish chilgoza pine nurseries and out-plant seedlings in such areas.
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Appendix A: List of community members/village participants Name Shahid Marjan Qari Umar Gul Azizullah Shamanroz Rozi Khan Jahatullah Khan Chinar Ghani Haji Dadullah Uzair Shahsuar Haji Lalmarjan Gul Sayed Haji Hakim Jan Abdul Samad Saleh Mir Sakhi Jan Karamat Hayatullah Abdur Rahman Syed Mohammad Sheren Jan Juwaldar Sher Mohammad Sher Dad Khan Syed Karam Nasrullah Kamal Khan Nawroz Ulfat Gul Pacha Mohammad Jalal Abdul Malik Gul Ahmad Khyal Mohammad Abdul Jabbar
Province Laghman Laghman Nangarhar Nangarhar Nangarhar Kunar Nangarhar Nangarhar Nursitan Nursitan Nursitan Nangarhar Nangarhar Nangarhar Khost Khost Khost Paktika Khost Khost Paktika Paktika Paktika Paktika Paktika Paktia Paktika Paktika Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia
District Alisheng Alisheng Pachiragam Pachiragam Hisarak Sarkano Hisarak Sherzad Mandol Paroon Wama Achin Khogyani Achin Esmailkhel Esmailkhel Musakhel Urgun Qalandar Nadershah Kot Barmal Sarobi Urgun Urgun Urgun Wuze Zadran Gomal Urgun Syed Karam Syed Karam Zurmat Spera Ahmad Aba Ahmad Aba Ahmad Aba
Village Kala Bazara Kuhna pal Bamkhel Garikhel Azra Khas-Hisarak Samankhel Doab Kantiwa Dehbala Nakorkhel Mamandara Okhel Tarakhel Zorkot Peshtay Nawaykot Syed Dok Luwarge Pergotay Bonarkala Chapekhel Shahedkara Hasankhel Ghoch Kandarkhel Khoshikhel Sahak Rud Esiakhel Rud Gharak Zarinkhel
Occupation Farmer Farmer Farmer Farmer Local trader Local trader Farmer Farmer Local trader Local trader Farmer Local trader Local trader Local trader NGO employee Forestry officer Extension officer Driver Clerk Farmer Driver Farmer Driver Farmer Driver Farmer Shopkeeper Unemployed Clerk Tribal leader DAIL employee DAIL employee District governor DAIL employee DAIL employee
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Mohammad Farooq Naqeebullah Mohammad Bilal Asadullah Mohammad Ayoub Abdul Wali Khan Nek Mohammad Mohammad Akbar Haji Mohammad Rasool Abdul Qayoum Haji Nawsherwan Qari Syed Agha Kalimullah Mohammad Azim Khanjan Mohammad Bilal Haji Ziaratgul Bakhtyar Asifkhel Asif Rahman Mujahed
Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Khost Khost Khost Kapisa Kapisa Laghman Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia Paktia
Ahmad Aba Syed Karam Syed Karam Chamkani Wuze Zadran Wuze Zadran Tanai Tanai Tanai Nijrab Alasai Mehtarlam Ahmad Aba Spera Aryob Zazai Aryob Zazai Aryob Zazai Aryob Zazai Aryob Zazai Aryob Zazai Aryob Zazai
Machalgho Khandkhel Kohstin Mullakhel Shwand Spabekhle Shege Dargi Wuzdala Hussain Khankhel Eshpe Churakhel Gulkari Shamsher Abad Naghi Kuza Shaga Alikhel Shaga Shaga Shaga Sargul Shaga
DAIL employee Teacher Social activist Journalist Farmer District governor NGO employee District governor Tribal leader Local trader Local trader Local trader DAIL employee District governor Retired officer Farmer DAIL employee Shura member Social activist DIAL employee DIAL employee
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Appendix B: Number of participants per district and province within chilgoza pine region Province
District Alasai Kapisa Nijrab Esmailkhel Mandozai Musakhel Khost Nadershah Kot Qalandar Tanai Kunar Sarkano Alisheng Laghman Mehtarlam Achin Hisarak Nangarhar Khogyani Pachiragam Sherzad Mandol Nuristan Paroon Wama Ahmad Aba Aryob Zazai Chamkani Paktia Spera Syed Karam Wuze Zadran Zurmat Barmal Gomal Paktika Sarobi Urgun Total 56
No of participant 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 5 7 1 2 4 3 1 1 1 1 5
Total 2
8
1 3
8
3
23
8
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Appendix C: List of representatives from participating GOs and NGOs Name of participant Syed Aminullah Fakhri Nabi Hamidullah Nazar Haji Ayoub Mohammad Safar Noor Habib Matiullah
Organization DNR/MAIL Paktia DAIL Nangarhar DAIL Laghman DAIL Khost DAIL Paktika DAIL Kunar DAIL
Mujtaba Bashari
UNEP
Job title Forest management manager Forestry officer Forestry officer Forestry officer Forestry officer Forestry officer Forestry officer Biodiversity project coordinator
Cell phone (79) 910-7362 (77) 831-3125 (79) 956-8513 (79) 927-9123 (77) 314-5003 (77) 165-9320 (70) 061-8966 (79) 069-7332
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Appendix D: Regeneration status versus livestock grazing statistics Regeneration Status Fair regeneration
Poor regeneration
No regeneration Total
Livestock Grazing No grazing Grazing 15 Frequency 10 18 27 Percent 40 60 Row % 27 Frequency 2 4 48 Percent 7 93 Row % 2 Frequency 0 0 4 Percent 0 100 Row % 44 Frequency 12 21 79 Percent Statistics
Total 25 45 29 52 2 4 56 100
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Appendix E: Regeneration status versus fuelwood collection statistics Regeneration Status Fair regeneration
Poor regeneration
No regeneration Total
Fuel wood Collection No collection Frequency 7 Percent 13 Row % 28 Frequency 1 Percent 2 Row % 3 Frequency 0 Percent 0 Row % 0 Frequency 8 Percent 14 Statistics
Collection 18 32 72 28 50 97 2 4 100 48 86
Total 25 45 29 52 2 4 56 100
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Appendix F: Community member questionnaire Current Status and Trends in Chilgoza Pine Forests of Afghanistan: Assessment of chilgoza forests condition, regeneration status, anthropogenic pressure, exploitation, and conservation efforts
Community Member Questionnaire Date: Name of Participant: Cell phone: Province:
District:
Village:
Occupation:
1. Is there a forest nearby to your village where you can collect forest products? No
Yes
2. Which kinds of tree species are found in the forest?
3. What are the different kinds of non-wood forest products that are collected from the forest?
4. What is the most important or valuable non-wood forest product collected from the forest?
IF PINE NUTS ARE COLLECTED (YES TO ANSWER #3 ABOVE): 5. Are chilgoza pine forests common/shared property owned by each village/tribe or are parts of the pine forest owned by individual families?
Village/Tribe
Individual Families
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6. Who harvests pine cones; people from your village or outsiders (contractors)? Villagers
Outsiders/Contractors
7. How is the money earned from pine nuts divided between all of the villagers? Equally to all villagers
By the amount of work done
Other (explain)?
8. If you harvest your chilgoza pine cones by means of foreign outsiders/contractors, what is the main reason for this?
9. Have there been any conflicts between households in your village, or between neighboring villages over the access to chilgoza pine forests or the distribution of money from selling pine nuts?
No
Yes
10. If yes, what was/is the reason for the conflict(s)? Have these conflicts been resolved, and if so, how were they resolved?
COLLECTION, DRYING AND PROCESSING METHODS 11. What are all of the tools and equipment that are used for pine cone collection?
12. How do you dry the pine cones? Naturally in the sun
Roasting with fire
A different process (explain)?
13. How do you remove the seeds from the cones?
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By cutting the cones open
By beating on a hard surface
Other (explain)?
14. Who do you sell your chilgoza pine nuts to?
15. Do you sell your pine nuts to the same person/buyer every year?
No
Yes
16. On average, how much money do you earn for 1 kg of your chilgoza pine nuts?
17. What is the average yearly income for your family from selling the chilgoza pine nuts?
18. Has the income you earn from selling pine nuts increased, decreased, or mostly stayed the same in the past ten years (or does it go up and down every year)?
Increased
Decreased
Mostly stayed the same
Varies every year
CONSERVATION ISSUES 19. Do you have village or tribe rules or regulations for protecting and conserving chilgoza pine forests?
No
Yes (explain)?
20. Do you see natural regeneration (seedlings surviving) in your chilgoza pine forests?
No
Yes
21. What is the condition or health of the new young trees in your chilgoza pine forest? 1 = no regeneration
2 = poor
3 = fair/medium
4 = good
5 = very good
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22. Do you think that your pine forests are being damaged or destroyed? No
Yes
23. If your pine forests are being damaged, is it caused by any of the following activities? (Is your pine forest being damaged…) 1) From damage to trees caused by harvesting pine cones
No
Yes
2) From collecting too many pine cones
No
Yes
2) By grazing animals eating and trampling new seedlings
No
Yes
3) From cutting branches and trunks for fuel wood collection
No
Yes
4) From damage by insects and diseases
No
Yes
5) Because of drought and dry conditions
No
Yes
6) Other (explain)?
24. Do you graze your livestock in the pine forests? No
Yes
25. Do you collect fuel wood from your pine forests? No
Yes
26. Do you know that chilgoza pine trees are in a near threatened status because the pine cones are being over harvested and new trees are not forming? No
Yes
27. Are you interested in learning about your pine forests and what you can do to protect them so that the forests are healthy and productive for your children and their children?
No
Yes
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28. Do you have any suggestions for how the chilgoza pine forests should be protected?
Thank you for your participation
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Appendix G: GO/NGO questionnaire Current Status and Trends in Chilgoza Pine Forests of Afghanistan: Assessment of chilgoza forests condition, regeneration status, anthropogenic pressure, exploitation, and conservation efforts
GO and NGO Questionnaire Date: Name of Participant: Organization: Position/Job Title: Cell phone:
1. Does your organization conduct work on forests, or forest related issues in the Eastern Forest Complex of Afghanistan? No
Yes
2. In what provinces, districts and villages has your organization operated these forest programs?
3. Do most villagers that your organization works with understand that chilgoza pine trees are being overharvested and are a near threatened species before you work with them?
No
Yes
4. Are there any government programs that you are aware of that are working on sustainable pine nut forest programs? Please list…
5. Are there any NGOs or Donor Agencies that you are aware of that are working on sustainable pine nut forest programs? Please list…
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6. Has your organization conducted any research or studies on the chilgoza forests of the Eastern Forest Complex? If so, are the results of this work available for review? 7. What are the most significant issues that limit chilgoza pine forest regeneration? (use ) o
Livestock grazing
o
Livestock browsing
o
Fuel wood collection
o
Pine cone collection
o
Drought and dry conditions
o
Insects and disease
o
Others (explain)?
8. Which of the following issues do you think are the major drivers of deforestation in chilgoza pine forests? (use ) o
Economic problems (poverty)
o
Lack of local governance
o
Social issues/conflict
o
Lack of education and awareness
o
Insufficient access to science and technology resources
o
Others (explain)?
9. Has your organization conducted chilgoza nursery or seedling production projects? No
Yes
10. Has your organization conducted out-planting or irrigation of chilgoza seedlings? No
Yes
11. Has your organization conducted seed broadcasting projects to promote pine forest regeneration? No
Yes
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12. Describe the objectives of the chilgoza pine forest restoration projects that your organization has worked on? 13. What are the most successful ways that communities can be helped to protect and conserve their pine nut forests? 14. If possible, please provide the following information about your pine forest programs:
Project name
Years Conducted
No. of
No. of
seedlings
stocks out
generated
planted
Amount of seed
Survival rate
broadcasted (kg)
Thank you for your participation!
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USAID/Afghanistan U.S. Embassy Compound Great Masood Road Kabul, Afghanistan Tel: 202.216.6288 www.usaid.gov/afghanistan
ABADE The Baron Hotel Airport Road, Khwaja Rawash Kabul, Afghanistan Phone: +93 (0) 797 957 209 www.abade.org
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