Agricultural Expansion And Its Impact On Environment

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November, 2012

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Content: Sl. No. 1.

Title Behaviour Of Reinforced Column Made Of Hollow Brick Subjected To Eccentric Compressive Load

Author Mr. M K Maroliya

2.

Ekajuk “Proverbial Cult Of Obscenity”: Lessons In Traditional Artistic Education, Emotional Catharsis Or Profanity

Francis Mowang Miichael Bonchuk

&

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Mirza A.T.M. Tanvir Rahman, Zakia Aktar, Manoranjan K. Mondal & Tanvir Ahmed

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Kofi Asante-Kyei & Patrick Owusu Ansah

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Design Of An Automobile Tilting Device Using Hydraulic System

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Participation Of Weaker Sections In Panchayati Raj Institutions Of Jammu And Kashmir

Ashwani Kumar

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On Linear Complex Growth Rate In RotatoryThermosolutal Convection In Rivlin-Ericksen Viscoelastic Fluid In A Porous Medium

Ajaib S. Banyal

141

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Quality Education In Ghana: The Way Forward

Dr. Joe Adu-Agyem & Patrick Osei-Poku

Dr.

155

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Pedagogical Situations And Learning Outcomes In Graphic Design In Selected Senior High Schools In The Kumasi Metropolis Of Ghana

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164

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178

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192

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Role of co-Curricular Activities On Academic Performance Of Students: A Case Study In Some Secondary Schools Of Burdwan District In West Bengal,India

Dr. Pankaj Kumar Paul & Sunil Kumar Baskey

201


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Ganyi

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14.

Role of co-Curricular Activities On Academic Performance Of Students: A Case Study In Some Secondary Schools Of Burdwan District In West Bengal,India

Dr. Pankaj Kumar Paul & Sunil Kumar Baskey

213

15.

The Influence Of Sources Of Information On Adoption Of Rice Production Technologies By Farmers In Borno State,Nigeria

Ibrahim, A.A., Ani, A.O. & Mustapha, S.B.

224

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Bzugu, P.M, Mustapha, S.B & eogun, F.A.

237

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A Study Of Occupational Stress In Relation To Demographic Variables

Ms.Ritu Rani & Dr. Ajmer Singh

253

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Dr. Mani Ahmed

271

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Shikha Kuchhal & Rakesh Verma

285

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Utpal Khara & Biplab Das

306

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Dr. Dinesh Das

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Dr. Sunita Rana

328

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Rudimentary Testing And Evaluation In Language Acquisition

Dr.(Mrs).N.L.N.Jayanthi

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A Critical Appraisal Of Corporate Social Responsibility (Csr) Practices By Business Organisations In Nigeria

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Dr. Vikas Saraf, Dr. N.C.Jain & Dr. Mahendra Singhai

Traditional Sports And Martial Arts Of Meghalaya

Dr. S. Ranjit Singh N. Sunderlal Singh


616

632

690

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November, 2012

Vol 1 Issue 9

ISSN: 2278 – 0211

Behaviour Of Reinforced Column Made Of Hollow Brick Subjected To Eccentric Compressive Load Mr. M K Maroliya Assistant Professor, Applied Mechanics Dept, Faculty Of Technology & Engineering, M.S. University Of Baroda, Vadodara,India

Abstract: Inherent advantages of brick masonry have made it popular in construction industries. Relatively low tensile strength of brick work has restricted its use to compression members only, this limitation can be eliminated by incorporating reinforcement in hollow brick masonry. Present investigation includes construction and testing of reinforced hollow brick column subjected to eccentric loading, results shows good correlation with the column design by limit state design method, also it is observed that the effect of reinforcement is significant. The composite action of bricks, grout and reinforcement controls the rate of crack development and prevent sudden and total collapse, the reinforcement reserve strength beyond first cracking.

Keywords: masonry construction, hollow brick, masonry column, brick masonry.


Page 1

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1.Introduction Shelter is one of the three basic requirements of human being. Initially ancient man started living in caves excavated below ground level on near the hill ends .thereafter, they started constructing walls from mud, and in due course of time, the developed the techniques of burnt clay brick masonry to form the structural part of the shelter. Bricks and Bricks masonry

have been used in building activities for centuries and they

continues to dominates among commonly used building materials. Building construction is a multi disciplined technology. It involves an exchange of thoughts, experience and ideas among those engaged in the various disciplined of the construction activity in order to achieve overall economy and proper serviceability of the construction project at hand. It should also make use of innovative methods in the field of material technology by the use of improved materials resulting in the production of economical, aesthetically acceptable and durable structure. The resistance to any change comes not only from the artisans and makers but even from engineers, contractors, owners and public in general.It is a human attitude of unwillingness to come out of a well established route. Load bearing wall is one of the oldest structural systems. Man has laid one stone upon another and built walls to support roof or floor. This system was then replaced by frame structures for economy, as the load bearing walls being thick; require a large quantity of materials.

2.Experimental Program The basic object of present study is to know the load carrying capacity of reinforced hollow brick columns under combined bending and axial stress. Before starting actual construction of test specimens, it was necessary to know the characteristic compressive. Strength fck of brick masonry assemblage, Therefore, characteristic compressive strength of masonry assemblage was determined through prism test. Next the question arised about the application of an eccentric load to the masonry columns. The problem was overcome by providing reinforced concrete projection at top and bottom of columns. The R.C. projections were designed to safely transfer the moment to column. The experimental program including testing of twelve reinforced hollow brick columns. All columns were 1.80 m high 230 mm x 230 mm cross-section. Out of these twelve INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

Page 2

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November, 2012

Vol 1 Issue 9

columns, two columns were subjected to axial load while others were subjected to eccentric load. The eccentricity of vertical load was kept as 50 mm, 100 mm, 20 mm, 300 mm and 400 mm for sets of columns. Each set of columns includes six columns. Before construction of test columns various tests were conducted on brick, cement and cement mortar to check their adequacy. Prism test was also carried out to know the characteristic compressive strength of brick masonry. The characteristic compressive strength of brick masonry was used to calculate, theoretically, load carrying capacity of columns and accordingly R.C. projections were designed as cantilever beams, subjected to point loads.

3.Materials And Specimens Brief discussion of various materials used in the experimental work is as follows.

3.1.Bricks The specially prepared hollow Bricks were used for the construction of reinforced brick column specimens. Hollow bricks were manufactured from fired clay. Size of each unit was 23 cm x 11 cm x 7.6 cm and each unit was having two cells of plan dimension 6 cm x 8 cm. The crushing strength and water absorption tests were conducted according to IS : 3495 - 1976. To determine crushing strength, six bricks were selected at random and then tested under compression Testing machine according to procedure laid in is:3495 (part-I). The Test results are as follows.

Sr no

Net area (mm2)

Crushing load (t)

Crushing load (n)

Crushing strength (N/mm2)

1

15700

20.5

205000

13.2

2

15700

16.0

160000

10.2

3

15700

15.0

150000

09.6

4

15700

21.0

210000

13.4

5

15700

15.5

155000

09.9

6

15700

18.5 185000 Table 1: Crushing Strength Of Bricks

11.8


Page 3

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November, 2012

Vol 1 Issue 9

Average crushing strength of hollow brick unit = 11.3 n/ mm2 The water absorption test for brick was carried out as specified in is: 3495 (part-II). Six oven dry brick units were weighed separately (w1) and then immersed in cold water for 24 hours. After 24 hours these units were taken out of the water and allowed to drain for one minute by placing them on a wire mesh and then weighed immediately (w2). The percentage water absorption determined as

Sr.no

Dry weight w1 grm

24 hrs. wt weight w2 grm

% water absorption

1

2025

2365

16.79

2

2020

2345

16.09

3

2040

2385

16.91

4

1990

2310

16.08

5

2010

2340

16.42

6

2025

2360

16.54

Table 2: Water Absorption Test Results Average percentage water absorption by hollow bricks = 16.47%

3.2.Mortars Ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS: 269-1976, Sand used for preparation of mortar was river sand, medium to coarse in nature. Water used for preparation of mortar was drinking water.

3.3.Compressive Strength Of Mortar Cement mortar used for brickwork was in the proportion of 1:3. The compressive strength of mortar was determined as specified in IS: 2250-1981. Five cubes of 50 cm3 area were casted of cement mortar at different stages of construction after 28 days of curing, cubes were tested on compression testing Machine. Test results are represented in Table-3.0


Page 4

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November, 2012

Sr.no

Area cm2

Load kg

Compressive strength (kg/cm2)

1

50

8000

160

2

50

7650

153

3

50

7900

158

4

50

8500

170

Vol 1 Issue 9

Av. Strength kg/cm2

Is:2250-1981 specified Stret

160.25

75 and above

Table 3: Compressive Strength Of Mortar Thus the mortar mix used for the construction of columns was conforming to the IS code.

3.4.Grout The ingredients of grout i.e. cement, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates used were conforming to IS codes depending upon the dimension, and the coarse grout was used. According to UBC standards, the mix proportion for coarse grout is 1:3:2 by volume. For reinforced hollow concrete blocks, IS: 2572 specifies that a coarse grout in a proportion of 1:2:3 by volume was used. The w/c ratio was kept as 0.65 to achieve required workability.

3.5.Compressive Srength Of Grout As there is no IS specification for grout testing, test samples were obtained according to UBC standards. Test samples were having h/d ratio of 2.0 the cross-sectional dimension of test samples was 7.6 cm X7.6 cm. The test results are given in Table-4.0 The average compressive strength of grout is 11.02 N/mm2 which is slightly less than the crushing strength of bricks. Thus grout was adequate because grout should not have strength more than crushing strength of brick.


Page 5

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November, 2012

Sr.no

Area cm2

Load kg

Compressive strength (kg/cm2)

1

57.76

6500

112.54

2

57.76

6250

108.21

3

57.76

6700

116.20

4

57.76

6000

103.90

Vol 1 Issue 9 Av. Compressive Strength kg/cm2

110.2

Table 4:Compressive Strength Of Grout Average compressive strength of grout = 11.02 N/mm2 3.6 Characteristic Compressive Strength Of Masonary The compressive strength of masonry assemblage was determined by prism test. Three prisms of 23 cm X 23 cm x 46 cm sizes in 1:3 cement mortars were casted. Grouting was done using the same grout mix as used for columns. Test prisms before and after testing are shown in plates attached. The results of test are given in table-5.0

Sr no

Prism size cm x cm x cm

Area (cm2)

Load (kg)

1

23 x23 x 46

529

37500

Compressive strength 9kg/cm2) 70.89

2

23 x23 x 46

529

36000

68.05

3

23 x 23 x 46 529 40500 76.56 Table 5:Compressive Strength Of Masonry

Average compressive strength strength = 71.8 kg/cm2 Thus characterstic compressive strength of masonry assemblage, fk = 0.73 X 7.18

= 5.25 N/mm2

4.Description Of Test Columns All the test columns were having a cross-section of 230 mm X 230 mm and height of 10.80m.the details of reinforcement and the joint mortar used in various columns was as given in table-6


Page 6

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Sr.no

Size of columns

Main Transverse reinforcement reinforcement

1 2

230 mm x 230mm 230 mm x 230mm

4-#10 4-#12

#6 @ 160 c/c #6 @ 160 c/c

Vol 1 Issue 9 Mortar mix

No. of columns

1;3 1:3

6 6

Table 6: Test Columns Details 4.1.Construction Of Test Columns From construction point of view, test columns can be divided in two groups. First group includes those four columns which were subjected to loads at eccentricity less than or equal to 50 mm. second group includes those eight columns which were subjected to vertical loads at eccentricity more than 50 mm. Construction of first group of columns was started on a polythene sheet, speeded on the floor. Cement mortar in proportion of 1:3 was used. After laying just two courses reinforcing bars were kept in place, because lateral ties were to be placed after every two courses. Thereafter bricks and ties could be placed only after threading them through the longitudinal reinforcing bars. Grouting was done after every two courses with 1: 2:3 concrete. Columns were casted in three days with a lift of 0.6m each day. Construction of second group of columns was carried out in three stages. In the first stage a R.C. projection of required size was casted using M20 concrete. A wooden formwork was used for casting. Second stage includes actual casting of 1.8 m high columns. Construction procedure is same as specified for first group of columns. In third stage, reinforcing bars bent according to design and vertical stirrups were tied at suitable spacing. After doing shuttering, centering and leveling, concreting and leveling, concreting was done using M20 concrete mix. Curing of R.C. projection was done for 28 days using gunny bags. Curing period for brick columns was kept 14 days. The reinforcement provided for columns, was extended in to top and bottom projections, to avoid any joint failure between brick columns and R.C. projection.

4.2.Testing Of Columns Testing of columns was carried out on compression Testing Machine. For both axially and eccentrically loaded columns, the experimental set up is as shown in plates. Testing of columns was carried out by successively increasing eccentricity of loading from 0 to 400 mm. For the application of eccentric load, top spherical seating was replaced by a roller, provided at top and bottom.The test columns were adjusted and leveled properly on compression Testing machine. Then the load at requisite eccentricity was applied on R.C. projections, through rollers, was transferred to the brick columns as INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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a moment and axial load P. Load was increased gradually till initial cracks appeared first. The loading was continued further, gradually, till ultimate failure occurred.

5.Results And Discussions The reinforced hollow brick columns were tested after 28 days of curing. The test results are represented in tabular form in TABLE-5.7 and table 5.8

Sr.no

Eccentricity(mm) A

Ultimate load (t) B

Applied moment in N-m=Axbx10

1

0

22.5

0

2

50

14.9

7450

3

100

10.2

10200

4

200

5.95

11900

5

300

4.25

12750

6

400

3.5

14000

Table 7:Hollow Brick Column Reinforced With 4-10 # Hysd Bars

Sr.no

Eccentricity(mm) A

Ultimate load (t) B

Applied moment in N-m=Axbx10

1

0

33.0

0

2

50

19.75

9875

3

100

13.1

13100

4

200

7.25

14500

5

300

5.1

15300

6

400

4.1

16000

Table 8:Hollow Bricks Columns Reinforced With 4-12 # Bars

6.Conclusion The characteristic compressive strength of brick masonry assemblage must be obtained through actual field tests – instead of directly taking from codes.


Page 8

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Effect of reinforcement is significant. Plain brick masonry is very weak in tension, especially when it is under eccentric load, but due to presence of reinforcement in columns the moment carrying capacity will be increased. The load carrying increases significantly with increase in percentage reinforcement. Load factor obtained from working stress method varies from 2.0 to 3.0 for axially loaded columns and from 4.5 to 6.75 for eccentrically loaded columns. These high values of load factor are reasonable because of large factor of safety in formula. Load factor obtained from limit state method varies from 1.0 to 1.5 for axially loaded columns. While for eccentrically loaded columns it varies from 1.9 to 2.3 in all cases except one. The load factor for columns subjected to vertical load at eccentricity of 50 mm is less than one. This may be because of poor workmanship especially for grouting of hollow cells of columns. The initial cracks become visible at loads ranging from 70 to 80 % of respective ultimate failure loads in all cases i.e. there is a significant reserve of strength beyond initial cracking. Failure of reinforced hollow brick column under axial compressive load is due to breakdown of bond between grout and brick shells, leading to the formation of vertical cracks in columns. The column subjected to smaller eccentric loading fails essentially due to crushing of brickwork of more compressed face. The columns subjected to vertical loads at larger eccentricity fails due to excessive bending. The grout (1:2:3) provides bond for reinforcement, thus composite behavior of materials was present. This composite action controls the rate of crack development and prevents sudden add total collapse. The moment carrying capacity of reinforced column using hollow bricks must be more than that of solid brick column. This is because of longer level arm available in hollow brick column for the same column cross-section. In axially loaded columns, failure has taken place at top. While in eccentrically loaded failure occurs within middle third of the column height.


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7.Reference 1. K. Datta. “Experimental Researches on Reinforced Brickwork”. 2. K. Datta. “Reinforced Brickwork Pitching”. 3. P. Sinha, A. W. Hendry, S. R. Davies. “Introduction to load bearing brickwork design”. 4. P. Sinha, M. D. Loftus, R. Temple. “Lateral strength of model brickwork panels”, Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineering, Part-II, Mar. 1979-67, page 191197. 5. Bricks their properties & uses: Brick Development Association, England. 6. CP-111-1964 – structural recommendations for load bearing walls (BSI). 7. David Lenezner. “Elements of load bearing brickwork”, International Monographs in Civil Engineering, Vol.5. 8. A.Macleod, S. A. Adu.El.Magd. “The behaviour of brick walls under conditions of settlement”, The Structural Engineer – Sept-1980, Vol. 58A. 9. IS 269-1976 – Specification for ordinary and low heat Portland cement. 10. IS 456-1978 – Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete. 11. IS 1077-1976 – Specification for common burnt clay building bricks. 12. IS 1905-1980 – Code of practice for structural safety of Buildings: Masonry walls. 13. IS 2180-1070 – Specification for heavy burnt clay building bricks. 14. IS 2212-1962 – Code of practice for brickwork. 15. IS 2250-1981 – Code of practice for preparation and use of Masonry mortars. 16. IS 2572-1963 – Code of practice for construction of hollow concrete block masonry. 17. IS 3102-1971 – Classification of burnt clay bricks. 18. IS 3495-1976 – Methods of tests of burnt clay building bricks. Part I to IV. 19. “Masonry-Materials, Properties and Performance”, J. G. Borchelt (Editor) – ASTM-STP 778. 20. Masonry-Research, Application and problems – Grogan and Conway (Editors) – ASTM-STP 871. 21. P. Dayaratnam-“Brick and reinforced brick structures”, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.


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22. R. Hulse, R. J. Ambrose, P. R. Lumbard. “The strength of reinforced brickwork spanning openings wall panels”, Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineering, Part-2, 1980-Sept., Page 835-844. 23. R. J. M. Sutherland. “Brick and block masonry in engineering”, Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineering, Part-I, Feb. 1981-70. 24. “Reinforced brickwork”, By Shaw Cement Service, New Delhi. 25. Robert R. Schneider, Walter L. Dickey. “Reinforced masonry Design – Prentice Hall Inc.


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Vol 1 Issue 7

ISSN: 2278 – 0211

Ekajuk “Proverbial Cult Of Obscenity”: Lessons In Traditional Artistic Education, Emotional Catharsis Or Profanity Francis Mowang Ganyi Dept. Of English And Literary Studies,University Of Calabar Miichael Bonchuk Dept. Of English And Literary Studies,University Of Calabar Abstract: Human society has consistently viewed obscenities with revulsion and disdain, yet every human language makes use of obscene utterances in its every day interactions. In several cases, obscenities provide the best stock of artistic resources which portray the literary and aesthetic content that carry the cultural or artistic ethos of that community. Psychologists and literary scholars have proffered reasons that aim at explaining the functionality of these societal tendencies towards obscene language use. Many have posited that obscenities could have positive values of relaxation and expurgation in society. In the attempt to assess the usefulness of obscenities in Ekajuk Society in Nigeria, this writer discovered that, among the Ekajuk, obscene language use has, sort of, assumed a cultic status as a result of its restricted usage while at the same time providing opportunities for the elders to code and decode massages in proverbial parlance. Since proverbs are the highest form of artistic use of language in traditional society, the appearance of obscenities in proverbs can be said to be the Ekajuk elders’ attempt, through language intensity, to achieve higher levels of attitude change in younger generations thus making for better societal cohesion. However, this has to be very subtly carried out in order not to institutionalize obscenities in the society and bring about moral decadence instead of the desired ethical rejuvenation of society.


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1.Introduction Drachler, in this summation recognizes the importance of proverbs, tales and traditional songs as the prime repository of traditional wit and wisdom which often go unnoticed. To the African, proverbs and tales are the evening theatre as well as daytime school for the education and instruction of younger generations, yet these same proverbs are sometimes suffuse with what may be described as obscene utterances which raise doubts about their relevance or utility in traditional contexts of usage. The attempt to satisfy this curiosity about the preponderance of supposedly obscene proverbs has led this writer to try to explore the aesthetics of language use and the utilitarian value in the obscene proverbs of Ekajuk people, a sub-tribe of the Ejagham Nation who inhabit the Northern confines of present day Cross River State. This kind of study becomes necessary for two reasons. First, despite the diversity of African languages, their importance as organs for shaping the communities, particularly their cosmic beliefs and environmental ethics cannot be played down upon. Secondly, and very importantly, as Drachler observes… the influence of Oral Literature will persist not only because African rural life continues but because new generations of African writers will probably continue to refresh themselves at this source, no matter how many springs or world Literature they choose to drink from. (P.16) Language, it is known, plays a vital role in the development of Literature. Therefore more and more African modes of creative expression receive continuous attention as more people seek to understand the thinking of Africans; their traditions and their literary models. Ekajuk language and culture form part and parcel of Ejagam cultural heritage and their proverbs reflect the dynamic quality of their traditions, the subtlety of their literary and artistic skills and their adaptability to changing circumstances. Ekajuk proverbs are thus seen as a valid expression of the creative imagination as well as a complex assessment of their relationship to their environment. J.L. Dohne (1969) therefore posits that… the highest object of language-study is to obtain an insight into the characters and thought-modes of mankind. He feels that this can be done in two ways; either by “an accurate acquaintance with the verbal forms in which its (i.e. the languages’) ideas find utterance” or “by the investigation of its literary compositions”. In Ekajuk community in particular and Africa generally, proverbs are not only time tested verbal forms for the expression of ideas but also constitute veritable literary compositions which serve as compact means to an understanding of the people’s cultural and linguistic heritage. Through them one INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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deciphers the cosmic belief system and the ideological and philosophical world view of the Ekajuk people. For this reason one feels that an analysis of the proverbs will not only portray the aesthetic content of language use but also, perhaps, reveal the reasons for the obscene or profane content of the proverbs. This is because despite the prime place of proverbs in Ekajuk linguistic hierarchy, obscenity easily creeps into their usage forcing one to ask “why” and “what purposes” obscenities serve in the language or community. Again, it is generally known that a language is the product of the environment. It emanates from the ecology of that environment as well as the peoples’ conceptual framework of their customs and beliefs which are consequently encapsulated in the language which best expresses their belief system. The use of proverbial obscenities may well explain the ecology of the group or their lives and experiences even though this may require authentication from universal or global views on obscenities. Timothy Jay (2009) therefore argues that… When scholars disregard or dismiss swearing [and obscenities] as irrelevant to a complete understanding of language, we are left with a polite or sanitized and therefore false science of language. The entirety of humanity, the angry, hateful or enticing emotional expressions all languages contain are ignored. Jay finally submits that… Swearing [and other obscene utterances inclusive] is a rich emotional, psychological and socio-cultural phenomenon with implications for those studying language acquisition, child rearing, gender differences, neuroscience, mental health, personality, person perception, Verbal Abuse (emphasis mine) and cross-cultural differences. It is evident that a lot has been written on the psychology of obscenities and profane or offensive language, and Jay agrees that “… it is scattered across scientific disciplines and throughout the subfields of psychology.” Though occupying a place of prominence in modern psychological studies, obscenities and offensive or objectionable language is not necessarily culture compliant particularly in traditional cultures where severe restrictions are imposed on their usage. The case with modern or cosmopolitan cultures may be a little different. Here, obscenities are no longer as shocking or as offensive as in traditional settings because of film cultures, GSM or even other mass communication expletives which have tended to socialize and so reduce the obnoxious potential of obscenities. One therefore notices that the use of obscenities in traditional societies seem to be the exclusive preserve of certain groups of people particularly elders thus, accruing to these elders a cultic attribute which endows them with the exclusive knowledge of the how and why obscenities are required. But even in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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these cases where obscenities are supposedly permitted, they are restricted to proverbial utterances which meanings are not very obvious. In spite of this restriction, the mention of the obscene word itself is still abhorrent or out rightly abominable. Also, it is observed that the meaning of the obscene proverb goes beyond the obscene utterance itself and encompasses life experiences that are peculiar to the entire community thus endowing the proverb as a veritable linguistic tool for encoding experience. Its usefulness as a means of studying language potential and inflections is invaluable. In Ekajuk community, the beauty of expression becomes evident when elders indulge in proverbial language which allows for a wide range of information or ideas to be expressed in very few words. The proverb therefore affords the elders opportunity to couch poignant language in very few and often veiled utterances. The usefulness of this is that the range of perception or understanding of the meaning of the coded message is reduced and the frequency of usage is also very minimal thus restricting the frequency and attractiveness of obscene language amongst all classes of people in the society. Moreover, the proverb is not just uttered, it requires an appropriate context for its use and contextual situations for obscene language use are few and far between. Of interest in Ekajuk community is what can also be described as the “Cult of cursing or abusive Language” which permits the use of obscenities or offensive utterances in public. Here, contests are organized between villages or age grades. One person each from the contesting villages or age grades are allowed to engage in abuses or curses aimed at one another or even extending to communal practices of contesting villages or age grades. Up to five or six sets of contestants may be allowed and at the end of each round, any contestant who runs out of abusive expletives loses to his opponent. The village or age grade with the highest number of winners from the overall rounds wins the contest. The importance of this is that the contest allows for practice in rhetoric and other oratorical devices. It opens up young people in the use of oratory and builds them up in public speech which is most desirable in a community dominated by oral communication. Such contests are judged and supervised by senior age grade members and no one is allowed to continue the use of these offensive utterances in public after the competition. A typical session runs thus 

Contestant I: Shab Shab Eshamarr Areh Nkpate Abang Nyi Meaning Look At Your Ugly Face Like A Calabash Of Shit


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Contestant II: shab shab eban ban nwul areh nnang nyi meaning look at your cut nose like a scorpion

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I: nyin abon akpade areh abon ti etal bah meaning look at your tiny legs like a black smiths bellow sticks

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II: Ba bah li ana abon ti wubu ebong go mbang egbeh meaning yours look like a farmers dew removal sticks

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I: Eri areh anyomo nneh meaning your penis looks like a mother fucker.

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II: ebfan ebah foongho nshor no nkul ntang ntang meaning infact the ugliness of your scrutum only rivals your grandsires [own]

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I: nyor alap alap areh ntarr anneh nyi meaning your mouth is as watery as your mother’s cunt

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II: ntarr ar nneh foonghor nyor nkong meaning your mother’s cunt resembles a snail’s mouth, it is never dry.

The contest continues this way until one contestant runs out of steam and loses and a new pair takes off there from. Again in the community, supposedly obscene or offensive objects could be couched in very beautiful or poetic language which affords them ironic or mock heroic stature e.g. Shit is described as nkonfee a njijanghe meaning the fly’s perfume or akorr nfonor shab nne ambol meaning attractive to the owner but repulsive to an outsider. Here the hateful or offensive essence is hidden from the public. In this perspective, Ekajuk world view favors proverbial language but represses and discourages obscenities except for utilitarian purposes. Ekajuk community in Ogoja Local Government Area of Cross River State is a predominantly illiterate society which maintains and transmits its history and culture in verbal utterances particularly proverbs which appear in all facets of traditional life. However, recently, with the widespread emphasis on Western formal education most nooks and cranies of the community can now boast of schools which enhance the spread of literacy in the area. This, notwithstanding, the preponderance of illiterate adults in most social discourse still emphasizes the paramountcy of orality as the major means of expression of the people’s cultural life. Proverbs, therefore, become handy as the quickest and most graphic methods of articulating traditional wisdom, ways of life and


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modes of thought. The book of proverbs tells us that… what a man thinks is what he really is (proverbs 23:7) thus raising the question Is the Ekajuk man inherently filthy in thought which manifests in his language or does he indulge in obscene language for mere pleasure or for the attainment of other societal goals?

2.Ekajuk World View Cosmology, world view and religion have remained the major means by which the African cultural experiences are best expressed and the African is known to be very deeply religious. To the average Ekajuk man, therefore, cultural practices become the basis for interaction and expression of individuality and communal integration. These same religious and cultural practices serve as a means of reconciliation of individuals, groups and the entire society to their universe and the external world. In all these, the proverb and other linguistic devices in the community serve as the literary and linguistic means for the expression of these cultural norms and practices as well as their religious outlook. The proverb, as a linguistic unit, occupies a central position in discourse as a time tested, relatively simple but complex and pregnant means of coding ideas. So the question still remains, if obscenities are abhorrent and offensive and serve no positive purpose, why are there obscene proverbs in Ekajuk language, or do obscenities exist in Ekajuk parlance?

3.The Meaning Of Obscenity The meaning of obscenity or obscene language has been a matter of controversy and defies appropriate definition. The dialectics of what connotes obscenity has for long defied legal, literary or political configuration. Ludwig Marcuse (1965) posits that obscenity “has several connotations”. Says Marcuse… There are two views to obscenity… the relativist point of view which states that the notion of obscenity differs from culture to culture, between communities within a single culture, and also between individuals within those communities, [AND] there is the contrasting universalist point of view which states … in the words of Susan Sontag in her essay The pornographic Imagination… that “the obscene is a primal notion of human consciousness, something much more profound than the backwash of a sick society’s aversion to the body.


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From this, one can presuppose that there is more to obscenity than its objectionable essence otherwise human linguistic and psychological development will not indulge in its creation and perpetration. Obscenity itself is traced to the Latin word “obscenus”, meaning foul, repulsive, or detestable”. It is derived from the Latin phrase “ob caenum”, meaning “from filth”. In legal contexts, it refers to words, images or expressions and actions which offend the morality of the time. Simply put, obscenity implies disgusting language, but disgusting language, as seen above, would differ from culture to culture, within a single culture and even between individuals within the same community. Therefore in Ekajuk language, “abi alum” refers to “bad words” while “ashab shab alum” refers to “dirty words”, both of which expressions connote obscene or lewd language, often frowned upon especially when used by young people. This kind of language is not meant for the public and is restricted to peer group conversation or sex talk between very intimate friends. Elders may use it to young people when it is meant to teach or educate them on the wisdom of the ancients. Anybody using obscene language flagrantly is regarded as demented or having a “dirty mind” and so, open to societal sanctions which may include ostracism, the worst punishment for a crime in Ekajuk community. The meaning of obscenity is thus not universal as cultures differ and generational gaps influence the severity of what constitutes obscene language. The difficulty of providing a suitable definition for obscenity has attracted several acts and laws in what is now considered the civilized or developed countries including both Britain and the United States, some of which include 

The obscene publications Act 1857

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The Comstock Law 1873

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And several court cases which judgments have impacted on the meaning of obscene or profane language notably

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The Miller case 1973 and

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The Roth case 1957 as well as the establishment of the United States Commission on obscenity and pornography. Furthermore, Judge Augustus Hand of the United States Court of Appeal for the second circuit held in 1933 that… Offensive language in a literary work is not obscene where it does not promote lust…


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Which would imply that where the supposedly obscene phrase or utterance is sincerely meant to portray a moral or teach a lesson, it may not pass for or be considered as obscene or offensive. This is why Susan Sontag (1967) describes obscenity as “a primal notion of human consciousness…” which would also imply that something can only be conceived of as obscene in the mind of the individual i.e. if one sees it as such. This position vindicates Henry V. Miler who argued that… Obscenity is really found [everywhere] in the world and he was simply [being] persecuted for telling the truth. Miller further asserts that the expression of obscenity, therefore, is just the human mind’s attempt to break away from what can be said to constitute repression of the individual in the modern civilized society, where institutionalized impositions inhibit free speech or free expression of an individual’s mind especially when it relates to sex. If this were correct, there would be no offensive language and hence no restrictions on language use and consequently nothing like obscenity. Perhaps this is why D. H Lawrence (1958) has posited that… When it comes to the meaning of anything, even the simplest word, then you must pause because there are two great categories of meaning, forever separate. There is mob-meaning, and there is individual meaning. Mob meaning implies what is known and held by everyone, perhaps through the ages; while individual meaning is contextualized, immediate, circumstantial and determined by the user whose intention is implied in the usage. Whichever way one defines it, obscenity is generally known to imply indecent, disgusting, lustful or offensive language to the senses. The question that immediately arises here is “why then do people use obscene language if it is always conceived of as indecent and offensive? Or to bring it home to our discussion, “why do Ekajuk proverbs contain obscenities? One may also argue, like Miller, that obscenities are universal and exist in all languages which argument does not make them acceptable or less offensive. Their occurrence in all languages can, therefore, only mean that they must serve a useful purpose or that there is something positive about them. They must serve a purpose or function relevant to societal advancement or cohesion.

4.Why People Use Obscenities In his book, The End of Obscenity: The Trials of Lady Chatterley, Tropic of Cancer and Fanny Hill, Charles Rembar (1968) opines that the victories at the U.S supreme court which legalized the sale of these works in America marked the end of whatever could be INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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regarded as obscene. The victory does not, however, imply that there is no more obscene language amongst human beings. It only means that in certain contexts, as in literary parlance, what may otherwise constitute obscenity could be tolerated particularly in the context of a literary work which is meant to teach or correct depravity or debasement. What is represented herein is therefore simply a simulation of obscenity and not obscenity itself which may or may not have been intended by the author. The overall purpose of the obscene utterance is what matters and what determines the obscene content of the material. Allison Pease buttresses this argument when she posits that modernism and mass culture have tended to collapse the distinction that existed in the past between aesthetics and obscenity. This is more so, she argues, as Charles Swinburne, James Joyce, and D. H. Lawrence have created what they styled “the aesthetic of the obscene”, which transforms debase or low cultural elements into a new kind of “high art”. (P.34). The argument rests on the point that artistic or aesthetic interest, insofar as it appeals to or pertains to the rational instinct and is impersonal, aims at collective gain and is devoid of obscenity while pornography or obscenity in itself provokes personal or sensual responses which are often selfish. The aesthetic of the obscene therefore, upholds beauty and merit in the portrayal of the obscene if the aim is to teach a moral for the upliftment and edification of humanity and the creation of a better society. In this vein, though obscene expressions may communicate or conjure up lewd emotions within us, they also aid the expression of deep seated or strong emotions which we suppress in our interactions and so help lessen pain thus serving a cathartic effect. This is because an obscene utterance may, infact; create a pleasant feeling, a feeling of relief from stress or stressful situations, particularly at school and in work environments. This perhaps is why in a celebrated case of obscenity between the United States vs. one book called Ulysses (1933), it is stated that Attorney Ernst downplayed the novel’s “subversive or potentially offensive elements”, and emphasized “its artistic integrity and moral seriousness”, thus leading judge John Woolsey to rule that:… The novel was serious and that its author was sincere and honest in showing how the minds of his characters operate and what they were thinking. In the judge’s words:… To have failed to honestly tell fully what his characters thought would have been artistically inexcusable. Furthermore, in the appeal to the Ulysses case Judge Augustus Hand further reiterated that … Art certainly cannot advance under compulsion to traditional forms and nothing INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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in such a field is more stifling to [artistic] progress than limitation of the right to experiment with a new technique. And finally Stuart Gilbert, (1930) still on the effect created by the novel Ulysses sums up the views by asserting that the passages… are, infact, cathartic and calculated to allay rather than to excite the sexual instincts. The significance of the judgments and Stuart’s assertion lies in the fact that in determining what is obscene, we must consider contemporary community standards. It is obvious that today’s global dialectics of communication discourse and technology pose no limitations on language use. Any kind of language appears on TV screens, on e-mails and face-book and there is no limitation to viewing, which ultimately impacts on the concept of what is or is not obscene. Also, in the United States, one of the tests of obscenity is “whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value”. If this is accepted as a test for obscenity it follows that serious artistry, literariness, political or scientific value increases the functional relevance of an otherwise obscene utterance and invariably detracts from its obscene potential while conversely adding to its aesthetic appeal. If we accept this argument, then Ekajuk so called “obscene proverbs” are overtly valuable and very relevant tools for the determination of the aesthetics of language use and adolescent instruction in Ekajuk community. The proverbs satisfy immediate demands of social interaction and cohesion. For this reason Maura Pilotti et al conclude that their findings on a research conducted on “Taboo words in Expressive Language reveal that… Obscenities are “offensive emotional language” whose recipient is an integral component of their use… [Thus] sex differences may exist for the recipients of such expressions but not for the perpetrators… Meaning that in most societies, human beings, at one point or the other in their lives, particularly as college students or adolescents are prone or susceptible to obscenities or foul language, especially as it relates to sexual relationships. Perpetration of obscenities becomes a common societal phenomenon of both men and women dictated by contemporary societal definition of ethics and appropriate language for cultural sustenance. Again Henry Miller (2010) asserts that some cultures believe that obscenities could serve a cleansing process while conversely pornography would offend the senses the more. Despite their cleansing content, obscenities are seen as anything which depraves or corrupts people whose minds are prone to such immoral influences T. Jay (2009) contends that… harm from offensive speech is contextually determined; therefore attempts to restrict speech on a universal basis are misguided [therefore] word INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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offensiveness or appropriateness depends on contextual variables, and our sensitivity to the context… Therefore, obscenities or offensive speech is, infact, to be determined by the society and its acceptance or aversion to the supposedly obscene utterance. If in a particular language, obscene utterances serve a positive purpose, then their obscene or offensive potential could be considered to be less and the utterance’s acceptability more enhanced. If profanities and swear words or obscenities have any relevance to language acquisition and child rearing as Timothy Jay (2009) imputes, then it is important that we analyze the contextual relevance of Ekajuk

”obscene proverbs” to establish why traditional or

rural communities lay emphasis on proverbial obscenities. Jay (2009) has adduced a number of reasons for the use of taboo or swear words which could apply to Ekajuk traditional communities to a very large extent. They include:Emotional or Cathartic effect Externalization of anger and frustration. Expression of abusive or insultive expletives which include blasphemy, sexual harassment, obscene phone calls, hate speech and other verbal abuses. He also adds Positive social outcomes like release of tension to avoid physical violence, to enhance jokes and humor, sex talk and storytelling. All of these are aimed at the promotion of social harmony. Generally therefore, obscene language as it pertains to the achievements of emotional or cathartic effect, externalization of anger or frustration in individuals, is predominantly used in quarrels between spouses, between friends and even between families. In quarrels, there is no limitation to the use of obscene language as the context is defined by anger or frustration. Such expletives as Edabe jia meaning you this stupid one Wo ji ma shinghi nkpangheyor ruku abor nenkal meaning you who have become a woman’s cunt washing vessel and Ekpel kpele eshmarr areh nyor ntarr mi meaning your smoothened face looks like the mouth of a vagina are easily used on an individual who has caused the annoyance. The effect of course is the release of tension which achieves cathartic effect. Timothy Jay (1977) feels that dirty words may serve a clean purpose i.e. of cleansing a person of his violent disposition which is vented only in angry and obscene or profane language. This, infact, is the externalization of anger and frustration.


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In relation to positive social outcomes, obscene language curbs vice or indecent behavior in public. It particularly aids the control of greed and avarice e.g.… Nyor goong gondi areh nyor eri mi meaning your mouth is ever downwards like the mouth of a penis This proverb is used to describe one who is never satisfied or a greedy man who is never forward looking but spends his time exploiting others to his own benefit. The individual so described often becomes a subject of ridicule and laughter in the community and this affects his personality rating. To regain his personality, he must curb greed and help to maintain societal harmony. In terms of jokes and humor, obscene proverbs abound and are commonly used by peer group members during work sessions to enhance relaxation and ease work stress or strain. Example is proverb seven in Ekajuk obscene proverbs which compare a hard working man to the scrutum that never rests but keeps swinging. The expression of abusive or insultive expletives and sexual harassment is properly expressed in proverbs one, two, five, six, eight and a host of others in Ekajuk obscene proverbs in this text.As already observed, obscene language in Ekajuk community can be accepted as explanations for the realization of any or most of these goals for societal cohesion. However, what seems peculiar to Ekajuk people is that obscene or objectionable language is the prerogative of adults, or, to a large extent, aged members of the community who resort to obscenities in pre-determined contexts thus making obscene language use a sort of cultic indulgence. For this reason I have decided to style this exercise or experience “a cult of obscenity” which membership is restricted or determined by age and experience. Elders enjoy this privilege because obscene language is tolerated in specific circumstances to be determined by the elder who judges the situation and may find the obscenity most appropriate for the transfer of cognitive experience.

5.The Ekajuk Proverbial Cult Of Obscenity: It’s Usefulness To Modern Society As I observed at the onset of this paper, proverbial language is traditional society’s chief medium of communication especially among the elders. Perhaps that is why obscene proverbs are also common among them. They come handy for the impartation of traditional knowledge especially as it pertains to sexual education. However, as I again observed earlier, formal Western education is fast spreading and replacing traditional education so what is the place of proverbs generally and obscene proverbs in particular in modern parlance? As traditional linguistic forms, proverbs are pithy, compact and aesthetically pleasant forms of verbal communication which aid vivid expression of INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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ideas. For this reason they continue to occupy a pride of place even in modern society particularly in situations of adjudication and education. M. Heins (2007) believes that … obscene language, by 20th and 21 st century standards includes “speech” that constitutes sexual harassment or discrimination e.g. patently offensive sexual and excretory references…Today, in Ekajuk culture, obscene language abounds in proverbs and in everyday speech. What this means is that even the younger generations may use obscene language but in restricted circles and only among their peer group. Elders use same much more freely but even here this kind of language is against the normal run of everyday life. The obscene proverb may not be uttered in the general context of conversational discourse that involves everybody except for purposes of instruction. In this context, the obscene proverb is not realized or used simply for its potential to evoke pleasurable emotions as in sex talk or peer group conversation. The import of usage here is purely instructional or for education hence is not objectionable. In this context, the obscene proverb represents a highly formalized pattern of language use which is a cryptic, pregnant linguistic expression that encapsulates the ancestral wisdom of the Ekajuk people. It also serves as a vivid means of graphically representing ideas and events or experiences for societal edification. Through them, elders indulge in experimentation on language growth and development as they weave or compose these proverbs to reflect different facets of human endeavor. An elder, Nshor Egre Mbrayip, observed that what youths engage in today defies simple everyday expression hence, he opts for proverbs which are sometimes obscene but still in keeping with societal experiences in modern times. For this reason, Timothy Jay again opines that … The ubiquity of taboo words [or obscenities] throughout the lifespan, across all known languages, demands a reformulation of theories of human language toward a more central role for taboo speech.A consideration of about thirty obscene proverbs in Ekajuk will portray the extent to which obscene proverbs can also convey the world view, thought and aesthetic beauty of Ekajuk proverbial language. They also portray how proverbs, along with other linguistic expressions, become handy as graphic means of instruction. Obscenities, here, are not objectionable but instead, serve a cathartic purpose of exposing younger generations to the implications of perverse sexual behavior which may explode in drastic consequences. The overall effect here is the release of pent-up sexual emotions thus making for positive societal advancement. This is necessary since children must come to know about obscenities through socialization of speech practices and excessive repression could breed negative attitudes. We must therefore see obscene INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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proverbs in Ekajuk language in the light of modern and global trends not just as objectionable linguistic constructs but as advancements aimed at capturing modern trends in cultural and linguistic development. As society metamorphoses from a predominantly oral culture to a written culture, it necessarily absorbs cultural traits which are foreign and alien to it. Since modern views of obscenities are more liberal, Ekajuk culture has grown to imbibe them as a means of education in Ekajuk cultural values.

6.Ekajuk “Obscene Proverbs” In considering obscene proverbs in Ekajuk, I have tried to translate them to bring out the full meaning and contexts of their usage but I must admit that my translations fall far short of the picturesque images created in the mind and emotions when the proverbs are rendered in the original Ekajuk language. Translation is not an easy task especially when one finds that the tonal nature of Ekajuk language and the fact that the writer is using English as a second language creates limitations which make it impossible to find exact correlates to represent the ideas being expressed in the proverb. 

Ekib kpomo mah babe mbaang

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The clitoris is a bad sentry. It allows free passage to visitors.

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Used to derogate a weak person given responsibility to guard valuables. They can easily be stolen.

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Ntarr kpo lun along bo kpe jam ebti-a?

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Does one thrust a stick into a naturally bleeding cunt?

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Used to denote a bad situation which is being aggravated instead of being ameliorated

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Ebor kpo toonor eri shong manghe ntarr

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The hand accompanies the penis to learn about the cunt

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Used to describe one who inadvertently accompanies another person to commit a crime he would not have known about.

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Eri li wonghor wo kpo kaalleh

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The penis vomits whenever it is very satisfied

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Used to denote greed or avarice; one who grabs so much that he ends up losing all because he cannot care for all he has grabbed

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Kpi ridi re nenkal fonhor afonhor kak go ekpuma

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It is difficult for a woman to urinate into a bottle


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Used to denote hard tasks allotted to people who cannot perform them in order to dissuade them from claiming ability that they don’t have

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Eshamarr areh ntarr jik alap

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Your face looks like a cunt sitting on water.

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This is an abuse for a dull-faced unintelligent individual.

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Lim ekpakefan gboka go nnab

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Work hard so your scrutum can vibrate under your buttocks.

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Used to depict lazy, slow and clumsy persons to stir them into action. It is believed that the scrutum never rests except if a man is lazy.

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Anim mah wuv ejuv binghi eri

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No one steals better than the penis

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Used to derogate a petty thief who ends up being caught. The penis is never caught by the clitoris.

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Wob shab areh ntarr alab nyi

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You are as disgusting as a watery cunt.



Used to describe a persistently obstinate person who defies advice.



Eshamarr areh abaang eror eti nya



Your face is like shit falling from a tree-top.



Is an abuse for a flat faced individual, implying that he is ugly.



Ali tokhim ngo nnab ki fal abaang, meh wa nnim tokho go nwul fal amal.



If you bite my arse without fear of shit, I’ll bite your nose without fear of mucose.



Exaggerated comparison meant to portray that one has committed a lesser evil compared to what was done to him.



Abaang kpomo wuv nneh go alla



Shit does not smell inside one’s stomach



Means one never has premonitions about every happening in one’s life. Same as “ I would have known”



Ekpakehfan nnenkul kpo minghe epshenghe



An old man’s scrutum is difficult to look at.



Is a stern warning against immorality or indulgence in actions against approved societal ethics. To be unethical is abominable just as looking at an old man’s scrutum.


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

Ebkod areh ntarr nyi



As blunt as a vagina



Is used to denote one’s inability to react. Also used to describe incapacity to do anything. As a farming community, it could also be used as a comparison for a blunt knife that can’t be used for any farm work. The alternative proverb here is



Ntarr ka bu bom nne elok



A cunt has never inflicted a cut/gash on anyone.



Meaning how can a blunt knife inflict an injury or a cut.



Ebfan kpo gah wuwu alab go etak ntarr



The scrutum only bathes in cunt’s house



Used to describe a lazy, idle person who is always clean and goes about in people’s houses looking for food which he himself cannot offer anybody.



Mbanghenab kpomo rin abaang



The anus never lacks shit.



Used to describe availability of an item presumed to be scarce.



Ejel li bom nenkal go areh, anim mah kpe birr ntarr



A woman in labour in a market place cannot hide her cunt.



Used to denote impossibilities. That some desirables are unattainable.



Nnenum kpomo gaareh ebbing ntarr go eri kimme nkal ko



No man measures the depth of a woman’s vagina with his penis before marrying her.



Means some conditions/considerations are unnecessary/ irrelevant during a truce especially when it pertains to love affairs.



Ntarr kpomo taanghe eri



The cunt never quarrels with the penis



Means close friends or relations do not disagree or harm each other. Also used to connote danger. If the cunt never rejects the friendship of the penis, the outcome could be hazardous.



Eri kpomo koonor ebfan



The penis never parleys with the scrutum



Describes family feuds or quarrels between close friends



This can also be expressed in the form of a question


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

Eri kpo ti taanghe ebfan-a?



Does the penis quarrel with the scrutum?



Ntarr kpomo kim efanghe lakeh eri



The cunt does not tell lies against the penis



Same as proverb “20”. Denotes closeness between two people. Also connotes pregnancy. The cunt will never deny that the penis passed through her to cause pregnancy.



Ebjing eblak go ebun



Sperm has stuck to the waist



Is a description for bachelors. It’s a derogatory name for anyone who is of marriageable age but has no wife. Could serve as a warning that one should not be promiscuous if he remains unmarried.



Bo kpo tahre nne no yakhe kim tan go alab go ebbing ntarr shaang.



People rally to save/rescue a man drowning in water, not in a cunt hole.



Used to describe reckless behavior especially as it relates to spending on women.



Ekpidi eti ji gbor/nnong kim mbaang ji kpor kahn ari ah etarr bi kpo shire sha.



The log that falls/lies across a footpath knows the number of penises and cunts that step over it.



Means if you are in a privileged or responsible position, you become privy to secrets you would never have known.



Nkpangheyor ruku abor bo kpomo kuru go ebkab anneh



A cunt washing vessel is never displayed or kept in public.



Means one does not disclose his/family secrets to outsiders. In the past women kept special vessels for cleaning-up before going to bed known only to the immediate family and kept in a secluded place. Secrets are as well guarded as these vessels.



Eri foonghor ekpabughu, kpo mak eshi eshi



The penis is a lizard. It nods repeatedly when satisfied or happy.



Used to taunt a stammerer.



Eri kpo ga nyin go ejanghe



The penis is unimpeded by darkness



Means an intelligent person always deciphers the truth no matter the wave of lies woven around it.


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

Ntarr a monshe kpomo mmang abi



A baby’s cunt never grows grey hair.



A warning never to try the impossible, or what the community forbids or what is frowned upon by elders.



Ali gah formor anyom nnab



If you are in haste, you fuck the arse



Is a warning against doing things in haste and doing them badly. Cunt and arse are so close that in haste you can go the wrong way.



Nenkal li nob elnong bo kpo nyome shene efunfu



If a woman is good in bed, she is kept till late morning



Means if someone is generous, he surely attracts several dependants or many people who will always hang around him and never let him go about freely.



Nenkal no kili mah ten kpo baneh ebun



A woman who is ashamed to say NO to men goes home with a broken waist.



Means anyone who is willing to work is always over burdened and can easily break down from excess work; a willing horse can be ridden to its grave.

From the foregoing it is obvious that Ekajuk “obscene proverbs”, are infact, serious linguistic tools for the impartation of the age old wisdom of the people. Their usages are not intended for sheer pleasure, but rather serve as avenues for the reflection of the aesthetic or artistic use of language. The metaphorical and personificatory use of language is best exemplified in the proverbs which also depict the skills of the users in the manipulation of linguistic resources available in the community. With them, Elders are able to vivify and externalize the norms and cultural ethics of the Ekajuk people. The “obscene proverbs” cannot, therefore, be said to depict the lewd or profane disposition of the Ekajuk people since obscenities are determined by the community who see and consider them as such. If a community allows or permits the use of these proverbs, then, there must be a positive value to them recognized and cherished by the people because the community decides what is objectionable and, therefore, constitutes an “obscenity”. Again, since obscenities are arbitrary and subjective, obscene language is only peripheral to the core message to be imparted which is always central in the mind of the user of the obscene proverbs. Thus, the Ekajuk “proverbial cult of obscenity” is a cult of elders whose function is to foster education, societal cohesion and maintenance of cherished cultural values. This is in keeping with Cory R. Scherer’s and Brad J. Sagarin’s assertion INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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that … judiciously used obscenity can increase persuasion [since] obscenity could impact credibility positively because the use of obscenity could make a credible speaker appear more human.And since Aune and Kibuchi (1993) argue that “language intensity can lead to higher levels of attitude change”, younger generations would benefit faster from messages couched in and imparted through so-called obscene language. Timothy Jay affirms this when he also observes that… taboo words can communicate emotion information (anger and frustration) more readily than non-taboo words, allowing speakers to achieve a variety of personal and social goals with them.

7.Conclusion In conclusion, it is observed that proverbial obscenities in Ekajuk community, which in the past, were highly restricted, are tending to gain currency as the community becomes more and more cosmopolitan and so more open to outside influences. The result is that the “obscenities” tend to impact more on the emotions of the younger generations because of their western oriented dispositions towards modern film and GSM cultures which make obscenities common place and less offensive. This way, they seem to enhance a faster learning process of the norms and values cherished in the community. Conversely however, the rampant use of obscene language by all classes of people is tending to impact negatively on societal morality evident in sexual looseness among young females. For this to be curbed, stronger restrictions on the use of obscene language should be imposed while at the same time encouraging elders who are skilled in proverbial usage to couch messages in proverbs for continuous societal edification and education. The earlier we adhere to the wisdom of the elders in restricting obscene language to proverbs which are not commonly used, the better for society’s moral and ethical advancement.


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8.Reference 1. Aune, R.k. and Kibuchi, T (1993) “Effects of Language intensity similarity on perceptions of credibility, relational attributions and persuasion.” Journal of Language and Social psychology vol.12 PP. 224 – 238 2. Dohne, J.L (1969) “Introduction to the Zulukafir Language”. In Burton, R.F. (ed)Wit and Wisdomfrom West Africa. New York: Negro Universities press. 3. Drachler, Jacob. (1964) (ed) African heritage. London: Collier Macmillan publishers 4. Ernst, Morris L. (1965) “Reflections on the Ulysses Trial and Censorship” James Joyce Quarterly Vol. 3 No. 1 PP. 3 – 11 (University of Tulsa) 5. Fine, M. G. and Johnson F. L. (1984) “Female and Male Motives for using Obscenity” Journal of Language and Social Psychology Vol. 3 PP. 59 – 74 6. Gilbert, Stuart. (1930) James Joyce’s Ulysses London: Faber and Faber ltd. 7. Gillers, Stephen. (2007) “A tendency to Deprave and Corrupt: The Transformation of American Obscenity Law from Hicklin to Ulysses”. Washington University Law Review Vol.85 No. 2 PP. 215 – 296 8. Hamilton, M.A (1989) “Reactions to Obscene language”. Communication Research Reports Vol. 6 PP. 67 – 69 9. Hand, Augustus (1933) Ruling in the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit 10. Heins, M. (2007) Not Infront of the Children: Indecency, Censorship and the Innocence of Youth. New Jersey: Rutgers University press 11. Jay, Timothy (1977) “Doing research with dirty words” Maledicta: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression Vol. 1 PP. 234 – 256 12. Jay, Timothy (2009) “The Utility and Ubiquity of Taboo Words” Perspectives on Psychological Science. Vol. 4 No.2 PP. 153 – 161 13. Lawrence D. H. (1958) Pornography and Obscenity: Handbook for Censors. Grt. Britain: Fridtjof – Karla Publications. 14. Marcuse, Ludwig (1965) The History of an Indignation. London: MacGibbon and Key or www.jahsonic.com/obscene 15. Miller,

Henry

V.

(1964)

“The

Life

and

Literature

of

Obscenity”.

www.nyu.edu/classes/keefer/wwl/miller.html 16. Miller, Henry V. (2010) “Interview in a Paris Review” in Obscenity Quotes. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Inc. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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17. Pease, Allison (2000) Modernism, Mass Culture and the Aesthetics of Obscenity. New York: Cambridge University Press. 18. Pilotti, Maura et al. (2012) “Taboo Words in Expressive Language: Do Sex and Primary Language Matter?” American International Journal of Contemporary Research. Vol. 2 No. 2 19. Rembar, Charles (1968) The End of Obscenity: The Trials of Lady Chatterley, Tropic of Cancer and Fanny Hill. USA: Amazon Books ltd 20. Scherer, Cory R. and Sagarin Brad J. (2006) “Indecent Influence: The Positive Effects of Obscenity on Persuasion”. Social Influence Vol.1 No.2 PP. 138 – 146 21. Sontag, Susan (1967) The Pornographic Imagination. Harmonsworth: Penguin Books.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211

Environmental Friendly Agricultural Practice In The Southwestern Coastal Zone Of Bangladesh To Adapt With Climate Change Mirza A.T.M. Tanvir Rahman Lecturer, Department Of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Zakia Aktar Associate Faculty Member, Brac Learning Division, Dhaka, Bangladesh Manoranjan K. Mondal Collaborative Research Scientist, Irri Bangladesh Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh Tanvir Ahmed Young Professional, Brac Agriculture And Food Security Programme, Dhaka, Bangladesh Abstract: In the coastal area, 28 % people of total population lives where 16 % of total rice of Bangladesh is being produced. Although arable land is decreasing, modern technologies help to increase food production. However, impacts of inappropriate application of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and climate change constrain the agricultural progress. The objective of the current study is to find out suitable existing environmental friendly agricultural practice that can adapt with climate changing condition. Dacope and Dumuria upazilas of Khulna district were the study area which situate at the southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh. Three types of available agricultural practices had been identified which were rice cultivation, combined rice and fish culture, and vegetable cultivation. Ten Rice Farmers (RF), ten combined Rice and Fish Farmers (RFF), and five Vegetable Farmers (VF) had been interviewed. VF use comparatively low amount of chemical fertilizer than other farmers. Farmers do not use organic fertilizer due to scarcity of enough manure, requirement of large volume, and additional transportation and labor cost. No farmers follow satisfactory safe pesticide management. Farmers are polluted by pesticide through absorption, inhalation and ingestion. Perching method is the only method of integrated pesticide management (IPM) that is applying in the field. Other IPM methods are not successfully applied in the field because lack of group wise initiative, available chemicals and apparatus, and requirement of additional cost. RFF get extra biological control from fish than other two types agricultural practices. Low visible salt effect significantly increases the soil quality of the RFF’s land which has the best quality of soil than other farmers’ lands. Moreover, rice and fish culture has additional advantage to reserve rainwater that can be used for irrigation at water scarcity condition. Rice and fish culture is the most environmental friendly available practice in the southwestern coastal region that has potentiality to adapt with climate changing scenarios. Keywords: Adaptation; Bangladesh; Climate change; Environment; IPM; Pesticide; Soil health card. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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1.Introduction Bangladesh has 147,570 km2 land area that includes 710 km coastal line along with the Bay of Bengal. Population density in the coastal zone is about 743 people per square kilometer where 28 % of total population of the country lives (BBS, 2003). Total coastal zone has 47,201 km2 (M. S. Islam, Razzaque, Rahman, & Karim, 2004) where cultivable land covers 59 % in which 16 % of total rice of Bangladesh is being produced (Ahmed, 2011). About 17 % of coastal zone area covers fisheries, including shrimp culture, and wetlands (R. Islam, 2006). In Bangladesh, about 220 ha of arable land is being lost daily (M. S. Islam, et al., 2004), however, food demand is increasing almost exponentially. To ensure food security of the country it is necessary to ensure maximum utilization of agricultural land. Although, agricultural land area is reducing, crop production significantly increases due to implication of modern agricultural technologies such as adoption of high yielding and hybrid crop varieties, mechanical tillage, improvement in irrigation facility, and timely supply of chemical fertilizer and pesticide. Climate change may constrain the agricultural progress in Bangladesh. The impact of climate change on the existing crop species and crop patterns are expected most. Due to temperature and humidity changes, crop production may reduce. New varieties need to be developed or the cropping patterns should be changed to adapt with the changing environment. To ensure sustainable development in agriculture and environment, it is necessary to maintain good land usage along with optimum dose of chemical fertilizer and pesticide. The farmers use chemical fertilizers as a supplemental source of nutrients but they do not apply in balanced proportion (BARC, 2005). In Bangladesh, fertilizer management practice is very poor where most of the farmers use only urea fertilizer, which is often above recommended dose (M. M. Islam, et al., 2011). Excess usage of urea fertilizer and pesticide are very common practice among farmers that can lead to serious degradation of soil quality, and contaminate surface and ground water resources. Over dose of pesticide creates resistivity among insects that causes ineffectiveness of pesticide, which is one of the most common problems in pest management. Moreover, exposure of pesticides is 0.02 mg/kg/day in Bangladesh which is much higher than the acceptable level (0.005 mg/kg/day) (M. H. Rahman & Alam, 1997). Low organic matter in soil is another important problem for Bangladesh. Organic matter is known as 'storehouse of plant nutrients' and ‘life force of a soil'. A good soil should have at least 2.5 % organic matter, but in Bangladesh most of the soil has less than 1.5 %, and some soil possess even less than 1 % organic matter (BARC, 2005). This makes INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Bangladesh as one of the lowest soil organic matter rich countries in the world. Moreover, coastal region is the area where most dynamic and critical environment exists. Almost every year, the area suffers from natural hazards such as cyclone, storm surge and tidal flooding that cause inland sea water intrusion through surface and subsurface. During 25 May 2009, a catastrophic cyclone AILA of category 1 struck the southwester coastal region of Bangladesh. The maximum storm surge height varies between 1.40 m to 2.95 m (M. M. Rahman, Paul, & Hoque, 2011). The saline water rushed into the agricultural field and increased the soil salinity. About 79,003 acre of crop land was damaged fully and 249,801 acre partially due to soil salinization caused by the cyclone AILA (DMB, 2009). The diversified natural and anthropogenic activities make the coastal region a challenging area for agricultural practices. The objective of the current study is to find out suitable existing agricultural practice that can adapt with climate changing condition and at the same time which will also be environmental friendly.

Figure 1:Location Of Dacope And Dumuria Upazilas Of Khulna District That Are Situated In The Southwestern Coastal Zone Of Bangladesh 2.Methodology 2.1.Study Area The study area was Dacope and Dumuria upazilas of Khulna district which is situated at the southwestern zone of Bangladesh (figure 1). Dacope is located adjacent to the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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mangrove forest, the Sundarbans, and the Bay of Bengal. Dumuria is positioned just north of Dacope. The salty river channels of the area are regularly inundated by high and low tides from the Bay of Bengal.

2.2.Data Collection A structured questionnaire was developed to collect information on four criteria – (a) the fertilizer application, (b) pesticide application, (c) integrated pest management (IPM) and (d) farmland’s soil quality. First three criteria provide information on the existing agricultural practices and last criterion reveals a combined effect of other three. Again, first three criteria help to find out more environmental friendly agricultural option and fourth criterion verifies whether that agricultural option can maintain consistent yield in climate changing scenarios regarding on soil quality.Key Informant Interview (KII) was used to collect information from the farming communities. Total 25 farmers were selected purposively for KII through accidental sampling technique. For analysis, three farming groups among 25 farmers, which are Rice Farmers (sample size, n=10), Rice and Fish Farmers (n=10), and Vegetable Farmers (n=05), denoted as RF, RFF and VF, respectively had been chosen. Rice and Fish Farmers cultivate rice and fish simultaneously on the same land in the wet season where pond is situated adjacent of the rice field and the rice field is surrounded by strong and about a meter high earthen dyke to keep the fish within the rice farm. Similarly for convenient in analysis, land of the study area had been divided into three groups as Rice Land, Rice and Fish Land, and Vegetable Land denoted as RFL, RFFL and VFL, respectively.

2.3.Soil Health Card Soil health card is a measuring scale of soil quality. It largely depends on farmer’s perception. The most important advantage of using this card is that – it does not require any analytical method to determine soil quality. A minimum set of indicators is required to obtain farmer’s view on soil health of the agricultural fields. For the study, four indicators had been selected to assess soil quality based on their greater influence on soil property (table 1). In this card, total scores 10 to 12 indicates Good, 7 to 9 indicates Medium and 4 to 6 indicates Poor quality soil. The individual farmer determined the score during the interview.


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Ranking Criteria

Indicators

Score

Low (L)

Medium (M)

High (H)

L

M

H

Number of

0-1 earthworm in a

2-10 worms in

> 10 worms in top

1

2

3

Earthworm

shovelful of top soil of

shovelful soil and a

soil and lot of holes

about 30 cm deep and no

few holes in soil

in tilled clods.

hole in soil profile.

profile.

Topsoil color similar to

Topsoil color slightly

Topsoil darker than

1

2

3

subsoil color.

`darker than subsoil

subsoil.

1

2

3

1

2

3

Soil Color

color. Roots/residues

Salts

No visible residues or

Some residues, few

Noticeable roots and

roots

roots

residues

Visible symptoms of

Stunted growth of

No visible

salt/alkali, dead plants

plants, signs of leaf

symptoms of salt,

burn from salts

alkali or plant damage

Sub-total Total

Table 1: Soil Health Card To Assess Soil Quality

3.Results And Discussion

3.1.Fertilizer Usage In the study area, most of the farmers cultivate high yielding and hybrid varieties of crops. Farmers received training from the promoters on cultivation procedure including fertilizer application instruction. RF and RFF apply mainly chemical fertilizers to grow rice and non-rice crops. However, it is found that only 20 % farmers of both rice and non-rice cultivars use limited amount of cow dung as organic fertilizer. Another 4 % farmers have prepared compost made of household kitchen waste, which is not sufficient for sustaining production at satisfying amount. More than 85 % farmers do not take any initiative to produce organic fertilizer. Farmers do not widely use organic fertilizer because of three main constrains. First one is the scarcity of draught cattle due to shortage of fodder and sweet drinking water. Cattle population in the coastal area has been reduced by about 73


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% within 14 years (A. M. S. Ali, 2005). An important reason for reducing draught animal is the agricultural mechanization. All rice farmers in the study area are using power tiller for field preparation. Decreasing of draught animals brings significant reduction in homemade organic fertilizer because the manure from the domestic bulls and cows is the prime ingredient of organic fertilizer. Second important reason is the requirement of huge quantity of organic fertilizer to satisfy the nutrient needs of the crops. Organic fertilizer contains comparatively less nitrogen and other macronutrients than same volume of chemical fertilizer. Due to the crop intensification, huge amount of organic fertilizer is need. Finally, another problem is the additional transportation and labor cost for such large volume of organic fertilizer. Although there are some limitations for organic fertilizer application in the crop field, the best result in production can be achieved when chemical and organic fertilizers are applied together for crop production (M. E. Ali, Islam, & Jahiruddin, 2009). The VF is using less chemical fertilizer comparing with RF and is applying both organic and chemical fertilization to produce vegetables. VF dumps the kitchen waste and animal manure in the vegetable land which convert to organic fertilizer.

3.2.Pesticide Usage During the field investigation, several names of pesticides and fungicide used by the farmers have been collected (table 2). According to the WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard the used pesticides and fungicide are highly to moderately hazardous (WHO, 2009). Moreover, dioxathion is obsolete as pesticide, which is still using to prohibit pests.

Common name

WHO (2009) category

Type

Carbofuran

Highly hazardous

Carbamate

Dioxathion

Obsolete as pesticide, not classified Organophosphorus compound

Diazinon

Moderately hazardous

Organophosphorus compound

DDVP

Highly hazardous


Cartap


Carbamate



Pesticide

Fungicide Propiconazole

Table 2:Categorization Of Used Pesticide And Fungicide


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To control or reduce pest invasion or disease, pesticide and fungicide are needed to apply in the farmland with a specific guideline which should be strictly followed; otherwise effectiveness of the doses will be reduced. RF applies pesticides and fungicides when they think that pest is invading or going to invade the crop. Excessive use of pesticide can make the pest resistant to it (Landis, et al., 2002). All farmers ensure high resistivity of insects to pesticide. Moreover, VF usually sprays pesticide in the vegetable garden twice in a month. They consume the vegetables within fifteen days of pesticide application that may cause pesticide pollution in the body through ingestion. Because, the residual effect of the applied pesticide may remain for at least two weeks. Pesticide is not handled according to safety rules and regulations. About 60 % farmers receive training on handling of pesticide from local Department of Agriculture Extension officials of the Government of Bangladesh. However, the farmers only follow partial safely handling procedure of pesticide. Pesticides should be applied at the wind flow direction. No respondents follow it and do not have consciousness about it. The farmers intend to apply pesticides at regular intervals from vegetative stage of crops up to harvesting. Even it is found that 10 % farmers of RF apply pesticides after every ten days without considering the intensity and magnitude of pest invasion. No personal safety equipment or measure is taken during preparation, application and washing of pesticide sprayer. As a result, farmers are subjected to direct chemical exposure. All the farmers prepare the pesticide solution and wash the sprayer and other stuffs with bear hands. Furthermore, defective sprayer is using to apply pesticides. By the leakages of the sprayer, the farmers directly come to dermal contact with the pesticide solution that absorbs through skin. In winter season, temperature of soil is less that lead to volatilization of pesticides. There is a risk of upward mass transfer of organophosphate from dry soil (M. H. Rahman & Alam, 1997). Therefore, volatile chemical may affect farmer’s body system through inhalation since no musk is used. Emphasizing on handling method, overall pollution process of pesticide in the study area can be illustrated as in figure 2. Farmers preserve excess unused pesticide in the home from where the residents can be affected by the pesticide pollution through inhalation due to volatile nature of pesticide and through skin absorption during handling. Pesticide pollution may have short-term and/or long-term effects on body function that may lead to reduction of disease resistivity, damage of organs, malfunction of nerve system, stillbirth, birth defect, cancer etc. In integrated rice cultivation and fish culture activity, the invasion of pest is less than traditional rice field especially during the rainy season when rice field is inundated INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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by seasonal flood. At that time, the farmers usually take special care for pesticide application and use the pesticide in more controlled dose, so that it will bring minimum harm to fishes. One good practice is found to be followed by all farmers. Pesticides should not be applied under the bright sun. Hundred percent farmers know the right hour of the day for pesticide application and follow it. Handling Type:

Preparation

Pollution Process:

Application

Equipment Washing

Absorption, Inhalation, Ingestion

Human Body Pollution Process:

Absorption, Inhalation

Handling Type:

Preservation

Figure 2: Pollution Process Of Pesticide During Handling

3.3.Application Of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common-sense practices. IPM program use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment. This information, in combination with available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to the people and the environment (EPA, 2012). During the green revolution, pesticide becomes an essential input to increase crop production by neglecting other pest control means. In Bangladesh, from 1984 to 2010, pesticide

60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Consumption (Metric tonne)

consumption increases for about 92 % (figure 3).

Year

Figure 3:Pesticide Consumption In Bangladesh (PAB, 2010) And (M. H. Rahman & Alam, 1997). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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IPM is not a single pest control method but, rather, a series of pest management evaluations, decisions and controls (EPA, 2012). In the study area, only perching method is using to facilitate birds to sit and eat insects as a preventive approach of IPM. However, other pest controlling mechanisms are not applying in the field. Farmers do not have much interest to comply IPM in their fields. About 56 % of all farmers reported that the main constrain is the lack of group wise initiative. To be effective, IPM must be taken as group effort. Other reported constrains are lack of available chemicals (20 %) e.g. pheromone for the pheromone trap, lack of required apparatus (12 %) e.g., hand net, requirement of additional expenses (8 %) e.g. cost for light trap and general notion on laborious cumbersome technique of IPM (4 %). RFF experiences lower pesticide invasion during the rainy season when the rice field is flooded and fish can freely move from pond to rice field. This biological control is a part of IPM that provides RFF additional support besides perching method to grow rice in lower pest environment comparing with other two farming lands.

3.4.Soil Quality According to the Soil Health Card, among three farmer groups, RFF’s land has the highest quality of soil followed by VF’s and RF’s lands. The average scores for RFFL, VFL and RFL are 9, 7 and 6, respectively. Criteria wise individual scores are shown in figure 4. Based on this score, the soil quality of RFL is determined as Poor, and other two farmer groups practice agricultural activities on Medium quality soil.

Score

3 2 1 0 Rice La nd Rice a nd Vegeta ble Fish La nd La nd

No. of Earthworms Visible Soil Color Presence of Roots/Residue Presence of Salts

Land Type

Figure 4: Individual Score Of Three Land Types According To Soil Health Card

The reasons of low soil quality in RFL are low or absence of earthworm, no color difference between topsoil and subsoil, and presence of high salts. The score is boost due to the presence of high roots and residues of plants in the soil. Low or absence of


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earthworm may be occurred due to high and/or over dose of synthetic ingredient as well as high salt content in the soil. Naturally, the coastal area soil is saline in nature due to saline water intrusion through the shallow aquifer. Deep aquifer system is also saline due to the paleo-brackish water entrapment in the aquifer (M. A. T. M. T. Rahman, Majumder, Rahman, & Halim, 2011). High tide also brings saline water into the land through river and canal systems. During dry season, farmers use this saline water for irrigation purpose due to lack of fresh water to irrigate crops. As a result, the top soil salinity increases in the dry season. Besides, the devastating category-1 cyclone AILA hits the coastal area of Bangladesh in 25 May 2009 that causes further salinization. In case of RFFL, the number of earthworm is low or absence that reduces the overall soil quality. The visible effect of salt is minimum in rice-fish system that significantly increases the soil quality compare to other two types of land. Because the rice field of this type comes to contact with only rainwater that washes excess salt from the soil. In the rainy season, total land is inundated by rainwater and in the dry season, required irrigation water is supplied from the adjacent pond that reserves rainwater. With erratic rainfall pattern for climate changing condition, the pond water can use as irrigation water when it is required. The color difference between top and subsoil is also pronounced due to comparatively high organic matter content in rice and fish land. Fish residues, during the rainy season, add in the rice field that significantly increases the organic matter content in the soil. Additionally, low salt content and high amount of plant roots or residues in RFFL make the best quality soil among all types of land. On the other hand, in the VFL, the amount of plant roots and residues is the lowest and the visible soil salinity effect is intermediate between two types of land. However, this land has highest number of earthworm in soil (figure 4) that may indicate low foreign chemicals (pesticide and chemical fertilizer) and salt concentrations in soil, which create a favorable living condition for earthworm.

4.Conclusion Fertilizer and pest control management is better in rice and fish farmers’ land. In case of IPM, fish acts as biological control in rice and fish culture that reduces pest invasion compare to rice land and vegetable land. Soil quality is also better in rice and fish farmers’ land. Moreover, combined rice and fish culture has own irrigation water reservoir, which can provide support during low rainfall or drought scenarios that may occur due to climate changing condition. Therefore, combined rice and fish farming is the most environmental friendly best available agricultural practice in the southwestern zone of Bangladesh that can also has the potentiality to adapt with climate changing condition. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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5.Reference 1. Ahmed, A. (2011). Some of the major environmental problems relating to land use changes in the coastal areas of Bangladesh: A review. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning 4, 1-8. 2. Ali, A. M. S. (2005). Rice to shrimp: Land use/ land cover changes and soil degradation in Southwestern Bangladesh. Land Use Policy, 23(4), 421-435. 3. Ali, M. E., Islam, M. R., & Jahiruddin, M. (2009). Effect of integrated use of organic manures with chemical fertilizers in the rice-rice cropping system and its impact on soil health. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research, 34, 81-90. 4. BARC (2005). Fertilizer Recommendation Guide. 5. BBS (2003). Population Census 2001. Retrieved April 12 2012. from http://www.bbs.gov.bd/PageWebMenuContent.aspx?MenuKey=57. 6. DMB

(2009).

Situation

Report

Retrieved

April

16,

2012,

from

http://www.cdmp.org.bd/modules.php?name=Situation 7. EPA (2012). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Principles Retrieved May 31, 2012, from http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/ipm.htm 8. Islam, M. M., Karim, A. J. M. S., Jahiruddin, M., Majid, N. M., Miah, M. G., Ahmed, M. M., et al. (2011). Effects of organic manure and chemical fertilizers on crops in the radish-stem amaranthIndian spinach cropping pattern in homestead area. Australian Journal of Crop Science, 5(11), 1370-1378. 9. Islam, M. S., Razzaque, M. A., Rahman, M. M., & Karim, N. H. (2004). Present and future of agricultural research in Bangladesh. 10. Islam, R. (2006, September 27-29). Pre-and Post-Tsunami Coastal Planning and Land-Use Policies and Issues in Bangladesh. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the workshop on coastal area planning and management in Asian tsunami affected countries, Bangkok. 11. Landis, J. N., Sanchez, J. E., Lehnert, R. H., Edson, C. E., Bird, G. W., & Swinton, S. M. (2002, December). Fruit Crop Ecology and Management. Michigan State University Extension Bulletin 36-38. 12. PAB (2010). Pesticides Consumption Report. 13. Rahman, M. A. T. M. T., Majumder, R. K., Rahman, S. H., & Halim, M. A. (2011). Sources of deep groundwater salinity in the southwestern zone of Bangladesh. Environmental Earth Sciences, 63, 363-373


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14. Rahman, M. H., & Alam, M. J. B. (1997). Risk assessment of pesticides used in Bangladesh. Journal of Civil Engineering, 25(1), 97-106. 15. Rahman, M. M., Paul, G. C., & Hoque, A. (2011). A Shallow Water Model for the Coast of Bangladesh and Applied to Estimate Water Levels for ‘AILA’. Journal of Applied Sciences, 11, 3821-3829. 16. WHO (2009). The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by hazard and guidelines

to

classification

Retrieved

22

May,

2012,

from

http://www.who.int/entity/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazard_2009.pdf


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Design And Production Of Customised Decorative Flower Vases For Modex Oil Company Shopping Centres In Ghana Kofi Asante-Kyei Lecturerdepartment Of Ceramics,Takoradi Polytechnic,Takoradi ,Ghana Patrick Owusu Ansah Student,Department Of Ceramics,Takoradi Polytechnic,Takoradi ,Ghana Abstract: Design and production of flower vases in a form of clay art has been in existence for so many years. Currently, they are practiced with much improvement and modern technology as compared to the ancient times. Flower vases are said to be for decorative purposes.

Today, flower vases serve many purposes such as

decorations, pen and pencil holders in the offices. Modex Oil Company, dealers of petroleum products and shopping centres does not have customized flower vases for decoration and beautification of the shopping centres. This study seeks to display and subsequent production of customized decorative flower vases for the company’s shopping centres to enhance the beautification of the centres and solve some related problems. The technique used for the production is “throw and join” method. Washed clay was the main material used for the production. The “throw and pin” technique of production was very effective and efficient in the production of the flower vases.

Experimental and Descriptive research

approaches were employed. It is recommended that ceramists and other clay artists as well as students experiment with other materials and techniques in the production of flower vases to bring variety in the field of flower vases production.

Keywords:Flower Vases, Clay, Decorative, Washed Clay, Shopping Centres.

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1.Introduction Bryan Sentence (2004) contends that flower vases play an important role in decorating special places such as hotels, restaurants, banking halls, offices and auditoria. The need for flower vases to decorate places cannot be overemphasized. As far as decorations in the hotels, halls, offices and others are concerned, flower vases appear to be inevitable. According to Speight and Toki (1999), ceramic containers do not disintegrate as do those made of wood. It is not surprising that ancient people frequently buried their dead in fired clay vessels. They also buried with them small containers of oils and perfumes and clay reproductions of servants and objects they believed the deceased might need in the afterlife. The oldest ceramic raw material is undoubtedly clay. Clay has been defined as an earth that forms a coherent, sticky mass when mixed with water; when wet, this mass is readily mouldable, but if dried, it becomes hard and brittle and retains its shape. Moreover, if heated to redness, it becomes still harder and is no longer susceptible to the action of water. Such as material clearly tends itself to the making of articles of all shapes (Worrall,1986). In the view of Norton (1956), a good flower vase should be stable. That is, it should be able to stand firm on the ground without falling while flowers are inside or not. It must also be able to serve its purpose, hollow and lighter for easy conveying and attractive to its viewers. An initial survey conducted in various banking halls, hotels, restaurants, offices and shopping centres in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis revealed that flower vases for decorations were bought from the open market, and had no inscriptions of the institutions and hence were not identifiable with the institutions. The purpose of this project is therefore to identify, describe and assess the types and quality of flower vases available at the market and to design and produce customized decorative flower vases that are unique to Modex Oil Company shopping centres to enhance the beautification of the centres.

2.Methodology Descriptive and Experimental research methods based on the qualitative and quantitative research approaches were employed. The descriptive method of research is essential because flower vases existing at the market had to be documented, described and analyzed before coming out with a design that would in the long run solve problems existing ones could not. This method was also used to describe the various materials, tools and equipment used in the project. It was also used to describe the design and INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 46

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production processes and the appreciation of the outcomes.The experimental research was used to assess the suitability of available materials, tools and equipment used in the project (Best, 1981). Experiments were also conducted to find out the suitability of the use either washed or unwashed clay for the production of the flower vases. Experiments were also conducted to find the relevant and suitable method of production and the “throw and join” method was finally agreed on. The population for the study of this project involved ceramic students, ceramic lecturers in Takoradi Polytechnic and flower vases sellers at Takoradi and its environs. Since it is practically impossible to reach every member of the target population, the purposive sampling method was employed to select 3 lecturers of Ceramics Department of Takoradi Polytechnic, 10 students of ceramics and 5 sellers of flower vases for interviews. These formed the sample population. This method of sampling makes it possible to randomly select people with similar characteristics from the target population to be studied.To triangulate data obtained through the interviews, observations were also made (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). According to Amenuke (1991), observation as a research tool was necessary because information provided by respondents through interviews could be inadequate, biased or untrue. Observation techniques of data collection make it possible for the researcher to obtain first hand information. The researchers thus visited the market place, banking halls, hotels, and restaurants to observe critically the available flower vases there. This specifically was done to test the validity of data gathered through the interviews conducted. Photographs were taken where necessary for authenticity and confirmation. Flower vases found were observed critically to serve as the bases for the design and production of customized decorative flower vases for Modex Oil Company shopping centres . 2.1.Preliminary Sketches The researchers made several sketches before selecting the final one. Plates 1 - 8 show the stages of sketches that the researchers made before the selection and execution of the final sketch.


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Figure 1: Plate 1 The Sketch With The Company’s Logo And Motto

Figure 2:Plate 2 The Sketch With The Company’s Logo And Motto Arranged In Different Form


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Figure3: Plate 3 The Sketch With The Company’s Logo And Kangaroo Drawn From The Logo

Figure 4: Plate 4 The Sketch With The Company’s Logo


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Figure 5: Plate 5the Sketch With The Company’s Logo And Motto Arranged In Oval Form

Figure 6: Plate 6The Sketch With The Company’s Logo And Motto Arranged In Triangular Form.


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Figure 7: Plate 7 The Sketch With The Company’s Logo And Motto Arranged In Vertical Form

2.2.The Selection Of The Final Sketch Design After the several sketches and consultation with the management of the company, the final design was selected and prototyped before executing the final work.

Figure 8: Plate 8 The Final Design Of The Flower Vase.


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2.3.Tools And Equipment In producing the work, the researchers used some tools and equipment. These were

2.3.1.Washing Basins These were containers in which clay was soaked and stirred for washing.

Figure 9: Washing Basins

2.3.2.Potter’s Wheel The potter’s wheel is a machine with a revolving disk which is used by potters to produce wares. The researcher used the potter’s wheel to throw the vase in five pieces before joining them together.

Figure 10: Potter’s Wheel

2.3.3.Foam This is a tool which was used by the researcher to pull when throwing. It was also used to clean excess water from the ware when throwing and also used to clean excess slip while joining the pieces together to form the vase.


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Figure 11: Foam 2.3.4.Cutting Wire This is a tool made of wire tied against two sticks which was used by the researcher to trim the rim of the ware when throwing. It was also used to cut clay in to slice when the researcher was wedging and kneading the clay.

Figure 12: Cutting Wire 2.3.5. A Bowl An empty container in which water was poured for throwing. Also slip was poured in for joining.

Figure 13: A Bowl 2.3.6.Pricker This is a tool that the researcher used to measure the thickness of the walls of the ware when throwing


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Figure 14: Pricker 2.3.7.Rule This tool was used to measure the height and size of the ware to see to it that the required measurement was achieved.

Figure 15: A Rule

2.3.8.Turning Tools These tools were used to remove excess clay from the thrown pieces to give them shape and also to make them lighter.

Figure 16: Turning Tools

2.3.9.Kidney This is a tool that was used to burnish the surface of the pieces to make it smooth.


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17:

Wooden

Kidney

Figure 18: Metal Kidney

2.3.10.Modeling Tool This is a wooden tool which was used to produce the inscriptions and the logo on the vase.

Figure 19: Modeling Tool

2.3.11.Fork This tool was used for scoring during the production of the ware.

Figure 20: Fork

2.3.12.Wooden Beater It is a wooden tool that was used to beat the ware when producing to make sure that the required shape was achieved. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 55

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Figure 21: Wooden Beater 2.3.13.Slip It is fluid clay that was used to join the pieces together.

Figure 22: Slip 2.3.14.Kiln This is a fire wood kiln (furnace) that was used to fire the vases to bisque form.

Figure 23: Firewood Kiln

2.4.Materials The main materials that the researchers used were clay, grog and sand. The clay was the major quantity of the material and it was obtained from Abonko in the Central region of Ghana. It is also one of the finest clay that is used by most Ghanaian ceramist and potters. The grog was produced from bisque fired ware made in to powdered form and sieved. The sand was also obtained from the normal sand and sieved.


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2.5.Composition And Preparation Of The Materials The materials were composed of 80% of clay, 10% of grog and 10% of sand. The clay was the main component of the materials. . The 80% of clay was soaked in washing basin for a week. After that, the researchers washed it and sieved it in to a drying pit for it to dry. After it dried a bit, it was taken from the pit. Unwashed clay contains materials such as pebbles, roots of plans and sometimes broken pieces of bottles which can wound the researcher so it was washed for all those materials to be removed. The washed clay was then kneaded and wedged together with the sand and grog with a little water and stored in a polythene bag for it to age for some weeks. The 10% of grog was added to the composition in order to increase the strength of the clay so that during firing it might not crack. It was also added to reduce the plasticity of the clay and also to reduce excessive shrinkage. The sand was also added to it for it to reduce the plasticity of the clay and also to increase the strength of the clay.

Figure 24: Loaded Clay In Washing Basin

Figure 25: Clay Soaked With Water In Washing Basin


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Figure 26: The Stirring Of The Soaked Clay In To Slip

Figure 27: Sieving The Stirred Slip In To The Washing Pit

Figure 28: Kneading Clay To Remove Air Pockets


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Figure 29: Wedging Of Clay

Figure 30: Kneading Of The Wedged Clay

Figure 31: Kneaded Balls Of Clay Ready To Be Used For Throwing


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2.6.Procedures For Producing Thrown Flower Vase The method used to produce the vases was “throw and join” method of production. The researchers threw the vase in to five pieces and allowed them to be a little bit leather hard before they were turned. After turning, the pieces were scored and joined together with the help of clay slip. The under listed stages of throwing were employed;

2.6.1.Centering This is the first stage in throwing. It is the method of forcing a ball of clay to position itself at the centre of the wheel head. At this stage of throwing constant water was poured on to the ball of clay and on the hand which prevented friction. During this stage, there was force applied to the hand which prevented the clay from controlling the hand and for easy centering. Figures 23 and 24 examine the centering of the clay.

Figure 32: Centering A Ball Of Clay

Figure 33: Centered Ball Of Clay


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2.6.2.Opening This is the second stage of throwing where the centered ball of clay was opened and ready for pulling and shaping. Figures 25 and 26 show the opening of the centered clay.

Figure 34: Opening The Centered Ball Of Clay

Figure 35: Opening Process Of Centered Ball Clay 2.6.3.Pulling Pulling is the third stage in throwing where the centered opened clay was pulled upper from the wall to make it lighter and thinner and also to get the actual height needed by the researcher. Figures 27 and 28 depict the pulling processes of the centered clay.


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Figure 36: Pulling Of The Opened Centered Clay

Figure 37: Pulling Of Clay To The Required Height 2.6.4.Shaping Is the final stage in throwing where the actual shape of the ware producing was done by the researcher. It is at this stage that the researcher shaped the base, belly and the neck of the vase to get the required shape that he wanted. Figures 29 and 30 below explain the shaping of the wares into the required shapes.


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Figure 38: Shaping The Pulled Clay To The Desired Shape

Figure 39: Cleaning Of The Shaped Clay With Foam To Prevent Cracking When Drying 2.7.The Thrown Pieces The pieces were left to make leather hard before joining. Figures 31 and 32 show the thrown pieces.

Figure 40: The Thrown Pieces At Leather Hard Stage


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Figure 41: Dressing The Leather Hard Pieces Before Joining 2.8.Scoring And Joining Of The Thrown Pieces After the pieces were left to be a little bit harder, they were scored and joined together by the researchers. The scoring processes are shown in figures 42 and 43 below, while the methods of joining the pieces are also shown in figures 44 and 45.

Figure 42


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Figure 43 Figures 42 And 43 Show The Process Of Scoring Before Joining

Figure 44


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Figure 45 Figure 44 And 45 Show The Joining Of The Pieces Together

Figure 46: Cleaning Of Excess Slip After Joining With Foam 2.9.Decorating Stages Of The Vases There are a lot of decorations for decorating ceramic wares but the researchers used the pushing and embossing method of decoration to design the logo of the company on to the vases. Ropelike clay was used to decorate the neck of the vases. Finally, spring small balls of clay were also used to decorate the waste of the vases.


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Figure 47: Sketching The Logo Of The Company On The Joined Piece

Figure 48: Pushing Of The Logo Of The Company On The Joined Piece

Figure 49: Dressing Of The Pushed Logo On The Vase


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Figure 50: The Finished Vases Ready For Firing

2.10.Drying And Firing Of The Flower Vases After the vases were decorated, they were left in room temperature for it to dry slowly to prevent the wares from developing cracks. The drying process is shown in figure 50. After drying, they were packed in the kiln for firing the next day. The packing process is shown in figure 51. The wares were pre- heated and it lasted for almost nine hours to make sure that all the remaining chemical water in the wares were driven out to prevent the wares from cracking and breaking during the full blast. Right after the pre- heating, full blast was started by gradually increasing the temperature. The full blast lasted for eight hours to make sure that the pieces were properly fired and well matured. Figure 52 below shows the firing of the wares. When the wares had been matured at the right temperature, all the entrances to the kiln were closed to retain the heat. The kiln was left for two days for the wares to cool down before it was opened to remove the products. Figure 53 below also shows the fired flower vase.


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Figure 51: Packing Of Vases In Kiln

Figure 52: Firing Of The Vases

Figure 53: Fired Flower Vase


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2.11.Painting Of The Flower Vases Finally, the vases were painted with Red, Blue, Yellow, Black and White which were the colours of the company. The final painted vases are shown in figures 54 and 55.

Figure 54: Painting Of The Vase

Figure 55: The Finished Vase In The Company’s Colours


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3.Results And Discussion The results of this project have been grouped into four categories based on the use of tools, materials, equipment and technique for the flower vases.

3.1.Tools Problems encountered and how they were solved. For example, some throwing tools created some problems because they were not available and therefore had to be improvised.

3.2.Materials It was observed that the use of washed clay was very effective and smooth and the use of unwashed clay was causing the ware to spoil and gave rough surfaces.

3.3.Equipment The firewood kiln was difficult to use as compared to Gas or Electric kiln since it had no pyrometer to read the maturing temperature of the vases during firing and that normally could affect the heating process.

3.4.Technique Due to the nature of the flower vases the “throw and join” method was suitable for this type of wares. It is recommended that this technique should be adopted when producing big flower vases.

4.Conclusion In conclusion, the results of the study have shown that the available resources at the Ceramics Department of School of Applied Arts, Takoradi Polytechnic could be used to produce customized decorative flower vases. Also, the vases were basically produced to beautify the Modex Oil Company’s shopping centres. Furthermore, the project revealed the possibility of advertising on vases and not always in the media, billboards, posters and the others.The success of this project would give room for all ceramists and students, art educators and designers in this area to create a variety of flower vases for other institutions such as banks, hotels, restaurants and others. Thus, the wares provide knowledge in the making of customized flower vases for institutions.


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5.Recommendations The following recommendations had therefore been made; The department should speed up to install a gas kiln for firing of ceramic wares in order to get the appropriate maturing temperature of wares to avoid cracking of wares. The Modex Oil Company should take good care of the vase and also place it at vantage point where customers could appreciate it. There could be further research on the project with application of glazes for decoration instead of paints. This could enhance the beauty of the flower vases.


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6.Reference 1. Amenuke, S.K. (1999). General Knowledge in Art for Senior Secondary Schools. London: Evans Brothers Limited. 2. Best, J.W. (1981). Research in Education (4th edition). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. 3. Leedy, J., & Ormrod, J.E. (2005). Practical Research: Planning and Design(8 th edition). U.S.A: McMillan Publishing Company Inc. 4. Norton, F.H. (1956). Ceramics for the Artist Potter. New York: Addison Wesley Publishing Company. 5. Sentence, B. (2004). Ceramics: A World Guide to Traditional Techniques. London: Thames & Hudson Limited. 6. Speight, C.F., & Toki, J. (1999). Hands in Clay. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. 7. Worrall, W.E.(1986). Clay and Ceramic Raw Materials (2 nd edition). New York: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Limited.


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Design Of An Automobile Tilting Device Using Hydraulic System Stephen Kwasi Adzimah Department Of Mechanical Engineering,University Of Mines And Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana Ademola Samuel Akinwonmi Department Of Mechanical Engineering,University Of Mines And Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana Douglas Sebbeh Department Of Mechanical Engineering,University Of Mines And Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana Abstract: This paper analyzes the design of an automobile tilting device for tilting of automobile bodies at mechanical workshops, when the need for maintenance arises; especially welding to be performed beneath them is always achieved using an existing traditional tilting technique. The traditional technique involves manual lifting and positioning of the automobile body with one of its sides on the work floor, after which supporting implements such as wooden bars, metal rods, worn-out tyres and pestles are used to keep the tilted bodies at the desired position. This technique has always been resulting to higher worker fatigue and much risk of worker injury, endangering the lives of mechanics. The designing and selection of the automobile tilting device components were based on the application of machine design and hydraulic principles and laws. The height and the degree of tilt of the device are controlled by the position of the control lever of the direction control valve regulating the fluid flow into the tilting and lifting cylinders. This hydraulic automobile tilting device is designed to provide a more effective and efficient technique for tilting and supporting tilted automobile bodies, thereby minimizing and eliminating the risks involved when employing the existing traditional technique. This proposed hydraulic tilting device will therefore provide an effective technique for tilting and supporting class 1 and 2 category automobile bodies thereby eliminating the existing stresses and risks involved with the existing traditional technique. keywords: automobile, tilting device, hydraulic, fatigue, fluid flow, lifting cylinder. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 74

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1.Introduction Screws Application is used in the elevation of vehicles or objects. The operation of the screw jack is such that it comprises a handle for driving a bolt element (Lead Screw) manually so as to adjust the height of the Jack to elevate a vehicle or the object. (Akinwonmi and Mohammed, 2012). In the case of a screw jack, a small force applied in the horizontal plane is used to raise or lower large load. [Khurmi and Gupta, 2005]. In olden times, thousand of slaves had to be arranged whenever a heavy load had to be lifted or dragged. Even today, in the absence of a suitable device, many people have to be arranged to lift a motor car so that its tyres can be changed (Khurmi, 2009). Tilting of automobile bodies by mechanics, in the act of performing maintenance, especially welding operations on worn-out components and joints beneath automobiles, has always been risky, time consuming and labour intensive. It has been the customary practice of mechanics in using wood, pestles, worn-out tyres and metal rods to support automobile tilted and positioned by their own efforts. These practices have been yielding worker fatigue and much risk of worker injury as a result of poor support provided to keep the positioned automobile body stationary, thereby endangering the lives of mechanics as positioned bodies sometimes fall back on them during the on-going maintenance processes and welding operation. The requirement of more hands (labour) during positioning or tilting the automobile body on one of its sides is another problem faced, with much time wasted, as mechanics await more hands to tilt the automobile body. There are also the occurrences of side mirrors breaking and scratching of the automobile body side by abrasive materials from the work floor or supporting materials in contact with it after positioning or tilting. The traditional tilting technique is very tedious and requires more hands in order to effect the tilting of the automobile body to the desired position. Also, the lives of mechanics are endangered since the supported tilted automobile body can fall back in case of the supporting material failure. Due to large numbers of examples of compound stresses met with in engineering practice, the cause of “failure” or permanent set under such conditions has attracted considerable attention [Rajput, R.K. 2010]. The application of stress to any material will lead to the production of elastic and / or plastic strain and if the stress is increased progressively, fracture will ultimately occur. [Raymond, 1990]. The idea of applying ergonomic principles which is all about reducing worker fatigue and the risk of worker injury when carrying out maintenance and welding processes beneath automobile at the workshop therefore necessitates the design of this tilting INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 75

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device. The objective of this work is therefore to provide a suitable hydraulic device for effectively tilting and supporting of automobile bodies, minimizing and eliminating wasted time, efforts and the risks involved during and after tilting at mechanical workshops.

2.Existing Traditional Tilting Technique The traditional tilting technique has been the only convenient method employed for tilting automobile bodies at mechanical workshops. This technique involves the manual tilting of automobile by at least five strong men. The automobile is drained of oil and its carburetor removed to prevent oil, water and fuel spillage during and after tilting. Wornout tyres are used as the main supporting materials on the floor while wooden implements, metal bars and pestles, for example are also used to keep the tilted automobile body at the desired position. In the process of tilting, one person stands at one side of the automobile body to ensure that his side falls correctly on the floor support material while the remaining hands lift the other side, positioning the automobile as shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1a Figure 1b Figure 1 An Automobile Body Supported With Worn-Out Tyres (A) And A Wooden Bar (B) After Tilting. When the desired tilting position or angle is reached, one of the four mechanics effecting the tilting operation quickly place a wooden bar, or any other suitable supporting material to keep the automobile at that position. The base of the automobile chassis is now accessible for the maintenance operation to be performed.


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3.Materials And Method Automobile workshops were visited at Tarkwa in Ghana to study the existing ways that vehicles are being lifted in May, 2012 in order to facilitate this design. The design is carried out based on application of machine design principles and theories and application basic hydraulic principles.

3.1.Description Of Proposed Tilting Device The proposed tilting device mainly consists of; A main frame structure consisting of a bed on which the vehicle is placed after tilting. A tilting platform consisting of a laminated faceplate and a fork assembly. Four folding support steel bars in a criss-cross 'X' pattern for vertically adjusting the tilting platform. A two position-three way directional control valve mechanism for regulating pump output flow. Two three position-four way directional control valve mechanism for directing the pump output flow into the tilting and height adjustment mechanism lines respectively. A pressure relief valve for stepping down the maximum system pressure to that required by the tilting actuator. Hydraulic actuators consisting three double acting hydraulic cylinders and piston arrangement, two for effecting the tilting motion and one for the height adjusting mechanism. A screw driven mechanism for providing additional support to the automobile after tilting. Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU) consisting of an AC motor driving a hydrostatic pump. A hydraulic reservoir and conduit for fluid storage and flow channels.

3.2.Mode Of Operation The proposed tilting device as described above is permanently installed at a specific location at the workshop where the automobile will be pushed and positioned on it. The height adjusting mechanism of the device is installed in-ground (within the workshop floor) leveling the top of the fork prongs with the workshop floor, enhancing easy positioning of the automobile onto the tilting platform. The automobile to be tilted is pushed and positioned with its side being parallel to the laminated surface of the tilting platform. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 77

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After the automobile has been properly positioned on the platform, the motor is activated by switching on the power supply. The motion of the motor is then transmitted to the pump through couplings thereby resulting to the admission of fluid from the reservoir due to the prevailing suction effect created at the pump inlet. The pump outlet flow is then directed through directional control valves either into the actuation conduit or back into the reservoir according to the position of the valve control lever. The actuation conduit is further branched to the tilting and the lifting cylinders. During operation, admission of pressurized hydraulic fluid from a pump is directed by a directional control valve into the clearance space at the bottom of the lifting cylinder. The force exerted by the fluid effects the outward movement of the piston, thereby raising the bed (upper components) of the device until the fork prongs are correctly positioned at the bottom of the automobile chassis. The lever of the directional control valve regulating fluid flow into and out of the lifting cylinder is then turned to the holding position whilst that of the tilting mechanism is tuned to the advance position for fluid admission into the top of the tilting cylinder. The force exerted on the piston by the fluid, causes it to move downward, pulling the tilting platform, together with the automobile body on it gradually onto the bed depending on the desired angle of tilt. For an 80° to 90° tilt, the lead screw control support structure is operated manually to touch the top of the automobile body in order to prevent turn-over after the tilting mechanism fluid directional control valve is turned to the holding position. After tilting, the lifting cylinder valve lever is turned to the retract position for fluid admission into the top of the cylinder. The fluid then forces the piston downwardly into the cylinder, thereby reducing the height of the automobile with respect to the work floor as the bed is lowered. After positioning, the pump is switched off for the maintenance operation to start. Lowering of the automobile after the maintenance operation is accomplished by redirecting the fluid back into the lifting cylinder bottom clearance volume. The bed is then lifted, after which the tilting actuator directional control valve lever is turned to the retraction position to direct the fluid into the clearance space at the bottom of the tilting cylinder. The fluid then forces the piston out of the cylinder, pushing the platform with the automobile off the bed gradually onto the work floor. The height and the degree of tilt of the device are controlled by the position of the control lever of the direction control valve regulating the fluid flow into the tilting and INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 78

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lifting cylinders. Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 illustrate an installed proposed hydraulic tilting device model at the workshop and the nomenclature of the device.

Figure 2: An Installed Model Of The Proposed Tilting Device Tilting Platform Tilting Actuators Supporting Structure Bed

Lead Screw

Fork Prong Hydraulic Hose Lifting Actuator

Hose connection to HPU Lifting Arm Concrete floor

Figure 3: Nomenclature Of The Proposed Tilting Device 3.3.Design Calculations The forces and stresses requirement of every component in a system or machine are important factors that determines the geometry, dimensions and the effectiveness of that system’s or machine’s performance. With regard to this fact, the stresses in the fork


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prongs and the forces required to effect the lifting and tilting motions have been analyzed as follows:

3.3.1.Fork Design This is the component on which the automobile rests before tilting starts. Considering the maximum designed load capacity of 5000 Kg, the fork must be made of a material capable of withstanding the impacts of this load without undue failure. For this reason, mild steel was selected due to its suitability for machine parts under heavy loading, high tensile strength ranges and its ease of machinability. Assuming that the design load acts uniformly on each of the fork prongs, the free body diagram is as shown by Fig. 4.

M

V y

x L = 1.8 m

R1 Figure 4: Free Body Diagram Of The Loaded Fork Prong

From the above diagram, the reaction R1,

The moment and the shear force equations with respect to the above diagram are given as, (1)

where, M = the internal bending moment V = the internal shear force w = the load or force acting on the fork arm L = total length of the fork arm x = the length of the fork prong from the support at any section along the length L Taking a section at length x = 0.0 m, from equations (4.1) and (4.2), M = 0 Nm, V = 0 N INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 80

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Taking a section at J-J of length x = 0.45 m,

M V J

y

w = 49.1 kN/m

x x = 0.45 m

R = 88.38 kN

J

Figure 5 :A Section At Length X = 0.45 M Along The Fork Prong

From equation (4.1),

From equation (4.2)

Taking a section at K-K of length x = 0.90 m,

M V

y

w = 49.1 kN/m

K

x x = 0.90 m

R = 88.38 kN

K

Figure 6: A Section At Length X = 0.90 M Along The Fork Prong


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From equation (1),

From equation (2)

Taking a section at L-L of length x = 1.35 m,

M V

y

w = 49.1 kN/m

L

x x = 1.35 m

R = 88.38 kN

L


From equation (1),

From equation (4.2),

Taking a section at M-M of length x = 1.80 m,


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y

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w = 49.1 kN/m

M

x x = 1.80 m

R = 88.38 kN

M


From equation (1),

From equation (4.2)

Fig. 9 shows the bending moment and shear force diagrams of the load on the fork arm.


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M

V

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y

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m x

x

x = 1.8 m R1 = 88.38 kN V / kN 66.29

44.19

22.10

0

0

x/m

0

0

x/m

- 4.97

-19.89

-44.74 M / kNm

Figure 9 :Shear Force And Bending Moment Diagrams Of The Loaded Fork Prong


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3.3.1.1.Maximum Fork Bending And Shear Stresses The maximum shear and bending stresses in the fork arm are given by the formula;

where, σm = maximum bending stress τmax = maximum shear stress of the fork arm I = second moment of area of fork arm cross section M = maximum diagram bending moment value V = maximum diagram shear force value A = cross sectional area of fork arm Considering the fork arm cross section as shown by Fig. 10, the second moment of area I is given by:

y h = 0.10 m

x b = 0.15 m

Figure 10: Cross Section Of The Fork Prong

therefore,

From the values of σm and τmax obtained, since the ultimate tensile strength (Sut) is greater than the bending and the shear stresses in the loaded fork prong, it can confidently be said that the fork prong can withstand the designed load without failing.


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3.3.2.Vertical Height Adjusting Mechanism Analysis The analysis of the adjusting mechanism is mainly centered on the needed output cylinder force required to vertically lift and hold the load at the maximum height of 500 mm. The free body diagram of the mechanism at the maximum height is as shown by Fig. 4.8 below.

W

1.2

1.2

F

0. 50

1.2 0. 25

1.2 Ф

Ф

2.8 Figure 11(A)

Figure 11(B)

Figure 11: Free-Body Diagram Of The Vertical Height Adjusting Mechanism (All Dimension In Meters) 3.3.3.Actuator Force And Stress Analysis The magnitude of the output cylinder force required to vertically lift and hold the load at the maximum height is calculated using the equation below.

where, F = output cylinder force W = sum of the designed load and the device top main frame weight Wa = sum of the weight of the lifting arms Ф = angle between lifting arms and the horizontal axis at the maximum height

From Fig. 11b,

For a designed load of 5000 Kg, a top main frame mass of 15200 Kg and a lifting arm mass of 452.74 kg (from the device dimensions, using m = ρV, where ρ = density of steel 7850 kg/m3, V = volume of component.),


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Therefore, from the above force equation, the output cylinder force required to vertically lift and hold the load at the maximum height is calculated as;

For the selected piston material (medium carbon steel) the ultimate strength (Sut) is 198 MPa and the modulus of elasticity (E) is 207 GPa (Budynas and Nisbett, 2010). Using a safety factor (S.F) of 4 (Khurmi, 2009) in other to obtain optimum efficiency since the material is subjected to constant heavy loads and stresses (σut). The allowable ultimate strength is given as;

The piston working stress (σw) is therefore given as;

Where, F = output actuator force AP = effective piston area dp = piston diameter From equation (5), the piston diameter is calculated as;

therefore, the effective piston area is;

The system pressure (P) is also expressed in relation to the output cylinder force and effective piston area as;

Using a stroke length of 1 m in order to attain the maximum height, the buckling load, WB is calculated as;

where, F = cylinder output force S.F = safety factor therefore,


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According to the Euler formula, the Buckling load (WB) can be expressed in terms of the moment of inertia and piston rod length as;

where,

for a circular cross-section.

I = the moment of inertia of the piston rod E = the modulus of elasticity of piston rod material dpr = diameter of piston rod l = piston rod length therefore, in terms of the piston rod diameter, the Buckling load is expressed as;

The piston rod diameter is obtained as;

Therefore, the force required to lower the bed is given as;

3.3.4.Cylinder Sizing For a stroke length of 1 m, the cylinder height is assumed to be 1.2 m. Assuming a uniform stress distribution in the cylinder, the tangential stress or the hoop stress, σt is given as;

Accounting for cylinder re-boring, the cylinder thickness is given by;

where, P = the pressure in the cylinder INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 88

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t = the cylinder thickness dp = diameter of piston σt = hoop stress of cylinder material, σt = 128 MPa C = allowance for cylinder re-boring The value of C is calculated by interpolating between a range of values from table 1 . d(mm)

75

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

C(mm)

1.5

2.4

4.0

6.3

8.0

9.5

11.0

12.5

12.5

Table 1 :Cylinder Diameter And Their Re-Boring Allowances (Source: Aggarwal And Sharma, 2002). For a cylinder bore of 156.7 mm, interpolating between 150 mm and 200 mm, the value of C is 4.3082 mm. The cylinder thickness is therefore calculated as shown below.

Also the cylinder outside diameter is calculated from the relation;

The longitudinal stress in the cylinder is also given as;

where, Do = cylinder outside diameter Ac = area of cylinder Ap = effective piston area P = cylinder pressure therefore,

3.3.5.Tilting Actuator Analysis The analysis of the tilting actuator is mainly centered on the needed output cylinder forces, the resulting system pressures and the actuator sizing which must be capable of INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 89

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lifting, lowering, pulling and pushing the load onto and from the device top main frame structure.

3.3.6.Design Consideration The force required to lower the automobile body will be considered first in order to further determined the piston rod diameter to calculate the required force to tilt the automobile onto the bed. The forces required to move the piston in order to lower the automobile body back to the workshop floor is expressed as;

where, Fp2 = the force required to lower the automobile body back to the workshop floor mp = mass of the tilting platform ma = the designed load capacity V = the volume of the tilting platform g = acceleration due to gravity density of component material From the device dimensions, using the formula m = ρgV, mp = 870.3 kg, ma = 5000 kg, g = 9.81 m s-2 Substituting mp = 870.3 kg, ma = 5000 kg, g = 9.81 m s-2 into equation (14.12)

For the selected piston material (medium carbon steel), the ultimate tensile strength (Sut) is 57 MPa and the modulus of elasticity (E) is 207 GPa (Budinas and Nisbett, 2010). Also, since we are considering steady loading, a factor of safety of 4 is used. (Khurmi and Gupta, 2005). Therefore, the allowable ultimate tensile strength or the working stress is expressed as;

The piston working stress (σw) is therefore given as;

where, F = output actuator force AP = effective piston area INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 90

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dp = piston diameter From equation (12), the piston diameter is calculated as;

therefore, the effective piston area is;

The system pressure (P) is also expressed in relation to the output cylinder force and effective piston area as;

Using a stroke length of 1 m, the buckling load, WB is calculated as;

where, F = cylinder output force S.F = safety factor therefore,

According to the Euler formula, the Buckling load (WB) can be expressed in terms of the moment of inertia and piston rod length as;

where,

for a circular cross-section.

I = the moment of inertia of the piston rod E = the modulus of elasticity of piston rod material dpr = diameter of piston rod l = piston rod length therefore, in terms of the piston rod diameter, the Buckling load is expressed as;

The piston rod diameter is obtained as;


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The forces required to move the piston in order to tilt the load onto the device bed is thus given as,

Where, Fp1 = the force required to tilt the automobile body onto the device bed mp = mass of the tilting platform dp = piston diameter = piston rod diameter P = pressure in the fluid g = acceleration due to gravity therefore,

3.3.7.Cylinder Sizing For a stroke length of 0.5 m, from the device dimensions, the cylinder length is assumed to be 0.7 m. From Budynas and Nisbett, 2010, assuming a uniform stress distribution in the cylinder, the tangential stress or the hoop stress, σt is given as;

therefore,

where, P = the pressure in the cylinder t = the cylinder thickness dp = diameter of piston σt = hoop stress of cylinder material, σt = 87 MPa

Also the cylinder outside diameter is calculated from the relation;

The longitudinal stress in the cylinder is also given as;


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where, Do = cylinder outside diameter Ac = area of cylinder Ap = effective piston area P = cylinder pressure therefore,

4.Results And Discussion The design is carried out based on application of machine design principles and theories and application basic hydraulic principles. The forces and stresses requirement of the component in the device are important factors that determines the geometry, dimensions and the effectiveness of its performance this is evident in the stresses in the fork prongs and the forces required to effect the lifting and tilting motions which have been analyzed From the mode of operation, admission of pressurized hydraulic fluid from a pump is directed by a directional control valve into the clearance space at the bottom of the lifting cylinder. The force exerted by the fluid effects the outward movement of the piston, thereby raising the bed (upper components) of the device until the fork prongs are correctly positioned at the bottom of the automobile chassis. From the Free Body Diagram of the Loaded Fork Prong, Fig.4, R1 was found to be 88.38 k. Fig. 9 shows the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams of the Loaded Fork Prong. Maximum bending stress and Maximum shear stress of the Fork arm was found to be 119.29 MPa and 6.63 MPa

5.Conclusions In conclusion, a 5000 kg capacity hydraulic automobile tilting device has been designed and will provide an effective technique for tilting and supporting automobile bodies, thereby eliminating the existing stresses and risks involved.


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6.Recommendations Further analysis on the design of the tilting platform should be carried out to enhance adjustability of the interval between fork prongs to suit all wheel base lengths. Automatic control of the support structure driving mechanism should also be considered.


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7.Reference 1. Aggarwal, D.K. and Sharma, P.C. (2002), A Textbook of Machine Design, Delhi, 10th edition, pp. 745 – 755. 2. Akinwonmi, A.S. and Mohammed. A. (2012) “Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences” (JETEAS) 3 (4): 581-588 © Scholarlink Research Institute Journals, 2012 (ISSN: 2141-7016) 3. Budynas, R.G. and Nisbett, J.K. (2010), Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw– Hill Companies, Inc., NY, 8th edition, 1055 pp. 4. Khurmi, R.S. (2009) “A Textbook on Engineering Mechanics” S. Chand and Company Ltd, Ram Nager, New Delhi 20 th Revised Edition, pg171.

ISBN

8121926165. 5. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta, J.K. (2005), “A Textbook of Machine Design”, Eurasia Publishing House (P.V.T) Ltd.14th Edition, 1230 pp. ISBN: 81 - 219 - 2537 – 1 6. Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta, J.K. (2005), “Machine Design”, Eurasia Publishing House, Ram Nagar, New Delhi, 1230 pp. 7. Rajput, R.K. (2010), “Strength of Materials” Revised Edition, S. Chand and Company Limited. 1448 pp ISBN 81-219-2594-0. 8. Raymond, A. Higgins (1990), “Properties of Engineering Materials” 4th Edition, Edward Arnold pp 348 ISBN 0340380349.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Performance Evaluation Of 405 Mw Ranganadi Hydro-Electricity Project (Rhep) Phase-I, Neepco Ltd.,Yazali, Arunachal Pradesh, India Dr. Otem Moyong Assistant Professor, Department of commerce,Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India Mr. Teshi Sohang Ph.D Scholar, Department Of Commerce,Rajiv Gandhi University,Itanagar,Arunachal Pradesh, India Abstract: If not best, good Performance is always sought after undertaking any developmental activities irrespective of economic, political, social, cultural, physical and mental etc., 405 MW RHEP, Yazali was commissioned in the year 2001 with a promising role to improve not only the profitability of NEEPCO ltd but also to harness the hydroelectricity power of Arunachal Pradesh and thereby to improve the socio-economic status of the local inhabitants of project site as well as to provide revenues to the state government and supply of electricity etc. Since Arunachal Pradesh is consider as the power house of India and RHEP, Yazali being the first mega hydro-electricity project in the state, RHEP need to set example by setting standard in terms of performance. Therefore to what extent to what RHEP has performed well; needs to be enquired upon. On this backdrop at attempt has been made in this paper to evaluate the performance of RHEP, Yazali, NEEPCO ltd. in terms power generation, profitability, CSR, Spill over benefits etc.

Keywords: Corporate Social Responsibility, Power generation, profitability, spill over benefits, RHEP, Yazali, NEEPCO ltd., Arunachal Pradesh.


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1.Introduction Development is the common catch phrase in modern world, no one denies development. Everyone is need of quality of life; access to education and health care; employment opportunities; availability of clean air and safe drinking water and so on. The individual person aim of development is the economic security, while these individuals aim of the person in collective became the goal for the nation to increase wealth of the country or in other term ‘the economic development’ of the country. The economic development can be achieved through industrialization and commercialization. The growth of industrialization, economy and its global competitiveness hinges on the availability of reliable and quality of power at low price or competitive price. Human being is fond of using electric gadgets; therefore, power is an essential requirement for all facets of our life and has been recognized as a basic need. The electricity is generated from thermal, hydro, nuclear, wind and solar energy. Among all the sources of energy, thermal and nuclear energy is non-renewable sources of energy and also pollutes environment. Thermal and nuclear energy uses the fossil fuels as source of energy, which is scarcity in nature. Therefore, we need to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and minimize the amount of carbon emission in the atmosphere as possible as it can be. Hence, we need to produce more energy from renewable sources of energy. Hydropower is a renewable source of economic, non-polluting and environmentally benign source of energy. Hydro power stations have inherent ability for instantaneous starting, stopping, load variations etc. and help in improving reliability of power system. Hydro stations are the best choice for meeting the peak demand. The generation cost is not only inflation free but reduces with time, because once the dam is installed it extract the energy from free flowing water. Hydroelectric projects have long useful life extending over 50 years and help in conserving scarce fossil fuels. Arunachal Pradesh is the land of mountainous, forests and rivers inhabited by tribal people and the mountainous topography of the state presents an ideal condition for the development of hydro-electric projects. There are five major river basins in the state namely Kameng, Subansiri, Siang, Dibang and Lohit river basin, which provide conducive potential for hydro power projects. Arunachal Pradesh is blessed with a huge hydropower potential, as per Central Electricity Authority (CEA), it has 50328 Mega Watt (MW) estimated potential and north eastern states at 63,257 MW. However, with these powers potential, Arunachal Pradesh has tapped 405 MW only.


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Against this backdrop of power potential in the north-eastern region, the North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited (NEEPCO ltd) was incorporated in April 1976 as a wholly owned government of India enterprise to exploit, utilize and develop the inherent power generation capability of the region. NEEPCO ltd, being the premier power development organization of the north-eastern region, has been entrusted by the planners and decision makers in the power sector of the nation with the task of developing a significant quantum of total hydro power potential of the north eastern region. It will minimize the peak demand of power in north eastern region and India as a whole. North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited (NEEPCO ltd.) was incorporated under the schedule “A” of Government of India Enterprise under the Ministry of Power was set up on the 2 nd of April, 1976. NEEPCO have completed 5 (five) project with installed capacity of 1130 MW till date namely (i) 275 MW, Kopili Hydro Electric Project (ii) 291 MW, Assam Gas based Power Project (iii) 84 MW, Agartala Gas Turbine Project (iv) 75 MW, Doyang Hydro Electric Project and (v) 405 MW, Ranganadi Hydro Electric Project. It have also 4 projects under construction with installed capacity of 871 MW, these are (i) 60 MW Tuirial Hydro Electric Project (ii) 600 MW Kameng Hydro Electric Project (iii) 110 MW Pare Hydro Electric Project and (iv) 101 MW Tripura Gas Based Project. NEEPCO Ltd has the authorized share capital of ` 5000 Crore as on 31 st march 2010 and net worth as on 31 st march 2009 is ` 4182.31 Crore. NEEPCO’s headquarter is located at Shillong, the capital of Meghalaya. The Ranganadi Hydro Electric Project (RHEP) Phase-I with a capacity of 405 Mega Watt (MW) has been developed and commissioned by NEEPCO Ltd during the year 2001-02. RHEP is located in 27020’, 93045’ E of Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh, which is 80 km away from Ziro the district headquarter of Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh. This project is established in river basin of Panyor (Ranganadi) and tail discharge at Pare (Dikrong) river basin of Papum Pare district of Arunachal Pradesh.

2.Literature Review A large volume of literature on general studies and a research has been conducted in the field of hydroelectric project across the globe and in India. A number of reports, articles, survey and studies have been published on performance evaluation methodologies with respect to hydroelectricity project. Some of the literatures bearing importance for the present study have been reviewed. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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The power is important sources that are requires for industrial, commercial and economic development to the nation M.K. Khera, B.D. Sharma, Majid Hussain (1991) besides, hydro power station leads to rapid development of socio-economic development of the nation and state as a whole and a region or area in particular Moonis Raza (1980), G. Baidya (2006). It provide spill over benefit to project affected area. They also help in minimizing carbon emission in atmosphere Ghanshyam N Singh, T Valuthi Varagunasingh, N Manonmoney, Kanti Singh (1991). The other uses of reservoir provides for water sport, tourist attraction, aquaculture and irrigational support to agriculture. Large dam can controls the flood, which would otherwise affected to people living downstream. Hydropower dam have inherent benefit yet it is equally associated with demerit Mohinder Kumar Slariya (2009), John R. Wood (2007) this includes ecological damage and loss of land, relocation of project affected people Moonis Raza (1980), G. Baidya (2006), G. Thukral (1992) dam failure hazard Vinod Raina, Aditi Chowdhury, Sumit Chowdhury (1999) due to submerge of large number of trees and decaying in an aerobic environment produces methane emission which is a potent of greenhouse gas. The increase in global temperature reduces the flow of river which affects the production of power from dam. Siltation reduces the flood control mechanism as well as power generation of the dam. In view of such consequences, World Commission on Dams under United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) issues guidelines from time to time in ensuring proper implementation of hydropower projects all over the world. India too needs to regulate its hydropower policy with world leader Ramaswamy R. Iyer (2003). Further, due to increase in the awareness among the masses; there are large number of anti-dam activist and movement around the globe. Considering such consequences it is therefore very much important to evaluate the performance of dam in terms of financial, economic and social appraisal of projects George Irwin (1978), Robin Boadway (2006) before as well as after the commissioning of the hydropower projects.

3.Objectives Of Study To study and evaluate the performance of RHEP on selected variables. To address the problem associated with the performance.


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4.Methodolgy The present study is based on both primary as well as secondary data. The data regarding socio-economic facilities and amenities after the commissioning of RHEP have been collected from the published and unpublished sources comprises of state government and RHEP officials etc covering the period of nine years i.e. 2001-02 to 2009-10. The profit figures of RHEP have been obtained from NEEPCO authority through Right to Information (RTI).The interpretations and analysis of the data collected from primary and secondary sources have been supplemented by the information obtained through formal and informal discussions with project affected families and RHEP officials using tables and graphs.

5.Performance And Evaluation Hydro Electricity project, in spite of bearing huge social cost; is a cheap, renewable and sustainable resource to generate revenue. Exploitation of water resources is directly linked to socio economic development. Though Arunachal Pradesh have the potential of 50328 MW and one of the top hydropower potential among the state of India, the state could not able to tap the benefits due to various reasons ranging from proper policy, geographical isolation to protest from locals. RHEP is the only commissioned mega dam in state, which started its commercial operation from the year 2001-02. Hence, it is very much important to evaluate the performance of RHEP. Not only for the RHEP itself but also for making comparison and projection for upcoming Hydro Electricity projected in the state. Thus, in this paper an attempt has been made to evaluate the performance of RHEP. The performance measurement has been made in terms of the following variables. Power generation Profitability Corporate Social Responsibility Spillover benefit and Survey report, which is discussed as under:-

5.1.Power Generation Energy (power) generation is one of the important functions of power developer. Ranganadi hydro electric plant is generating the power since its inception in year 200102. The designed energy of RHEP is to achieve 1510.00 MU. However, the actual power INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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generated by RHEP varies from year to year due to many reasons like sudden machine failure, tunnel rectification work, transmission fault, annual plant maintenance etc. the energy generated and variation is shown in table 1and 2 respectively.

Year

Energy Generated (MU)

2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

21.711 189.487 956.737 1641.108 1411.861 957.715 1540.013 1567.888

2009-10

1025.260

Table 1:Energy Generated By RHEP Since Inception Source: RHEP, NEEPCO, Yazali. These year wise pattern of power generation as per Table 1 have been shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 1 Source: RHEP, NEEPCO, Yazali From the above figure 1, it can be observed that the highest energy generation is in the year 2004-05 is 1641.108 MU and lowest energy generation is in the year 2001-2002 is 21.711MU. The average energy generation till 2009-10 is 1034.642 MU. However, during the year 2004-05, 2007-08, 2008-09 the energy generated by RHEP is more than INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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targeted designed energy. Energy generation of RHEP also shows great variation from targeted energy designed. These are shown in table 2

Year

Energy Generated

Variation from targeted (1510.00 MU)

2001-02

21.711

(-) 1488.289

2002-03

189.487

(-) 1320.513

2003-04

956.737

(-) 553.263

2004-05

1641.108

(+) 131.108

2005-06

1411.861

(-) 98.139

2006-07

957.715

(-) 552.285

2007-08

1540.013

(+) 30.013

2008-09

1567.888

(+) 57.888

2009-10

1025.260

(-) 484.74

Table 2:Variation In Energy Generation Of RHEP, Yazali Source RHEP, NEEPCO, Yazali. The data of table 2 depicts that the three years where the generation of power is more than targeted are (i) year 2004-05 the energy generation is 1641.108MU which is 131.108 MU more than targeted energy (1510.00); (ii) 2007-08 the energy generation is 1540.013 MU which is 30.013 MU more than targeted and in the year 2008-09, the energy generation is 1567.888 MU which is 57.888 MU more than targeted. Hence, the total energy that has been generated more than the designed energy is 219.009 MU.From the table 2, it can also be observed that there are less generation of energy (power) than its designed energy. These less generation of energy is in year, 2001-02, 2002002-03, 2003-04, 2005-06, 2006-07, 2009-10 and energy of 1488.289 MU, 1320.513 MU, 553.263 MU, 98.131 MU, 552.285 MU and 484.74 MU respectively. The total energy that has been less generated till 2009-10 is 4497.221 MU. This implies that the performance of RHEP in terms of energy generation is not satisfactory. During the course of study it has been found that low energy generation of RHEP is basically due to various problems like; siltation, less rainfall in the catchment, technical problems, etc,.

5.2.Profitability One of the best parameter to measure the performance of a project is profitability. It is implied that less performed project will yield low return whereas, best performed project INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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will yield high return. In this respect the researcher has collected data in terms of Gross Profit and Net Profit under Right to Information Act which is shown in table 3.

Year 2001-02 2002-03

Gross-profit (in `) 910.73 11346.04

Net profit (in `) 278.97 4346.12

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07

9543.97 15520.83 12648.5 15233.52

2565.29 9517.43 5253.08 10378.22

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

35232.35 15173.79 17071.82

27906.92 10977.46 12887.50

Total 132681.55 84110.99 Average 14742.40 9345.67 Table 3:Statement Of Year-Wise Gross Profit & Net Profit Of RHEP, Yazali (Rupees In Lakhs) Source: NEEPCO Ltd Shillong, Via RTI It can be seen from the above table that the simple average gross profit and net profit of RHEP for the year 2001-02 to 2001-10 are Rs. 14742.40 and Rs. 9345.67 lakhs respectively. In other words, RHEP is generating an average net profit of Rs. 93.4567 crore and average of gross profit is Rs. 147.424 crore per year. Assuming average profit as the margin or desired profit or target profit to achieve, the trend analysis of gross profit and net profit can be seen in figure 2 and 3 respectively.

30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

Average Net Profit Net Profit

Figure 2:Trend Analysis Of Net Profit Of RHEP (Year 2001-02 To 2009-10)


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40000 30000 20000 10000 0

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Average Gross Profit

2009-10

2008-09

2007-08

2006-07

2005-06

2004-05

2003-04

2002-03

2001-02

Gross Profit

Figure 3:Trend Analysis Of Gross Profit Of RHEP (Year 2001-02 To 2009-10) It can be observed from the figure 2 and 3 that, both the Net Profit and Gross Profit is in increasing trend. It can also be noted that during the initial years both gross profit and net profit were below the average; however RHEP could able to magnify its profitability from the year 2006-07 with highest gross profit of Rs. 35232.35 lakh and net profit of Rs. 27906.92 lakh during the year 2007-08. Thus, it suggests that performance of RHEP is satisfactory and profitable to its investors. Considering the trend analysis as well as the prosperous future it is expected that performance of RHEP in terms of profitability will definitely improve in the future.

5.3.Corporate Social Responsibility At present days Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is one of the legal obligations on the part of corporate bodies to take measures for the society to ensure the fulfillment of objective under triple bottom line i.e. profit, nation and society. In this regard NEEPCO Ltd has also enshrined the following measures under CSR. The NEEPCO CSR is as follow:NEEPCO ltd. (RHEP authority) has performed numbers of programs under corporate social responsibilities in catchment areas during the year 2008-09, which is discussed as under: Construction of water supply intake and providing of water supply line to rehabilitated village of Potin. 

Construction of Public toilet 3 (three) numbers at Possa village.



Water supply with Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) platform at Possa village.



Water storage tank at Hoz, near Power House of RHEP.



Construction of Cement Concrete (CC) foot path.


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Repairing of the administrative building of Government Higher Secondary School, Yazali.



Besides above, during the year 2009-10 NEEPCO ltd has also performed the following activities as a part of its CSR.



Construction of boundary wall for Government Secondary School, Pitapool.



Leveling of football ground at rehabilitated village Potin.



Construction of bus waiting shed at Possa village.



Providing computers to 2 (two) numbers of school namely Govt. Higher Secondary School, Yazali and Govt. Middle School, Hoz.



Conduct 3 (three) medical camps.



Award to merit scholarships for Arunachal Pradesh Schedule Tribe students of Lower Subansiri District.



Construction of Cement Concrete foot path at new Pitapool village.



Construction 1(one) number with 4 (four) roomed public toilet with septic tank for pre-primary school at new Pitapool village.



Construction of 2(two) numbers with 2(two) roomed public toilet with septic tank at Pitapool and Chod villages.

The total expenditure incurred on corporate social responsibility of RHEP in year 200910 is Rs. 2,11,75,163 (rupees two crore eleven lakhs seventy five thousand one hundred sixty three) but the target budget was only Rs. 2.10 crore. The evaluation of the programs covered under unit level CSR-CD as framed in NEEPCO Ltd shows that, out of four objectives in Education, only two objectives have been performed. As for peripheral development objective, all the three has been performed. From the others objective no 1 out of 15 objectives has been undertaken by RHEP. Under health upliftment objective out of three objectives only one has been performed. Further, it is also found that out of 26 objectives of unit level CSR-CD only 6 and 9 objectives have been performed in year 2008-09 and 2009-10 respectively. It may be mention that information regarding implementation of CSR-CD of NEEPCO ltd. was available only for the year 2008-09 and 2009-10 during the course of study. Thus, it is observed from the above discussion that performance of NEEPCO ltd (RHEP) in terms of achieving the objectives under CSR is not satisfactory. However, it is expected that that NEEPCO ltd will definitely look out for more activities under CSR in


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future. It may also be mention that the activities undertaken by NEEPCO ltd (RHEP) have not been made available to the researcher. 5.4.Spillover Benefit From Rhep, Yazali The spillover benefits of RHEP, Yazali have been discussed under the following identified parameter. 

Infrastructure

(this

includes

roads,

medical,

School,

recreational

and

telecommunication) 

Market Facility



Employment and



Revenue from RHEP.

5.4.1.Infrastructure

5.4.1.1.Road The road is the one of the most important infrastructure of socio-economic development project, though the road in and around is not fully constructed by NEEPCO authority, yet it can be termed as spillover benefits from RHEP, since road has been finance by NEEPCO ltd to construct the road. The NEEPCO authority have constructed two road i.e. Pitapool to Rub village, where dam is constructed. Another one is road from NEEPCO complex Yazali to Hoj, where power house is constructed. The State Government’s Public Work Department (PWD), have constructed two road i.e. diversion road of RHEP from Lichi village (7 camp, Kimin) via Potin to NEEPCO complex, another one is from Midpu to Hoj connecting the Papum Pare District to Lower Subansiri District, which is the lifeline of three district namely Lower Subansiri, Kurung Kumey and Upper Subansiri Districts. Since this road in not touching Assam, proper maintenance and renovation of the road it will play significant role in developing the three districts in near future.

5.4.1.2.Medical The Yachuli Circle posses one Public Health Centre (PHC) at Yazali, which is run and managed by Government of Arunachal Pradesh, in addition to it, NEEPCO authority have provided one medical facility at NEEPCO complex for its employee and project affected families. Where no doctor charge is taken from persons or kith and kin of


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project affected family, only medicine cost have to bear by them. This facility can be termed as life saving schemes for the citizen of NEEPCO complex as well as for nearby areas of NEEPCO complex. Otherwise, the local dwellers of that area have to travel 20 Km approximately to access the facility of PHC at Yazali. 5.4.1.3.School There is one higher secondary school at NEEPCO complex, Yazali, run under the banner of Vivekanada Kendra Vidyalaya School but supervised and look after by NEEPCO authority, especially for the children of NEEPCO employee, yet the student from nearby areas or Project Affected Family do take great advantage from it. So in a gross term it helps in education system of local inhabitant children too.

5.4.1.4.Recreational The reservoir of RHEP dam can attract recreational activity like adventurous boating, which can attract tourist. For this reason, Department of Tourism Government of Arunachal Pradesh has built a tourist lodge at Potin, (which is yet to start) and a guest house at Peni where tourist can stay.

5.4.1.5.Telecommunication Before the project there was no any telecommunication system prevails there, now there is connection of telecommunication both mobile and landline. This makes easy communication for the local dwellers. Thus the development of telecommunication in the project affected areas can be attributed to RHEP, NEEPCO ltd.

5.4.1.6.Others Besides the above specific infrastructure benefits, it was observed that all the villages in the project are getting electricity supply from RHEP. The RHEP authority are also conducting environment and health awareness program due to which local inhabitants are benefitted . 5.4.2.Market Facility During the course of study it was found that four market centers were created after implementation of the project, which can be termed as the newly market created due to project. These markets are located at Potin, near entry gate of NEEPCO, complex, RHEP, near Circle Office of Yazali and new Pitapool respectively. This creation of INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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market helps the local inhabitant especially the project affected families to earn their livelihood and for economic development of that area.

5.4.3.Employment Due to the project, local habitant of Arunachal Pradesh to the tune of 83 numbers could employed in RHEP out of which 53 numbers is holding the regular job, 29 are holding on basis of 89 days employee and 1 (one) deputation from state government. These employments could not have been generated without the project, which is also the spillover benefit that provided to the people of Arunachal Pradesh.

5.4.4.Power Supply Power is the primary output of any power developers, that may be hydro, thermal, nuclear, wind and solar. As a host state of project and under the National Hydro Power Policy 1998 as well as under the para 9.7 of hydro power policy 2008, Arunachal Pradesh is entitled to receive 12 percent free power share from the RHEP. The power received from RHEP as furnished by the department of power, Government of Arunachal Pradesh. The available data is from 2004-05 to 2009-10, these are shown below in table 4.

12 percent free power received from RHEP (in MUs) 2004-05 197.530

2005-06 168.782

2006-07 112.532

2007-08

2008-09

181.520

188.480

2009-10 122.300

Table 4:12 Percent Free Power Receipt By Government Of Arunachal Pradesh Source: Department Of Power, Government Of Arunachal Pradesh While an analysis with the total generation of power of RHEP with 12 percent free share of power entitled to State Government is presented in table 5


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Year

Total generation of RHEP (in MU)

2001-02

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12% free share Actually entitled 2.605

Less/More from 12%

21.711

12% free share received by Arunachal Pradesh (in MU) Not available

2002-03

189.487

Not available

22.738

-----------

2003-04

956.737

Not available

114.808

-----------

2004-05

1641.108

197.530

196.933

0.597

2005-06

1411.861

168.782

169.423

-0.641

2006-07

957.715

112.532

114.926

-2.394

2007-08

1540.013

181.520

184.802

-3.282

2008-09

1567.888

188.480

188.147

0.333

2009-10

1025.260

122.300

123.031

-0.731

-----------

Table 5:Variation From Actual Power Entitled To Arunachal Pradesh From Rhep, Yazali Source: Department Of Power, Government Of Arunachal Pradesh

It is observed from the table 5, that the surplus received over 12 percent is received in year 2004-05 and 2008-09 in the form of 0.597 MU and 0.333 MU respectively. The total of surplus received is 0.93 MU. Whereas, the deficit received less than 12 percent is in year 2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08 and 2009-10 of 0.641MU, 2.394 MU, 3.282 MU and 0.731 MU respectively. The total of deficit received is 7.048 MU. Hence, it is expected that with the increase in power generation the revenue generation of Government of Arunachal Pradesh will also increase. However, during the course of study it was found that RHEP confronts numerous problems due to which performance of could not be achieved as desired.

6.Problems Associated With The Performance Of Rhep, Yazali During the course of study the following problems were identified to be the main factors responsible for below the mark performance of RHEP. These problems have been be classified under two headings i.e. controllable and uncontrollable, which are discussed as under. The controllable problems identified in respect of RHEP, Yazali are as follows: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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6.1.Annual Plant Maintenance Due to Annual Plant Maintenance of RHEP, its machines are turn off and there is no any power generation in this period. The duration of Annual Plant Maintenance depend upon the intensity of machine damage. It mostly ranges from week to month.

6.2.Sudden Machine Failure This kind of problem arises in any time, which results into forced outage. Since, machine failure means shutting down of its generation.

6.3.Tunnel Rectification Work Sometimes problem arises in tunnel, due to high pressure of water or debris stock in tunnel. This damage of tunnel creates a problem in generation of energy.

6.4.Evacuation/Line Constraints (Transmission Line Fault) Due to fault in the transmission line, its energy generation could not able transmit to demand of power/energy.

6.5.Low Price Offered By Grid Corporation Transmission is carried by the Grid Corporation of India, sometime they offered low price for the energy. This is beyond the NEEPCO expectation or less than its cost of generation, so the transmission is stop till the negotiation for the price is mutually accepted the both parties.

6.6.Less Technical Knowhow Of Field Staff/Generator Operator Less technical knowhow of field staff/generator operator sometimes for their fault there is sudden machine failure or forced outage. Till technical problem is solved, there is no any generation of power. This problem mainly arises due to inexperience of handling the generator by the staff/generator operator or transfer of employee or casual handling.These above problems are basically technical problem which create hindrance in energy generation. Therefore, if detected early the above problems can be rectified and can be controlled by taking appropriate measures like; training of operator, constant monitoring and inspection, setting quality control standard etc. Besides controllable problems, there are non-technical problems which is uncontrollable or beyond the reach of human being of RHEP authority. These are as follow: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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6.6.1.Siltation Problem This is the major problem that hindrance in energy generation, siltation the terms denote for the reservation of sand in reservoir of dam. The deposits of sand create less stock of water in the reservoir, which result into less water for energy generation.

6.6.2.Less Rainfall In Catchment Area The rainfall is not equal in all the years since from inception, the year with less rainfall means less water in river resulting into decline in ground water table, since ground water table is feed by the surface water, any decline in surface water declines ground water and vice-versa. Hence, less rainfall resulted into less availability of water for energy generation.Thus, it is observed that due to the presence of above cited problems the energy generated by RHEP is not as per designed energy.

7.Suggestions Considering the above discussions, the following suggestions are recommended to improve the performance of RHEP, Yazali. The proper and constant monitoring and training to the generator operator can be fruitful in achieving the desired energy generation. This will magnify the profit position of NEEPCO ltd. Implantation of environmental safeguard plan for the downstream area of reservoir, so that the loss of life and property of downstream area can be minimized. On the matter of degradation of agricultural and horticulture production of downstream area, it is advice to provide fund for the canal based irrigation facility and renovation of the same for at least once in a year. These will easy the claimant of downstream community as well as in building good rapport. Implementation of in Toto of para 14 of Hydro Power Policy, 2008, of Government of Arunachal Pradesh is very much sought for overall socio economic development of the Project Affected Family. More and more activities should be undertaken by NEEPCO ltd under CSR as a part of its obligation as well as to improve better relationship between NEEPCO ltd and local inhabitants. NEEPCO should develop measures for dissemination of information about RHEP reflecting not only the benefits but also its probable impact on society and environment


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so that beneficiaries can take precautionary measures to protect themselves from the probable losses. NEEPCO ltd should collaborate with educational and technical institute like Rajiv Gandhi University and NERIST (North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and technology) etc., in the development of better policy by way of conducting workshops and seminars regarding the improvement of RHEP performance as well as dam issues in the state.

8.Conclusion “No pain no gain” the quotation clearly signifies that for improving the overall performance of RHEP, many challenges need to be cross. Though profitability of RHEP shows good result, the overall performance of RHEP is not satisfactory. Therefore, NEEPCO authority should give more focus on how to improve the performance. For this matter, equal focus should be given to profit, people and planet as per Triple Bottom Line concept. Thus considering the above discussions and suggestions, NEEPCO need to seek cooperation from state government, local inhabitants, subject experts, technical persons/institutes

etc.,

and

perform

360

degree

evaluation

through

workshops/seminars/conferences etc., at least once in ten years to arrive at strategic decision.

These will not only improve the overall performance of RHEP but most

importantly it will be an example for others to follow.Last but not the least; Arunachal Pradesh possess the hydro-power capacity of more than 50,000 MW and the state hydro power policy 2005 state that, “if the available potential (hydropower) can be harnessed, the state will be floating ‘hydro dollars’ like petro dollars in Arab countries”,. Therefore, NEEPCO ltd need to set example to draw more attention from local community, state government and power developers to enable them to make a decision and to think twice before starting hydro-power projects in the state.


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9.Reference 1. Enakshi Ganguly Thukral, (1992): Big Dam Displaced People (Ed.), Sage publications India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. 2. G. Baidya, (2006): Development of Small Hydro, Himalayan Small Hydropower Summit, Dehradun, Uttranchal, accessed from www.ahec.org.in/HSHPSummitBrochureOCT12-13-2006 on 7.10.12. 3. Ghanshyam N. Singh, T. Valuthi Varagunasing, N. Manonmoney, Kanti Singh, (1991): Environmental Economics, Mittal publications, New Delhi. 4. John R. Wood, (2007): The Politics of Water Resources Development: in India, the Narmada 5. Dams Controversy, Sage publications India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. 6. Moonis Raza, (1980): Renewable Resources for Regional Development, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. 7. M.K. Khera, B.D. Sharma, Majid Hussain, (1991): Energy Problems and Prospects, Studies on Jammu and Kashmir, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. 8. Pradip K. Saikia, (2003): Performance and Viability of Central Public Sector Hydro Electric Power Projects in North Eastern Region, Ph.D. Dissertation submitted to Department of Management, Guwahati University, Assam. 9. Government of Arunachal Pradesh: Hydro Power Policy 2005 Department of Power, Government of Arunachal Pradesh. 10. NEEPCO NEWS, (January – September 2010): vol. 7 no. 3, 4 & Vol 8 no.1. 11. ELECTRONIC SOURCES 12. Mohinder Kumar Slariya, (2009): Other Side of Hydroelectric Power Development: a case study of NHPC owned power project, conference on social dimensions of water resources, Himachal Pradesh, www.openmeeting2009.org/pdf_files/Pdf%20papers/Slariya%20day3.pdf, accessed on 15.6.12. 13. Ramaswamy R. Iyer, (2003): Water Perspectives, Issues, Concern, Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.Robin Boadway, (2006): Principles of Cost-Benefit Analysis, accessed from http://www.mof.go.jp/english/pp_review/ppr002/ppr002a.pdf on 15.6.12 14. V.V.K. Rao, (2006): Hydropower in the Northeast: Potential and Harnessing Analysis, accessed from, http://mdoner.gov.in/writereaddata/sublink3images/69706470684.pdfWebsite: http://www.neepco.gov.in


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Participation Of Weaker Sections In Panchayati Raj Institutions Of Jammu And Kashmir Ashwani Kumar Research Scholar,Department of Sociology, Jammu University, UGC NET-JRF, M.Phil, Pursuing Ph.D

Abstract: Panchayats have been in existence since long in the country. Weaker sections, however, have not been an integral part of this system before 73 rd amendment. The Panchayati Raj Act, 1992-popularly known as 73rd amendment-was enacted in the country to revitalise the panchayati raj institutions besides providing reservation to women and SCs/STs. The provisions of 73rd amendment were not extended to the State owing to the special status of Jammu and Kashmir under article 370. Panchayati raj takes democracy to the grass root level where most of the weaker sections of the community reside. The present paper has examined the

participation of weaker

sections i.e., women and SCs/STs in panchayati raj institutions of J&K. The objective of the paper is to examine “participation” in panchayats by assessing the participation of weaker sections in their functioning and in the village level decisionmaking process.

Keywords:Participation,Representation,

Halqa

Panchayat,

Weaker

Sections,

decentralization, Patriarchy.


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1.Introduction Democracy is generally defined to mean a system of government in which authority in the ultimate analysis is vested in and exercised by the people. It is in this sense that the Abraham Lincoln’s definition of democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people still holds good. Judging by this criterion, the working of representative democracy of the contemporary world does not fully meet the essence of the democracy.Within the context of predominantly uneducated and less vigilant public opinion in countries like India representative institutions are by and large amenable to be misused and manipulated by well entrenched interests. Representative institutions in such a situation are likely to remain devoid of the people’s hopes, aspirations and their will. In a large country like India with the inheritance of the centralised colonial administrative legacy, the real essence of people’s participation in the interplay of power is likely to be missing. Our experience since the independence has gone in line with this proposition. The panchayati raj is an indigenous and time honoured concept in our country. Its origin can be traced back to ancient ages where community spirit was the main force not only to keep village communities united but to help them manage local affairs independently. However, their formation and functional domain was socially exclusivist. The inspiration for panchayati raj is derived from the tradition of panch parmeshwar where god speaks through the assembly of five. In Sanskrit, the word ‘panch' stands for number five, and a body of five persons to decide upon a dispute, are called panch, ‘ayat’ stands for place or abode or house. In this sense, panchayat means ‘an abode of panchayat members’. Panchayati raj is capable of directly engaging people in the process of self-government at the grass root level, as the unit of the government is small enough to engage the entire population of the area in the process of its governance. In India, panchayati raj has added relevance to the diversity of its society. Small units of administration under panchayati raj can by and large go in line with various social groups that constitute the Indian society. Thus, it can guarantee more harmonious relationship in the management of socio-political affairs. It is in the view of all these advantages that not only had Indian Constitution recognised the adoption of the panchayati raj system in India but several experiments were also conducted in various States of India in this direction in the post-independence era. The panchayati raj system came into force in independent India in 1959 after Balwant Rai Mehta committee recommendations. Panchayati raj was introduced with a belief that INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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people of rural India irrespective of caste, class, gender and age would participate actively in various political processes. Hence, most importantly, panchayati raj was aimed at democratising the system by decentralising the power structure. Similarly, empowering grass root political institutions has been an old ideal of National Conference and is emphatically mentioned in the ‘New Kashmir Manifesto’. This ideal was incorporated into the constitution of the State, which made it obligatory for the State to take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as a unit of self-government. The State of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) has introduced various Acts regarding rural local self-governing bodies, the most important being Jammu and Kashmir Panchayati Raj Act of 1989. The Act provides for a three-tier system consisting of Halqa Panchayat1 , Block Development Council and District Planning and Development Board. In addition, the Act provides for a Panchayati

Adalat for every halqa. It was also

mentioned that if the prescribed authority is of the opinion that women are not adequately represented in the halqa panchayat , it may nominate such number of women to be members thereof, as it may deem fit (Provided further that their number does not exceed 33 per cent of the total number of panchayat members). As far as scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (SCs/STs) are concerned, there were no such special provisions kept in the Act. Panchayats have been in existence since long in the country. Weaker sections i.e., women and SCs/STs, however, have not been an integral part of this system before 73 rd amendment. The Panchayati Raj Act, 1992-popularly known as 73rd amendment-was enacted in the country to revitalise the panchayati raj institutions besides providing for reservation to women and SCs/STs. The provisions of 73rd amendment were not extended to the State owing to the special status of J&K under article 370. However, some of its provisions were incorporated, through amendments, in the State Act. Still these provisions do not bring the State Panchayat Act at par with the 73rd amendment. India is one of the largest democracies in the world. Panchayati raj takes democracy to the grass root level where most of the weaker sections of the community reside. The rate of participation of women and SCs/STs is considerably low in the panchayati raj institutions. It has been basically due to their inadequate and ineffective participation and involvement in decentralised governance, planning and development. After Independence, despite having a constitution, which embodies ideals like equity and equality, social justice could not be achieved so far. Even when India had a woman INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Prime Minister for quite a number of years, the situation of women at large did not change for the better. Women’s participation in politics remained quite insignificant in India even after 59 years of self-rule (Nanda 2006). The question of women’s representation in politics in all over the world began to assume importance since 1975 when UN declared 1975 as the ‘International Women’s Year’. This was followed by the UN’s decade for Women (1976-1985) with the theme “Equality, Development and Peace”. In India, the question of women’s participation in decision-making process got the attention of the Committee for Status of Women in India (CSWI) in 1974. It was the status report by CSWI in India titled ‘Towards Equality’ (1974) which came as a shock to Indian women who realised that even after 27 years of independence, not only were they performing the traditional roles expected of them by men, but also had been characterised by illiteracy, poor health, marginalised employment, violence and had no role in the decision-making process in any spheres of life (Singla 2007). The national perspective plan for women (1988) has also argued that political power and access to decision making power are critical prerequisites for women’s equality in the process of nation building. The scheduled castes and scheduled tribes communities have been traditionally deprived of their rights. Since Independence, variety of initiatives have been undertaken to build their capacities and mainstream them in the social and political system. But unfortunately results are far from what has been envisaged. Building leadership of the SC/ST communities in local governance institutions is one of them. They are still deprived of their powers as elected representatives. For women belonging to these communities, it is dual oppression. Traditional panchayats worked as caste communities, and were dominated by men of the village elite. A number of elected SC/ST representatives are dependent on the elite of the village and remained answerable to them. Both male and female elected representatives, being undereducated and inexperienced, were often not allowed to carry out their mandate. The insensitivity, indifference, vested interests, abusive language and non-cooperation of other elected representatives, functionaries and officials constrained the ability of many of these elected representatives to perform better. Women and SCs/STs represent sections that have not received support from the society in playing any form of leadership roles. In fact, quite a few dalit and women leaders were able to overcome the odds against them and have emerged as strong representatives of the village communities. The cases of successful leaders have, however, remained INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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isolated incidents. There have been challenges before the elected representatives from the weaker sections. The first is the legal ambiguity in the powers and functions given to the panchayats, as they have not been clearly defined in the State Panchayat Acts. The second is the caste and gender prejudices which keep the women/SCs/STs away from functioning effectively as members or chairpersons of these bodies . 2.Representation Of Women And Scs/Sts In Panchayats Of Jammu Division Despite inhospitable security environment and desperate attempts from many to thwart the attempts of the government to hold panchayat elections, the State Government succeeded in conducting panchayat elections during the first quarter of 2001 after a very long gap of 23 years. The election for the 1230 sarpanch and 10090 panch constituencies in Jammu Division was conducted in a staggered electoral process by the State Election Authority on non-party basis and with a high degree of transparency, impartiality and fairness (Sadhotra 2001). Analysis of the information given in Table 1 in respect of Jammu Division reveals that the picture in respect of women candidates elected is quite dismal, ranging from 0.5 per cent in respect of sarpanches to 1.70 per cent in respect of panches. Samba district was created in 2006 by carving some parts from Jammu and Kathua districts and that’s why missing in the above table containing results of 2001 panchayat elections in Jammu Division.

District

No. of Women Elected (Sarpanch) SC ST Others Total

No. of Women Elected (Panch) SC

ST

Others

Total

Jammu

-

-

01

01

11

03

28

42

Kathua

-

-

01

01

06

01

16

23

Poonch

-

01

-

01

-

06

07

13

Udhampur

-

-

03

03

05

08

25

38

Doda

-

-

01

01

-

-

26

26

Rajouri

-

-

-

-

03

03

18

24

Total

-

01

06

07

25

21

120

166

Table 1:Number Of Women Elected As Sarpanch & Panch (Jammu Division) Source: Reconstructed From The Information Received From Directorate Of Rural Development, Srinagar/Jammu. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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The information regarding SC/ST representatives is given in Table 2. Analysis of the given information reveals that there are 29.68 percent of them elected as panches against 21 per cent sarpanches.

No. of Sarpanch Elected District SC

Other

Tota

s

l

ST

No. of Panch Elected

SC

ST

Others

Total

Jammu

57

14

223

294

682

127

1634

2443

Kathua

11

03

168

182

181

83

1127

1391

Poonch

-

52

63

115

-

425

601

1026

Udhampur

17

24

171

212

270

268

1254

1792

Doda

12

14

190

216

155

164

1379

1698

Rajouri

06

45

109

160

64

465

835

1364

10

15 924

1179

1352

1532

6830

9714

3

2

Total

Table 2:Number Of SC/Sts Elected As Sarpanch & Panch (Jammu Division) Source: Reconstructed From The Information Received From Directorate Of Rural Development, Srinagar/Jammu The present paper has examined the participation of weaker sections i.e., women and SCs/STs in panchayati raj institutions of J&K. The halqa panchayats of Vijaypur block of Samba district are selected for the study. The objective of the paper is to examine “participation” in panchayats by assessing the participation of weaker sections in their functioning and in the village level decision-making process. For the present study, the term participation is limited to the activities of the elected representatives alone in the process of local governance. The focus of the study is also on their socioeconomic profile as well as the awareness of rights and responsibilities among elected women and SC/ST representatives. This study has also tried to identify the sociocultural factors affecting the performance of elected women and SC/ST representatives in the village decision making process. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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The present study follows the pluralist line on distribution of power in society as the basic theoretical perspective. According to pluralists, represented by Robert Dahl (1961) and Nelson W Polsby (1962) and others, it was too simplistic a view to assume that the upper classes always enjoyed greater power. According to them, the distribution of power in a society was generally determined by the combination of resources and skills enjoyed by people. There are many resources other than status and wealth, which enabled people to acquire power. Besides, the skills for using one’s resources are not evenly distributed nor are they necessarily acquired by one’s status and wealth. Thus, not just status and wealth but a plurality of factors enabled people to acquire power. This was the pluralist view. The Indian constitution introduced in 1950 adopted universal adult franchise, thus creating a political resource for all citizens. When the Indian parliament passed the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act in 1992 reserving 33% seats for women and for SCs/STs in proportion to their population in panchayati

raj institutions, it was in a sense

following the pluralist line. It was creating another resource through reservation in the hands of these deprived sections to enable them to acquire some power even if they did not enjoy high status and wealth (Barik and Sahoo 2008).Of course, occupying formal positions of power is not enough. That does not make one necessarily powerful. The real test of power, as Max Weber told categorically, is one’s ability to influence decisionmaking in a public action affecting the community. The formal position only gave an occupant a better opportunity to participate in the decision-making process. The pluralists always emphasised the importance of studying the process of decision-making for this purpose (ibid).The universe of the undertaken study includes all the elected women and SC/ST representatives of the halqa panchayats of Jammu Division. The empirical data for the paper have been collected from the halqa panchayats of Vijaypur Block of Samba district of Jammu and Kashmir. The sampling method which is used to select area of study is area sampling and purposive sampling method is used to draw sample from the elected representatives of halqa panchayats of Vijaypur block. Out of 10 districts of Jammu Division, Samba district has been selected and out of 4 blocks of Samba district, Vijaypur block is selected for study through area sampling. The area sampling method is one version of cluster sampling and is also known as geographical cluster sampling. This sampling implies dividing population into geographical clusters and drawing random sample from all geographical clusters or selected ones. In the present study, Jammu Division is taken as primary geographical INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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cluster. Jammu Division has 10 districts which are considered as secondary geographical clusters and Samba district has been selected randomly out of these secondary geographical clusters. Samba district is further

divided into 4 blocks which are

considered as tertiary geographical clusters and Vijaypur block is selected randomly from these tertiary geographical clusters. The sample for the present study has been drawn from the women and SC/ST representatives as well as elected general members from halqa panchayats of Vijaypur block by the use of purposive sampling. In the entire halqa panchayats of Vijaypur block, there are 49 SCs, 9 STs and 4 women representatives. The sample size is 40 and it includes 4 women, 5 STs, 20 SCs and 11 general members. Some general members were interviewed to know their perception about elected women and SCs/STs as well as to know their views on reservation for weaker sections. Young (1966) argues that the most important consideration in selecting a sample is to see that it is closely representative of the universe. The size of the sample is no necessary insurance of its representativeness. Relatively small samples properly selected may be much more reliable than large samples poorly selected. A good sample must be representative of the universe or population. A good sample also must be adequate in size in order to be reliable. The data was collected from primary as well as secondary sources. In order to collect the primary data, the structured interview was carried out. With the decision of applying structured interviewing technique, the construction of interview schedule was also required. Four different interview schedules for women, SCs, STs and general representatives were used to achieve objectives of the present research. Before finalising the interview schedule a pilot study was conducted to know about the gaps left in the construction of the interview schedule. The secondary data collection had started from the beginning of the study and continued almost till the end. It included consultation of various books, articles, journals, Government reports and other reports.

3.Concepts Used

3.1.Weaker Sections The term ‘weaker sections’ brings within its ambit those who suffer from physical, economic and social deprivation and face discrimination on basis of caste, creed and patriarchy namely the SCs, STs, women, the differently able INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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classes. For the purpose of present study, the term ‘weaker sections’ implies women and SCs/STs only. It is because under 73rd amendment, there should be reservation for women and SCs/STs compulsorily in panchayati raj institutions whereas reservation for other backward classes is left to the sole discretion of State governments. In J&K, there are no special provisions for representation of other backward classes in State Panchayati Raj Act. Thus the present study focused only on women and SCs/STs representation in panchayati raj institutions of J&K.

3.2.Participation Participation has long been acknowledged as a central theme of democratic governance. Democracy offers the citizens an opportunity to elect and subsequently dispose the governments through the electoral process. In such a liberal democratic framework, people are expected to participate only by expressing their mandate, and the scope of participation ends with the electoral process (Schumpeter 1942). However, such a narrow vision of participation undermines public involvement and minimizes peoples’ role in decision-making process. Now scholars disagree with Schumpeterian narrow version of participation. Political participation in a democracy has got a wider connotation now, which ranges from popular participation in electing representatives to the actual participation of representatives in the process of governance. Verba, Schzoman and Brady (1993) define political participation in democratic context as those activities, which have “the intent or effect of influencing government action - either directly by the making or implementation of public policy or indirectly by influencing the selection of people who make those policies” Participation in the 1990’s, with the emphasis of reservation policies at the levels of local government, has become both a right in itself and a means for ensuring effective governance. Thus, as a political concept as well as a process, participation has got a dynamic implication with the recent policies of devolution, where people are not only expected to voice their opinions in elections, but also enjoy the power to participate in the actual decision-making process. In the present study, the participation representatives

is used in the context of role of elected

from weaker sections in the actual decision making process in

panchayati raj institutions.


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3.3.Decentralisation Decentralisation has assumed a central role in matters of governance in the developing world over the last few years. The major promise of democratic decentralisation is that it brings popular participation and accountability to local governance, and therefore, makes local governance more responsive to citizens’ desires and more effective in delivering services (Blair 2000). Decentralised democratic governance is being regarded as “both a right in itself and a means of ensuring basic human rights observance” (Gloppen et al 2003). Gloppen definition of decentralisation is taken as the reference in the present study. The commitment towards popular participation in governance at the local level has been reinforced through recent policies of affirmative action. In 1992, the Government of India passed the 73rd and 74th amendment to adopt a decentralised model of governance. The amendments activated local governments by making it mandatory to conduct regular elections at the village, block, district and town level and significantly devolving powers and resources to these elected bodies. To strengthen participation and inclusion, the amendments mandate the reservation of seats for women and scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and that all rural local governments (panchayats) hold gram sabhas (village meetings) at regular intervals.

3.4.Key Findings The major findings, which emerge from the present study, are presented below in various sections.

4.Social, Economic And Political Profile For the present study, the social, economic and political factors have been taken as one of the antecedent factors influencing women and SC/ST participation in panchayats.

4.1.Age-Wise Composition The study reveals that 75% of elected women were above the age of 50 years. That shows that younger women are not joining politics. The reason may be the process of adjustment in the new settings as post-marriage hamper active participation in the elections, while middle age women are adjusted to the system and could come out of private sphere more actively. In case of SC panchayat representatives, 45% of them belong to the young age groups, 20% to middle age groups and 35% to older age INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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groups2. Thus, the young members from SC community are more actively participating in comparison to middle and old age members of their community.

As far as ST

panchayat representatives were concerned, 80% of elected STs belong to middle age groups and only 20% to older age group. The age composition of panchayat representatives from weaker sections is given below in Table 3.

Number of Respondents AgeGroup(in Years) 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 Total

Percentage

Women

SC

ST

Women

SC

ST

1 2 1

1 8 4 5 2

2 2 1 -

25 50 25

5 40 20 25 10

40 40 20 -

4

20

5

100

100

100

Table 3:Age-Wise Distribution Of The Women And SC/ST Panchayat Representatives 4.2.Educational Background Regarding educational background, it was found that only 25% women and 10% SC panchayat representatives were illiterate. The rest of the panchayat representatives were educated at least upto primary level. Even about 25% women, 10% SC and 20% ST panchayat representatives were educated upto graduation and above. The data pertaining to educational background is given below in Table 4.

Number of Respondents

Percentage

Education Level

Women

SC

ST

Women

SC

ST

Illiterate

1

2

-

25

10

-

Primary

1

5

1

25

25

20

Middle

-

4

1

-

20

20

1

4

2

25

20

40

-

3

-

-

15

-

1

2

1

25

10

20

4

20

5

100

100

100

10

th

Higher secondary Graduate and above Total

Table 4:Educational Level Of Women And SC/ST Panchayat Representatives


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4.3.Occupation Classification A large majority (75%) of the women representatives were housewives while SC/ST representatives were engaged in diverse occupations. It has been found that, 30% SC panchayat representatives were cultivators, 35% run their own business, 15% were exservicemen and 15% were service providers. In the case of STs panchayat representatives, 60% of them were cultivators, 20% were service provider and 20% were ex-servicemen. The occupational classification of women and SC/ST panchayat members is given in Table 5 and Table 6.

Occupation

Number of Women

Percentage

Housewife

3

75

Social Service

1

25

Full Time Politician

-

-

Cultivator

-

-

Agricultural Labourer

-

-

Wage Labour (Non-farm)

-

-

Total

4

100

Table 5:Occupational Classification Of Women Panchayat Representatives

Occupation Cultivator Agricultural Labourer Full Time Politician Service provider Business Ex-servicemen Wage Labourer (Nonfarm) Total

Number of Respondents SC ST 6 3 3 1 7 3 1

Percentage SC 30 15 35 15

ST 60 20 20

1

-

5

-

20

5

100

100

Table 6:Occupational Classification Of SC/ST Panchayat Representatives


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4.4.Annual Household Income The study reveals that the women representatives of halqa panchayats had sound economic background. About 75% of them had annual family income more than 1,20,001. In the case of SCs/STs elected members, 60% of elected SCs/STs had annual family income between 24,001 and 72,000. Thus the economic condition of SCs/STs elected members is far better than their counterparts in other States. The information regarding household income is provided in Table 7.

Annual Family Income (Rs.)

Percentage

Number of Respondents Women

SC

ST

Women

SC

ST

Less than 24,000

-

3

1

-

15

20

24,001-48,000

-

6

2

-

30

40

48,001-72,000

1

6

1

25

30

20

72,001-96,000

-

-

-

-

-

-

96,001-1,20,000

-

3

-

-

15

-

1,20,001 and above

3

2

1

75

10

20

Total

4

20

5

100

100

100

Table 6:Annual Household Income Of Women And SC/ST Panchayat Representatives 4.5.Political Background The study reveals that 25% women elected members had no political background, 25% were political workers, 25% had member from affinal family in politics and 25% had members from natal as well as affinal family in politics. Since there was no provision of reservation in Jammu and Kashmir Panchayati Raj Act, 1989 in 2001 and thus such type of picture is very much understandable. In the case of SC/ST elected panchayat members, 90% SCs and 100% ST panchayat representatives had no political background. The data pertaining to poltical background has been given in Table 7and 8.


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Political Background Number of Women Percentage Nil 1 25 Political worker 1 25 Husband ex-sarpanch or ex-politician Any other family member from affinal family in politics or Panchayat representative Any member from natal family in politics 1 25 or Panchayat representative Members from affinal as well as natal family in politics or Panchayat 1 25 representative Total 4 100 Table 7:Political Background Of Women Panchayat Representatives

Political Background Nil

Number of Respondents SC ST 18 5

Percentage SC 90

ST 100

Political worker Ex-Panchayat member 2 10 Any other family member in politics/panchayat representative Total 20 5 100 100 Table 8:Political Background Of SC/ST Panchayat Representatives

5.Awareness Of Women Panchayat Representatives There is a general impression that elected women have negligible role in participation and their awareness level is low. Most of them stand only due to reservation. In the present case, there was no provision for women reservation (when elections were held), so it can be assumed that elected women panchayat members would show higher degree of participation and awareness.

5.1.Political Awareness Awareness about the prevailing political system is essential for the functioning of the members to enhance and facilitate their performance. The political awareness of women members was good. The political awareness of the elected members has been studied through the following components like awareness about the tenure of halqa panchayats ,


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women’s quota, etc. It has been found that all the elected women members of respective panchayats knew the tenure of halqa panchayats as well as about the 33% reservation in the coming panchayat elections. Although they were aware of the 33% reservation but they didn’t have any idea about the 73 rd amendment and how it is different from the present system of reservation in halqa panchayats of J&K. All women representatives support reservation and consider it as the necessary instrument to increase their representation from present negligible level.

5.2.Awareness About Development Programmes The awareness about the development programmes and schemes undertaken in their respective panchayats was fairly good. All women members were aware about the developmental programmes undertaken by their panchayats. Regarding specific programmes all the representatives knew about

Mahatama Gandhi National Rural

Employment Guarantee Programme and Indra Awaas Yojna while only 50% knew about Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojna and Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna. Only 25% were aware of Integrated Watershed Development Programme. The data regarding awareness about specific programmes is give in Table 9.

Percentag e

Development Programmes

Number of Women gave Affirmative Response

Mahatama Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme

4

100

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojna

2

50

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna

2

50

Indra Awaas Yojna

4

100

Integrated Watershed Development 1 25 Programme- Haryali Table 9:Awareness About Specific Development Programmes Note: The Number Of Responses Shown In The Table Are More Than Four As This Was A Multiple Choice Question And One Respondent Gave More Than One Response


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5.3.Awareness Of SC/ST Panchayat Representatives

5.3.1.Political Awareness Political awareness of SC/ST representatives is very important for the performance of leadership roles and thus questions were asked like awareness about reservation, tenure of halqa panchayats, etc. The political awareness of SC/ST representatives was quite sufficient. All the SC/ST representatives knew about the tenure of panchayats. It was also found that about 70% of SC representatives and 80% of ST representatives were aware about the reservation in the coming panchayat elections. Although they were aware of the reservation but they didn’t have any idea about the 73rd amendment. The data regarding their awareness about reservation is given below in Table 10.

Response


Percentage

SC

ST

SC

ST

Yes

14

4

70

80

No

6

1

30

20

Total 20 5 100 Table 10:Awareness About Reservation In Halqa Panchayats

100

5.3.2.Awareness About Development Programmes The awareness about the development programmes undertaken in their respective panchayats was good. It was found that all respondents were aware about the development programmes. Regarding specific development programmes that are being implemented in their respective panchayats, all the representatives knew about Mahatama Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme and almost all respondents were aware of Indra Awaas Yojna while only 60% SC and 80% ST representatives knew about Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna. The awareness about Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojna and Integrated Watershed Development Programme was not very high. The information about their awareness regarding development programmes is given below in Table 11.


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Number of SC/ST Representatives gave Affirmative Response

Development Programmes

Percentage

SC

ST

SC

ST

Mahatama Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme

20

5

100

100

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojna

6

3

30

60

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna

12

4

60

80

Indra Awaas Yojna

19

5

95

100

Integrated Watershed Development 6 2 30 40 Programme- Haryali Table 11:Awareness About Specific Development Programmes Note: The Number Of Responses Shown In The Table Are More Than Four As This Was A Multiple Choice Question And One Respondent Gave More Than One Response

6.Participation Of Women Representatives The analysis of women’s participation was carried out with the help of various indicators like participation in village affairs before elections, attending training programmes, raising of issues independently, etc.

6.1.Involvement In Village Affairs Representatives interest in local affairs is an important indicator of their effective participation. In the present study, it was found that 50% of the women representatives were involved in village affairs before panchayat elections while 50% did not took any part in village affairs before electing in halqa panchayats. The data regarding women involvement in local affairs is given in Table 12.

Percentage

Response

Number of Women

Yes

2

50

No

2

50

Total

4

100

Table 12:Involvement In Village Affairs


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7.Attendance In Panchayat Meetings The performance of women representatives depend on their attendance in panchayat meetings. It was found that all the respondents attend panchayat meetings and they did raise issues independently in panchayat meetings.

7.1.Source Of Assistance In Panchayat Wor Regarding the source of assistance in doing their panchayat duties, it was found that all the women members were doing their duties independently. They were not taking the help of their husbands/family members or any other. But this should not be mistaken as an indicator of women’s empowerment as a whole because the representation of women is very less due to absence of reservation. This can be appropriately tested only after women in adequate numbers from diverse backgrounds contest elections. Regarding support of government officials in the implementation of development programmes, their responses were positive. They didn’t have any complaints from government officials. Although some of the women leaders (50%) complaint about favouritism in the identification of beneficiaries. This is due to their negligible representation in panchayats and the absence of training programmes for women members. But despite of all difficulties, all the women respondents agreed that there has been change in their socio-economic status due to their mere election to local bodies. They said that there has been increase in awareness about the problems of women and they pressed for their solutions effectively due to their representation in local selfgoverning bodies.

8.Participation Of SC/ST Representatives The analysis of SC/ST representatives’ participation was also carried out with the help of various indicators like participation in village affairs before elections, attending training programmes, raising of issues independently, etc.

8.1.Involvement In Village Affairs In the present study, it was found that 80% of the SC and 100% ST representatives were involved in village affairs before panchayat elections. The data pertaining to their involvement in village affairs is given below in Table 13.


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Response

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Number of Respondents SC

ST

SC

ST

Yes

16

5

80

100

No

4

-

20

-

Total

20 5 100 Table 13:Involvement In Village Affairs

100

8.2.Attendance In Panchayat Meetings The performance of SC/ST representatives depend on their attendance in panchayat meetings because it is the necessary condition for their participation. It was found that almost all the SC (95%) and ST (100%) respondents attend panchayat meetings. They raised issues independently in panchayat meeting. This reflects upon their active participation in decision making in panchayats. The information about their attendance is given below in Table 14.

Response


Percentage

SC

ST

SC

ST

Yes

19

5

95

100

Sometimes

1

-

5

-

No

-

-

-

-

Total 20 5 100 100 Table 14:Sc/St Representatives Response To Their Attendance In Panchayat Meetings 8.3.Change In Socio-Economic Status Through Political Participation Most of the respondents agreed that there has been change in the socio-economic status of SC/ST representatives due to the working of panchayats. About 95% SC and 80% ST representatives answered in affirmative regarding this query. But still most of the respondents thought that they were not fully involved in formulation of development schemes. This problem is also faced by panchayat members of other sections because the local rural bodies have not been given adequate powers in Jammu and Kashmir. The information about their views on change in socio-economic status is given below in Table 15.


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Number of Respondents Response SC

ST

SC

ST

Yes

19

4

95

80

No

1

1

5

20

Total

20

5

100

100

Table 15:Change In The Socio-Economic Status Of SC/ST With The Working Of PRI’s 9.Problems Faced By Women Representatives

9.1.Problems faced in doing panchayat work Regarding problems faced in carrying out panchayat work, economic/financial problems was the main problem mentioned by all women representataives. They said that there is scarcity of financial resources for carrying out necessary panchayat works. Lack of education and awareness were also some of the problems mentioned by 50% and 25% women panchayat representatives respectively. Panchayati raj institutions lack resources in J&K as financial powers like imposition of taxes, regular funds availability, etc. are not transferred to these self-governing bodies. This problem faced by all the panchayat members irrespective of caste, class, gender, etc. The data regarding problems faced while doing panchayat work is given below in Table 16

Percentage

Economic/financial problem

Number of Women gave Affirmative Response 4

Lack of awareness

1

25

Response

100

Lack of education 2 50 Interference of government officials/non cooperation Political interference/groupism Others like family problems/traditional values, etc. Don’t face any problem Table 16:Problems Faced In Panchayat Work Note: The Number Of Responses Shown In The Table Are More Than Four As This Was A Multiple Choice Question And One Respondent Gave More Than One Response


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9.2.Problems In Attending Panchayat Meetings In the present study it was found that majority (75%) of women panchayat members didn’t mention any problem in regularly attending panchayat meetings while rest mentioned lack of education as the main problem in their regular attendance in panchayat meetings. It was according to expectations as majority of them regularly attend panchayat meetings and their awareness regarding panchayat meetings was also good. As far as the education is concerned, it was also emphasised by most of the panchayat representatives that minimum educational qualification should be made mandatory requirement for contesting panchayat election.

10. Problems Faced By SC/ST Representatives

10.1.Role Of Dominant Castes In Deciding Their Candidature The role of the dominant castes and factions cannot be denied or underestimated in politics at the grassroots level. Caste system is a dark reality of Indian society since ages. The dominant castes have been exploiting and dominating the lower castes. But due to affirmative action in education and employment opportunities, there has been gradual change in socio-economic status of lower castes. The processes of industrialisation, urbanisation, westernisation and sanskritisation have been diluting caste rigidities. In the present study, it was found that most of the SC/ST panchayat representatives didn’t mention any role of dominant castes in deciding their candidature. Only 10% SC contestants agreed that their candidature is decided by dominant castes while 5% SC and 40% ST representatives responded that mutual consent is taken for deciding candidature. Here it must be mentioned that the wards from where they contested have dominant caste / group population in small number. So that is the main reason for dominant castes / group no direct role in deciding their candidature. Another reason may be due to the moderating influence of Islam on other communities in Jammu and Kashmir as it is based on the principle of social equality. Being dominant religion of Jammu and Kashmir, it makes caste inequalities less rigid in comparison to other Indian States. The information about dominant caste role in deciding their candidature is given below in Table 17.


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www.ijird.com Response Yes No Mutual consent Total

November, 2012


Number of Respondents SC

ST

SC

ST

2

-

10

-

17

3

85

60

1

2

5

40

20

5

100

100

Table17:Perception Of SC/ST Representatives’ Regarding Role Of Dominant Castes/Groups Role In Deciding Their Candidature 10.2.Difficulties In Attending Panchayat Meetings Regarding difficulties encountered by the SC/ST leaders in regularly attending the panchayat meetings, it was found that 40% SC and 60% ST representatives did not mention any problem while 40% SC and 20% ST representatives mentions lack of incentives as the main problem for their active participation. Rest 35% SC and 40% ST representatives mentioned education as the main problem in regular attendance. The data regarding difficulties faced in attending panchayat meetings is given in Table 18.

Difficulties in attending the meetings regularly

Number of SC/ST Representatives gave Affirmative Response

Percentage

SC

ST

SC

ST

Fear of dominant caste/groups

-

-

-

-

Lack of incentives

8

1

40

20

Lack of education/awareness

7

2

35

40

No problem

8

3

40

60

Table 18:Difficulties In Regularly Attending Panchayat Meetings Note: The Number Of Responses Shown In The Table Are More Than Four As This Was A Multiple Choice Question And One Respondent Gave More Than One Response. Thus, both the negative as well as the positive features of women and SC/ST representatives’ participation and performance must be kept in mind to reduce their problems and strengthen their capacity to perform their envisaged functions and role in the panchayati raj institutions. The analysis of women and SCs/STs elected panchayat members’ awareness, participation and performance in panchayat activities showed that INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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given their background and prevailing situations, their level of awareness and degree of participation can be regarded as satisfactory.

11.General Panchayat Members Perception About Elected Women And Sc/St Members One interview schedule exclusively deal with the perception of elected general members about women and SC/ST elected panchayat members. The elected general members were asked certain questions like their views towards reservation, role of caste factor in elections and voting behaviour, performance of women and SC/ST members,etc.

11.1.Role Of Caste In Village Politics It has been found in various studies that the dominant castes/groups exercised consiserable influence in grass root politics. They played active role in deciding the candidature of SCs/STs and in their winning elections as well. In the present study, it was found that the most of the elected general candidates (81.8%) denied the role of dominant castes in deciding the candidature of SC/ST members. The main reason given was the respective majority of SCs/STs in the wards from where they contested panchayat elections and thus the upper castes did not play any role in deciding the candidature of SC/ST members. In the absence of reservation, most of the SCs/STs preferred to contest elections from wards where they were in majority. The data regarding their perception in this matter is given below in Table 19.

Response

Number of

Percentage

Yes

Respondents 2

18.2

No

9

81.8

Total

11

100

Table 19:Perception Of Elected General Representatives’ Regarding Role Of Dominant Caste/Group Role In Deciding SC/ST Candidature Regarding the role of caste in voting patterns, the majority (91%) of the general members replied in negative. They reveals that the whole village voted for the SC/ST members but this could be due to the relative majority of SCs/STs in respective panch


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This information about impact of caste on voting

behavior is given below in Table 20. Response

Number of

Percentage

Yes

1

9

No

10

91

Total

11

100

Table 20:Voting And Campaigning Being Caste/Community Based 11.3.Views On Performance Of Women And SC/ST Members On the question related to the performance of women and SC/ST members, it has been found that all the respondents replied in affirmative. They were satisfied with the performance of elected women and SC/ST members. But one has to keep in mind that the awareness and participation of women and SC/ST members was satisfactory because they contested elections in the absence of reservation. Most of the elected women and SC/ST members were already involved in village affairs before their elections to panchyats. Most of the general candidates (91%) have no problem in accepting women and SC/ST members as sarpanch of their respective panchayats. But some of them have reservations regarding acceptance of women and SC/ST members as sarpanch. Few respondents were of the view that the chances of their election as sarpanch are rare and also they cannot provide effective leadership. The data regarding their readiness to accept women or SC/ST as sarpanch is given below in Table 21.

Response


Percentage

Yes

10

91

No

1

9

Total

11

100

Table 21:Readiness To Accept Women Or SC/ST As Sarpanch 11.4.Opinion On Reservation Regarding the opinion of general candidates about reservation, it has been found that their responses were mixed. More than half of the respondents (54.5%) favoured reservation on the ground that there is need of adequate representation of women and INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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SC/ST members so that diverse perspectives manifest in local self-governing bodies. But many respondents (45.5%) were against reservation because they thought due to affirmative action in jobs and educational sector, the status of weaker sections has changed considerably. They asserts that women and SC/ST need to be encouraged to contest on open competition. They were in favour of empowerment of panchayati raj institutions

because the devolution of powers is of prime concern to them and

considered as the remedy of all loopholes. The information about their views regarding reservation is given in Table 22

Response


Percentage

Yes

6

54.5

No

5

45.5

Total

11

100

Table 22:Supporting Reservation For Women And Scs/Sts In Panchayats

Thus it has been found that the role of caste in J&K grass root politics is limited as inferred from the opinion of general candidates. The performance of elected women and SC/ST members is satisfactory and general candidates have no objection in accepting them as sarpanch of their respective panchayats.

11.5.Panchayat Elections 2011 The panchayat elections in Jammu and Kashmir are held after a gap of 10 years and process began in early 2011. The last panchayat elections were conducted in the State in 2001-02 after a gap of 23 years. The panchayat elections are held for the election of 4130 sarpanches and 29,719 panches. These panchayat elections create great enthusiasm among rural masses. Rural masses have shown great interest and participated vigorously in these panchayat elections. Over 79 percent of the electorate exercised their right to vote. These panchayat elections are significant on the account of various factors: First, these elections have great significance for women and SCs/STs because there is a provision of 33% reservation for women and for SCs/STs in accordance to their population in panch constituencies. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Secondly, the three tiers of panchayati raj institutions will be activated all over the State after panchayat elections for the first time. Thirdly, although there are various loopholes in J&K Panchayati

Raj Act but

government has taken many steps to empower panchayati raj institutions. Civil society and various political parties have been demanding the extension of 73rd amendment to the State. Jammu and Kashmir government has recently constituted empowered committee under the chairmanship of chief secretary to deliberate on the transfer of subjects to panchayats. This committee gave wider recommendations and government has shown its keenness in implementing these recommendations in letter and spirit.

12.Conclusion In the end, one can say that women and SCs/STs are not totally neglected in the political sphere. Although their representation in totality is not very effective but they were selfmotivated and determined to contest. But government need to empower grass root institutions and implement the 73rd amendment in letter and spirit. It is only because of this that adequate representation of all sections of people would be possible at the grass root level. Ultimately it would encourage the alienated masses to come into the mainstream of nation building and restore the real democracy.

13.Notes 1In Jammu and Kashmir Panchayati Raj Act 1989, halqa panchayat is the first tier of PRIs and is same as gram panchayat constituted under 73rd amendment in other States of India 2 For the present study, young age groups are 21-30 and 31-40; middle age groups are 41-50 and 51-60; older age groups are 61-70 and above.


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14.Reference 1. Barik, Bishnu C and Umesh C. Sahoo, ed. (2008). Panchayati raj institutions and rural development. Jaipur: Rawat Publications. 2. Blair, H. (2000). Participation and accountability at the periphery: democratic local governance in the six countries. World Development Report, 28(1): 21-39. 3. Dahl, Robert A. (1961). Who governs? Democracy and power in an american society. New Haven: Yale University Press. 4. Directorate of Rural Development, Srinagar/Jammu. 5. Gloppen, S, L Ranker and A Tostensen. (2003). Responsiveness to the concerns of the poor and accountability to the commitment to poverty reduction. Working Paper, Chr Michelsen Institute, Norway. 6. Nanda, B.R. (2006). Indian women from purdah to modernity. New Delhi: Mittal Publishers. 7. Polsby, Nelson W. (1962). Community power and political theory. New Haven: Yale University Press. 8. Sadhotra, Ajay Kumar. (2001). Panchayats & jammu and kashmir. National Convention of Panchayati Raj Representatives, Institute of Social Sciences, New Delhi. 9. Schumpeter, J.A. (1942). Capitalism, socialism and democracy. New York: Harper. 10. Singla, Primla. (2007). Women’s participation in panchayati raj. Jaipur: Rawat Publications. 11. Verba, S., K.L. Schzoman and H. Brady. (1993, October 18). Voluntary democracy: Voice and equality in american politics. Book Manuscript. 12. Young, P.V. (1966). Scientific social surveys and research. New York: Prentice Hall.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

On Linear Complex Growth Rate In RotatoryThermosolutal Convection In Rivlin-Ericksen Viscoelastic Fluid In A Porous Medium Ajaib S. Banyal Department Of Mathematics, Govt. College Nadaun (Hamirpur), (HP) , India

Abstract: Thermosolutal convection in a layer of Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid of Veronis (1965) type is considered in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium. Following the linearized stability theory and normal mode analysis, the paper through mathematical analysis of the governing equations of Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid convection in the presence of uniform vertical rotation, for any combination of free and rigid boundaries of infinite horizontal extension at the top and bottom of the fluid, established that the complex growth rate  of oscillatory perturbations, neutral or unstable for all wave numbers, must lie inside right half of the a semi-circle   P  2   R  P  2 2 l l  ,  s   ,  r   i  Maximumof TA    Pl  F    E ' p 3  Pl  F    in the  r  i -plane, where Rs is the thermosolutal Rayleigh number, T A is the Taylor number, F is the viscoelasticity parameter, p3 is the thermosolutal prandtl number,  is the porosity and Pl is the medium permeability. This prescribes the bounds to the complex growth rate of arbitrary oscillatory motions of growing amplitude in the RivlinEricksen viscoelastic fluid in Veronis (1965) type configuration in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium. A similar result is also proved for Stern (1960) type of configuration. The result is important since the result hold for any arbitrary combinations of dynamically free and rigid boundaries. Keywords: Thermal convection; Rivlin-Ericksen Fluid; Rotation; PES; Rayleigh number; Taylor number. MSC 2000 No.: 76A05, 76E06, 76E15; 76E07. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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1.Introduction Right from the conceptualizations of turbulence, instability of fluid flows is being regarded at its root. The thermal instability of a fluid layer with maintained adverse temperature gradient by heating the underside plays an important role in Geophysics, interiors of the Earth, Oceanography and Atmospheric Physics, and has been investigated by several authors and a detailed account of the theoretical and experimental study of the onset of Bénard Convection in Newtonian fluids, under varying assumptions of hydrodynamics and hydromagnetics, has been given by Chandrasekhar (1981) in his celebrated monograph. The use of Boussinesq approximation has been made throughout, which states that the density changes are disregarded in all other terms in the equation of motion except the external force term. There is growing importance of non-Newtonian fluids in geophysical fluid dynamics, chemical technology and petroleum industry. Bhatia and Steiner (1972) have considered the effect of uniform rotation on the thermal instability of a viscoelastic (Maxwell) fluid and found that rotation has a destabilizing influence in contrast to the stabilizing effect on Newtonian fluid. In another study Sharma (1975) has studied the stability of a layer of an electrically conducting Oldroyd fluid (1958) in the presence of magnetic field and has found that the magnetic field has a stabilizing influence. There are many elastico-viscous fluids that cannot be characterized by Maxwell’s constitutive relations or Oldroyd’s (1958) constitutive relations. Two such classes of fluids are Rivlin-Ericksen’s and Walter’s (model B’) fluids. Rivlin-Ericksen (1955) has proposed a theoretical model for such one class of elastico-viscous fluids. Kumar et al (2006) considered effect of rotation and magnetic field on Rivlin-Ericksen elastico-viscous fluid and found that rotation has stabilizing effect; where as magnetic field has both stabilizing and destabilizing effects. A layer of such fluid heated from below or under the action of magnetic field or rotation or both may find applications in geophysics, interior of the Earth, Oceanography, and the atmospheric physics. With the growing importance of non-Newtonian fluids in modern technology and industries, the investigations on such fluids are desirable. In all above studies, the medium has been considered to be non-porous with free boundaries only, in general. In recent years, the investigation of flow of fluids through porous media has become an important topic due to the recovery of crude oil from the pores of reservoir rocks. When a fluid permeates a porous material, the gross effect is represented by the Darcy’s law. As a result of this macroscopic law, the usual viscous term in the equation of Rivlin-Ericksen fluid motion is replaced by the resistance term INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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 1 '    ' q  , where  and  are the viscosity and viscoelasticity of the Rivlin     t    k1  Ericksen fluid, k1 is the medium permeability and q is the Darcian (filter) velocity of the fluid. The problem of thermosolutal convection in fluids in a porous medium is of great importance in geophysics, soil sciences, ground water hydrology and astrophysics. Generally, it is accepted that comets consist of a dusty ‘snowball’ of a mixture of frozen gases which, in the process of their journey, changes from solid to gas and vice-versa. The physical properties of the comets, meteorites and interplanetary dust strongly suggest the importance of non-Newtonian fluids in chemical technology, industry and geophysical fluid dynamics. Thermal convection in porous medium is also of interest in geophysical system, electrochemistry and metallurgy. A comprehensive review of the literature concerning thermal convection in a fluid-saturated porous medium may be found in the book by Nield and Bejan (1992). Sharma et al (2001) studied the thermosolutal convection in Rivlin-Ericksen rotating fluid in porous medium in hydromagnetics with free boundaries only.Pellow and Southwell (1940) proved the validity of PES for the classical Rayleigh-Bénard convection problem. Banerjee et al (1981) gave a new scheme for combining the governing equations of thermohaline convection, which is shown to lead to the bounds for the complex growth rate of the arbitrary oscillatory perturbations, neutral or unstable for all combinations of dynamically rigid or free boundaries and, Banerjee and Banerjee (1984) established a criterion on characterization of non-oscillatory motions in hydrodynamics which was further extended by Gupta et al. (1986). However no such result existed for nonNewtonian fluid configurations in general and in particular, for Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid configurations. Banyal (2012) have characterized the oscillatory motions in Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid in the presence of rotation. Keeping in mind the importance of non-Newtonian fluids, as stated above, the present paper is an attempt to prescribe the bounds to the complex growth rate of arbitrary oscillatory motions of growing amplitude, in a thermosolutal convection of a layer of incompressible Rivlin-Ericksen fluid configuration of Veronis (1965) type in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium, when the bounding surfaces are of infinite horizontal extension, at the top and bottom of the fluid and are with any arbitrary combination of dynamically free and rigid boundaries. A similar result is also


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proved for Stern (1960) type of configuration. The result is important since the result hold for any arbitrary combinations of dynamically free and rigid boundaries.

2.Formulation Of The Problem And Perturbation Equations Here we Consider an infinite, horizontal, incompressible Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid layer, of thickness d, heated from below so that, the temperature, density and solute concentrations at the bottom surface z = 0 are T0 ,  0 and C 0 at the upper surface z = d are Td ,  d and C d respectively, and that a uniform adverse temperature gradient

 dT   dC      and a uniform solute gradient  '    is maintained. The gravity field  dz   dz  



g 0,0, g  and uniform vertical rotation 0,0,   pervade on the system. This fluid

layer is assumed to be flowing through an isotropic and homogeneous porous medium of 

porosity  and medium permeability k1 . Let p ,  , T, C ,  ,  ' , g and q u, v, w denote respectively the fluid pressure, fluid density temperature, solute concentration, thermal coefficient of expansion, an analogous solvent coefficient of expansion, gravitational acceleration and filter velocity of the fluid. Then the momentum balance, mass balance, and energy balance equation governing the flow of Rivlin-Ericksen fluid in the presence of uniform vertical vertical rotation (Rivlin and Ericksen (1955); Chandrasekhar (1981) and Sharma et al (2001)) are given by     1 1   q 1       q .  q     t      0  

    1    2   p  g 1       '  q   q   , t       0  k1 

(1)



. q  0 ,

E

 T  ( q . )T   2T , t

(2) (3)

And

E'

C   ( q .)C   ' 2 C t

(4)

 d  1    q . , stands for the convective derivatives. Here Where dt t


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www.ijird.com  c E    (1   ) s s   0 ci

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  , is a constant and E ' is a constant analogous to E but 

corresponding to solute rather than heat, while

 s , c s and  0 , ci , stands for the

density and heat capacity of the solid (porous matrix) material and the fluid, respectively, 

 is the medium porosity and r ( x, y , z ) . The equation of state is





   0 1   T  T0    ' (C  C 0 ) ,

(5)

Where the suffix zero refer to the values at the reference level z = 0. In writing the equation (1), we made use of the Boussinesq approximation, which states that the density variations are ignored in all terms in the equation of motion except the external force '

term. The kinematic viscosity , kinematic viscoelasticity , thermal diffusivity  , the solute diffusivity  ' and the coefficient of thermal expansion

 are all assumed to be

constants.The steady state solution is 

q  0,0,0 ,    0 (1   z   '  ' z ) , T    z  T0 , C

   ' z  C0 ,

(6)

Here we use the linearized stability theory and the normal mode analysis method. Consider a small perturbations on the steady state solution, and let  , p ,  ,  and 

q u, v, w denote respectively the perturbations in density  , pressure p, temperature T, 

solute concentration C and velocity q (0,0,0) . The change in density  , caused mainly by the perturbation  and 

in temperature and concentration, is given by

    0 (   ' ) .

(7)

Then the linearized perturbation equations of the Rinlin-Ericksen fluid reduces to   1 q 1 1   2      (p)  g (    ' )     '  q   q   ,  t 0 k1  t   

(8)



. q  0 , E

   w   2 , t

(9) (10)

And


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   ' w   '  2 , t

E'

(11)

3.Normal Mode Analysis Analyzing the disturbances into two-dimensional waves, and considering disturbances characterized by a particular wave number, we assume that the Perturbation quantities are of the form

w, ,  ,    W z , z ,  ( z ), Z z exp ik x x  ik y y  nt  ,

(12)

Where k x , k y are the wave numbers along the x- and y-directions, respectively,



2

k  kx  k y

1 2 2

 , is the resultant wave number, n is the growth rate which is, in general, a

complex constant and

 

v u  x y

denote the z-component of vorticity;

W ( z ), ( z ), ( z ) and Z (z ) are the functions of z only.

Using (12), equations (8)-(11), within the framework of Boussinesq approximations, in the

non-dimensional

form

transform

to

 1  2 2 2 2   (1  F )  D a W   Ra   Rs a   T A DZ ,   Pl 



(13)

 1    (1  F ) Z  DW ,   Pl 

(14)

D

 a 2  Ep1   W ,

(15)

And D 2  a 2  E ' p3   W ,

(16)



2



Where we have introduced new coordinates  x' , y ' , z ' = (x/d, y/d, z/d) in new units of length d and D  d / dz' . For convenience, the dashes are dropped hereafter. Also we have substituted a  kd , 

nd 2   is the thermal Prandtl number; p 3  ' is the , p1    

thermosolutal Prandtl number; Pl 

k1 is the dimensionless medium permeability, d2

F

' d2

R

g d 4 g '  ' d 4 Rs    ' ' is the thermal Rayleigh number; is the thermosolutal

is the dimensionless viscoelasticity parameter of the Rivlin-Ericksen flu


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Rayleigh number; and Substituted W  W ,



4 2 d 4  2 2

Vol 1 Issue 9

is the Taylor number. Also we have

d 2  'd 2 2d     Z  Z    , , and D  dD and

dropped   for convenience. We now consider the cases where the boundaries are rigid-rigid or rigid-free or free-rigid or free-free at z = 0 and z = 1 respectively, as the case may be, and are maintained at constant temperature and solute concentration. Then the perturbations in the temperature and solute concentration are zero at the boundaries. The appropriate boundary conditions with respect to which equations (13)--(16), must possess a solution are W = 0 =    ,on both the horizontal boundaries, DW = 0=Z, on a rigid boundary, D 2W  0  DZ ,

on a dynamically free boundary,

(17)

Equations (13)--(16), along with boundary conditions (17), pose an eigenvalue problem for  and we wish to characterize  i , when  r  0 .

4.Mathematical Analysis We prove the following Lemma’s:

4.1.Lemma 1 For any arbitrary oscillatory perturbation, neutral or unstable

1

 0

1

1

2

 dz 

2

2

E ' p3 

2

W

2

dz

0

4.1.1.Proof Further, multiplying equation (16) and its complex conjugate, and integrating by parts each term on right hand side of the resulting equation for an appropriate number of times and making use of boundary conditions on  namely  (0)  0  (1) along with (16), we get 1

1

 D  a  dz  2 E p    D 2

2

2

'

3

0

r

0

2

2

a 

2

dz  E

'2

1 2

p3 

2

 0

1 2

2

dz   W dz ,


(18)

0

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Since  r  0 therefore the equation (18) gives, 1



2

dz 

1

1 '2

2

E p3 

0

2

W

2

(19)

dz

0

This completes the proof of lemma.

4.2.Lemma 2 For any arbitrary oscillatory perturbation, neutral or unstable 1



1

1

2

 dz 

2

2

E p1 

0

2

W

2

dz

0

4.2.1.Proof Further, multiplying equation (15) and its complex conjugate, and integrating by parts each term on right hand side of the resulting equation for an appropriate number of times and making use of boundary conditions on  namely (0)  0  (1) along with (15), we get 1

 D

2

0



1

2



2

2



2

1 2

 a 2  dz  2 E ' p3 r  D  a 2  dz  E ' p3  0

2

1 2

2

  dz   W dz , 0

(20)

0

Since  r  0 therefore the equation (20) gives, 1



1

1

2

 dz 

2

2

E p1 

0

2

W

2

(21)

dz

0

This completes the proof of lemma.

4.3.Lemma 3 For

any

1

 0

arbitrary

1 F        Pl  2

perturbation,

neutral

or

unstable

1

1

2

Z dz 

oscillatory

2

 DW

2

dz .

0

4.3.1.Proof


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Further, multiplying equation (14) with its complex conjugate, and integrating by parts each term on both sides of the resulting equation for an appropriate number of times and making use of appropriate boundary conditions (17), we get   

2

2 1 1 F  2  1 F  1 2 1     2  r     Z dz   DW 2 dz P l   Pl  0 Pl   Pl  0 

1



1

1

2

Z dz 

1 F        Pl 

0

(22)

2

2

 DW

2

dz ,

(23)

0

This completes the proof of lemma. We prove the following theorem:

4.4.Theorem 1 If R  0 , R s  0 , F  0, T A  0, Pl  0 , p1  0 , p 3  0 ,  r  0 and  i  0 then the necessary condition for the existence of non-trivial solution W , , , Z  of equations (13) – (16), together

with

boundary

  P  2   R l  ,  ' s   Maximumof T A  P   F   l    E p3  2

conditions

(17)

is

that

 Pl    .  Pl  F 

4.4.1.Proof Multiplying equation (13) by

W  (the complex conjugate of W) throughout and

integrating the resulting equation over the vertical range of z, we get 1 1 1  1 1  2 2 2 * 2   ,  ( 1   F ) W D  a Wdz   Ra W  dz  R a W  dz  T s A  W DZdz      P  l 0 0 0 0





(24)

Taking complex conjugate on both sides of equation (15), we get

D

2



 a 2  Ep1     W  ,

(25)

Therefore, using (25), we get 1

1





 2 2    W dz    D  a  Ep1  dz , 0

(26)

0

Taking complex conjugate on both sides of equation (16), we get

D

2



 a 2  E ' p 3     W  ,

(27)

Therefore, using (27), we get INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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W



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

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

dz    D 2  a 2  E ' p3    dz ,

(28)

0

Also taking complex conjugate on both sides of equation (14),  * 1   (1   * F )  Z   DW  ,  Pl  

we get (29)

Therefore, using (29), we get 1

1  * 1 1 *   * W DZdz   DW Zdz    ( 1   F )    Z Zdz , 0 0 Pl  0

(30)

Substituting (36), (38) and (30), in the right hand side of equation (24), we get 1 1  1 1  2 2 2 2 2 * * 2  ( 1   F ) W D  a Wdz  Ra  D  a  Ep   dz  R a  * D 2  a 2  E ' p3 * dz 1 s      P  l 0 0 0











 * 1 1  TA   (1   * F )   Z * Zdz , Pl  0



(31)

Integrating the terms on both sides of equation (31) for an appropriate number of times and making use of the appropriate boundary conditions (17), we get  1 1   (1  F )   DW   Pl 0



2

 a2 W

2

1

dz  Ra   D 2

2

2

2



 a 2   Ep1 *  dz

0

1  * 1 1 2 2 2 2  R s a 2  D  a 2   E ' p 3  *  dz  T A   (1   * F )   Z dz , Pl   0 0





(32)

Now equating imaginary parts on both sides of equation (32), and cancelling  i ( 0) , we get 1 F 1     DW   Pl  0



1

2

 a2 W

2

dz   Ra Ep   2

2

1



0

1 1 F 1 2  2 dz  R s a 2 E ' p3   dz  T A     Z dz  , (33)    Pl  0 0

Now R  0,   0 and T A  0, utilizing the inequalities (19) and (23), the equation (33) gives, 2  1 F   1 F T A  Pl   1 2   1  2    DW dz  a 2        Pl    Pl  F   0   Pl   ,

 Rs   '  E p3 

1 1 2 2 2  W dz  Ra Ep 1   dz  0 2   0 0

(34) Therefore, we must have   P  2   R l  ,  ' s   Maximumof T A    Pl  F    E p3  2

 Pl    . P   F  l 


(35)

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  P  2   R 2 l  ,  ' s Hence,if  r  0 and  i  0 , then   Maximumof T A    Pl  F    E p3 

 Pl     Pl  F 

(36) And this completes the proof of the theorem.

4.5.Theorem2 If R  0 , Rs  0 , F  0, Pl  0 , p1  0 , p 3  0 ,  r  0 and  i  0 then the necessary condition for the existence of non-trivial solution W , , Z ,   of equations (17) – (20), together with boundary conditions (21) is that   P  2   R  P   l l  ,       Maximumof T A    Pl  F    Ep1  Pl  F     2

(37)

4.5.1.Proof Replacing R and Rs by  R

and  Rs , respectively in equations (13) – (16) and

proceeding exactly as in Theorem 1 and utilizing the inequality (21), we get the desired result.

5.Conclusion The

r

2

inequality

(36)

for

r  0

and

i  0,

can

be

written

as

  P  2   R  P   l l  ,  ' s    ,   i  Maximumof T A    Pl  F    E p 3  Pl  F     2

The essential content of the theorem, from the point of view of linear stability theory is that for the thermosolutal Veronis (1965) type configuration of Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium, having top and bottom bounding surfaces of infinite horizontal extension, with any arbitrary combination of dynamically free and rigid boundaries in a porous medium, the complex growth rate of an arbitrary oscillatory motions of growing amplitude, lies inside a semicircle in the right half of the  r  i - plane whose centre is at the origin and radius is equal

to

   P  2   R l  ,  s Maximumof  T A     Pl  F    E ' p 3 

 Pl    where  Pl  F 

Rs

is

the

thermosolutal Rayleigh number, T A is the Taylor number, F is the viscoelasticity INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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parameter, p 3 is the thermosolutal prandtl number,  is the porosity and Pl is the medium permeability. The result is important since it hold for any arbitrary combinations of dynamically free and rigid boundaries. The similar conclusions are drawn for the thermosolutal configuration of Stern (1960) type of Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid of infinite horizontal extension in the presence of uniform vertical magnetic field in a porous medium, for any arbitrary combination of free and rigid boundaries at the top and bottom of the fluid from Theorem 2.

6. Reference


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1. Banerjee MB, Katoch DC, Dube GS and Banerjee K (1981). Bounds for growth rate of perturbation in thermohaline convection. Proceedings of Royal Society A 378 301-04. 2. Banerjee MB and Banerjee B (1984). A characterization of non-oscillatory motions in magnetohydronamics. Indian Journal Pure & Applied Mathematics., 15(4) 377-38 3. Banerjee MB, Gupta JR and Prakash J (1992). On thermohaline convection of Veronis type, Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, 179 327-334. 4. Banyal, AS (2012). A characterization of Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid in the presence of rotation, International Journal of Physics and Mathematical sciences, 2(2) 58-64. 5. Bhatia PK and Steiner JM (1972). Convective instability in a rotating viscoelastic fluid layer, Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Mathematik and Mechanik 52 (1972), 321-327. 6. Chandrasekhar S (1981). Hydrodynamic and Hydromagnetic Stability, Dover Publication, New York. 7. Gupta JR, Sood SK and Bhardwaj UD (1986). On the characterization of nonoscillatory motions in rotatory hydromagnetic thermohaline convection, Indian Journal Pure & Applied Mathematics 17(1) 100-107. 8. Kumar P, Mohan H and Lal R (2006). Effect of magnetic field on thermal instability of a rotating Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid, International Journal of Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences, Vol-2006 article ID 28042 1-10. 9. Nield D A and Bejan A (1992). Convection in porous medium, springer. 10. Oldroyd JG (1958). Non-Newtonian effects in steady motion of some idealized elastic-viscous liquids, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 245 278297. 11. Pellow A and Southwell RV (1940). On the maintained convective motion in a fluid heated from below, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 176, 312-43. 12. Rivlin RS and Ericksen JL (1955). Stress deformation relations for isotropic materials, Journal Rat Mechanics Analalysis, 4 323. 13. Sharma RC (1976). Effect of rotation on thermal instability of a viscoelastic fluid, Acta Physica Hungarica 40 11-17.


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14. Sharma RC and Kumar P (1996). Effect of rotation on thermal instability in Rivlin-Ericksen elastico-viscous fluid, Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung 51a 821824. 15. Sharma RC, Sunil and Pal M (2001). Thermosolutal convection in RivlinEricksen rotating fluid in porous medium in hydromagnetics, Indian Journal Pure & Applied Mathematics 32(1) 143-156. 16. Stern ME (1960). The salt fountain and thermohaline convection, Tellus 12 172175. 17. Veronis G (1965). On finite amplitude instability in the thermohaline convection, Journal of Marine Research., 23 1-17.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Fracture Behaviour Of Concrete With Sawdust Replacementunder Uniaxial Compressive Loading Ademola Samuel Akinwonmi Department Of Mechanical Engineering,University Of Mines And Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana Abstract : The mechanical strength of concrete made from Ordinary Portland Cement with sawdust replacement has been studied in this paper. The percentage replacements of aggregates by sawdust were 0 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 100 %. The size of the test sample concrete adopted was 400 mm x 200 mm x 100 mm. The concrete was mixed, placed and compacted. The samples were removed from their moulds after 24 hrs and allowed to cure for 7, 14 and 28 days as required. Compressive and Flexural tests were performed on the test samples. Results show that the flexural strength of the concrete increases as the curing days increase but decreases as the percentage of sawdust increases. The compressive strength also decreases as the percentage of sawdust increases. As the number of curing day increases and the percentage of sawdust decreases, the harder and stronger the concrete produced becomes. Optimum replacement of sand with sawdust was found to be 20 % which satisfies the BS 1881 Part 4 (1970) code requirements for strength.

Keywords :Ordinary Portland cement, mechanical strength, concrete, sawdust, compressive strength, flexural strength, curing day.


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1.Introduction Egyptians used straw in making mud bricks 1200-1400 BC (Exodus 5:7) but cement, granite and sand have been the popular materials for the production of concrete by the construction industry nowadays. Concrete as is well known is a heterogeneous mix of cement, water and aggregates. In its simplest form, concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates. The presence of crack in structure changes its dynamic characteristics (Akinwonmi and Adzimah, 2012) .The admixtures may be added in concrete in order to enhance some of the properties desired specially. These materials are very expensive and have hindered the development of shelter and other infrastructural facilities in developing countries. There arises the quest for engineering consideration and replacement with cheaper and locally available materials to meet this need in order to reduce construction cost, maximise resources and explore the economic values of these materials for sustainable development. Timber is one of the oldest structural materials used by man. Temples and monuments built several years ago, which still remain in excellent condition show the durability and usefulness of timber (Kullkarni, 2005). And the product from timber conversion is sawdust. Sawdust can be defined as loose particles or wood chippings obtained as by-products from sawing of timber into standard useable sizes. Approximately half of the log volume can be converted into timber during a sawing process, the rest of the log volume is converted into chips, sawdust and bark. The quality of sawdust depends on the saw type, method of sawing, type of tree used, and the storage method of logs including temperature, moisture and season. Thus, sawdust from different mills can be very heterogeneous raw materials. (Risto Korpinen, 2010). The quality of sawdust is mainly dependent on the particle size of sawdust. The particle size of sawdust is not uniform and the distribution is usually concentrated on the smallest size fractions. (Korpinen and Fardim 2006; Bergström et al. 2008). Sawdust is one of the major underutilized by-products from sawmilling operations in Ghana. The underlying reasons for the inefficiency and waste in the saw milling industry included the use of inappropriate processing technologies, poor maintenance of sawmill machinery, poor management and lack of proper technical skills by the sawmill operators. Portland cement is commonly used in the manufacture of panel products as a binder. Wood to cement ratio, shape and size of the wood particles affect the strength and suitability of the composites (Sorfa 1984; Wolfe and Gjinolli, 1999). Cement wood particle-boards have been found to be good substitutes for hollow concrete blocks, plywood, particleboard and other resin bonded boards. It is a very versatile material that can be INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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used as eaves, exterior wall, ceiling, partition wall, flooring, cladding and even roofing provided that proper coating is applied and wire meshes imbedded to enhance the interlocking capacity especially for longer spans. (Zziwa1 et al. 2006). The high dimensional stability exhibited in cement bonded boards is because the wood particles are encased in a cement matrix and are restricted in hydro-expansion (Hachmi et al, 1990). To improve the properties of cement, admixtures are added with it and these are either naturally occurring compounds or chemicals produced in industrial process. Most admixtures are pozzolans. A pozzolan is a powdered material, which when added to the cement in a concrete mix reacts with the lime, released by the hydration of the cement, to create compounds which improve the strength or other properties of the concrete (King, 2000; Lohita et al, 1995). The produced saw dust from the milling plants constitutes waste and pollution in our environments. When burnt or used as a fuel, it also contributes to pollution and efforts are being made to overcome this environmental issue by utilizing this material as a supplementary reinforcement in concrete. Finding an appropriate use of sawdust would help to offset production costs and increase the profitability of sawmilling operations in Ghana’s plantation forests. Therefore, the objective of this research is to investigate into the mechanical strength of concrete when sawdust is used as reinforcement in order to solve the disposal problem, ascertain their suitability as replacement for aggregates in production of reinforced concrete and enhance their economic value.

2.Materials And Methods

2.1.Materials

2.1.1.Sawdust The sawdust was sourced from planks sawmill in Tarkwa, Ghana. The sawdust consisted of chippings from various hardwoods. It was sun dried and kept in waterproof bags.

2.1.2.Cement Ordinary Portland® Cement (OPC) conforming to ASTM C 150 type I was used for this study, its chemical and physical properties is given in Table 1.


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OPC

SiO2 (%)

20.99

Al2O3 (%)

6.19

Fe2O3 (%)

3.86

CaO (%)

65.96

MgO (%)

0.22

Na2O3 (%)

0.17

K2O (%)

0.6

Specific Gravity

2.95

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Table 1: Chemical Compositions Of The Raw Material Used

2.1.3.Water Potable water was used for the study and was obtained from a borehole. The water was clean and free from any visible impurities. It conformed to BS3148 (1980) requirements.

2.1.4.Sand The sand was sourced from University of Mines and technology, Tarkwa in Ghana. It was sieved and thoroughly flushed with water to reduce the level of impurities and organic matter in conformity to the requirements of BS 882(1982) and finally sun dried for about 72 hours.

2.1.5.Materials Mixing Batching of materials was done by weight. The percentage replacements of aggregates by sawdust were 0 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 100 %.This was done to determine the proportion that would give the most favourable result. The 0% replacement served as control for other sample. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Sawdust replacement (%)

Cement

Sawdust

Sand

0

7. 200

-

15.32

25

7. 200

4.07

10.25

50

7. 200

6.17

8.15

75

7. 200

10.22

5.10

100

7. 200

15.32

-

Mass of Concrete (kg)

Table 2:Masses Of Constitutions For Sawdust Replacement

3.Test Samples The size of the test sample concrete adopted was 400 mm x 200 mm x 100 mm. The concrete was mixed, placed and compacted. The samples were removed from their moulds after 24 hrs and allowed to cure for 7, 14 and 28 days as required.

3.1.Compressive Test The compression tests for the concrete cubes were carried out at the University of Mines and technology, Tarkwa in Ghana. Standard test procedures were used for the experiment. Before the commencement of the test, all specimens were weighed and the results recorded and at the time of each respective test. The weight was measured for each sample specimen for each saw dust percentage (0 %, 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 % and 100 %.) and for the number of days for setting of the concrete block cubes (7, 14 and 28). A constant uniform pressure was applied by the testing machine to the cubes of the concrete blocks until failure occurs. Cracks were initially noticed on the specimen and the cracks propagated until failure was finally observed when the cube no longer could resist the force applied to it without breaking apart.

3.2.The Flexural Test The flexural test on the test samples was carried out with the automatic Techno Test Flexural machine. The samples were weighed before the test being put in the flexural INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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machine. The load was applied and increased until failure. The machine automatically stops when failure occurs, and then displays the load and the flexural strength was evaluated.

4.Results And Discussion The chemical composition of Ordinary Portland® Cement (OPC) shown in table 1 conforms to ASTM C 150 type. Table 2 presents the masses of constitutions for sawdust replacement(0 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 100 %). The results of the Compressive and Flexural experiments performed on the test samples are presented in table 3 with the various percentages of saw dust and different number of days for curing.

7 days % Sawdust

14 days

28 days

Weight (kg)

Flexural strength 2 (N/mm )

Weight (kg)


Weight (kg)


Comp. strength 2 (N/mm )

0

35.80

1.25

30.10

1.46

28.20

1.75

18.5

20

31.45

1.19

28.90

1.33

26.25

1.60

15.9

40

29.65

0.89

25.16

23.50

1.12

9.5

60

25.10

0.64

21.85

0.78

19.30

0.81

7.8

80 100

15.30 10.45

0.49 0.35

12.40 9.60

0.61 0.42

10.25 8.50

0.75 0.60

6.5 4.2

0.97

Table 3: Flexural And Compressive Strength Of Slabs With Various Percentage Of Sawdust And Days Of Cure


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2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

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Flectural strength (N/mm2)

0 % Sawdust 20 % Sawdust

40 % Sawdust 60 % Sawdust 80 % Sawdust 7 days

14 days

28 days

Curing days

100 %Sawdust

Figure1: Graph Of Flexural Strength Against Curing Days

It is clearly interpreted on table 2 that as the percentage of sawdust increases, the weight of concrete decreases, this may not be far from the density of sand being greater than that of sawdust, the weight also decreases as the number of curing days increases because water is being removed from the concrete as they become drier. The flexural strength of the concrete increases as the curing days increase but decreases as the percentage of sawdust increases as shown on fig.1. The compressive strength decreases as the percentage of sawdust increases. As the number of curing days increases and the percentage of sawdust decreases, the harder and stronger the concrete produced. This means curing days and the percentage of sawdust replacement influence the strength of concrete produced. Optimum replacement of sand with sawdust was found to be 20 % which satisfies the BS 1881 Part 4 (1970) code requirements for strength.

5.Conclusion The strength of the composite bricks is considerably low therefore cannot be for high strength external construction. They can only be used for non-structural purposes e.g. roadside kerb construction. Their structural rigidity is also affected by damp conditions. Their densities and weights are generally low; this can reduce overall weight of the construction.


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6.Recommendations Further study should be done on other strength properties of sawdust/cement composites such as bending strength, modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity, durability and possibilities of reinforcing sawdust.


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7.Reference 1. Akinwonmi A. S. and Adzimah S. K. ( 2012)” Fracture Behaviour of AISI 8630 Keel Blocks Casting” Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3 (4): 618-621© Scholarlink Research Institute Journals, 2012 (ISSN: 2141-7016) 2. Bergström, D., Israelsson, S., Öhman, M., Dahlqvistd, S.A., Gref, R., Boman, C., Wästerlund I. (2008) “Effects of raw material particle size distribution on the characteristics of Scots pine sawdust fuel pellets” Fuel Process. Technol. 89(12): 1324–1329. 3. Hachmi. M., A. A. Moslemi and Campbell. A.G., (1990). “A new technique to classify the compatibility of cement” Wood science and Technology Journal. 11; 14 19. 4. King, B., (2000), “A brief introduction to Pozzolans in Alternative Construction Contemporary Natural Building Methods” John Wiley & Sons, London. 5. King James, (1979)“The Holy Bible” Thomas Nelson, National Publishing Company, Green edition, Exodus 5:7 page 63. ISBN 0-8340-0426-7 6. Korpinen, R., Fardim, P. (2006) Characterisation of sawdust-like wood materials. In: Proceedings of the 9th EWLP European Workshop on Lignocelluloses and Pulp, Vienna, Austria. pp. 315–318. 7. Kulkarni P.D. 2005. “Civil Engineering Materials” Technical Teachers Training Institute Chadigash. pp. 10-21. 8. Lohita, R.P and Joshi, R.C., 1995, “Mineral Admixtures. In: Concrete Admixtures Handbook, Properties, Science and Technology”, (eds). Ramachandran, V.S. pp 657739. 9. Risto Korpinen, 2010 “On the potential utilisation of sawdust and wood chip screenings” UNIPRINT – Turku/Åbo, Finland, 2010 .ISBN 978-952-12-2417-1 10. Sorfa P. (1984). “Properties of wood cement composites”, Journal of Applied Science, 40; 207-216. 11. Wolfe R. W. and Gjinolli A. (1999). Durability and strength of cement bonded wood particle composites made from construction waste. Forest Products Journal 49(2):24– 31 12. Zziwa1, A. Kizito1, S. Banana1, A. Y Kaboggoza1, J. R. S. Kambugu,R. K. and Sseremba, O. E. “Production of composite bricks from sawdust using Portland cement as a binder”. Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2006, 12(1) 38-44 ISSN 1026-0919 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Quality Education In Ghana: The Way Forward Dr. Joe Adu-Agyem Senior Lecturer At The Department Of General Art Studies,Phd (Art Education),Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science And Technology(Knust), Kumasi, Ghana Dr. Patrick Osei-Poku Phd. In Art Education,Lecturer At The Department Of General Art Studies,Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science And Technology(Knust), Kumasi, Ghana Abstract: It should be the hallmark of every government to ensure that quality education exists in her country since education is the major tool for national development. The aim of this paper is to examine the Ghanaian educational system with the view to bringing out some of the numerous challenges and constraints that hinder its quality and standard so that appropriate recommendations could be made to arrest some of the problems. It is a fact that Ghana has experienced various forms of education since pre-colonial era. It is without prejudice to say that as the various governments make such changes with the intentions of raising the quality of life of the people, the emerging quality of education inherent in the reforms seems to be a mirage. A review of the different education reform committee reports has been done. The study has also examined all the levels of educational hierarchy namely kindergarten, primary, junior high, senior high, technical/vocational and tertiary education levels. The major findings, which include inadequate standardized human and material resources, poor management and supervision, lack of funding and poor conditions of service for employees of the educational system culminate in low productivity. In view of these, pragmatic recommendations have been made to describe the way forward for the attention of all stakeholders in education.

Keywords: Quality education, education reform, educational structure, assessment, development.


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1.Introduction Education is geared towards the holistic development of a person. It aims at developing the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective modes of human development right from the Pre-school stage through to the Tertiary level of education. This enables pupils/students to think properly with the head, act with the hand and feel with the heart. Hornby (1984) states that education is the process by which the mind develops through learning at school, college, or university. It adds that it is also the knowledge and skills that one gains from being taught. “Education” according to Encarta (2005) denotes the method by which a society hands down its knowledge, culture and values from one generation to the next. The educated individual develops physically, mentally, emotionally, morally and socially. The work of education may be accomplished by an individual, teacher, the family, a church or any other group in society.Philosophers and thinkers like Ghandi, Socrates, Plato, Dewey and Tamakloe have all defined education to tailor their philosophies in life. In its simplest form education can be explained as the enlightenment of an individual from darkness to light, thereby pushing away the frontiers of ignorance and discovering truth. Education can take place anywhere.

2.History Of Ghanaian Education Education in Ghana started way back in pre-colonial times. This form of education was informal and indigenous where knowledge and skills were passed on from the elderly to the youth by word of mouth or by way of apprenticeship. It was backed by a strong socio-cultural milieu which ensured active participation in life. Western form of education was later introduced in the Gold Coast (now Ghana), and according to Debrunner (1967) and McWilliam and Kwamena-Poh (1975), this form of education took place in the 16th and 19 th Centuries by European merchants and Christian missionaries respectively. The education was bookish and totally different from the indigenous education. It took place in “Fort schools” run by European merchants specifically for their mulatto children. They introduced reading, writing, and arithmetic as an essential and integral part of their education and aimed at producing educated local people to work as storekeepers and clerks in commerce, industry, and government. Western education by Christian missionaries was considered an important weapon in teaching and spreading of Christianity.Shortly before and after independence, the indigenous government introduced several educational programmes aimed at establishing more schools throughout the country and to extend financial assistance to INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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unassisted schools, as well as improve the quality of education in the country. However, some of the measures introduced by the government brought several problems in the educational system and the recent Education Reform was designed to overcome anomalies in the system.In 1973, the Government of Ghana felt the need to reform the bookish nature of Ghanaian education to make it more practically oriented. This consequently led to the establishment of the Dzobo Committee to restructure the content to make it more practical and more related to Ghanaian culture. This was to enable the individual to contribute meaningfully to the economic development of the country. Thus, in 1974, the restructured content of education introduced new programmes that were approved and implemented by the then Government. The reform was to be effected in Kindergarten, Primary, Junior and Senior Secondary Schools but due to financial constraints facing the country the reform programme remained only at the embryonic stage.In 1981, the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) Government reviewed the 1974 education reform with the same vision of making it more practical and more related to Ghanaian culture and way of life. In 1994 and 2002, the deHeer Ammisah Committee and the Anamuah-Mensah Committee respectively reviewed the Education Reform. They took into consideration the structure and content of the then educational system in order to identify the anomalies in the system and how best to correct them to ultimately promote quality education. The rationale for the new Education Reform is thus to provide holistic and quality education to the individual. This would enable products of education to be self-fulfilled and help contribute productively to the socioeconomic development of the country. In the light of this, it is imperative to take a critical look at the newly reformed education system in Ghana and discuss how best quality education can be achieved.

3.Structure Of Education In Ghana The present education in Ghana runs through Basic school education up to Tertiary education. The Basic education system covers a period of nine (9) years consisting of six (6) year Primary school education and three (3) year Junior High School education. This is followed by four (4) years of Senior High School education or Technical and Vocational Education. From this level one may then enter a Tertiary educational institution to pursue further studies from three (3) to four (4) years as may be specified in the various programmes. Tertiary education in Ghana consists of Universities and


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Colleges, as well as Polytechnics, Institutes and Post Secondary institutions offering courses leading to the award of diplomas and degrees.

4.Kindergarten (Pre-School) Education Kindergarten education is a type of pre-school education incorporated into Basic education where children, aged 4, are introduced for the very first time to formal education for two (2) years. The early years of the child known as the formative years are very crucial for the physical and physiological development. These years are also critical for the stimulation of intelligence, personality formation and the instillation of positive social behaviours in children. Pre-school education also aims at inculcating in the child the desire for learning and helps reinforce primary education through the provision of quality pre-school education. There is therefore the need to create an environment, which is safe and caring by providing the right infrastructural amenities to help the proper nurturing of the child.

5.Primary Education Primary education follows after pre-school education. It aims, among others, at strengthening the knowledge and skills acquired during the kindergarten level as well as lay the foundation for inquiry, creativity, innovation and preparing pupils for further education and training. Primary education covers a period of six (6) years, which is divided into two stages to reflect the stages of growth and development in the child. The first stage being the Lower primary is made up of three (3) years and the second stage, which is the Upper primary, also covers three (3) years. Children from ages 6-8 are supposed to go through the Lower primary while those from ages 9-11 are to be in Upper primary. During the first three years at the lower primary level, children are to develop knowledge, attitudes and skills from concrete experiences. The last three years at the upper primary level, are to help and encourage children to observe and think critically, criticise, ask questions, solve problems and learn new knowledge.

6.Junior High School Education Junior High School Education which comprises three years follows soon after Primary School Education. As part of Basic Education in Ghana, it is to provide opportunities for pupils to discover their interests, abilities, and aptitudes. Junior High School Education introduces pupils to basic scientific and technological knowledge and skills and prepares INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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them for further academic work.The main objectives of the Junior High School programmes are to make sure that pupils appreciate the use of the cognitive and psychomotor domains of learning, help pupils acquire pre-technical, pre-vocational skills that will help them consolidate knowledge and skills acquired at the primary level. Lack of guidance at the Junior High School level has resulted in pupils’ inability to select appropriate programmes to pursue at the Senior High School level. This situation places pupils from rural and sub-urban communities at a great disadvantage and if not checked would continue to perpetuate the elitist education, which the government rightly seeks to arrest.

7.Senior High School Education Senior High School education in Ghana is an extremely important one. It is the next secondary education offered to students after pursuing programmes at the Junior High School (Basic level). Senior High School provides a comprehensive education for students with the principal objective of strengthening the knowledge and skills acquired during the Basic Education level, as well as preparing students for further education and training in tertiary institutions. Senior High School education also introduces students to a variety of relevant occupational skills necessary for human and national development. It also aims at helping students appreciate the environment and the need to sustain it, and inculcate a sense of discipline and selflessness in students. Additionally, it helps develop an interest for life-long learning in students.It is at the Senior High School level that some form of specialization takes place and it is from here that specialized training colleges and other institutions tend to admit students. The curriculum at this level is thus diversified to cater for the different aptitudes, abilities, interests and skills of students. The Senior High School system has had its ups and downs since the implementation of the 1987 Education Reform programme and was running for 3-year duration. It has attracted the most criticism (including whether it should be 3-years or 4-years duration) and so much attention should be placed on the Senior High School programme and all efforts made to work, since it serves as preparatory grounds for entry into tertiary institutions.

8.Technical And Vocational Education The purpose of Technical and Vocational Education and Training as indicated in the Anamuah-Mensah Committee Report is to give a basic understanding of technical and INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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vocational knowledge and skills for students who wish to pursue professional tertiary programmes. They impart specific technical and vocational knowledge and skills to students who want to contribute to the world of work, equip students with knowledge and skills to make them employable or self-employed, and to update knowledge and skills of the workforce in order to keep them abreast with time.The Technical and Vocational Education and Training sub-sector of the Ghanaian economy is supposed to help contribute much to the socio-economic development of the country. Presently, streams in the Technical and Vocational Education and Training include Secondary Technical Schools, Technical Institutes, Vocational Institutes and Apprenticeship Training Centres.

9.Tertiary Education Tertiary education is education that is offered after the secondary level. It includes universities, polytechnics, Colleges of Education, specialized institutions and other institutions offering training leading to awards of diplomas and degrees. Tertiary education aims at developing people with intellectual and analytical mind, equipping people with knowledge and skills to conduct basic and applied research, and to produce high and middle-level human capital for the various sectors of the economy. In the present knowledge based economy, tertiary education plays an important role in the creation, dissemination and application of knowledge to meet developmental needs. It also has a role in the strengthening of the entire educational system and fostering synergies in the entire economy. To achieve the objectives of tertiary education, the wellbeing and economic development of the country, it is very crucial to strengthen all the various levels of the country’s educational system by remedying all anomalies and deficiencies to ensure quality education delivery in the system. Buama (2009) confirms that the success of tertiary education depends to a very large extent on the preparation given by students from the Basic and Secondary levels of education and that without quality basic education it will be difficult to have quality tertiary education.

10.Quality Education Quality education is very crucial in every educational system. In Ghana, quality education is of utmost interest to the government, Ministry of Education (MOE), Ghana Education Service (GES) and Cooperate bodies. It involves putting the right mechanisms INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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in place such as providing quality inputs and delivery in the educational process to help achieve excellent outcomes in education. Ghanaian education is centred on providing a holistic and quality approach to education by creating well-balanced individuals with the requisite knowledge, skills, values and aptitudes for the purpose of self-realization and for the socio-economic development and political transformation of the country. To achieve this, the individual being educated should be developed intellectually, psychologically, spiritually, emotionally, physically and intuitively in order to positively contribute towards national development and adapt to technological changes and other innovations.The Ghana government, as part of her vision towards education, aims at providing quality education for all by way of providing adequate resources and facilities to achieve her goal at all levels of education. It is thus, very relevant to create an environment that will help promote and sustain quality delivery in the Ghanaian educational system. Teaching and learning should as a result take place in an environment that is healthy, safe and sound and gender sensitive with adequate resources and facilities.Quality education delivery further involves the process through which trained and motivated teachers use child-centred approaches in well-managed classrooms and schools in addition to skilful assessment, effective use of time, right attitude towards learning, effective supervision, and good discipline not forgetting other factors such as the effective use of information and communication technology as a tool for learning. There are however some factors militating against achieving quality education in the present Ghanaian educational system, which need to be addressed. The research indicates some of the militating factors as follows: 

Lack of adequate teaching and learning facilities.



Poor infrastructural facilities

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Low number of well-motivated and committed teachers owing to unattractive salaries and conditions of service.

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Inadequate number of trained and well-motivated teachers to promote quality education.

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Absence of proper guidance and counselling services especially at the Junior High School level.

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Absence of performance standards for each subject.

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Overloaded curriculum especially at the Senior High School level.

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High pupil/teacher ratio, especially in cities and sub-urban areas.


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

Mass or wholesale promotion at the basic level.

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Ineffective use of contact hours.



Too much pressure on the few endowed schools in the urban areas.

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Poor management and supervision in schools by heads and education officers.

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Lack of funding for educational institutions.

11.Recommendations For quality education to be achieved in the present education system in Ghana, the following recommendations can be considered to provide the way forward:

11.1.Teaching And Learning Facilities The Government, in collaboration with the Ghana Education Service, should see to the provision of adequate teaching and learning materials such as textbooks, stationery, computers, televisions, tape recorders, overhead and LCD projectors. These facilities should not only be sufficient in number, but should also be of good quality. Special facilities for the physically and mentally disabled should also be provided in the appropriate institutions. Non-Governmental Organizations and other institutions as well as Parent/Teacher Associations should assist in the provision of teaching and learning materials through various donations to respective educational institutions as a way of enhancing and promoting teaching and learning. Governing boards of the various institutions should institute appropriate measures of ensuring that such donated facilities are properly maintained in a manner consistent with acceptable standards.

11.2.Infrastructural Facilities The Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service (GES) should see to the provision of good infrastructural facilities in all educational institutions as a way of providing the right environment for quality education to thrive. These facilities include adequate number of classrooms, science laboratories, art studios, workshops, wellstocked libraries, dormitories, hostels, staff accommodation and good drinking water plants. The provision of these facilities is relevant to create an environment conducive for quality delivery at all levels in the educational process. The government and all other stakeholders should pay particular attention in providing most of these amenities at the Junior High School level since it is considered the weakest link in the educational system


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due to its neglect in the provision of these services. The rural and sub-urban areas should not be neglected in the provision of these facilities, in order to compete with the urban schools. This would go a long way to help improve education delivery in communitybased Junior and Senior High Schools and would also attract more students from a wide catchment area to facilitate access and participation.

11.3.Personnel Policies Morphet (1974) states that the effectiveness of an organization is enhanced by selecting the competent, training the inexperienced, eliminating the incompetent and providing incentives for all members of the organization. Ideally, all teachers handling the various levels of education should be professionally qualified with a minimum qualification of at least a first degree or a Diploma at the pre-tertiary level to ensure quality delivery. In other words, highly trained teachers should teach at the lower levels to lay a strong foundation. To achieve this, the Government through the Ministry of Education (MOE), should formulate appropriate policies concerning the upgrading and well-being of teachers as well as see to the provision of attractive salaries and good conditions of service such as good accommodation, transportation facilities, risk and other allowances to make the profession very attractive and productive. The Government of Ghana has said that there shall be a special rural allowance of an additional 20 percent of salaries to teachers who accept postings to deprived rural communities starting from 2010 financial year (Khalid, 2009). It will be appreciated if this is carried out accordingly.

11.4.Training Of Teachers The quality, effectiveness and attitudes of the teaching force rest heavily on two factors: the type of person recruited to the service and the quality of the pre-service and inservice training they receive (Kadingdi, 1996). For quality education to thrive, it is necessary to ensure that teachers are appropriately trained to effectively impart relevant knowledge and skills to pupils/students. To achieve this, the Government in partnership with the Ministry of Education (MOE) should pass policies that would help revive as well as fund teacher education. This would be of relevance to the nation because the success of every education depends on the quality of teachers provided by the system. The structure and content of teacher education should thus be reformed and made responsive to the current educational needs of the country. Teacher training institutions should, as a matter of urgency, incorporate kindergarten (Pre-school), Primary and Junior INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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High School education in their teacher education programmes to groom trainees to handle these levels which are very important in the early development of the child. Colleges of Education or Teacher Training Institutions should also train more teachers to handle Technical and Vocational subjects at Junior High School level and schools that offer purely Technical and Vocational programmes so that products from these schools shall be well equipped to handle the technical and vocational sector of the Ghanaian economy. Teacher education should also be made attractive through the provision of incentives such as accommodation, maintenance allowances to cover boarding and lodging, payment of allowances for teacher trainees, teaching and learning materials and other amenities. These would motivate more people to be trained as teachers.

11. 5.Technical And Vocational Education The Technical and Vocational Education should be carefully considered and reviewed with the view to restructuring it in order to define educational streams available to Junior and Senior High School leavers to pursue. The Government, in collaboration with Ghana Education Service (GES), should see to the expansion of institutions and streams within the Technical and Vocational Education to make it all-embracing so that they can cater for the large numbers of Junior and Senior High School leavers. This would help reduce the number of school drop-outs and lessen the number of students admitted to the Senior High Schools who may not even have interest for Senior High School education.

11.6.Guidance And Counselling Guidance and counselling services should be provided and strengthened at the Junior High School level so that students would be well equipped as to what their talents, future aspirations and prospects are. This would help alleviate the problem of selection of programmes for the Senior High School. Children in the early stages of schooling need to be guided to discover and develop their natural talents as well as to choose their subjects,

professional

requirements

and

employment

prospects.

An effective

guidance/counselling programme includes planned programmes and activities based on the needs of students, that result in student outcomes in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes in areas of personal/social, educational and career development. The process of planning should involve key stakeholders, including students, school staff, families and community in a meaningful way.


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11.7.Performance Standards It is noteworthy that assessment as a measure of quality of learning is very critical in every educational system. The educational system should thus put in place a variety of assessment systems and tools such as Performance Monitoring Test, Criterion Referenced Test, and School Based Assessment at the pre-tertiary education level to measure students’ abilities and as a means of monitoring their progress. There should be effective supervision of subjects through School Based Assessment, which is commonly used in schools. It should include essay writing, quizzes, interviews, practical works at workshops and laboratories, project works as well as systematic observation by teachers to ensure that all levels and domains of learning are well assessed.

11.8.Review Of Curricula The educational curricula should be carefully reviewed to get rid of irrelevant subjects, and subject contents and combinations. Subject combinations that would not contribute much to students’ learning as well as create a linkage between the various levels of the educational system should be eliminated. The schools’ curricula should emphasize the application of relevant knowledge students have acquired in the classroom, workshops, studios and laboratories. The curricula should as a consequence include skills that are practical and job-oriented, cater for special needs and interests of pupils/students. They should also promote activities that deal with problem solving, creative and analytical thinking as well as incorporate indigenous and formal sector activities. These would enable graduates become self-fulfilled and make meaningful contributions to the socioeconomic development of the country.

11.9.Intake Of Students The Education for All Global Monitoring Report (2005) states that any policy aimed at pushing net enrolments towards 100% must also assure decent learning conditions and opportunities. It is generally good to increase enrolments but it should commensurate with adequate resources and motivation. The high numbers of students in a class, especially in urban schools should be addressed by the recruitment of more teachers to teach in deprived areas to alleviate the problem of students leaving their village schools to urban schools. The Government should also see to the provision of model Junior and Senior High Schools in rural and sub-urban communities to increase access and participation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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11.10.Promotion Of Students Mass or wholesale promotion has been a major problem hampering the success of achieving quality education especially at the basic level. Through mass promotion pupils/students are allowed to automatically proceed from one class to the next. This does not promote hard work, seriousness and discipline on the part of pupils/students. This eventually leads to poor performances in examinations. With this system the pace of learning is measured and determined by the few good and fast learners in a class leaving the slow learners to their own fate. This problem could be resolved by allowing weak students to repeat classes to consolidate knowledge not well understood for better performance in their next class when promoted. However, repeating a student should be done with justifications.

11.11.Management And Supervision Heads of all educational institutions should see to the proper and effective management and supervision of their schools on a daily basis by putting the right organizational structures and mechanisms in place. Heads should make sure they monitor and supervise instructional time, co-curricula activities, teaching and learning processes time after time to ensure that the right subjects and their contents are taught. Besides, the head should monitor the use of right pedagogical skills, assessment of teachers’ and students’ performances in the instructional process, and the effective use of instructional time. They should also manage financial resources of their schools effectively with the aim of seeing to the proper running of the school system.Educational officers who are adequately trained should be assigned to pay visits to various educational institutions to supervise and evaluate management and academic activities of these schools to be sure they are operating well and in line with educational policies of the Government and the Ministry of Education (MOE). The Government, Ministry of Education (MOE) and Ghana Education Service (GES) should thus support these educational officers with the appropriate incentives, logistics and adequate transport services to make their job effective.

11.12.Funding Of Educational Institutions The Government, Non-governmental Organizations (NGO’s), private sectors and other stakeholders in education should help in funding educational institutions to ensure a proper manning of those institutions in order to achieve their educational objectives. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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12.Conclusion Quality education has been found to be very crucial in the present educational system of Ghana and of utmost interest to the government. The study has unveiled most of the setbacks to achieving quality education in the present Ghanaian system of education. If these setbacks and deficiencies of the system are properly addressed by taking into consideration most of the recommendations put forward, it would go a long way to help achieve quality education in the entire educational system of Ghana. Education is not a one-man affair. It is a joint responsibility of the state, and the entire community. A healthy partnership between the government and all other stakeholders is therefore essential for improving and sustaining the educational system.


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13.Reference 1. Buama, L. K. (2009). The delivery of quality tertiary education: The role of the student asa stakeholder. Paper presented at the launch of the maiden SRC week celebration of the E. P. University College in Ho (7th August, 2009). 2. Debrunner, H.W. (1967). A History of Christianity in Ghana. Accra: Waterville Publications, p91 3. Education for All Global Monitoring Report (2005) as cited in “Attainment of Quality Basic Education in Ghana: Multi-site case study of basic schools in the central region” 4. (http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/Ghanadoc.pdf). 5. Hornby, A.S. (ed)(1984). Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary of Current English.London: Oxford University Press, p437 6. Kandingdi, S. (1996), Policy initiatives for change and innovation in basic education programmes in Ghana. (http://www.educatejournal.org.) 7. Khalid, M. (2009), Challenges of quota system hamper quality education delivery. Paper presented at Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT) 3 rd Quadrennial Regional Delegates conference in Wa. Cited in “The Ghanaian Journal” (22 nd September, 2009) 8. McWilliam, H.O.A. & Kwamena-Poh, M.A. (1975). The Development of Education in Ghana. New edition. London: Longman Group Ltd. 9. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopaedia (2005). Microsoft Corporation 10. Ministry of Education (1994). Report of Education Review Report Committee on PreTertiary Education. (deHeer-Amissah Report). Accra: Ministry of Education, p23 11. Ministry of Education (2002). Meeting the Challenges of Education in TwentyFirstCentury. Accra: Ministry of Education. pp 16, 22, 43, 48, 60, 62, 74, 111 12. Morphet, E. L., Rol, L. J., Reller, T. L. (1974). Educational and Organizational Administration, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.


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Pedagogical Situations And Learning Outcomes In Graphic Design In Selected Senior High Schools In The Kumasi Metropolis Of Ghana Sylvanus Ametordzi Master’s Degree In Art Education, Teacher Of Information And Communication technology,Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science And Technology(Knust) Kumasi,Ghana Dr. Patrick Osei-Poku Phd Degree In Art Education ,Lecturer At The Department Of General Art,Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science And Technology (Knust), Kumasi, Ghana Eric Francis Eshun Graphic Designer And Lecturer With A Bachelor Of Arts Degree,Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science And Technology (Knust) Kumasi, Ghana Abstract: This study dwells predominantly on the teaching strategies employed by Graphic Design teachers and the learning outcomes of their students. The study purposefully examines the pedagogical approaches of teachers, considering the limited resources available, and how they affect students’ acquisition of concepts and skills. Observation, interviews and questionnaires were the instruments used for collecting pertinent data. Having gathered substantial data from the target teachers and their students in eight Senior High Schools in the Kumasi metropolis, it was evident that there were inadequate professional graphic design teachers, lack of studios, computer laboratory, equipment and other facilities for the execution of Graphic Design works. Besides, the lecture method of teaching was mainly employed by the teachers, and this affected the students’ skills acquisition and academic achievements. It was also observed that there were no Ghana Education Service (GES) recommended text books for the teaching of Graphic Design and teachers had to depend on unapproved books published by individuals for the teaching of the subject. Lack of these material resources, coupled with incompetent use of some relevant design software and incomprehensive evaluation criteria by the teachers, students’ learning outcomes were found to have been affected negatively. Keywords: Pedagogy, Typography, Instruction, Graphic Design and Learning Outcomes.


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1.Introduction The functionality of art is very vital especially when it is used as a tool to communicate ideas to people. Art makes positive impact on our socio-cultural and economic life. The work of art promotes culture as much as it promotes commercial activities. It also has huge contribution on education and health not only in Ghana but in countries all over the world. Visual Art programme was introduced at the Senior Secondary School level in 1991 because art was recognized to have enormous contribution to life in general. The aim of the programme was to promote Ghanaian culture, increase education, equip the learners with employable skills and to meet the commercial and industrial demands of art in the country. Sixteen years later (in 2007), the educational policy makers of Ghana deemed it necessary to introduce art at all levels of education. This led to the introduction of Basic Design and Technology (BDT) in the Junior High Schools and Creative Arts in the Primary Schools during the 2007 educational reform. The purpose was to give the young ones strong foundation in art and to “develop in them the spirit of innovation, creativity and resourcefulness” (Curriculum Research and Development Division –CRDD, 2007, p. iii).Graphic Design is one of the Visual Art subjects offered in the Senior High Schools. It is the art of selecting and arranging visual elements - such as typography, images, symbols and colours - to convey messages. As stated by Singer (1998), Graphic Design is a creative process that combines art and technology to communicate ideas. It is an area of art which is connected with designing for production of works such as books, magazines, packages and advertising. This discipline is the broadest of all the areas in Visual Arts programmes. In view of this the Graphic Design syllabus was designed with a lot of practical activities. Strict adherence to the structure of the syllabus therefore demands constant and serious practical works to ensure that the learner acquires the necessary knowledge, skills and competencies before the completion of his programme. This study therefore sought to examine the teaching and learning of Graphic Design in relation to available facilities in selected senior high schools in the Kumasi Metropolis.

2.Some Teaching And Learning Styles Kember (1997) contends that the methods by which instruction is delivered are varied. Selecting a sound model grounded in the science of education as the basis of teaching is one way to promote success. Combining models and using multiple styles can make INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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teaching and learning an exciting and compelling experience. In support of this, it is stated that although individual teachers have a dominant, preferred teaching style, they must often adopt some elements of other styles (Huba & Freed, 2000). “If you wish to take a more open approach to your teaching, a blend of various styles may be very effective” (p.42), they concluded. Teaching will become more effective, according to Trigwell, Prosser & Waterhouse (1999), when the teacher consciously chooses to employ variety of teaching strategies. As he broadens his repertory of strategies, he will be more skilled in using these strategies.According to Felder (2003), students adopt different strategies of learning. He states that 65% of learners are visual learners (learn by watching), 30% constitute auditory learners (learn by listening) and 5% are kinesthetic learners (learn by doing). The various learning styles require that teaching is strategized using the needed resources to meet the learning preferences of students. The more variations of teaching approaches used by the instructor coupled with the required teaching and learning aids, the larger the number of students to be satisfied. Hattie (1999: p.9) identifies feedback as ‘the most powerful single moderator that enhances achievement’. Lee (2003) states that feedback is important for effective learning but warns that too much can be as detrimental as too little. Feedback that is appropriate and meaningful to the learner will be a central part of the effective learning environment.

3.Method To obtain a holistic insight on the quality of teaching to students and the learning outcomes in Graphic Design, personal contacts were made with teachers and students in their classrooms. The researchers used descriptive method under qualitative research and the research instruments used for collecting data were observation, interviews and questionnaires.The research was conducted in the Kumasi metropolis in Ashanti Region. The metropolis has 18 Senior High Schools (CSSPS, 2010). They are made up of four boys’ schools, five girls’ schools and nine mixed schools. Out of these, 15 schools offer Visual Arts programs. For the purpose of this research, focus was on schools which offer Graphic Design. The research covered 8 of the 15 Visual Art schools representing 53.3% of the visual art school population in the metropolis. Cluster random sampling method was used to obtain the 8 schools. In all, 746 students and 8 Graphic Design teachers formed the accessible population for the study.


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4.1.Teachers’ Educational Background The study examined the qualifications of the Graphic Design teachers to ascertain their suitability or otherwise of their status. All the eight Graphic Design teachers visited in the various schools had university education. This is because it is a Ghana Education Service (G.E.S.) regulation that teachers in the Senior Secondary Schools should possess at least a first degree qualification. As seen in Table 1, 38% of the teachers did not have university education in Graphic Design. The reasons given for handling the subject were that they had some Graphic Design background in their secondary school education and with the additional study of other art discipline at a university they felt they could teach Graphic Design.

Area of specialization

Number of teachers

Percentages (%)

Pursued Graphic Design in a university

5

62%

Pursued an Art Programme in a university but not Graphic Design

3

38%

Total

8

100%

Table 1: Teachers’ Educational Background

The fact that these teachers had secondary education in Graphic Design and had art education in the university may not necessarily mean that they are competent enough to teach the subject at that level. Creemers and Reezigt (1996), state that a good teacher must have full command over his subject. He should have a much higher education than his learners. The bone of contention here is the use of secondary school knowledge in Graphic Design to teach the subject in the secondary schools.

4.2.Use Of Instructional Strategies Basically, three different types of teaching methods were used by the teachers. These are the lecture method, project method and demonstration method (Fig. 1).


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4.3.Lecture Method Of Teaching The lecture method refers to the teaching procedure which dwells on clarification or explanation of ideas to students. This method lays emphasis on the discernment of contents. In 13 of the 20 lessons observed, teachers employed the lecture method of teaching, representing 65% of the total sittings made by the researchers. In this method, lessons were presented verbally which required that the learner perceived concepts with the mind. While the teacher actively did the verbal presentation, the learners passively gave audience and tried to form mental pictures of concepts.

4.4.Project Method Of Teaching Four lessons, constituting 20% were observed to have used project method of teaching. This is a problem solving method of teaching in which the learners work spontaneously in groups with no imposition, restriction or obstructions from the teacher. This method of teaching is learner- centered and provides opportunities to students that make them active and learn by doing. The learners discover new facts, principles and information through experience (Charters, 1997).

4.5.Demonstration Method This method was used in three lessons, representing 15%. The method is used to teach skills through demonstration of step-by-step procedures in a task using the exact physical procedures. While demonstrating, the reason and the significance of each step are explained (Mehan, 1979). This method is recommended for teaching of skills because it covers all the necessary steps in an effective learning order 80

Methods of teaching used

60 Lecture method of teaching (65)

40 20

project method of teaching (20)

0 Category 1 Figure1: The Various Methods Of Teaching Adopted By The Teachers


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The lecture method of teaching constitutes the greatest part of the lessons observed. The students were not actively involved in the learning process. In contrast to what Bigge and Shermis (1999) stated that practices that promote effective teaching include adopting learner- centered teaching and using motivational techniques during lesson, most of the lessons observed were teacher-centered. In assessing teaching effectiveness, 358(48%) of the 746 students responded in the negative, while 276 respondents, representing 37%, responded in the affirmative and the rest of the 112 students (15%) did not respond. Students who liked their teachers’ teaching style stated reasons such as the following: 

The teachers were regular in class



They made the lessons interesting with good sense of humor



The teachers gave explanations and enough notes



Those who responded in the negative had the following reasons:



The lessons were full of talks and no demonstrations.



The teachers did not give enough practical works.



Graphic Design is a practically oriented subject which demands practical approach of teaching. Students are visual, auditory or kinesthetic learners.



The use of lecture method satisfies only the auditory learners and may not promote skill acquisition if not handled properly. Lecture method of teaching can render students passive as they sit to receive the information presented by the teacher.

4.6.Non Availability Of GES Recommended Textbooks On Graphic Design It was discovered that there were no GES recommended books for Graphic Design. The schools’ libraries did not have any reference book on Graphic Design. Sixty two percent of the teachers had their personal reference books on the subject. However, it was revealed that those reference books did not have all the topics outlined in the syllabus. The rest of the teachers- 38% of them - said they depended on the Graphic Design syllabus and the textbook for General Knowledge in Art (GKA) for teaching the subject. The GKA textbook was written to give students historical and cultural significance of art and some knowledge on the various aspects of art. The use of this textbook for the teaching of Graphic Design is therefore not appropriate. In response to a question on how the lack of Graphic Design textbooks affects teaching in the classroom, the teachers pointed out that they were limited in a number of ways as they did not know the extent to INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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which to treat a particular topic. This notwithstanding, they mentioned that they handled each topic the best they could. Responding to the same question, the students said the situation is very disturbing. One female student lamented in an interview as follows: It is quite discouraging to visit the school library and discover that there is not a single book on the course one is pursuing when students of other departments are busily reading because they have multitude of books in shelves on their area of study. It looks as if the library is not meant for us the Graphic Design students. The lack of Graphic Design textbooks has affected the teaching and learning of the subject a great deal. The students do not have any reference book for their personal studies. They have no choice but to depend only on the notes given to them by their teachers. Learning becomes teacher-centered as the teacher has to do much of the talking while the students play a passive role of listening. This situation kills the spirit of exploration in students; thus limiting students’ contribution during lesson and consequently resulting in academic under-achievement. Again, depending on inappropriate materials (textbooks) by the teachers in handling Graphic Design can affect teaching and learning to a large extent. This is because the teacher will not have substantial amount of information needed to teach the various topics. Students will end up having very limited ideas in their chosen fields of study which will eventually reflect on their performance in the final standardized examination.

4.7.Non-Availability Of Studios Only two out of the eight schools visited had studios but they were too small to accommodate students and neither of them was well furnished. In one of the Schools, with Graphic Design student population of 125 consisting of Forms 2 and 3 only, a small room measuring 5m by 4m was allocated as the studio space for their practical works. The studio was furnished with only four tables and four benches for the entire student population. In an interview with some of the students on this subject, 60% of them said they had never used the studio for their practical works before because it was not comfortable there. Thirty percent of them said they did their practical works in the studio but not always. The rest of the 10% stated that they always worked in the studio but this was done only when the place was not crowded. Non-availability of Studios for the execution of Graphic Design works in the schools affects skills acquisition. Teaching and learning will be improved in our schools if the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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necessary resources, are provided. As Davis (1997) states that teaching involves a teacher and a student interacting over a subject in a setting, if competent teachers are available and the facilities and infrastructure are nonexistent, there will be no effective teaching. LeBoeuf (1985, p. 23) agrees with Davis as he establishes that “Recent studies have shown that students’ perceptions of their learning environments are related to the learning approach they adopt”. As it stands, the students’ learning outcome will be affected because the right learning and enabling environments are not created for them.

4.8.Non Availability Of Computers The use of computer is very pivotal in the study of Graphic Design. “Students have to be skillful in the use of computer to design visual communication media items” as stated in the specific objectives column of the Graphic Design syllabus (CRDD). It is quite surprising to notice that none of the schools visited had a single computer for the Graphic Design department. The teachers mentioned how badly they needed computer for the teaching of the subject. They added that they had no choice but to teach what is meant to be a practical lesson theoretically even though the students did not understand them most of the time.Interviews with some of the heads of department on this subject revealed that the school authorities were not responsive to the plights of the art departments even though they forwarded petitions of their departments’ needs to the authorities several times. One of the heads of department noted as follows: The school authorities are totally insensitive to our problems because they don’t attach any importance to the Art department. The department is marginalized at the expense of the students.In modern day of ICT gratification, lack of computers for the study of Graphic Design will deny students the skills needed to design visual communication media items and this can lead to poor performance in the final examinations should computer based questions be asked.

4.9.Teachers’ Competence Level In Using Graphic Design Software Results from interviews indicated that 60% of the teachers knew how to use Corel Draw; 35% of them knew how to design in Photoshop and Illustrator and only 5% of them knew how to use Quark-Xpress. Ideally, every teacher should have knowledge on how to use all the software mentioned because they were in the syllabus to be taught. It can be deduced from the information provided above that no teacher had knowledge on all the design software listed in the syllabus. This stands to reason that the teachers INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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fall short of using the Graphic Design software. The reasons given by some of the teachers for not being able to use the software are that the software were not taught in the university during their study there. Others said that one of the software (Quark-Xpress) was new to them and they had never seen or used it before. This lends credence to the fact that the teachers did not have full command over the contents of the syllabus. Teachers’ inability to understand the contents of the syllabus can affect teaching and learning even when computers are provided. Rabia (2004) says that teaching is the transfer of knowledge from a teacher to a learner. So obviously if the teacher does not have the knowledge on how to use Graphic Design software, there is no way he will be able to teach it. Myint et al. (2004) reports that understanding the contents of subjects being taught is very important and that the contents are always changing with the progress of society. Relating this to what Arends (1994) says that a teacher is nothing but a clever student, we can infer that teachers owe it a duty to learn constantly to keep abreast with time as the contents of the syllabus are being reviewed so often.

4.10.Evaluation Of Students’ Work And Lesson Objective Achievement It was noticed, after examining samples of students’ exercise books and practical works that about 60% of students scored 80% and above; about 30% had between 60% and 70% and the rest of the 10% scored between 50% and 60%. None of the students had below 50%. This is to say that more than half of the students had grade ‘A’ in Graphic Design according to the teachers’ assessment. This could be a very good students’ achievement record if scoring was done in accordance with requisite marking criteria.

4.11.Teachers’ Knowledge On Evaluation Of Art Work Reacting to a question on what they looked for when evaluating an art work, 60% of the teachers mentioned that they looked for creativity and good finishing and the rest of the 40% said they were very particular about creativity in design and originality. None of the teachers mentioned other vital criteria that have to be considered when evaluating a work of art -as stated in the Graphic Design syllabus developed by CRDD, (2008) - such as innovation; the use of media (tools and materials); Design (thus composition of elements and principles); technical competence (draughtsmanship and craftsmanship); uses and the relevance of artifact to society/community.Standardized criteria for evaluating students’ works were provided in the Graphic Design syllabus which is also used by INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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external examiners in the West Africa Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (WASSCE). Clearly, teachers’ inability to subject students’ works to all the criteria set for marking students’ work can have profound effects on students’ performance at the end of their study when the standardized criteria are used to judge their performance in the WASSCE.

4.12.Students’ Opinions About Their Own Performances Subsequent to the high marks being awarded to students’ works, the researchers sought to know students’ opinions on their own performance. It was revealed that well over 69% of the students were satisfied with their learning outcomes while the rest of the 31% expressed the need to improve upon their performances. The students said they were satisfied with their performances because they had good marks.

Based on these

responses, it is conclusive that majority of the students will not be mindful to explore more on purpose to improve themselves academically because subconsciously, they believed they were up to the task ahead of them. This could lead to under achieved learning outcomes at the end of their study.

4.13.Students’ Performances In The Classroom Compared With Their Performances In WASSCE It was revealed in interviews with teachers that the performances of students in school tests and examinations were always better than their performances in the WASSCE. While some teachers thought the reason for the disparity is because the WASSCE marking scheme was high, others believed that students did not always put in their best in finishing their project works and writing good appreciation to support them. Based on the information discussed earlier on the teachers’ evaluation of work it could be concluded that the disparity in performance was partly due to the standard of evaluation processes adopted by the examiners in marking WASSCE which is not used by the teachers and partly due to students’ inability to work to meet the standard of questions.

4.14.Students’ Suggestions For Improved Teaching And Learning Responding to a question on possisble ways of improving teaching, 231 student respondents (31%) believed that with the provision of Graphic Design studio, teaching and learning will be effective. Again, 201 students (27%) were of the view that teaching and learning would improve if they had access to Graphic Design textbooks. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Furthermore, 172 students representing 23% of the total number of respondents argued that availability of tools and materials would help improve their studies and finally, 142 students constituting 19% observed that provision of computers would be of great help to improving their studies (Fig. 2). Technically, the above-mentioned major problems were found to affect teaching and learning in all the schools visited and the students’ suggestions for improvement of the programme are legitimate.

Figure 2: The Needs Identified By Students To Support The Study Of Graphic Design 5.Conclusion This study has unearthed challenges being faced by the teachers of Graphic Design as well as some professional shortcomings on their part. It was noticed that the prevailing problems in the various schools such as lack of textbooks; nonexistence of the physical infrastructure needed for the execution of Graphic Design works; lack of studio and computers for designing, all of which are essential for effective teaching of the subject, were to a large extent, the determinants of the pedagogical strategies employed by the teachers. Again, teachers’ adoption of their preferred instructional approaches and their own style of evaluating the work of students - other than those outlined in the syllabus had affected the learning outcomes of students. For teaching to be very effective, some corrective measures have to be taken. Below are recommendations to that effect.


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6.Recommendations Besides teachers being degree holders, it should be ensured that every one of the Graphic Design teachers at the secondary schools has a degree in Graphic Design and not just a degree in any art course. This will provide the competence needed for effective teaching. Rather than using the lecture method, it is advisable for teachers to use the multi-sensory approach of teaching Graphic Design. Demonstration and project methods of teaching should be incorporated in the teaching as these methods activate different senses of learners and tend to satisfy a large category of learners such as the visual learners, verbal, kinesthetic and the auditory learners as stated by Reigeluth (1983). The lecture method of teaching should be minimal in teaching Graphic Design because it does not promote skills acquisition.For students to be skillful in the use of computer for the designing of visual communication media items as stated in the syllabus, the Ghana government and other educational agencies should equip all the Graphic Design departments with computers.To promote effective learning and ensure good performance of students in Graphic Design, teachers should evaluate students’ works based on the standardized criteria outlined in the syllabus. GES should organize workshops for teachers on how to score students’ works according to the evaluation checklist of art work as provided in the syllabus.Art educators should collaborate with Ghanaian writers and publishers and publish Graphic Design books based on the recent syllabus provided by the Curriculum Research and Development Division (CRDD) of the Ministry of Education, Science and Sports to be used as GES recommended books for Graphic Design for Senior High Schools nationwide. Art studios should be provided in Ghanaian schools to facilitate the execution of Graphic Design works and to promote skills acquisition.


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7.Reference 1. Arends, R. (1994). Learning to Teach. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2. [http://www.educationalresearch.com/learning/pedagogy_theory-ofteaching.html] (Accessed 20010, March 06) 3. Bigge, M. & Shermis, G.(1999). Phases of Teaching-The Transition from the 4. Known to the Unknown. 6th edition. New York: Longman.

5. Brenner, G. & March, A. (1995).

Conducting Educational Research. USA:

Hartcourt Brace and Company,. 6. Charters, W. (1997).

Evaluation of Teaching. A strategy for instructional

improvement: New York: St. Martins Press. 7. Computerized School Selection and Placement System (CSSPS, 2010). Accra, Ghana: West Afriaca Examinaton Council.

8. Creemers, B & Reezigt, G (1996).

School level conditions affecting the

effectiveness of instruction', in School Effectiveness and School Improvement, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 197-228 9. Curriculum Research and Development Division –CRDD (2007). Teaching Syllabus for Creative Arts – Primary School 1- 3. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Education, Science and Sports. 10. Curriculum Research and Development Division –CRDD, (2007).

Teaching

Syllabus for Graphic Design - Senior High School. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Education, Science and Sports. 11. Davis, J. R. (1997). Better Teaching, More Learning. Journal of Research on Education 12. Felder,

S.

(2003).

Learning

Strategies.

[http://www.uncw.edu.cte/solomanfelder.htm.], (accessed 2010, February 23) 13. Frankel, J & Wallen, N (1996). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGrais-Hill Duc. 14. Hattie, M. (1999). Effective Feedback that establishes the Learning Processes in the 15. Classroom. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press. 16. Huba, M. E. & Freed, J. E. (2000). Learner- centred assessment; shifting the focus from teaching to learning. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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17. Kember, D. (1997). A Research into Conceptions of the Learning and Instruction. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. 18. LeBoeuf, S. (1985). Unleashing the power of perpetual learning. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The Society for College and University Planning. 19. Lee, D. (2003). Assessment of Teaching and Learning 20. [http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/glossary/assessmentofteaching.htm ] (Accessed 2010, April 10). 21. Mehan, Y. (1979). The Role of Teacher and Students. 22. [http://specialneedseducation.suite101.com/article.cfm/a_philosophy_of_educatio n_part_iv] (Accessed 2010, February 07) 23. Rabia, Y. (2004). Better Teaching, More Learning. London: Sage. 24. Reigeluth, C.M. (ed.) (1983). Instructional Design Theories and Models: An overview of their current status.[ http://www.learningbuzz.com/blo004.cfm.] (Accessed 2009, October 26) 25. Trigwell, K. Prosser, M. & Waterhouse, F. (1999). Relationship between Teachers’ 26. Approaches to Teaching and Students’ Approaches to Learning. New York: Routledge.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Governance And Economic Development Nissar A. Barua Associate Professor of Economics, Gauhati University,India

Abstract: Governance is a process by which public institutions interacts with one another as they manage public issues and utilise public resources to attain the exalted objective of optimal social welfare The conception of governance is multifaceted and very dynamic, and has evolved over the years espousing all those attributes which has become valued in the society as it developed.

The various entities that exist and participate in the

governance process, the intention behind their involvement, and the relative extent of their presence have a significant impact on the nature and quality of governance that would be forthcoming. In most countries, the nature of governance is changing as power relations among different entities are continuously shifting especially after the re-emergence of the market economy. The perception of good governance is subjective. Under the circumstances, constructing criteria on good governance becomes an exceedingly difficult task, as it is virtually impossible to incorporate the diverse values and sensibilities of the extremely heterogeneous world in a universally acceptable set of criterion. Keywords: Accountability, Consensus, Efficiency, Governance, Participation.


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1.Introduction Governance is a process by which public institutions interacts with one another as they manage public issues and utilise public resources to attain the exalted objective of optimal social welfare. The notion of governance is very subjective as its perception is based on the existing social structure, the cultural sensibilities of the people, the operational economic system, and the nature of the political arrangement. Under the circumstances there is a multitude of definitions of governance which portray the various perceptions of the concept while trying to capture the subtleties associated with them. The idea of governance is often erroneously perceived to be government activity. Governance is not synonymous with government (Graham et al, 2003) and the failure to distinguish between them can result in serious flaw. One of the dangers lies in assigning the responsibilities of all public problems on the government who is given the sole onus of correcting it. Under the circumstances many problems of public issue remains unaddressed and the society becomes conveniently resigned to the unfortunate state of affair as another instance of government failure. The conception of governance is multifaceted and very dynamic, and has evolved over the years espousing all those attributes which has become valued in the society as it developed. In the 1990’s it was conceived as “the exercise of authority and control in a society in relation to the management of its resources for social and economic development” (Schneider, 1999). This management centric orientation of the concept was to essentially serve as a criterion to assess the performance of less developed beneficiary nations in fulfilling the objectives set against the financial assistance extended by the entities that was operating as the donor. Over time more democratic attributes such as participation, equity and justice, transparency and accountability etc. came to be incorporated into the concept making it much more comprehensive. One of the latter additions to the concept of governance was the dimension of predictability which ‘was introduced in light of the financial crises in the latter part of the 1990s, which led to a call for improvements in corporate governance and stable financial frameworks’ (Punyaratabandhu, 2004). The inherent dynamism in the concept of governance would ensure that its notion would continue to evolve over time in the future also as the maturing society expresses its changing values and beliefs. Governance can be pertinent in international interactions as could be in interactions at the national level. It could be as equally relevant in

issues concerning local

communities or even in the regular functioning of various institutions. A greater INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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understanding of governance can be had if one considers the various entities that exist and participate in the governance process in the different spheres of the society. This is because the make-up of the entities, the intention behind their involvement, and the relative extent of their presence have a significant impact on the nature and quality of governance that would be forthcoming. In conventional societies the government and private sector (mostly constituted by the business entities) dominate the governance process. But such a setup also provides the rightful space for the civil society and the media to play a critical role. An appropriate assortment of legitimate institutions, each with their proper sphere of influence, interacting within the ambit of acceptable and well established norms constitutes the basic framework for good governance. However governance does not take place in a vacuum; rather all the entities involved in the process have to operate in the backdrop of the culture and traditions of the society, its history, the attainments in the level of technology, and above all, the people who are the ultimate stakeholders in the process. However in many instances non-democratic and very often non-legitimate entities usurp the dominant role in the society which adversely affects the quality of governance. In military dictatorship the democratic institutions are marginalised the military and the private sector takes centre-stage as the legitimately elected representatives and the civil society are pushed to the corner. Other forms of distortions also emerge with the appearance of various un-conventional and incongruous entities who intercede in governance. Some of the states in India’s north-east have their own peculiar form of governance (or non-governance) where radical extremist and underground groups co-exist and function, even if tacitly, with legitimately elected governments. The quality of governance in this case is compromised with democratic institutions like the civil-society and media effectively muffled.In most countries power relations among different entities are continuously shifting especially after the re-emergence of the market economy. The state in many countries is making premeditated withdrawal in favour of the private sector and other institutions within the civil society especially voluntary non-profit organisations. In those circumstances voices from the emerging entities are becoming more vocal in the public domain. The governance structure and the power relations among the constituents are increasingly getting more complicated with the entry of new players in the block like

Non

Government Organisations (NGOs), lobbyists, international donors, multi-national corporations, etc. who are getting to play more important role in decision-making or in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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influencing the decision-making process.The participants in governance change with the change in settings, especially in the urban-rural context. The key participants in rural governance may consists of an entirely different set of players which include influential land lords, village panchayats, rural cooperatives, NGOs, religious leaders, rural financial institutions, and local political strong man and the parties they represent. In urban setting, the characters changes with the change in the basic structure of the constituency. Under the circumstances, the higher level of awareness and greater public participation in governance finds expression in an enhanced role in the process for the civil society, mass media, and other such democratic institutions. However illegitimate entities also find their way into the system where in extreme instances crime syndicate gets entrenched in the formal mechanism of governance. Drug cartels in some South American nations like Columbia are cases in the point. Closer home land and coal mafia operating as organised crime syndicate influence critical decisions which adversely affect the economy, the environment, and more importantly ordinary citizens.The process of governance is equally valid at the institutional level, where again a different set of players participate. For instance governance at a university will be facilitated by the existing administration working in conjunction with the academic committees, the teacher’s association, non-teaching workers union, the students union, and the various statutory bodies. Here also the quality of governance to a large extent in determined by the general attributes which are essential for good governance.

2.Principles Of Good Governance Like its definition the perception of good governance is subjective which is influenced by the social and cultural environment in the society, its value system, the make-up of its economy and the state of evolution of its political system. Under the circumstances constructing criteria on good governance becomes an exceedingly difficult task as it is virtually impossible to incorporate the diverse values and sensibilities of the extremely heterogeneous world in a universally acceptable set of criterion.This paper adopts the set of principles of good governance postulated by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 1997)

which have found wide acceptance in governance literature.

These principles can be loosely classified as Participation & Capacity, Vision & Direction, Responsiveness, Efficiency & Effectiveness, Accountability & Transparency, and Equity & the Rule of the Law.


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2.1.Participation & Consensus A basic condition for good governance is the widespread participation of all stakeholders in the process. It requires all individuals in the community to have a voice in the decision making process either directly or through their legitimate representatives who articulate their interests. . Such participation is possible only if people are permitted o subscribe to their individual beliefs and values and allowed to express them without restraint. In fact comprehensive participation can only be possible if the people are able to give expression to their opinion in a collective manner which requires the extension of ‘the right to peaceful assembly and association’. A democratic government, which is one of the basic requisite of good governance, derives its authority from the people which is granted through legitimate and genuine elections. In such a setup, although direction of the functioning of the government is based on the will of the majority, it is imperative that the legitimate interests of the minority groups are protected to prevent the tyranny of the former. Good govermence seeks to bring harmony among divergent and often conflicting interest among belligerent groups so that the greater interest of the community is protected. In this context, the exercise of the rights and privileges of individuals and groups is limited to the extent that they contravene similar rights of others. However even the presence of a democratic setup will fail to usher in true universal participation if the vulnerable and marginalised segment of the population is not empowered with at least the minimum capacity and capability to express their aspiration.

2.2.Vision & Direction It is of utmost necessity that decision makers in the governance process must

possess a

broad vision of what is necessary for the community and the country. Besides they should have a long term perspective of all the issues so that any chosen course of action is sustainable and harmonious. However a vision can only become operational if the way to realise it is known. Giving proper direction to governance remains critical towards realising its objectives and that is only possible if the strategy towards its realisation is grounded on the culture and tradition of the society, its historical background, the realities of the present and a vision of the future.


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2.3.Responsiveness, Efficiency & Effectiveness All the entities participating in governance must be oriented towards the interest of the stakeholders. Genuine requirements of public provision must be adequately provided. The governing entities and the governance structure must exhibit the necessary flexibility and adaptability to proactively respond to the dynamic environment that characterises a society that is constantly evolving. Efficiency in governance is characterised by the optimal use of the scarce public resources at the disposal of the governing entities. This is achieved when resources are directed to those areas where their social return is the highest instead of confining them to uses that only maximises commercial profitability. Besides the optimal allocation of resources, efficiency parameters also require that criteria of proper utilisation and equitable distribution be satisfactorily met. This is reflected in the effectiveness of the process which can be gauged by the extent to which the objective and goals of governance have been achieved by the actual outcomes.

2.4.Accountability & Transparency Good governance requires the governing institutions, the processes they perpetuate, and the consequent achievement be accountable to all the stakeholders. The level of accountability is enhanced when decisions are appraised, debated upon and are subject to approval. Misappropriations and other malpractices are minimised with the establishment of a built-in system of effective checks & balances in the governance process. Individuals and groups are to be accorded protection against arbitrary infringement of basic rights by the governing institutions through an effective safeguard mechanism. Along with accountability, transparency constitutes another foundation of good governance. Adequate and relevant information on the governing entities, the processes they administer and the subsequent outcome should be available to all those who are governed. This would permit effecting monitoring of the process and enable the establishment of an operational system for acknowledging quality in governance and also for penalising inefficiency and failure.

2.5.Equity & The Rule Of The Law Governance seeks to ensure for the people freedom, equity, and justice which constitutes the foundation of a stable and prosperous nation. To secure these traits the governance INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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process needs to extend equal rights and dignity to all citizens ensuring that no individual or groups are discriminated, deprived, or persecuted on grounds of caste, religion, language, race, or ethnicity. A highly evolved governance process always operates through a liberal legal structure. Good governance requires laws to be fair and their imposition impartial.

In this context the rights of individuals are of paramount

importance which calls for a judiciary that protects citizens from arbitrary arrest, detention, and deportation while guarantees a fair public hearing to an accused. The state also has a responsibility in ensuring that the existing government policies and corresponding laws are consistent and follow a logical and coherent sequence. Unpredictable and inconsistent state laws very often cause great inconvenience to stakeholders and drastically erode the credibility of the nation.

3.Governance And Economic Development In the context of economic development, governance may be viewed from the perspective of allocation, attainments, and distribution. Efficiency in allocation requires scarce public resources to be put to their most optimal use. Provision of public goods is inherently characterised by market failure which requires them to be provided by the government budget. The quality of governance will depend on whether such public provisions are sensitive to the preference of the people. Good governance requires the perception to distinguish between social benefit and commercial profitability by capturing the externalities1 associated with the various forms of public investment. Provision of goods exhibiting externalities are often associated with market efficiencies where the market under-provides goods with external benefits while over-providing goods with external cost. The success of governance in this regard would depend upon how the concerned institutions are able to correct the existing inefficiencies through an appropriate strategy of tax and subsidy. Efficient governance also requires the detection of pockets of market failure in the economy, identification of the offending entity and rectification of problem. The relative success of governance may be assessed in terms of attainments in critical areas of education, health, food, and social security which are critical for the creation of quality human capital besides the enhancement of the quality of life. It may also be

Externalities are beneficial or harmful side-effects generated in the process of production, distribution, and consumption, which affects people who are not directly involved in the market transactions. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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evaluated in terms of the creation of economic infrastructure which constitutes a prerequisite for sustainable economic development. Distributional efficiency of governance will need to satisfy the canons of equity and justice that seeks to examine the extent of participation which depends upon the sensitivity of the process towards the choice and requirements of the people. Besides the equity issue in governance will be assessed on the extent to which public interventions reach those people whose needs are the most desperate. In recent years the focus of policy makers have shifted to ensuring the provision of the basic necessities to the poorest of the poor instead on concentrating on attaining the impossible objective of eliminating the income gap between the richest and the poorest in the country.

4.Conclusion As India positions itself to make the big leap to join the league of developed nations, the appalling quality of governance threatens to undermine the growth momentum generated by the dynamic entities and forces operating in the country. Corruption which is the plague of less developed countries sabotages most of the development initiatives and erodes the credibility of the nation. Even more disquieting is the relative backwardness of its sensitive north-eastern region which hangs like the Damocles Sword over the country. Given its multi-ethnic and multi-religious character that makes the region inherently volatile, governance has a critical role in bringing about amicable resolutions of the multitude of vexed issues which are mired in an emotional cauldron of cultural, social, political, and economic sensibility. In recent years there have been significant achievements in the form of gradual resolution of political conflicts. It is imperative that the gains achieved at such a huge price are not fettered away. Under the circumstances the need of the hour is quality governance that seeks to respond to the exigencies of the existing situation and also to the requirements of the people so that their economic, social, cultural, and political aspirations are fulfilled.


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5.Reference 1. Graham,J. Amos,B. and Plumptre,T. (2003) ‘Principles for Good Governance in the 21st Century’. Policy Brief No. 15, Institute on Governance, Ottawa, Canada 2. Punyaratabandhu, S. (2004) ‘Commitment to Good Governance, Development and Poverty Reduction: Methodological Issues in the Evaluation of Progress at the National and Local Levels’. CDP Background Paper No. 4, United Nations Development Policy and Analysis Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York. 3. Schneider, H. (1999) ‘Participatory Governance: The Missing Link for Poverty Reduction’, Policy Brief No. 17, OECD Development Centre, Paris. 4. UNDP (1997) ‘Governance for Sustainable Development ’. A UNDP Policy Document, United Nations Development Programme.[Online] 5. Available: http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/(Accessed on 10.10.12)


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

School-Based Enterprise And School-To-Work Transitions In Art Vocations Timothy Crentsil Faculty of Creative Arts and Technology, Kumasi Polytechnic, Kumasi Dr Patrick Osei-Poku Department of General Art Studies,Faculty of Art,College of Art and Social Sciences, KNUST Abstract: A survey of the Ghanaian industry landscape reveals that there are inadequate industries into which visual art graduates would fit. The inadequacy presents vast opportunities that could be explored if schools prepare graduates adequately to enter into art-based enterprises. A school environment promoting school-to-work experiences in creative arts has not been explored. Therefore a study was conducted on the concept of School-Based Enterprises and how effective they are in promoting work experiences in visual art vocations to equip graduates with skills for employment in future. An aspect of the creative arts that embrace art, media and technology are fashion, textiles and their associated businesses. Sixty entrepreneurs in fashion, textiles and related industries were interviewed to gather data on Practical Business Skills that compliment their technical skills to enable them run successful enterprises and how these competencies can be co-opted into formal school curricula. Based on the responses, case study projects were carried out with one hundred and sixty (160) HND Fashion and Textiles students in Kumasi Polytechnic. The findings were that knowledge and production skills alone do not create jobs (i.e. conjure materials, products and markets). Productive learning useful for employment comes by reinforcing students’ learning (knowledge and technical skills) with work experiences and practical business competencies in school that conform to the tenets of their vocations. The research revealed that this is achievable through the concept of school-based enterprises. Therefore to create sustainable jobs in the creative arts industries it must be realized that technical skills in art and business training must co-exist to make it beneficial to creative art graduates. Keywords:SchoolBasedEnterprise(SBE),ProductiveLearning,PersonalEntrepreneurial Competencies (PECs), Practical Business Competencies (PBCs).


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1.Introduction Since its inception, Polytechnic education in Ghana has undergone dramatic changes. Mainly such changes are all geared towards the realization of Ghana’s goal of becoming self-reliant in terms of available man power to meet the demands of industry and other sectors of the national economy. Among these changes, one that gained momentum and wide acceptance on most Polytechnic campuses bringing together various stakeholders was The Npt/Nuffic Cbt approach. The crafting of a CBT curriculum in Fashion and Textiles dubbed ‘Design and Production of Fashion and Textiles’ unearthed countless number of competencies that need to be acquired by graduates to contribute meaningfully to national development agenda. (Draft Report on CBT Workshop – Fashion and Textiles, Accra Polytechnic October 2009). In October 2009, during the evaluation of the final pilot curriculum (operated for about three years) in Accra Polytechnic – Ghana, stakeholders identified three cardinal areas that needed immediate addressing to make the curriculum holistic. These critical areas were: Entrepreneurial skills; ICT and design skills and CBT pedagogy and assessment. Of the three areas the writer focuses on the entrepreneurship development modules as part of the CBT concept. (Draft Report on CBT Workshop – Fashion and Textiles, Accra Polytechnic October 2009).Research has it that many countries have embarked on massive vocational education with the presumption that basic practical skills plus basic education will result in self-employment. However, Carnoy (1980) has observed that production skill alone does not conjure materials, the market or work. What really seem to work are the organisation of trainees into producer cooperatives and the provision of initial capital to stabilize the work.Productive learning in schools comes by reinforcing students’ learning/knowledge with work experiences in school that conform to the tenets of the vocations. In line with this concept teaching hospitals are built to train doctors, nurses, pharmacists and other paramedical staff so as to work with minimal or no supervision after school. Demonstration schools are usually attached to colleges or institutions that train teachers. Popularly also, restaurants and lodging facilities run alongside catering and hospitality programmes to enable students have first hand experiences in their chosen disciplines. In the light of this, art programmes run by polytechnics would guarantee better Competency Based Learning/Training of students if production units or enterprise structures are co-opted into the main school curriculum. Central to this research, the curricular of most institutions running art programmes are deficient in trade and industry related skills and need immediate addressing. At present INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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training in tertiary art institutions revolve around practical skills acquisition and intellectual training rather than business oriented, work-based industrial practices. For years such a school environment promoting schools-work enterprises is perceived to bring industrial work practices to the doorstep of students for trainees to be abreast with practices of industry while in school, but this brilliant concept has not been explored. (Stern et al 1994) To contribute to addressing this challenge relevant data was gathered from entrepreneurs in fashion and textiles. This data became inputs for a case study project with HND fashion and textiles students where learning centered on productive activities. The central objective was to identify practical business competencies that must be acquired by trainees in art-based programmes in addition to technical skills and intellectual training (which schools dwell on ) to ensure holistic training for the world of work.

2.School-To-Work Transitions In recent times art educators would do well to think critically about the role of the arts in school –to-work transition. Stankiewicz (1996) acknowledges Parker’s (1994) motions that one reason for the value of visual arts education is in facilitating workplace readiness. The artistic process can be conceived as a system that transforms human talent and physical materials into a work of art. Stankiewicz (1996) holds the view that industrialization has resulted in deskilling workers (especially in the arts) making employment opportunities open to individuals who combine specialized skills with entrepreneurial talents. What this means is that we need an art education curricular with goals and learning activities that address both our society’s avowed educational purposes and changing realities. Based on the above the following important questions are asked: What kind of jobs are we preparing students for? How do we know that the skills developed through arts programmes will indeed transfer to the workplace? The issue of transfer of learning is at the crux of Stankiewicz’s concern in regard to school-to-work transition. If art teachers are unaware of the potential connections of their teaching with the work-place, or if they are unconcerned about this issue, it is unlikely that they will explicitly teach for transfer. The Japan Journal (November 2009, Vol. 6) recounts the Japanese government authorities’ striving over the last decade or so to better connect young people with the world of work. As part of entrepreneurship education older students work with organizations (school based set –ups) to come up with ideas for INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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products that harness local resources, establish hypothetical companies and produce plans covering everything from proto-type production through to sales.

They then

submit their plans and receive funding from the school, enabling them to actually go out into the community and sell their products.

3.Working In Visual Art Vocations To consider a career in the creative profession it must be noted that, for the most part, employments in these areas require abilities or capabilities that are not necessarily creative. One may be required to obtain technical or business skills. Careers in the art are highly competitive and what one needs to do is to become a qualified applicant (Shacklady 1997). To do this Shacklady says will require: having a clear idea of what you want to do; long term planning in terms of the route you will take, and willingness to make personal commitments to further your ambitions by picking up unpaid or voluntary work in your chosen field. Preparation for work therefore makes the concept of SchoolBased Enterprises timely as a module for educational programmes in the 21 st century. School-Based Enterprise is any activity through which students produce goods and services for sale to or used by people other than themselves (Stern et al; 1994). For example students build or rehabilitate houses, fix cars, run restaurants, raise crops and livestock, create clothing, run staff child-care centers etc. The aims of school-based enterprises according to (Stern et al; 1994) include; i.To provide work-preparation advantages as employer-based apprenticeship ii. To improve students career preparations by giving students years of structured, work-based learning linked to classroom instruction, leading to a recognized certificate that qualifies them for employment iii. It serves as a contrast to the passive learning typical of many college /tertiary classrooms as compared to the cognitive apprenticeship that engages students in active problem solving.

4.History Of School - Based Enterprise The idea of school- based enterprise is not new. The practical possibility of general revenues to offset the cost of schooling has appealed to many people over the years. In Von Borstel’s 1982 historical review of the concept of productive education, one of the earliest proponents was the English political philosopher John Locke (cited in Stern et al 1994). Von Borstel’s survey of twenty-seven productive education projects in developing countries found that nine of them generated enough revenue to pay all the cost of the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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school, another five supported between 60 and 90 percent of school costs and six more recovered between 25 and 45 percent. This implies that the enterprise produced enough not only to cover the cost of production itself but also in many instances to cover the cost of education.According to Von Borstel, the 18 th century French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau was the first to assert the pedagogical benefits of productive education. Rousseau’s ideas were applied and refined by the Swiss-German educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, who opened a school in 1774 in which education was organized around productive labour. The American philosopher John Dewey brought this idea into the twentieth century, consistently arguing that students learn best when productive experience is an integral part of their education. (Stern et al; 1994)

5.Methodology The qualitative approach of research was adopted. Specific methods of research used were the descriptive and survey methods. A case study was also used in selected areas. Though four categories of respondents were used emphasis was placed on two (entrepreneurs in fashion and textiles; and hnd fashion and textiles students) while the other two (stakeholders in higher education in ghana (nabptex, ncte, nab etc) and heads of business organisations (agi, nbssi, moti etc); and art educators in fashion and textiles in ghanaian polytechnics) were basically involved to confirm the data gathered. The entrepreneurs used for the study were managers of fashion and textiles business set-ups where students are attached for industrial practice. The purposive sampling technique was used to select sixty (60) entrepreneurs who were interviewed to provide experiential data for the study.the case study was done on three year groups of hnd students comprising hnd i, ii and iii of the fashion and textiles studies department of kumasi polytechnic. Different questionnaires were administered to these three year groups in a bid to diversify the techniques for gathering the same kind of data. In all, one hundred and sixty (160) students were randomly selected for the study representing 84% of the student population. Data was also obtained from thirty (30) students from the institute of entrepreneurship and enterprise development, ieed – Kumasi Polytechnic who study Fashion and Textiles as elective courses. Analysis of data was mainly descriptive. Based on the objectives of the study and research questions being investigated, the researchers derived associated themes under which responses gathered were assembled and discussed.


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6.Discussion of findings

6.1.Assessing Trainees’ Practical Business Competence Levels The entrepreneurs contacted confirmed the importance of many Practical Business Competencies (PBCs) useful to graduates. However respondents had varied opinions with respect to the ones that are very important to supersede the other. Generally, the study revealed that these broad areas of competencies namely; production skills, marketing skills, business organisation skills and financial management skills are useful competencies that graduates must acquire. Further to that, close to 95% of the practitioners acknowledge that out of the four broad competency areas, production skill is the first most important.The study also confirmed that though these PBCs are very important, however, students do not have or exhibit these competencies. At best students have some production skills (which schools focus on) but not the marketing, business organisation and financial management skills. In addition, it was pointed out that most lecturers are not business inclined and do not exhibit these skills themselves, making it difficult for them to impart these PBCs to trainees. Discussing the production skills further, all the entrepreneurs (100%) unanimously opined that competence in production or practical skills alone is not enough to enter and manage a business in the art-based professions (fashion and textiles) successfully. They pointed out that production which is the technical know-how/skill is a foundational skill in business. It is okay to start in business with production skills but not enough to sustain the business. Moreover production skills was described as the skills needed to get the job done, but then it does not end there since there is a lot more to business or enterprise practice than production alone. Principally, they mentioned the need for one to exhibit some Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies (PECs) to be successful in any business venture.Aside the PECs, some competencies needful for trainees to acquire to be successful in business include; customer care, human relations skills, communication skills, time management skills; advertising, marketing and selling skills; costing, book keeping, financial management skills are all needed for the survival of businesses. It was noted that financial management or money handling skills is of prime importance in every business enterprise.


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6.2.Acquiring Practical Business Competencies The research revealed that there is not one single approach to develop PBCs among trainee artists in fashion and textiles. What exists is a multi-system approach where all sorts of conventional and unconventional methods are employed to impart the desired skills and competencies.

To guarantee the acquisition of these skills respondents

proposed three cardinal conditions must be fulfilled namely: conducive place for training; experiences of the trainer and lastly interest, willingness and desire of the trainee to learn and acquire such skills.To provide effective training the approaches proposed by respondents included: exposure to business environments, gaining experience (learning by doing), and participatory observation as well as through workshops and seminars. The sixty (60) entrepreneurs making (100%) confirmed that formal school trainees need to spend adequate time with industry in the form of attachments to acquire some of the nitty-gritty skills and competencies in business since they do not exhibit them. This confirms (Shacklady: 1997) assertion that one must be willing to pick unpaid or voluntary work in his/her chosen field as work preparation activity.

6.3.Need For The Establishment Of Business Training Laboratories Industrialists’ desire for the establishment of Business Training Laboratories (Production Units) in schools to train art-based-graduates to develop adequate PBCs cannot be over emphasized. Out of the sixty respondents only one respondent declined to the idea of schools getting involved in establishing production units, however, the remaining fiftynine respondents (98%) responded YES to the idea. Their endorsement of the production unit system in training institutions were based on the following reasons, namely: for skill training, for business training and lastly for business gains (income generation). This implies that if schools organise effective productive activities as part of students learning enough income could be generated to offset some of the cost of education as proposed by Von Borstel (1982) as cited in Stern et al 1994.

7.Case Study With Students

7.1.Identification Of Market Demand For Fashion And Textiles The case study project (mini enterprises – production, marketing and sales) conducted with HND fashion and textiles students produced a number of outcomes that confirmed INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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the importance of SBEs as a platform for the acquisition of PBCs for the world of work. Through the projects, students were able to develop means of identifying market demand for goods and services within their catchment area. The outcome revealed five key concepts that can be used to determine what consumers want especially in the area of fashion and textiles. These were made-to-order goods/services; products in vogue; goods and services used during rites of passage (birth, adolescence, marriage and death/funerals); goods required in daily use and ritzy goods – expensive and fashionable products for celebrities, wealthy and influential persons in society.

7.2.Sources Of Raw Materials For Fashion And Textiles Production The study group also learnt to identify the sources of raw materials for production. To be competitive as done in any business venture respondents considered a number of factors before the procurement of raw materials for production purposes. The following factors considered before procurement of raw materials with their accompanying percentages were realized: quality of raw materials (100%); suitability of raw materials for intended product (100%); durability of raw materials (88%); ease of end use (78%); availability of raw materials for subsequent production (22%); meeting product specifications (55%) and pricing. In considering price of raw materials 78% of the study group opted for average prices, 22% high prices whilst none purchased any raw material because the price was low. From the above discussions it could be deduced that given the right coaching trainees could be trained to procure suitable raw materials at reasonably low prices for production purposes.

7.3.Means Of Ensuring Effective And Efficient Production Processes The study group admitted adopting various strategies to ensure effective and efficient production processes. On effectiveness some of the strategies employed included: Seeking assistance from experts to complete tasks (eg. sub-letting) Producing goods or rendering services to exact specifications to meet clients’ request Utilizing learned skills and competencies to execute jobs professionally By these strategies the study group confirmed achieving their intended targets. Efficiency has to do with achieving one’s intended results with minimal use of resources – time, money, energy etc (Sme Toolbox, Jica 2008). To ensure efficiency in the production processes members of the study group testified to employing strategies including; INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Managing time judiciously so that much work is accomplished within a short space of time. Being economical with the use of resources to avoid wastage Adopting a quick approach to work to achieve set targets in no time. Observing break sessions to recoup strength to be efficient on the job. Bargaining for discounts to cut cost of raw materials and services.

7.4.Impact Of Good Finishing And Packaging Of Fashion And Textiles On Sales And Marketing The study also revealed that the final finishing and packaging of products impart directly on pricing. This became evident when well finished goods were priced higher yet gained much patronage. Members of the study group also learnt a simple method of pricing their goods. The basic pricing formula used was cost of raw material(s) + cost of production + profit margin. When in doubt pricing was done on the high side as it is always easier to discount prices than to raise them. Respondents confirmed making different degrees of profit. Fifty-eight percent (58%) of the study group described their profits as average, 30% described their profits as minimal whilst 12% thought that they made significant profits. This demonstrates the potential benefits of school-based enterprises as viable means of generating enough revenue to offset the cost of education whilst offering opportunity for technical and business skills development for trainees as alluded to by Von Borstel (cited in Stern et al 1994). Available statistics indicate that the bits of profits together with some other activities at the business training laboratory generates approximately a third of the quantum of funds needed to run the department within a year. Through the activities of the unit and students projects a number of training facilities are procured to supplement what the institution provides; some of which include industrial sewing machinery and accessories, printing and waxing tables for textiles production. The study group mainly promoted and advertised their goods through word-of-mouth advertising. The resultant effect of this direct approach coupled with a concept of marketing adopted (knowing and understanding the customer so well that the product or service fits him and sells itself) greatly assisted the study group to sell their goods and render various services for profits.


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7.5.Handling Business Finances Handling business finances featured prominently in the study. Some basics that respondents testified gaining experiences in were opening and operating different bank accounts, the importance of issuing invoices, receipts, preparation of simple accounts, as well as cash handling. At the end of the exercises respondents testified to have learnt some important lessons. Among the key lessons imbibed included: The importance of economizing resources for the purpose of optimizing outputs The essence of time management especially in business The essence of good funds management and cash handling The benefits of quality production, finishing and packaging as well as rendering quality services to clients Ability to negotiate If these lessons can be learnt then it means that a lot of competency areas are left uncovered by the school system that planners and trainers must revisit. The school therefore does not exhaust the training of graduates if training is limited to intellectual training and technical skills acquisition while remaining silent on business related skills.

8.Conclusions And Recommendations A school environment which advocates education to be organized around productive labour holds a lot of promise for these times. The outcomes justify the 18th Century French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau’s assertion that there are pedagogical benefits of productive education. The research revealed that the current school system does not provide trainees in art-based programmes with Practical Business Competencies (PBCs). These PBCs it was noted are acquired on the job and therefore it becomes imperative for schools to establish business training laboratories (production units) for training purposes. The study revealed based on the case study that students are able to identify market demands, identify sources of raw materials and carry out effective and efficient production processes. In addition the training laboratory and project allowed for good finishing and packaging of goods, advertising, marketing and selling skills that guarantees profits. The profits made are significant enough to supplement the cost of students training. Moreover such initiatives allow for trainees to learn business money handling and financial management skills. The study is thus a brave attempt to investigate the observation by Carnoy (1980) that production skill alone does not conjure


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materials, the market or work. This assertion the research proved to be true and therefore needed the intervention proposed. It must be noted however that despite the numerous benefits of School-Based Enterprises it is confronted with a number of issues and may include: hiring qualified staff, recruiting students, excessive administrative interferences and bureaucratic bottlenecks especially in state owned educational institutions. Since SBEs is proven to provide sound justification for work oriented training the following recommendations are made to strengthen its operation. School activities must relate to work so that the school is not perceived as a separate entity from the world of work. The acquisition of Practical Business Skills must be part of the school curriculum and taught in schools and/or acquired during attachments. Training in art (which is vocational and technical in nature) must be made business focused since artworks ends up in the production of goods and services for public consumption. Art and business must co-exist to make it beneficial to trainees, training institutions and the nation as a whole.


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9.Reference 1.Carnoy, M. (1980). Vocation, Work and Employment II (p 237) Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. 2.JICA (2008). SME TOOLBOX: Total Know-how for Growing a Small Business in Ghana 3. Learning to Make a Living. (November 2009). The Japan Journal, Vol. 6, No. 7, pp 26-28 4. Stankiewicz, M.N. (1996). Questioning The School-to-Work Rhetoric. Studies in Art Education, A Journal of Issues and Research, 38 (1), pp. 50-54 5. Shacklady, D. (1997). The Kogan Page Guide to Working in the Arts Crafts and Design (2nd ed). London: The Kogan Page Limited 6. Stern, D., Stone J. III, Hopkins, C., McMillan, M., and Grain, R. (1994) School Based Enterprise: Productive Learning In American High Schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Role of co-Curricular Activities On Academic Performance Of Students: A Case Study In Some Secondary Schools Of Burdwan District In West Bengal,India Dr. Pankaj Kumar Paul PGT(Economics & Education),Badla High School, P.O.- Badla, Dt.- Burdwan, West Bengal, India Sunil Kumar Baskey PGT English & Education), Majigram Bisweswari High School,P.O.- Majigram,Dt.Burdwan, West Bengal, India Abstract: This study attempts to analyze the impact of co-curricular activities of some secondary level school students in Burdwan district of West Bengal. The study covers two hundred students both in urban and rural areas encompassing students consisting of boys’ and girls’. The whole students (N = 200) were divided into two equal groups: one is experimental and the other is control group. The pre-test and post-test scores were used to evaluate the impact of co-curricular activities on academic score of the students. The present study also covers one hundred teachers and schools’ authorities as well as guardians to find out the relationship between co-curricular activities and academic achievement of students. The results of ‘Chi-square’ test revealed that co-curricular activities have had a significant positive impact on academic level achievement of students. A binary logit regression model has been used to determine the extent of relationship between co-curricular activities and academic achievement of students. Moreover, students’-t test has also been used to examine the assumed hypothesis whether any variation among pre-test and post-test situations within boys’ and girls’ as well as urban and rural students exist or not. Finally, the result revealed that the students of experimental group showed better performance than the students of control group as a whole. Key words:Co-curricular activities, Academic performance, Chi-square test.


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1.Introduction A co-curricular activity is defined as a program or out-of-class activity, supervised and/or financed by the school, which provides curriculum-related learning and character building experiences. Co-curricular activities are voluntary, are not part of the regular school curriculum, are not graded and do not earn credits. In other words, "Co-curricular activities" means activities conducted on or off school premises by clubs, associations, and organizations of pupils sponsored by the Board of Education. "Co-curricular activities" also includes the pupil clubs, associations, and organizations that conduct those activities. It does not include athletic competitions or practices or athletic teams or organizations (Kochhar, 1990). Co-curricular activities (CCAs), previously known as Extracurricular Activities (ECA) are activities that educational organizations in some parts of the world create for school students. They are activities which all school students must attend alongside. Co-curricular activities may often believe extra activities for school students are a means to enhance social interaction, leadership, healthy recreation, self-discipline and self-confidence. At higher levels of education, CCA participation may even translate into academic points (Ahmad). Although several studies have been conducted to assess the impact of co-curricular activities for all round development of students ( Kumar et al, 2004; Broh, 2002; Darling et al, 2005; Marsh and Kleitman, 2002; Thompson and Austin, 2003; Mahoney et al, 2003; Bauer and Liang, 2003 etc.), however, no systematic effort has yet been made to look into the role of co-curricular activities on various dimensions of achievement of students in a comprehensive manner. This paper attempts to explore the impact of co-curricular activities in academic achievement of students and its associated linkages to personality development of children in the secondary schools of Burdwan district in West Bengal.

2.Objectives The objectives framed in this study are as followsTo enumerate the importance of co-curricular activities in school education. To assess the role of co-curricular activities on academic achievement of students. To find out the factors which are sole responsible for academic achievement among the school students through the active participation of co-curricular activities.

3.Hypotheses The hypotheses selected in our study areINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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3.1.Null Hypotheses The null hypotheses are the following Is there any significant association between co-curricular activities and academic achievement among students? There is no significant variation between the academic score of the students involved in co-curricular activities as compared to those who did not take part in co-curricular activities for boys. There is no significant variation between the academic score of the students involved in co-curricular activities as compared to those who did not take part in co-curricular activities for girls. There is no significant variation between the academic score of the students involved in co-curricular activities as compared to those who did not take part in co-curricular activities for urban students. There is no significant variation between the academic score of the students involved in co-curricular activities as compared to those who did not take part in co-curricular activities for rural students.

3.2.Alternative Hypotheses The alternative hypotheses are – There is significant association between education and secularism among students. There is significant difference between the academic score of the students involved in co-curricular activities as compared to those who did not take part in co-curricular activities for boys. There is significant difference between the academic score of the students involved in co-curricular activities as compared to those who did not take part in co-curricular activities for girls. There is significant difference between the academic score of the students involved in co-curricular activities compared to those who did not take part in co-curricular activities for urban students. There is significant difference between the academic score of the students involved in co-curricular activities compared to those who do not take part in co-curricular activities for rural students.


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4.Data Source And Methodology The study is mainly experimental in nature. The primary data has been collected during 2011-2012 from 200 Secondary school students and 100 teachers, guardians and schools’ authorities both in urban as well as in rural areas in Burdwan district in West Bengal. By dividing the whole students into two specific groups (experimental and control) academic scores of the students (both at the pre-test and post-test situations) have been collected. The following factors have been selected to analyze the effect of co-curricular activities on academic performance of students (Rasid et al, 2005): Exercise Creativity Self-expression Appreciative activities Social administration A binary logit model has been used in order to analyze the effect of the above selected factors on academic achievement of the students. Moreover, students’t- test has been used to examine the selected hypotheses (Kumar et al, 2004).

5.Results & Observations

5.1.Co-Curricular Activities And Academic Performance Of Students:A Non-Parametric Analysis The present study has attempted to make an assessment of perceptions of the guardians of students, teachers and school authorities about the role of school’s co-curricular activities on academic achievement of students of the secondary level school’s students in terms of non-parametric ‘Chi-square’ analysis. The opinions of the respondents collected from the field survey can be expressed in the following table (vide table- 1). Respondents

Yes

Uncertain

No

Total

Guardians

30

15

05

50

Authorities

35

05

10

50

Total

65

20

15

100

Teachers and

Table 1: Opinions Of Different Respondents Selected For The Study Source: Field Survey, 2011-12


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The calculated value and the observed value of ‘Chi-square’ are shown in the table below (vide table 2).

Variables compared Cocurricular activities and Academic achievement of students

Calculated value (χ2)

Critical value (5% level)

Critical value (1% level)

9.21 7.04

Remark

Degrees of freedom

5%

1%

Significant Insignificant (P< 0.05) (P>0.01)

5.99 2 Table 2: Testing Of The Hypothesis Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12

It should be noted (Vide table- 2) that the observed value of Chi-square (χ2) i.e., 7.04 is less than the critical value at 1 % of significance (i.e., χ2.01, d.f. 2 = 9.210 for degrees of freedom 2 but more than the value at 5 % level of significance, therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted at 5 % level of significance. So, we can conclude that there exists significant association between school’s co-curricular activities and academic performance among the students (Darling et al, 2005; Broh, 2002).

5.2.Co-Curricular Activities And Academic Performance Of Students: An Analysis Of Binary Logit Regression The term co-curricular activity is a multi-dimensional analysis. This depends on the availability of various kinds of school’s infrastructural facilities as well as home atmosphere of the students. Since the ideal environment of learning depends on both mental and physical development of the students. For the sake of simplicity, we have selected a set of indicators (as indicated in our methodological portion) influencing the academic achievement of students. Now an attempt has been made to explain the determinants of the academic achievement among students through co-curricular activities on the basis of a set of selected variables by a binary logit model.


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AAS = C0 +C1*E + C2* C + C3*SE + C4*AA +C5*SA Std. Variable

Coefficient

Error

Z-Stat

Prob.

C

-9.321456

2.324651 5.145872

0.0000

Exercise

0.002514

0.002175 4.254136

0.0000

Creativity

3.215436

1.532451 5.274168

0.0000

Self-expression

4.315487

0.458631 6.345617

0.0000

6.234579

1.258745 5.145892

0.0000

1.254816

0.546129 0.487562

0.6152

var

0.325461

SD dependent var

0.854632

S.E. of regression

0.584761

Akaike info criterion

0.546128

Sum squared resid

11.124758

Schwarz criterion

0.253614

Log Likelihood

-52.25461

Hannan-Quinn criter

0.187654

-324.2413

Avg. log likelihood

-0.065123

Appreciative activities Social administration Mean dependent

Restr. Log liklelihood

McFaddenRLR statistic(5df)

489.3546

squared

0.324156

0.00000

-

-

Probability (LR stat)

Table 3: Logit Analysis Describing Role Of School’s Co-Curricular Activities On Academic Achievement Of Students Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12 Dependent Variable = Academic Achievement Of Students Total Number Of Observations = 100 Note: AAS = Academic Achievement Of Students; E = Exercise; C = Creativity; SE = Self Expression; AA = Appreciative Activities; SA = Social Administration It is evident from the results (Vide table 3) that all the factors (e.g., exercise; creativity, self expression, appreciative activities, social administration) have been found to be positively associated with the academic achievement among the students. But it is INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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interesting to note that the probabilities of all the factors except social administration by the students have been found to be highly significant. Although the coefficient of the explanatory variable i.e., ‘social administration of students’ suffers from the problem of insignificancy. This suggest one important view that in order to enhance the better academic achievement through co-curricular activities among students, proper control by the school and home must be ensured (Thomson and Austin, 2003).

5.3.Co-Curricular Activity And Academic Achievement Of Students: An Analysis In PreTest And Post-Test Situations The effect of co-curricular activity on academic performance of students have been experimented at the pre-test scores (i.e.’ group of students who did not take part in cocurricular activities) and post-test scores (i.e., group of students who did take part in cocurricular activities).

5.3.1.Pre-Test Situation The estimated t-test results including calculated mean and standard deviation (S.D.) of boys’, girls’ and rural as well as urban students at the pre-test situations are shown in terms of table- 4,5,6,7.

Group

Sample(N)

Mean

S.D.

t

Prob.

df

Experimental

50

33.79

8.13

1.84

P> 0.05

98

Control

50

32.82

8.91

Table 4:Comparison Of Mean Scores Of Boys’ Students On Experimental And Control Groups At Pre-Test Situation Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12 Group

Sample(N)

Mean

S.D.

Experimental

50

34.25

8.52

Control

50

31.46

8.72

t

Prob.

df

P> 0.05

98

1.79

Table 5:Comparison Of Mean Scores Of Girls’ Students On Experimental And Control Groups At Pre-Test Situation Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12


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Group

Sample(N)

Mean

S.D.

t

Prob.

df

Experimental

50

34.21

8.35

1.74

P> 0.05

98

Control

50

33.93

8.71

Table 6: Comparison Of Mean Scores Of Urban Students On Experimental And Control Groups At Pre-Test Situation Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12 Group

Sample(N)

Mean

S.D.

t

Prob.

df

Experimental

50

34.54

8.14

1.66

P> 0.05

98

Control

50

32.19

9.11

Table 7: Comparison Of Mean Scores Of Rural Students On Experimental And Control Groups At Pre-Test situation Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12 The results indicated that the calculated values of t are less than the tabulated values at 5 % level of significance and there is slight variation of mean and S.D. This means that the null hypotheses are accepted indicating that there is no significant variation between the academic score of the students between the control groups (i.e., groups not involved in co-curricular activities) and experimental groups (i.e., involved in co-curricular activities) for boys’, girls’ and urban as well as rural students (Mohoney et al, 2003).

5.3.2.Post-Test Situation The estimated values of t, mean and S.D. of the experimental and control groups of students are shown in the following table (vide table- 8, 9, 10, 11). The calculated values of sample mean and S.D. showed significant variation which means that co-curricular activities act as an conducive factor for better academic scores of the students. Group

Sample(N)

Mean

S.D.

t

Prob.

df

Experimental

50

57.32

13.57

3.93

P< 0.05

98

Control

50

45.21

14.29

Table 8: Comparison of mean scores of boys’ students on experimental and control groups at post-test situation Source: Authors’ calculation based on field survey, 2011-12


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Group

Sample(N)

Mean

S.D.

t

Prob.

df

Experimental

50

57.10

13.15

3.56

P< 0.05

98

Control

50

43.25

14.12

Table 9: Comparison Of Mean Scores Of Girls’ Students On Experimental And Control Groups At Post-Test Situation Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12

Group

Sample(N)

Mean

S.D.

Experimental

50

56.34

12.69

Control

50

44.37

13.24

t

Prob.

df

P< 0.05

98

3.12

Table 10: Comparison Of Mean Scores Of Urban Students On Experimental And Control Groups At Post-Test Situation Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12

Group

Sample(N)

Mean

S.D.

Experimental

50

55.13

12.14

Control

50

42.57

13.20

t

Prob.

df

P< 0.05

98

3.05

Table 11: Comparison Of Mean Scores Of Rural Students On Experimental And Control Groups At Post-Test Situation Source: Authors’ Calculation Based On Field Survey, 2011-12 Again the critical values of t in all the cases are greater than the tabulated values at 5 % level of significance with significant variation of mean and S.D. Therefore, we can conclude that the performance of the experimental groups of boys’, girls’ and urban, rural students are significantly better than the control groups at the post-test situations (Marsh and Kleitman, 2002; Bauer and Liang).

6.Conclusion This paper highlights the role of factors affecting extent of academic achievement of secondary level school students of Burdwan district in the state of West Bengal. The result revealed a significant positive association between co-curricular activities and academic achievement of students. The results further indicated that there has been significant positive influence of co-curricular activities of students in experimental groups as compared to students of control groups by considering pre-test and post-test


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scores. Finally, it is concluded that co-curricular activities should be organized in a school in such a way so that each student participates, contributes his maximum and prepares himself for becoming a good citizen of the society (Aggarwal, 1994).


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www.ijird.com 7.Reference 1. Aggarwal,

J.C.

November, 2012 (1994).

Educational

Administration,

Vol 1 Issue 9 Management

and

Supervision, Principles and Practu'ces, New Delhi. 2. Bauer, K. W. and Liang, Q. (2003). The Effect Of Personality And Pre-college Characteristics On First Year Activities And Academic Performance. Journal of College Student Development, 44, 277-290 3. Broh, B. A. (2002). Linking extracurricular programming to academic achievement: Who benefits and why? Sociology of Education, 75, 69-96. 4. Darling, N., Caldwell, L. L., & Smith, R. (2005). Participation in school-based Extra- curricular activities and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Leisure Research, 37, 51-77. 5. Kochhar S.K. (1990): Secondary School Administration, Jullundhar University Publishers. 6. Kumar, A. (2004) Status of Co-Curricular and Extra-Curricular Activities in Primary Schools of Nepal: Problems and Prospects, Research Centre for Educational Innovation and Development Tribhuvan University Balkhu, Kathmandu, Nepal. 7. Marsh, H. W., and Kleitman. S.(2002). Extracurricular School Activities: The Good, the Bad, and the Nonlinear. Harvard Educational Review 72 (4):464-511. 8. Mohaney, J. L., Cairos, B.D., Farwer, T.W (2003). Promoting Interpersonal Competencies and Educational Success through Extra-Curricular Activity Participation, Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 409-418 9. Rashid, A.S and Sasidhar, B. (2005) Teachers’ perception on the effectiveness of Co curricular Activities: a Case Study of Malaysian Schools. Unitar-eJournal.1,No.1,32-44 10. Sarfraz, Ahmad, Scholar (Blog) 11. Thompson, F. T., and Austin, W. P. (Eds), (2003). Television viewing and academic achievement revisited, Electronic version. Education, 124, 194-202


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

The Influence Of Sources Of Information On Adoption Of Rice Production Technologies By Farmers In Borno State,Nigeria Ibrahim, A.A. Department of Agricultural Extension Services, University of, Maiduguri, Nigeria Ani, A.O. Department of Agricultural Extension Services, University of, Maiduguri, Nigeria Mustapha, S.B. Department of Agricultural Extension Services, University of, Maiduguri, Nigeria Abstract: The study analysed the influence of sources of information on adoption of rice production technologies in Borno State, Nigeria. Stratified random sampling method was used to select 534 respondents representing upland, lowland and Fadama rice farmers in the study area. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The descriptive tools include; frequencies, percentages, Means, and standard deviation. Inferential statistics such as multiple correlation analysis was used to show the degree of relationship between variables. The result indicated that most (40.4%) of the respondents had agricultural extension agents as their main sources of improved rice production technology. This was followed by radio and television, (29%) as the respondents’ sources of information on improved rice production technologies. Respondents who were aware of the rice technologies but did not try constitutes a mean of 13% and standard deviation of 3, while respondents that were aware of rice technology and tried it had a mean of 47% with standard deviation of 5.9. The study revealed that 45.3% of the respondents had adoption score of 4.50 and classified as medium adopters. Multiple correlation analysis showed that there was significant relationship between some of the information sources used by the respondents and adoption of rice production technologies promoted by Borno State Agricultural Development Programme. The study recommends that extension agencies should be strengthened in their efforts to create more awareness among farmers on the need to adopt the entire rice production technology package for maximum benefit. Keywords: Adoption, Influence, Information, Rice production technologies, Nigeria.


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1.Introduction Rice (Oryza sativa) is a cereal which has become a staple food of considerable strategic importance in many rapidly growing African cities, where its consumption among urban and rural poor households has increased considerably (WARDA, 2003). Rice is the second most important cereals in the world after wheat in terms of production (Jones, 1995).Nigeria ranks the highest as both producer and consumer of rice in the West Africa Sub-region (Umar, Ndanisa, and Olaleye,2009). However, in terms of area of land under food crop production in the Country, rice ranks sixth (after sorghum, millet, cowpea, cassava and yam) (Imolehin and Wada, 2000.) The average annual Rice production in Nigeria is dominated by small holder farmers who cultivate small hectares of land using traditional methods of farming; yields are low and hence the wide gap of demand and supply.

order to increase rice production in the country, the federal government of

Nigeria has designed policies and programs aimed at boosting domestic production to meet domestic demand since 1989 (Jirgi, Abdulrahman, Ibrahim,2009). These include amongst others, the Fadama Rice Programme, the Japanese Assisted National Rice Production Project as well as the River Basin Development Rice Programme (Chinaka, Ogbokiri, and Chinaka, 2007). Various Research institutes have been established in the country in order to boost rice production, some of which are the National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, and National Seed Service (NSS).Some of the improved rice varieties developed by National Cereal Research Institute Badeggi in conjunction with International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan and West African Rice Development Association (WARDA) are FARO 44, FARO 45, FARO 46, FARO 47, FARO 48, FARO 50, FARO 51 and FARO 55 (Jirgi, Abdulrahman, Ibrahim,2009). The Borno State Agricultural Development Programme has varieties of rice; ITA 212and ITA 257, Exchaina, Faro -37 and Faro-38 BU 90/2 and DA 29 and Faro – 14 and Faro - 27, with recommended production technologies, which were disseminated to farmers with a view to increasing rice production in the State.The developments of these improved rice varieties are aimed at increasing food production as well as to alleviate poverty. Despite all the efforts made by the government and research institutes, rice production still remains very low. Research has shown that farmers have not adequately adopted improved rice varieties but rather they still depend largely on the local varieties which give low yield and thus low productivity.


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Researches have been carried out on the adoption of rice production technologies in Nigeria (Imolehin and Wada, 2000; Umar, Ndanisa, and Olaleye, 2009).However, there has not been any study on the influence of sources of information on adoption of rice production technologies implied in Borno State, Nigeria. Therefore, this study was undertaken to fill this gap of scientific knowledge in the study area.

2.Objectives Of The Study The main objective of the study was to analyse the influence of sources of information on adoption of rice production technologies in Borno State, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to: identify the sources of information on rice production technologies by respondents; assess farmers’ awareness of rice production technologies in the study area; assess farmers’ level of adoption of rice production technologies in the study area; and determine the influence of selected farm information sources on adoption of rice production technologies in the study area.

3.Methodology

3.1.The Study Area The study was carried out in Borno State which lies between longitudes 11o05 and 11o451 and latitudes 09o10 and 14 o20 (BOSADP, 2003). The state has the largest land mass among the states in the Federation. It is bordered internationally by Cameroon to the East, Niger to the North and Chad to the Northeast. Borno state shares internal borders with Adamawa State to the South, Bauchi to the Southeast and Yobe to the West (Daura, 2001). According to the National Population Commission (2006), the State has a population of 4, 151, 193 million people with an annual growth rate of about 3.2 percent. The state has a mean annual rainfall of 250mm in the extreme North and a maximum of 1000mm in the South. The State has a tropical climate marked by alternating dry and rainy seasons, and the average temperature is 38.6 o C (BOSADP, 2003).

3.2.Sampling Procedure And Sample Size Sampling for administering questionnaires was done using the three Agricultural zones. Thus, three (3) Local Government Areas (LGAs) were randomly selected from each of INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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the three zones giving a total of nine (9) LGAs namely; Dikwa, Marte, Mobbar, Jere, Konduga, Bama, Bayo, Askira-Uba and Shani for the study. Three (3) rice producing villages were randomly selected from each of the nine (9) LGAs, bringing a total of 27 villages from all the three zones. A stratified random sampling method was used to select the upland, lowland and Fadama rice farmers in the study area. Due to the heterogonous nature of the rice producing farmers in the state, the respondents were divided into three stratified into three subgroups. The first stratum (sub-group) consists of farmers whose activity was primarily upland rice farming, the second stratum (sub-group) consists of producers from lowland areas and the third stratum (sub-group) was the Fadama rice farmers. The BOSADP provided the sampling frame for the proportionate selection of the respondents in each stratum bringing a total of 534 rice farmers used in the study.

3.3.Data Analysis Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The descriptive tools include; frequencies (f), percentages (%), Means (), and standard deviation (sd). Inferential statistics such as multiple correlation analysis were used to show the degree of relationship between variables.


4.1.Sources Of Information On Improved Rice Production Technology By Respondents Information is important in the adoption of improved farm practice among farmers, because it has the primary role of making farmers to be aware of existing farm technology, develop their interest, enable them to evaluate the technology and try the existing technology so that they can take final decision to adopt such technology. In this study, the respondents were asked to indicate their sources of information on improved rice production technologies. The respondents’ sources of information are presented in Table 1.


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Sources of Information

Frequency (F)

Radio and Television

155

Percentage (%) 29.0

Agricultural Extension Agents

216

40.4

Relatives and Neighbors

41

7.7

Research Institutes

20

3.7

Cooperative union and salesmen

73

13.7

Radio/TV and Agricultural Extension agents Relatives/Neighbors and Research Institutes No Response

26

4.9

1

0.2

2

0.4

Total

534

100

Table 1: Distribution Of Respondents By Major Sources Of Information Sources; Field Survey, 2006 Table 1 show that 40.4% of the respondents opined that agricultural extension agents were their main sources of improved rice production technology. This was followed by radio and television, (29%) as the respondents’ sources of information on improved rice production technologies. About 14% of the respondents indicated that cooperative union and salesmen were their sources of information on improved rice production technology. Only 7.7% of the respondents claimed to have received their information on rice production technology from their relatives and neighbors. About 4% of the respondents received their information on rice production directly from Research Institutes. Evidence from this finding was that 40.4% of the respondents opined that extension agents were their main source of information on improved rice production technologies suggesting that BOSADP staff were instrumental to the delivering of recommended rice production technologies. This study supports the findings of Bzugu, (2002), who reported that the introduction of recommended rice production technology was released to farmers through the ADP nation-wide for several years. Rice farmers reaction in Table 1 were in agreement with that of Iheanacho, (2006) who affirmed that combination of sources of information could be used by extension agents in order to produce the desired result of distributing useful farm information to farmers. Rice farmers’ sources of information on rice production technologies vary. Tologbonse, Alabi and Tergama, (2005) was of the view that inadequate sources of information on adoption of recommended rice INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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production technology, constitutes one of the major problems of the World Bank who sponsored Research/Extension farmer’s linkage and delivery system in Nigeria and SubSahara Africa.

4.2.Awareness Of Rie Production Technologies By Respondents The rice farmer’s opinion on their level of awareness of rice production technologies are presented in Table 2.Adoption of rice production technology could not be a snap process but farmers undergo series of decision before finally adopting or rejecting specific rice production technology. Therefore, adoption starts with level of awareness, interest, desire, evaluation, trial and finally adoption/rejection. Rice Technologies

NR %

NA %

ATDT %

ATT %

PIPPV %

Seed variety

12.7

15.5

9.7

50.6

85.0

Seed selection Land preparation Planting depth Plant spacing Method of weed control

7.7 10.3 7.1 10.3 7.1

16.3 16.1 17.8 15.5 20.2

9.2 10.1 9.7 9.9 12.0

50.7 52.1 51.1 53.6 49.8

85.0 86.7 85.0 50.1 80.6

Fertilizer application

8.2

16.7

12.4

47.4

78.3

Pesticide application Disease control

6.7 7.3

18.9 20.4

14.8 19.1

45.1 42.9

75.0 69.2

Irrigation system Water management Tube – wells

6.7 8.6 8.4

21.3 22.3 22.3

12.7 19.9 14.6

46.4 35.8 38.8

78.5 64.3 72.6

Modern harvesting

12.0

16.7

11.6

57.2

80.3

Total (N) Means () Standard Deviation (SD)

230 8.4 2.0

240 18.5 2.6

165.7 13 3

621.5 47 5.9

70.2 50.1 85.0

Table 2:Distribution Of Respondents By Awareness Of Rice Production Technologies Source: Field Survey, 2006 NR = No response from the respondents; NA = Not aware of the rice technology; ATDT = Aware of the rice technology and not tried; ATT = Aware of technology and tried it; PIPPV = Performance Index Proportionate Percentage (%) Value.


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Table 2 shows that 18.5% of the respondents with a standard deviation of 2.6 were not aware of the rice technology. Respondents who were aware of the rice technologies but did not try constitutes a mean of 13% and standard deviation of 3, while respondents that were aware of rice technology and tried it had a mean of 47% with standard deviation of 5.9. Those respondents that could not respond on the level of awareness of rice technologies had a mean of 8.4% with standard deviation of 2.0. It is evident that rice farmers who were aware of the rice technologies and tried (47%) were more than those that did not try it (13%). The performance Index Model (PIM) has provided quantitative information for the analyses on the levels of achievement of the technology transferred and was proportionate to individual rice farmers in the study area. The performance Index Proportionate Value from respondents shows 50.1 mean respondents with standard deviation of 5.9% rated that all the rice production technologies were disseminated to them through BOSADP activities.Usually, technologies were generated from research centers and can only be useful when farmers have access to them. This brings challenge to the work of extension agents. However, BOSADP according to respondents had succeeded in the transfer of rice technologies to more than 50% of the targeted rice farmers in the study area. This result supports the findings expressed by Bzugu (2002), that flow of knowledge was one-way, from researchers via extension workers to farmers.

4.3.Level Of Adoption Of Rice Technologies By Respondents Table 3 shows the adoption score and level on rice production technologies promoted by BOSADP which were considered for the purpose of classifying respondents into their respective adoption level. Availability of suitable arable land and technologies for rice production are pre-requisite for rapid agricultural development. The issue of agricultural technology adoption by rice farmers had generated an increasing interest in the face of national economy worldwide, this is because the decision to adopt or reject rice production technologies are basically related to various levels of stages within the farmer himself, however in this study area rice farmers’ opinion on the stages of their adoption levels of rice technologies were presented in Table 3.


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Rice production Technologies

No.of Adopters

% of Adopters

Adoption Score

Adoption Level

Seed selection

332H

62.2

5.01

High

Planting depth

301H

56.0

4.85

High

Plant spacing Pesticide application

H

299 291H

56.0 54.4

4.85 4.79

High High

Seed variety

287H

53.7

4.76

High

Land preparation

282H

52.8

4.74

High

Herbicide application

278

H

52.1

4.71

High

Fertilizer application

261H

48.9

4.61

High

Use of combined harvester Tube well

258H

48.3

4.60

High

242M

45.3

4.50

Medium

Modern Storage system Water management

241M

45.1

4.49

Medium

222 L

41.6

4.37

Low

Irrigation system

38 L

7.10

2.38

Low

Adoption Score

58.64

Total

Mean Score Values 4.51 Table 3: Distribution Of Adoption Score And Level Of Rice Production Technologies By Respondents Computed From Field Survey; 2010 High = H, Medium = M, Level = L Table 3 indicates that majority (62.2%) of the respondents adopted seed selection and has adoption score of 5.0. This means that majority (60.2%) of the respondents who adopted seed selection were classified as high adopters. This was followed by those respondents (56.4%) who adopted planting depth had 4.85 adoptions score and classified as high adopters. Respondents (56.0%) who adopted plant spacing and whose adoption score were 4.83 were classified as high adopters. Those respondents (54.4%) who adopted pesticide application for the control of rice pest had adoption score of 4.78 and were also considered as high adopters. Those respondents who adopted seed varieties had adoption score of 4.7 and were classified as high adopters too. It is a common INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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knowledge that various types of weed were associated with rice crops and herbicide application with the adoption score of 4.71 which were classified as high adopters. This was followed by those respondents (48.9%) that adopted fertilizer applications had adoption score of 4.61 and are classified as high adopters. Respondents (48.3%) had adopted combined harvesters as their rice production technologies with adoption score of 4.60 which was regarded as high adopters. It is evident from these findings that 45.3% of the respondents had adoption score of 4.50 classified as medium adopters and 45.1% of the respondents adopted modern storage system with 4.49 adoption score was also regarded as medium adopters.Similarly, 41.60% of the respondents had adopted modern water management system with the adoption score of 4.37 considered as low adopters. Only 7.10% of the respondents had adopted modern irrigation system with adoption score of 2.38 who were classified as low adopters. Generally, nine out of the 13 rice production technologies promoted by BOSADP had been classified under high adopters while two of the rice technologies were considered as medium adopters. The rest (2) of the technologies promoted by BOSADP fall under low adopters suggesting that respondents rated BOSADP performance high in terms of technology transfer.

4.4.Influence Of Information On Adoption Of Rice Production Technologies By Respondents Multiple correlation analysis shows the relationship between

selected information

sources used by the respondents and adoption of rice production technologies(Table 4).The result showed that out of the thirteen rice production technologies promoted by BOSADP, extension contacts did not contribute as a source of information towards adoption of pesticide application. This means that extension contact was not perceived as a source of information of the respondents. This could be due to the fact that extension agents had contact with the respondents, but did not disseminate information on pesticides application. Newspapers and magazines were not contributory factors as major information source on the adoption of rice disease control. The reason might not be unconnected with the low level of literary in addition to the high cost of newspapers and magazines on the part of the respondents. The lower the literacy level coupled with to high cost of newspapers and magazines, the lesser the perception of the selected sources of farm information used by the respondents. This could be as a result of the fact that extension contact was second to radio and television as the major information sources for INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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rice farming activities. The result of the finding shows that modern storage facilities, diseases control, irrigation system, water management, and tube wells were not significantly related to radio and television as the major source of information of rice production technologies by the respondents. Technology/practice

Extension contact (r-value)

Newspapers & Magazine (r-value)

Radio& television (r-value)

Planting depth

0.282**

0.101*

0.091**

Planting spacing

0.178**

0.114**

0.183**

Herbicides application

0.143**

0.099**

0.148**

fertilizer application

0.177**

0.197*

0.134**

application of pesticides

0.206**

0137**

0.137

Use of modern harvesters Modern storage facilities Diseases control

0.290**

0.107**

0.088**

0.279**

0.253**

0.040

0.277**

0.065

0.007

Irrigation system

0.305**

0.112**

0.073

Water management

0.240**

0.211**

0.043

Tube –well Wash borehole

0.265** 0.260**

0.199** 0.114**

0.038 0.108

Affordability of rice varieties

0.175**

0.367**

0.398*

Pesticides

0.045

0.328**

0.312**

Table 4: Relationship Between Selected Information Sources And Adoption Of Rice Production Technologies By Respondents Source:Computed From Field Survey, 2010 ** Significant At 5% Level * Significant At 10% Level


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5.Conclusion The study revealed that most of the respondents had extension agents as their main sources of information on rice production technology. The Performance Index Proportionate Value (PIPV) indicated that all the rice production technologies were disseminated through Borno State Agricultural Development Programme (BOSADP) activities in the study area. The study also indicated that majority of the respondents adopted seed selection and was classified as high adopters. Results of the relationship between selected information sources and adoption of rice production technologies revealed that extension agents did not contribute as a source of information towards adoption of pesticides application. Newspapers and magazines were not contributory factors as major information source on the adoption of rice disease control. The result of the finding shows that modern storage facilities, diseases control, irrigation system, water management, and tube wells were not significantly related to radio and television as the major source of information of the option of rice production technologies by the respondents.

6.Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made: 

Extension agencies should be geared up in their efforts to create more awareness among farmers on the need to adopt the entire rice production technology package for maximum benefit.



Radio and television should be used to create enhanced awareness and consequently among farmers on rice production technology in the study area.



Farmers should form rice farmers’ cooperative societies to take advantage of governments and non-governmental organizations on input delivery and other programmes in the study area.


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7.Reference 1. BOSADP

(2003).

Borno

State

Agricultural

Development

programme

(BOSADP). Annual Report, Bomo State of Nigeria. 2. Bzugu, P. M. (2002): Factors Influencing Adoption of Farm Technological Innovations among Cereal Crop Farmers in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, University of Maiduguri,

Nigeria.

3. Chinaka, C.C, Ogbokiri, L. C. and Chinaka E. C. (2007). Adoption of Improved AgriculturalTechnologies by Farmers in Aba Agricultural Zone of Abia State. Proceedings of the 41st conference of the Agricultural Society of Nigeria, IAR/ABU Zaria, Nigeria. Pp. 531-534. 4. Daura, M.M. (2001). The physical environment and development: A study of Borno region in environment and development issues in Sub – Sahara Africa. Seminar Series, vol.1. Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria, PP34 – 47. 5. Idiong, I. C. (2005):Evaluation of Technical, Allocative and Economic Efficiencies in Rice Production in Cross Rivers State. Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation Presented To The Department of Agricultural Economics, Michael Okpara University of Technology, Umudike, Nigeria. 6. Iheancho, A. C. (2006): Economics of Millet Production Under Different Cropping Systems in Borno State of Nigeria, Unpublished Ph.DThesis submitted to the Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology. A.B.U. Zaria 7. Imolehin, E. D. and Wada, A. C.(2000). Meeting Rice Production and Consumption Demand of Nigeria with improved Technologies, International Rice Commission Newsletters: Vol.49 FAO , Rome 8. Jirgi,A,J., Abdulrahman, M. Ibrahim, F.D.(2009):Adoption of Improved Rice Varieties among Small-Scale Farmers in Katcha Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, Vol. 13(1) pp95-101. 9. Jones, M. P. (1995). The Rice Plant and its Environment: West African Rice Development Association Training Guide 2. Pp 1-6 10. National Population Commission (2006): National Planning Commission, Federal Office of Statistics, Abuja Nigeria.


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11. Tologbonse, E. B; Alabi M. O. and Tergama, A. (2005); Adoption of Recommended Crop Protection Practices by Sesame Farmers in Benue State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, Vol.8 Pp 106. 12. Umar,S..,Ndanisa,M.A. and Olaleye,S.R.(2009): Adoption of Improved Rice Production Technologies Youth

Farmers in Gbako Local Government Area

Niger State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, Vol. 13(1), pp1-8. 13. West African Rice Development Association (WARDA). (2003): Rice Trends in Sub-Saharan African: A Synthesis of Statistics on Rice Production, Trade and Consumption, UK, Sayce Publishing, Pp. 1-22.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Socio Economic Factors Influencing Adoption Of Improved Gum Arabic Seedlings Among Farmers In The Sahelian Zone Of Borno State, Nigeria Bzugu, P.M Department of Agricultural Extension Services, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria Mustapha, S.B Department of Agricultural Extension Services, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria Adeogun, F.A. Department of Forestry and Wild Life, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria

Abstract: The study analysed the socio economic factors influencing adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings among farmers in the sahelian zone of Borno State, Nigeria. The data for the study were mainly generated from farming households through the use of structured and pre-tested interview schedules. Multi-stage, purposive and random sampling techniques were employed to select 321 representative farming households that were used for this study. Both descriptive (frequencies, means and percentages) and inferential (logit regression) statistics were used to analyse the data collected for this study. The result showed that most (49.20%) of the respondents had farmer cooperatives as their source of gum Arabic seedlings in the study area. This is closely followed by fellow farmers representing 40.18% of the respondents in the study area. The logit regression analysis indicated that the socio-economic characteristics which had significant influence (P≤0.10) on the adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings by farmers include; marital status and household size. The study recommends that awareness creation should be mounted through extension education approach to enlighten the public on the skills, knowledge, techniques and benefits of the adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings in the study area. Farmers in the study area should also be encouraged to form gum Arabic agroforestry cooperatives in order to enable them to take advantage of government and non-governmental programmes, such as provision of credit facilities and technologies etc. Key words: Adoption, Factors, Farmers, Gum Arabic seedlings, Nigeria INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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1.Introduction Gum Arabic (Acacia species) is the exudates obtained from the various species of the genus Acacia. There are about 1100 spp distributed over tropical and sub-tropical areas of Africa, India, Australia and America. However, only Acacia senegal (grade 1) and Acacia seyal (grade 2) yield gum of economic significance (Odo and Oleghe, 1998). The optimum conditions for the growth and performance of the plant are excessive heat, high elevation and sandy soil with scarcity of moisture (Sagay, Igboanugo, Imarhiagbe, and Mesike, 2007). Production of gum arabic in Nigeria is largely from the wild except in Borno, Jigawa and Yobe State where plantations of several hectares were established. Gum arabic production is exclusively from gum bearing trees and local producers are typically peasant farmers picking gum exudates as a secondary or complementary source of revenue (Sagay, Igboanugo, Imarhiagbe, and Mesike, 2007). They also reported that picking of gum exudates is a source of revenue in rural areas and gum Arabic tree indirectly contributes to the improvement of the environment in areas threatened by desertification. Production of gum arabic in Nigeria is largely from the wild (Odo and Oleghe, 1998). However, many efforts are made in the gum arabic growing states in the country to establish gum Arabic plantation on a large scale. Natural gums and resins are among dry land resources in Sub-Saharan Africa that contribute to improved livelihoods of local communities in terms of food security, income generation and foreign exchange earnings. These resources also contribute to the amelioration of the environment. (Odo and Oleghe, 1998).Plant gums from trees are of two types: exudates (ooze from the tree/shrub as a result of injury) and seed gums (isolated from the endosperm portion of some seeds). Exudate gums are the main forms produced in Africa. Gum Arabic, a dried exudates obtained from the stems and branches of Acacia senegal or A. seyal. The two species are native to the hot and dry regions of Africa (FAO, 2007).The use of gum arabic has been widely reported in industrial application (food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, textiles). The Acacia trees are also Nitrogen - fixing and hence improve soil fertility. Other uses include provision of pods for livestock feed, shelter belt planting to control desertification and provision of timber. It is an important revenue earner for the country and employer of labour for rural people who are engaged in production and gum collection. Chikamai, Casadei, Coppen, Abdel, Cesareo,(1996) reported that g ums provide both social and economic benefits to rural populations at the subsistence level. The social benefits are reflected in the many INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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local uses they offer to the communities: the use of gum arabic as a food by children or herdsmen in the bush; myrrh as ink in some schools or burnt in houses to repel snakes or dangerous insects; chewing of frankincense as a gum and burning as incense among local populations. Gum collection is carried out as parts of livelihood strategies at household level, e.g. to secure provision of food and other essential subsistence goods and social security (Giroh, Wuranti, Abubakar, and Ogwuche, 2005).Gum arabic are widely cultivated in the Sudano- Sahelian zone of Nigeria covering about 250,000 sq km in the entire Sahelian region spreading across twelve states namely Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe, Adamawa, Zamfara and Taraba. Bello, (1998) reported that 7 out of the 19 species of gum arabic reported in Nigeria were found in the northern Guinea and Sudan savanna areas of Adamawa State. The rainfall regime of these zones ranged from 900 – 1100 mm and 700 – 900 mm per annum with rainfall duration of 4- 5 and 3- 4months respectively. Gum arabic production in Nigeria has been low arising from lack of capital to boost production, use of improved planting materials amongst other factors. To harness the current potentials for gum arabic production and export, its production must be improved. Production must shift from the traditional form to the use of cultivation in organized plantation with intercrop based combination for maximum economic benefit. Considering the importance of improved gum arabic seedlings, the study was aimed at analysing the influence of socio economic characteristics

respondents on adoption of improved

gum arabic seedlings in the

Sahelian zone of Bomo State, Nigeria .In Nigeria, the greatest problem facing human existence has been deforestation and environmental degradation (Adeola, Baba, Popoola and Adebisi,2001). As a result of deforestation, the vegetation has undergone substantial deterioration, particularly the gun trees in the sahelian zone of Nigeria. The vegetation of Borno State, is a characteristic habitat that has been altered due to human interference with the Sahelian zone worst affected. In realization with the objective of improving the livelihoods of the rural people, Borno State Government established "Gum Arabic Development Project" that covered all the gum producing LGAs since 2002 where seedlings produced was delivered to farmers free of charge supported by extension services from Bomo State Agricultural Development Programme (BOSADP). Field observations revealed that farmers do not practice the technologies promoted. Furthermore, farmers' production is low, due to failure to uptake gum Arabic seedlings.


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Several researches have been conducted on the adoption of gum Arabic agroforestry in Nigeria (Odo and Oleghe, 1988; FDA, 2002). However, there has not been any empirical study into the analysis of adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings among farming households in the Sahelian zone of Borno State,Nigeria.

2.Objectives Of The Study The main objective of the study was to analyse the socio economic factors influencing adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings among farmers in the sahelian zone of Borno State, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to: investigate socio-economic characteristics of the respondents; determine sources of improved gum Arabic seedlings among respondents; examine adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings among respondents; and analyse the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of respondents and their adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings in the study area.

3.Methodology

3.1.The Study Area The study was carried out in the Sahelian zone of Borno state. Borno state has a land area of about 69,436 Km2 and lies within 11 o to 14oN and longitude 10 o to 14oE (BOSADP, 2003). It is located in the North Eastern part of Nigeria and shares international border with the republic of Chad to the Northeast, Cameroon to the East and Southeast and Niger republic to the North. Within the country, it is bounded by Adamawa state to the South, Yobe state to the West and Gombe state to the South. The Sahelian zone is comprised of ten (10) Local Government Areas (LGAs) namely; Abadam, Gubio, Guzamala, Magumeri, Marte, Mobbar, Monguno, Nganzai, Ngala and Kukawa. This environment has a population of 1,243,068 (NPC, 2006).

3.2.Sources Of Data The data for the study were obtained through primary and secondary sources. Primary data were mainly generated from farming household through the use of structured and pre-tested interview schedules. The secondary data comprising information from Area Extension Officers (AEOs) of the BOSADP were used to complement the primary data. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Other sources of secondary information include; Textbooks, Journals, Publications and other write-ups that are relevant to this study.

3.3.Sampling Procedure And Sample Size Multi stage, purposive and random sampling techniques were employed for selecting the representative farming households that will be used for this study. The Sahelian zone of Borno state comprised ten (10) LGAs. Therefore, the first stage was the purposive selection of four (4) major gum Arabic producing Local Government Areas (Magumeri, Mobbar, Guzamala and Kukawa) in the study area. . The second stage of sampling was the proportionate selection of villages per Local Government Area (12 from Magumeri; 14 from Mobbar; 3 from Guzamala and 4 from Kukawa ) to make a total of 33 villages sampled in the study area. The list of villages were obtained from the Area Extension Officers (AEOs) and used as sampling frame. The third stage was the random selection of ten (10) households from each of the selected villages. A total of 330 farming households were therefore, selected as the sample size for the study. However, 321 respondents were used for the analysis, because nine of the questionnaires were not properly filled.

3.4.Analytical Techniques Both descriptive (frequencies, means and percentages) and inferential (logistic regression) statistics were used to analyse the data collected for this study. Descriptive analytical techniques such as frequency distribution and percentages were used to categorize the farming households based on socio-economic characteristics, as used by Onu (2006). The inferential technique that was used in this analysis was the logistic regression analysis. The SPSS computer package was used to estimate the logistic regression analysis. The Mean Scores were measured by using a three – level scale; Likert type as used by (Bishwa, 2003). In this scale, each item was scored as follows; Agreed (A)

(2 points)

Disagreed (DA)

(1 Points)

Undecided (U)

(0 Points)

The scores obtained by the respondents were weighted in order to get their mean. Weighted scores refer to the respondents’ scores against each item multiplied by the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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scores under each Likert scale point. The products will be added together on each column in order to find out the average (mean) scores using the number of respondents to be involved. The mean (average) obtained were interpreted as follows: Interpretation scale: ≤ 1.55

=

DA - Disagreed

1.56 – 2.55

=

N - Neutral

≥2.56

=

A - Agreed

Mean scores were used to determine the perceived effects of adoption of gum Arabic agroforestry on livelihood among the farming households as used by (Daniel, Gilbert, David, Bruce, M.and William,1996; Bishwa, 2003). This technique was used to measure variables in objective three and four.

3.5.The Logit Model In this study, the determinants of adoption of gum Arabic agroforestry were analysed using maximum likelihood estimation of a logistic regression model. This is because the dependent variables, adoption of gum Arabic agroforestry were dichotomised by assigning a value of one if the farming households head adopted gum Arabic agroforestry and zero otherwise. Given that the dependent variable is dichotomous, the regression is non-linear in nature and ordinary least squares techniques result in bias by over estimation and inconsistency (Maddala, 1983) and it has been shown that a Logit analysis is more appropriate in such cases (Adesina and Seidi, 1995; Mukadasi and Nasalegwa, 2008).Therefore, a logistic model technique was used to regress the adoption of gum Arabic agroforestry on a set of explanatory variables. The use of Logit, which gives the maximum likelihood estimate, overcame most of the problems associated with linear probability models and provides estimators that are asymptomatically consistent and efficient (Maddala, 1983). Many studies have used the logistic analysis approach to examine similar issues in different agro-ecological zones and for different technologies (Alavalapati, Lukert, and Gills, 1995; Ayuk, 1997; Mukadasi and Nasalegwa, 2008). The Logit model was used to achieve specific objective two. The implicit form of the logit model was expressed as: Y = Bo+B1X1+B2X2……………………+BnXn+e -----------------------------------------------(i) Where: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Y

=

Adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings

Bo

=

Intercept

B1-n

=

Parameters to be estimated

X1-n

=

Set of independent variables

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The independent variables specified as determinants to be used in the logistics regression analysis are defined as follows: X1

=

Sex of household’s head; Dummy (D) = 1 if male; 0 if otherwise,

X2

=

Age of Household.

X3

=

Marital status of household’s head; Dummy (D) = 1 if married, 0 if

otherwise, X4

=

Household size (number),

X5

=

Formal Education (years),

X6

=

Membership of cooperative societies by household’s head; Dummy (D) =

1 if yes; 0 if otherwise, X7

=

Household Labour (Number),

X8

=

Non-farm income (Naira),

X9

=

Farming experience (Years),

X10

=

Farm size (hectares),

X11

=

Access to agricultural credit; Dummy (D) = 1 if yes, 0 if otherwise,

X12

=

Access to extension services (Number of contacts per season),

X13

=

Farmland ownership; Dummy (D) = if owned; 0 if otherwise,

X14

=

Access to mass media; Dummy (D) = 1 yes; 0 if otherwise,


4.1.Socio-Economic Characteristics Of Respondents Farming households generally differ in socio-economic characteristics. These characteristics influence the capacity of households in adopting innovations. Such differences in socio-economic characteristics of households also provide the context within which the adoption behaviour of farmers could be understood. The socioeconomic characteristics of respondents in this study area are presented in Table 1.


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Variable Frequency Percentage (%) Sex Male 298 92.8 Female 23 7.2 Age ≤ 20 43 13.4 21 – 30 91 28.3 31 – 40 90 28.0 41 – 50 57 17.8 ≥ 51 40 12.5 Marital Status Married 297 92.5 Single 24 7.5 Household Size ≤ 4 38 11.8 5–8 97 30.2 9 – 12 103 32.1 13 -16 58 18.1 ≥ 17 25 7.8 Formal Education (Years) < 5 42 13.1 5–8 109 34.0 9 – 12 88 27.4 13 – 16 58 18.1 > 16 24 7.5 Farm Size ≤ 4 48 15.0 5–8 113 35.2 9 – 12 105 32.7 13 – 16 43 13.4 ≥ 17 12 3.7 Ownership Of Farmland Hired/ rented 59 18.4 Personal 144 44.9 Family 118 36.8 Farming Experience ≤ 3 44 13.7 4–6 108 33.6 7–9 100 31.2 10 – 12 51 15.9 ≥ 13 18 5.6 Membership Of Cooperatives Not a member 55 17.1 ≤ 2 Years 264 82.2 3 – 4 Years 1 0.3 5 Years and above 1 0.3 Table 1: Distribution Of Respondents By Socio-Economic Characteristics (N=321) Source: Field Survey; 2011


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4.1.1.Sex Table 1 reveals that majority (92.80%) of the respondents were male, while only 7.20% of them were female. The over whelming majority of the male farmers could be that farmers constitutes the households head and except in a situation where the household head is a female. This implies that majority of them may have better access to extension contact and other necessary farm inputs. This is in the line with earlier studies as reported by Agea,

Joseph, Sara, Mukadasi, and Daniel,2005) that gender plays

significant role in having access to production resources and hence adoption of technologies.

4.1.2.Age The results in Table 1 also revealed that majority (69.70%) of the respondents fell within the age bracket of 40 years and below; while only 30.20% of the respondents were within 41 years and above. By implication, the study area has large number of young farmers who have the potentials for adoption of improved farm technologies. Ajayi, Akinnifesi, Sileshi, and Chakerdza, (2007) reported that young people are more likely to be better agents for technology adoption and transfer as they may have higher aspiration to accept new technologies compared to older farmers who are skeptical and critical of innovations. Age, therefore has implications for technology adoption in particular and agricultural production in general.

4.1.3.Marital Status The study revealed that the majority (92.50%) of the respondents were married, while only 7.50% were single (Table 1). Marital status has implication for adoption of improved technologies. Married people have more responsibilities and hence they take what ever they do with seriousness. In that case, they will be willing to seek improved technologies so as to enhance the welfare of their families on the other hand, especially with regards to females being married can be a serious hindrance to accessibility of technologies. This is more especially in the study area where there culture restricts interaction between male and female. Women could attend functions, including extension training only with the consent of their husbands.


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4.1.4.Households Size Results from the study showed that most (32.10%) of the respondents had 9-12 members per family. This implies that significant component of the labour force comes from the family. Family labour is an important component of labour for small scale farmers. This is mainly because the subsistence farm households are resources poor and they may have to depend on family labour for agricultural activities which in most cases is labour intensive.

4.1.5.Formal Education The study showed that majority (53.00%) of the respondents had nine (9) years and above of formal education, while only 13.10% of them had less than 5 years of formal education. Education affects agricultural productivity by increasing the ability of farmers to produce more output from given resources. Literacy level is also related to the intensity of use of improved technologies. The implication could be that high level of education in the study area could mean that majority of the farmers we expected to adopt new technologies within a relatively shorter period of time. This is partly because, given the high level of education, majority of the respondents are expected to gather, process and interpret information relating to technology adoption as well as make production decision more easily

4.1.6.Farm Size As shown in Table 1, most (35.20%) of the respondents had between 5-8 hectares of land, 15% with less than 5 hectares, and 32.70% having 9-12 hectares of land. It could be seen that the respondents had a fairly relatively large size of land in the study area. This implies that the respondents could adopt improved technologies without hindered from the farmland side. Giroh,

Wuranti, Abubakar, and Ogwuche, (2008) reported that

because farm size is an indication of the level of economic resources available to farmers there is probability of utilizing improved technologies if farm size increases.

4.1.7.Ownership Of Farmland The study indicated that most (44.90%) of the respondents operated their farming activities on personal land. About 36.80% of them operated on family farmland, while only 18.40% operated on rental farmland. Ownership of farmland has implication for INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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security of tenure of farmland. Gum Arabic agroforestry production requires security of gum trees. The study indicated that a significant section of respondents had their personal farmland which augers well for the production of gum Arabic agroforestry in the study area. This implies that the respondents might adopt improved gum Arabic agroforestry technologies in the study area.

4.1.8.Farming Experience The result showed that about 13.70% of the respondents had less than four years of farming experience. Most (33.6%) of the respondents had 4 – 6 years of farming experience in the study area. The study indicated that only 5.60% of the respondents had 13 and above years of farming experience. It could be implied that the respondents had a reasonable years of farming experience to enable them in adopting gum Arabic agroforestry technologies in the study area.

4.1.9.Membership Of Cooperatives The result in Table1 showed that about 83% of the respondents were members of cooperatives, while only about 17% of the respondents do not belong to any farmer cooperatives. Out of those who belong to farmer cooperatives, about 82% had less than 3 years of membership. The study shows that they had less years of experience being as a member of cooperatives. Membership of cooperatives has bearing on the capacity of farmers to adopt technologies. For instance, farmer cooperatives link members to sources of technologies, educate their members on how to utilize such technologies as well as link them to markets. These could influence adoption of improved technologies among members of cooperatives. However, the lower years of being membership could negatively affect the uptake of gum Arabic agroforestry technologies in the study area.

4.2.Sources Of Improved Gum Arabic Seedlings By Respondents The source of improved gum Arabic seedlings available among respondents in the study area included extension agents, farmer cooperatives, own nursery and fellow farmers. These variables are presented in Table 2. The result showed that most (49.20%) of the respondents had farmer cooperatives as their source of gum Arabic seedlings in the study area. This is closely followed by fellow farmers representing 40.18% of the respondents in the study area. Extension agents had 10% of the respondents, while own nursery had INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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only 0.62% of them in the study area. The result implies that extension agents had no significant influence as source of gum Arabic seedlings which could adversely affect the adoption of technology by respondents in the study area.

Source of technology Extension agents Farmer cooperatives Own nursery Fellow farmers Total

Frequency 32 158 2 129

Percentage (%) 10.00 49.20 00.62 40.18

321

100.00

Table 2: Distribution Of Respondents By Major Sources Of Gum Arabic Seedlings Source Of Technology Source: Field Survey; 2011 4.3.Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Adoption Of Improved Gum Arabic Seedlings The socio-economic characteristics that influence the adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings by farmers include; marital status and household size. These factors were statistically significant and positive at 10% level of significance (Table 3). The coefficient of marital status was found to be significant (P≤0.10) and positively related with the adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings in the study area (Table 3). The result shows that as one marries the willingness for adoption of improved gum Arabic seedling increases. The implication could be that married people have more responsibilities and hence they could adopt improved gum Arabic seedlings with a view to improving the livelihoods of their families.


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95% Conf. Interval Variable

coefficient

Std. Coef.

Z

P Lower

Upper

Sex Age

-0.0504 -0.04235

0.4531 0.09644

-0.11 -0.44

0.912 0.661

0.39 0.79

2.31 1.16

Marital Status

0.9455

0.5039

1.88

0.961*

0.96

6.91

Household size

0.1713

0.1061

1.61

0.106*

0.96

1.46

Educational level Farm Size

-0.0749

0.1056

-0.71

0.478

0.75

1.14

0.1440

0.1152

1.25

0.211

0.92

1.45

Labour

0.0099

0.1161

0.09

0.932

0.80

1.27

Ownership of land Farming experience Farmer Cooperatives Extension contact Source of technology Access to credit Constant

0.1152

0.1632

0.71

0.480

0.81

1.55

-0.0357

0.1095

-0.33

0.744

0.78

1.20

0.1519

0.3185

0.48

0.633

0.62

2.17

0.5155

0.6533

0.79

0.430

0.47

6.03

0.1244

0.1074

1.16

0.247

0.92

1.40

-0.0279

0.2101

-0.13

0.894

0.64

1.47

-2.530

1.275

-1.98

0.047

Table 3: Logit Analysis On Factors Influencing Adoption Of Improved Gum Arabic Seedlings Source:Regression Extract * Significant At 10%

The result in Table 3 revealed that the coefficient of household size was found to be significant (P≤0.10) and positively related with the adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings in the study area. The result shows that as the household forms the main source of labour in African agriculture, especially where farmers practice agro forestry. The need for family labour is more where activities relating to agroforestry practices in question are labour intensive, such as production activities of gum Arabic seedlings and where the farmers are basically subsistent. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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5.Conclusion The study revealed that most of the respondents adopted recommended gum Arabic seedlings in the study area. However, most of the respondents had farmer cooperatives as their source of improved gum Arabic seedlings in the study area. The results also indicated that the socio-economic characteristics that influenced the adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings by farmers include; marital status and household size.

6.Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made; Agricultural credit should be provided with no collateral for improved adoption of gum Arabic seedlings in the study area. Awareness creation should be mounted through extension education approach to enlighten the public on the skills, knowledge, techniques and benefits of the adoption of improved gum Arabic seedlings in the study area. Tripartite arrangements should be made by governments (Federal, State and Local Governments) to promote production of gum Arabic seedlings to be distributed to farmers free of charge through the support of extension services. Farmers in the study area should be encouraged to form gum Arabic agroforestry cooperatives. This will enable them to take advantage of government and nongovernmental programmes, such as provision of credit facilities and technologies etc.

7.Aknowledgement The research team wishes to thank with gratitude, University of Maiduguri for making it possible for us to participate in the Education Trust Fund (ETF) funded researches. We sincerely thank and commend the magnanimity of the ETF for providing the finance for this research. We hereby acknowledge the assistance rendered by the University of Maiduguri Research Grant Committee for approving the research proposal for funding. To the research assistants in the Local Government Areas and indeed all persons who rendered assistance in the course of data collection, we say thank you for all the rigors and difficulties experienced during the exercise. We wish to thank Dr S. Nwaosu of the Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Maiduguri for computer analysis of the research data collected.


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8.Reference 1. Adeola, A.0; Baba, S. O; Popoola L. and Adebisi, L. A. (2001): Farmers' participation in Social Forestry in the Semi-arid zone of Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Extension, Pp 21-80. 2. Adesina, A A; and Seidi, S. (1995). Farmers' perception and adoption of new agricultural technologies: Analysis of modem mangrove rice varieties in Guinea Bissau. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture. 34(358-385). 3. Agea, J. G; Joseph, O. Sara,N; Mukadasi,B. and Daniel,W.(2005).Agroforestry potential of Acacia Senegal in the rangelands of Iuwero and Nakasongola districts.Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences,11:34-39. 4. Ajayi, O. C. Akinnifesi, F. K. Sileshi, G and Chakerdza,S.(2007).Adoption of renewable soil fertility replenishment technologies in the southern Africa region; Lesson learnt and the way forward: Natural Resources Forum, 31:306-317. 5. Alavalapati, J.R.R; Lukert, M.K. and Gills, D.S. (1995).Adoption of Agroforestry Practices: a case study of Andhra Pradesh, India Agroforestry. System. 13: 1-114. 6. Ayuk, E. T. (1997). Adoption of Agroforestry: The case of live hedges in central plateau of Burkina Faso. Agricultural System; 54:189-206. 7. BOSADP

(2003).

Borno

State

Agricultural

Development

programme

(BOSADP).Annual Report, Bomo State of Nigeria. 8. Bishwa, N.R. (2003). Contributions of Agroforestry for Rural Livelihoods: A case of Dhading. District, Nepal. International Conference on Rural Livelihoods. Forests and Biodiversity 19 - 23 May, Bann, Germany, PP 2-18. 9. Chikamai, B.N; Casadei, E; Coppen, J. J. W; Abdel, H.O. and Cesareo,D. (1996). A Review of Production, Markets and Quality Control of Gum Arabic in Africa. Technical Cooperation Programme TCP/RAF/4557.

Food & Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 10. Daniel, D.; Gilbert, L; David, W; Bruce, M. and William, C. (1996). Barriers to Adopting Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Uta. Journal of Extension, 34 (6). 11. FAO (2007). Desertification, drought and their consequences. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 12. FDA (2002). Baseline Survey on Gum Arabic. A Report. Federal Department of Agriculture, Abuja, July.Giroh, D.Y., Wuranti, V., Abubakar, M and Ogwuche. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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(2008): Analysis of the Technical inefficiency in Gum arabic based cropping patterns among Farmers in the Gum Arabic belt

of

Nigeria.

Journal

of

Agriculture and Social Sciences 4(3):125 – 128. 13. Maddala. G.S. (1983). Limited Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Ecometrics, Cambndge University Press, New York, PP.2 and 149-194. 14. Mukadasi; B; and Nabalegwa, W. (2008). Extension for Agroforestry Technology

Adoption: Mixed

Intercopping of Crotalania (crotalania

grahamjana) and maize (zea mays L.) in Kabale District Uganda. Environmental Research Journal, 2(3):131-137. 15. NPC (2006): National Population Commission(NPC).Provisional Census figures; Abuja, Nigeria. 16. Odo, P.E. and Oleghe, P.E.(1998). The production and management of gum arabic (Acacia Senegal) wild in the Sudan and Sahelian zone of Borno state. Journal of Arid Agriculture, 1(2): 157 – 266. 17. Onu, D. O.(2006). Socio-economic factors influencing farmers' adoption of farm technology under intensified agriculture in lmo State, Nigeria. The Philippine Agricultural Scientist. 89(2). 45-52. 18. Sagay, G.A; Igboanugo, A.B.I; Imarhiagbe, E.O.and Mesike, C.S.(2007). Status of gum Arabic exploitation techniques in Nigeria. Conference proceedings, Twenty First Annual National Conference of Farm Management Association of Nigeria held at College of Agricultural Science, Olabisi Onabanjo University, 3rd – 6th September, pp. 189–192.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

A Study Of Occupational Stress In Relation To Demographic Variables Ms.Ritu Rani Senior Research Fellow,Department Of Education,M.D.University,Rohtak,Haryana, India Dr. Ajmer Singh Assistant professor,Kurukshetra university post graduate regional centre, Jind, Haryana, India

Abstract: In recent years, we have seen a rise in stress across all spheres of life, particularly in the work place. It is not surprising that we are seeing work place stress emerging as a major cause of physical and mental health problems. Stress is an individual’s physical and mental reaction to environmental demands/pressures. Stress, in general and occupational stress, in particular is a fact of modern day life that seems to have been on the increase. Occupational (job, work, workplace) stress has become one of the most serious health issues in modern world ( Lu.et.al,2003) as it occurs in any job and is even more present than decades ago. Occupational stress, in particular, is the inability to cope with the pressures in a job (Rees, 1997) because of poor fit between someone’s abilities to his/her requirements and conditions. This investigation is an attempt to study the occupational stress in some of the demographic variables. A sample of 100primary school teachers was selected and The Occupational Stress Index (OSI) by A.K.Shrivastva was used for collecting data. The response rate was 80%. Data was analyzed by using statistical techniques like mean, SD and t-value. It was found that the teachers have moderate level of occupational stress. Male and female teachers did not differ in their levels of occupational stress. The teachers working in Govt. and Private schools were not found to differ in their level of occupational stress.

Key words:Stress, Occupational Stress, Demographic variables. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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1.Introduction The teaching job in itself is demanding. Teachers work under different management systems and working conditions which affect their psychological state. There is a wide spread belief that work related stress among teachers has serious implication for the teachers’ mental health and performance. Teacher’s mental health plays an important role in teaching-learning process. If the teachers are of unsound mind, they can harm nation in terms of poor teaching and guiding to the students. Their maladjustment will not adversely affect their personality but will produce maladjustment tendency in children. Teachers’ stress has been identified as a disruptive factor towards productiveness within the classroom. It has been reported that job related stress is a common phenomenon among many teachers. Stress may vary depending on how an individual perceives stressful event.In recent years, we have seen a rise in stress across all spheres of life, particularly in the work place. It is not surprising that we are seeing work place stress emerging as a major cause of physical and mental health problems. For a working person, three relationships are known to be important psychosocial determinants of the mental and physical health of working people: the relationship between the employee and his/her job, the employee and people at work with him, relationship between the employee and organization culture. The culture of the organization in which a person is working plays a great role in keeping that person’s health sound as senior manager of Vic Health saidStress and culture are quite interrelated, so if I’ve got high levels of stress, I would make the assumption that I’ve probably less than satisfactory organizational culture. If I’ve got low levels of stress then I would think that I would be moving more towards a healthy culture of people wanting to come to work.

1.1.Occupational Stress The word stress is derived from the Latin word “Strictus” which means “tight” or “narrow” and “Stringere” which means “to tighten”. Stress is a common human phenomenon. Stress in humans results from a complex interaction between the events of the life and the perception of those events by an individual. Stress is an individual’s physical and mental reaction to environmental demands/pressures. Extreme conditions are detrimental to human health. Stress was first studied in 1896 by Water B Cannon and


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applied to the human behaviour by Hans Selyle. Selyle (1974) in his most recent definition stated that stress is ‘the non-specific response of the body to any demand’. Stress is a natural ongoing dynamic and interactive process that takes place as people adjust to their environment. Stress is a feeling of tension, which is both physical & emotional and is caused by physiological, psychological and environmental demands. Thus stress affects the individuals physiologically, emotionally and psychologically. Psychological effects of stress are associated with the onset of depression or anxiety. Stress, in general and occupational stress, in particular is a fact of modern day life that seems to have been on the increase. Occupational ( job, work, workplace) stress has become one of the most serious health issues in modern world( Lu.et.al,2003) as it occurs in any job and is even more present than decades ago. Occupational stress, in particular, is the inability to cope with the pressures in a job (Rees, 1997) because of poor fit between someone’s abilities to his/her requirements and conditions (Holmlund, Rytkonen and Strandvick, 2005). It is the mental and physical condition which affects an individual’s productivity, effectiveness personal health and quality of work (Comish & Swindle, 1994).Kariacou &Sutcliffe(1978) defined stress as “ a response to negative effect by a teacher usually accompanied by potentially pathogenic, physiological and bio-chemical changes resulting from aspects of teacher’s job and medicated by the perception that demands made upon the teacher constitute a threat to his self-esteem or well-being and coping mechanism activated to reduce the perceived threat.” Stress up to a moderate level is inevitable and leads to motivation but prolonged occupational stress in teaching has been found to result In both physiological and psychological ailments which ultimately have deleterious effects on teachers’ professional efficacy (Kariacou & Pratt,1989). In the present study, the main stress is on the occupational stress. In the occupational stress, the main source of stress is the occupation of the person. Occupational stress is defined as an individual’s state of mind when he encounters a situation of demand and or constraint in an organization and perceives the same as harmful or threatening. Today stress in the organization has become a predominant feature of modern life. Job stress generally occurs because of misfit between a person’s attitudes, abilities, skills and demands of the job and the organization.Organizational stress is defined as any characteristics of the job environment which poses a threat to the individual (Caplan.et.al, 1975). Occupational stress is defined as a condition where job related factors interact with the individual to change his/her psychological or INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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physiological condition in such a way that a person is forced to deviate from normal functioning (Selye, 1979). Job stress as a condition arising from the interaction of people with their jobs, characterized by changes within people that face them to deviate from their normal functioning (Beehr & Newman, 1986). Job stress is generally defined in terms of relationship between person and environment. There are several factors which lead occupational stress among school teachers. Looking at the everyday increasing work and life complexities stress has now become a major concern of the millennium. There are a variety of sources responsible for teachers’ stress. Important among them are workoverload or job overload is found to be one of the most prominent causal factors of teachers’ stress. A major factor related to work –load is role-overload, which takes place when teachers have to cope with a number of competing roles with in their job. Another important source of stress among teachers includes constant changes within the profession and lack of information as to how changes are to be implemented. Apart from these the sources of teacher stress include pupils’ misbehavior, student absenteeism, negative student attitude towards learning, poor working conditions, time pressure, large classes too much correction work, lack of encouragement, feeling of failure, noncooperative parents, job insecurity, lack of public esteem , poor colleagues relationships, criticism by colleagues, lack of control over the job, delayed salaries, duties other than teaching

,

political

interference,

negative

community

attitude

towards

teaching(Gmelch1983). Undoubtedly, teaching has become a very stressful profession in the present time. Thus occupational stress affects the mental health of the teacher and in turn affects the teaching efficiency.

1.1.1.Sources Of Occupational Stress Sources of occupational stress include poor working conditions, work overload and under-load, role conflict and ambiguity, unsatisfactory career development and erratic working hours (Quicks and Quick, 1984). Thus occupational stress affects mental health and thus influences teaching efficiency. Work stress is a major cause for poor mental health (Clusky, 1994 & Hedin1994). Trendall(1989) found many teachers were under physical and mental strain and reported that the most frequent sources of stress were lack of time , large classes, teaching work load and pupils’ misbehavior. There are different factors for the stress of teachers in general and women teachers in particular. Woman teachers have more stressful situations when compared to male counterparts.It is an INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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established fact that the performance of a teacher mainly depends upon his psychological state of mind. Newell (1979) contended that problems such as student’s indiscipline, lack of student progress, inadequate budget, lack of administrative support etc. contributed to teachers’ stress. Pratte J(1978) studied primary school teachers to see the relationship between stress and the background of children’s socio-economic level and found financial deprivation in the home background of children to be positively & significantly related to perceived stress among teachers. Tellanback, Brenner & Lofgren (1983) conducted two studies on Swedish school teachers. In the first study on 1,838 teachers, 40.15% said teaching was ‘always’ or’ often’ a mental strain. In the second study on 445 teachers 31% found their work to be ‘very much’ a mental strain. Trendall(1989) found many teachers were under mental or physical strain and reported that the most frequent sources of stress were lack of time, large classes, teaching work load and pupils’ misbehavior.

Women

teachers

have

more

stressful

situation

than

male

counterparts.Payne & Furnham (1987) reported data from 444 sec. teachers in Barbados and found that difficulties associated with instructional and managerial demands were perceived as the most stressful aspects of their work. Manso- Pinto (1989) administered the TOSFQ( Clark1980) to a sample186 elementary and sec. school teachers in Chile. Four main factors were identified i.e. administrative support, professional distress, financial security and students’ discipline among which lack of administrative support was perceived as the most stressful factor. Borg & Riding (1991) conducted a questionnaire survey of 710 Maltese primary school teachers and revealed four factors as sources of stress: Pupil misbehavior, time or resource difficulties, professional recognition needs and poor relationships with colleagues. The Professional Teachers’ Union of Hong Kong (1995) also conducted a survey on teacher stress. It sent 1,100 questionnaires to its members by random sampling method in January 1995 with a return rate of 45%. The results showed that 61% of respondents found teaching stressful. The main sources of stress were: Students’ unruly behaviour, large class size, too much marking, too much clerical work and so on. Warner (2005) conducted a study on the stress level in male and female and he found that constant stress at work or at home may be more dangerous for women than men. Kim. et.al found that the relationship of work stress and family stress to the health of women in Korea and found that there was a significant negative relationship between perceived health status and work stress and family stress. Carr (1998) found that work factors responsible for stress were - Feeling of INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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lack of support from systemic authority, coping with heavy work demands and employers’ expectations. Downton (1987) conducted a survey on the stress experienced by primary school principals. Three major sources of occupational stress were identifiedWork load pressures resulting from constrained time frames, perceived deficiencies of role performance; lack of access to staffing resources and expertise. Cooke, Pang, Kan & Shek (1990) based on their study of beginning teachers in Hong-Kong, reported that the first year of teaching was not at all easy. About 45% of the sample considered their first year difficult or extremely difficult. These teachers were under more stress. Work – related stress is, generally high in Hong-Kong. A group of British Academics, who conducted a survey with 5,000 people from 16 countries including 300 from Hong-Kong , reported that Hong-Kong had been ranked as the most stressful work place in the world. With respect to teaching specifically, with in a six-week period in Nov. & Dec. 1994, four Hong-Kong school teachers committed suicide. This study showed that work stress is very harmful and it leads to depression r other health problems in people.

1.1.2.Effects Of Occupational Stress On Health Of The Individual Stress up to a moderate level is inevitable and leads to motivation but prolonged occupational stress in teaching has been found to result in physiological and psychological ailments, which ultimately have deleterious effects on teacher’s professional efficacy ( Kyriacou & Pratt 1989). Undoubtedly, teaching has become a very stressful. There is increasing evidence that work related stress can contribute to a variety of ailments; such as tension, headaches, backaches, high blood pressures, cardiovascular diseases and mental illness. It can also leads to alcoholism and drug abuse, the problems that are reaching epidemic proportion in organization and society. Researchers engaged in analyzing the antecedents and consequences of job stress, have reported different physical and psychological conditions at different type of work as potential occupational stressors ( Bogg & Cooper ,1995 and Kirkcaldy 1993). Failing to meet such a challenge can have detrimental effect on health and can reduce effectiveness of the education they provide.

2.Review Of Related Literature Upadhaya & Singh (2001) studied the occupational stress among school and college teachers. Their study revealed that the school teacher were under more occupational INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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stress as compared to college teachers. They found that work overload, role conflict, higher expectations of students and their parents were found to cause more stress among the school teachers.Dornan (2002) studied the stress related absence in schools of the City of York. The objective of the study was to improve school performance and teacher productivity. The results of the study showed that key sources of pressures include workload, worry, recognition and lack of influence.Younghusband L., Garlie N. & Church E.( 2003) studied High School teachers’ stress in Newfoundland, Canada. The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of high school teacher’s stress in workplace and to develop the theory of the causes of high school teachers’ stress in Newfoundland. Firstly 50 school teachers were selected from urban and rural area but finally 15 were selected for data collection. Interview technique was used to collect data from the teachers. Practice and Bracketed interview technique were used. Grounded theory was the approach chosen to use in this study. After the analysis of 15 interviews, the results showed the following causes of teachers’ stress as Change Culture of negativity Workload &students’ behaviour Lack of administrative support Disillusionment Mathews (2005) studied the occupational stress of teachers. This study was conducted to find out the level of occupational stress of higher sec. school teachers of kerala. A sample of 60 school teachers was taken from Idukki & Kottayam districts of Kerala. Results indicated that 48% of teachers of Kottayam district experienced low stress whereas 80% teachers of Idukki district showed low stress. In this study, it was found that there was no significant relationship between the levels of occupational stress of both the districts.Kaur (2006) studied the mental health and occupational stress among school teachers. This study was aimed at investigating mental health and occupational strain among school teachers. The objectives were to study the Mental Health and occupational

strain

of

Male/Female

teachers,

Govt./

Private

teachers

and

Muktsar/Ludhiana districts teachers. The results indicated that male and female teachers take care of their personal well being. Males are less anxious and have less disabling symptoms as compared to female teachers. Private school teachers are more mentally healthy than Govt. school teachers. Teachers of both the districts have poor attitude INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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towards job.Ravichandran & Rajendran (2007) studied the perceived sources of stress among the teachers. They also reported that there was a significant relationship between gender and mental health. Their study revealed that female teachers had more occupational stress as compared to male counterparts.

3.Rationale Of The Study The teacher is an employee of an institution where the future of the nation is being shaped. Acc. to Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru,“The future of nation is being shaped in her class-room.” Teachers play an important role in nation building. If a teacher is free from stress and strain, he will teach effectively. But we are living in a fast growing era of complexities and pressures where human constitutional capacities are taxed severely. Stress is a universal human experience. Both pleasant and unpleasant experiences can have stressful components with specific reference to teachers, and with in general concept of occupational stress. It has been reported that job-related stress is a common phenomenon among many teachers. The impact of this stress can prevent productive teaching and learning as well as affect the physical and emotional well- being of the individual teacher (1985).This study is an attempt to find out the factors responsible for stress among teachers. So the findings of the study will be helpful in understanding all those problems and on the basis of findings suggestions will be given. The effectiveness of the educational system largely depends upon the active, resourceful and competent teachers. An effective teacher not only imparts the entire educational curricula allotted to him in the best and most efficient manner but also ensures the best possible academic performance and an optimum development of the personalities of the students. In the present scenario, when there is a fierce competition in every sphere of life; effectiveness of the teachers becomes imperative to empower the students for facing the emerging challenges of global world. Effective teaching is a par excellence attribute of quality education. There are many factors which influence the effectiveness of the teacher in one or another way viz. Intelligence, Attitude towards teaching, Experience, Academic qualification, personality, occupational Stress & Mental health etc.

4.Research Methodology This study is exploratory in nature and it was conducted to find out the important factors of occupational stress in relation to their demographic variables. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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4.1.Statement Of The Problem A Study Of Occupational Stress Among Primary School Teachers In Relation To Some Demographic Variables.

4.1.1.Operational Definitions Of Key Words Used In The Study

4.1.1.1.Occupational Stress The stress arising exclusively from job roles. Occupational stress is defined in terms of relationship between person and environment. “ ...there is potential for stress when an environmental situation is perceived as presenting demand which threatens to exceed the person’s capabilities and resources for meeting it, under conditions where he expects a substantial differential in the rewards and costs from meeting the demand versus not meeting it. “

4.1.1.2.Primary School Teachers The teachers who are teaching at primary level i.e. from class 1st to 5th are called primary teachers.

4.2.Objectives Of The Study To study level of occupational stress among primary school teachers. To compare the level of occupational stress between male and female primary school teachers. To compare the level of occupational stress of the teachers working in Government and Private school.

4.3.Hypotheses Of The Study There exists no significant difference between male and female primary school teachers in their levels of occupational stress. There is no significant difference between Government and Private primary school teachers in their level of occupational stress. There exists no significant relationship between occupational stress and mental health of primary school teachers.


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4.4. Research Design

4.4.1.Method Used Probability sampling method was used for sampling. 4.4.2.Sample A sample of 100 primary school teachers of Panipat District including male/female, Govt./Private school teachers were selected for the study. The response rate was 80%.

4.4.3.Tool Used The investigator had used The Occupational Stress Index by Shrivastva.

5.Data Analysis And Data Interpretation In order to compare the teachers in their levels of occupational stress, various statistical techniques like mean, SD and t-values were used. S. No.

Mean

S.D.

1

Subscales of the Variable Role Overload

20.5

3.01

2

Role Ambiguity

10.4

2.24

3

Role Conflict

13.2

2.56

4

Unreasonable group & Political Pressure

13.6

2.09

5

Responsibility for Persons

10.0

1.08

6

Under-participation

12.3

2.31

7

Powerlessness

9.4

2.08

8

Poor Peer Relationship

11.7

1.8

9 10 11

Intrinsic Impoverishment Low Status Strenuous Working Condition

9.2 7.3 9.4

2.28 2.42 1.6

12

Unprofitability

6.9

2.0

133.9

25.41

Total

Table 1:Level Of Occupational Stress Among Primary School Teachers From the table 1, it is clear that the mean value of occupational stress score is 133.9. It shows that the teachers have moderate level of occupational stress.


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No. of Teachers 40 40

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Mean

St. Dev.

t-ratio

133.4 136.5

25.35 25.55

0.545

Significance Level Not Significant

Table 2:To Compare The Male And Female Teachers In Their Levels Of Occupational Stress From the table 2, it is clear that the calculated t-value is 0.545 which is less than critical value at 0.05 level of significance. Thus the difference between the means of male and female teachers in their level of occupational stress cannot be taken significant at 0.05 level of significance. Thus the Ho “There exists no significant difference in the level of occupational stress between male and female primary school teachers” is rejected at 0.05 level of significance. Thus it can be concluded that male and female teachers do not differ significantly in their level of occupational stress. The findings of this study is in consonance with the findings of Englezakis,D.(2001) in which there was found no significant difference in the occupational stress of male and female teachers.

S.No

Subscales of Variable

MALE Mean S.D.

FEMALE Mean S.D .

trati o

Level of Significance 0.05 level

1

Role overload

21.0

3.41

20.0

2.61

1.47

2

Role Ambiguity

10.4

2.41

10.4

2.06

0

3

Role Conflict

14.2

2.79

14.6

2.33

0.70

4

15.2

1.72

12.0

2.45

6.80

10.6

0.8

9.4

1.36

4.8

Significant

6

Unreasonable group and Political Pressure Responsibilities for persons Under-participation

Not Significant Not Significant Not Significant Significant

12.0

2.28

12.6

2.33

1.15

7

Powerlessness

8.4

2.42

10.4

1.74

4.26

Not Significant Significant

8

Poor Peer Relationship Intrinsic Impoverishment Low Status

10.6

1.20

12.8

2.4

5.24

Significant

8.8

2.14

9.6

2.42

1.57

6.6

1.2

8.0

3.63

2.33


5

9 10


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MALE Mean S.D.

11

Strenuous Working Condition

9.6

2.45

12

Unprofitability

6.0

2.53

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FEMALE Mean S.D . 9.2 0.75 7.5

1.47

trati o

Level of Significance 0.05 level

0.97

Not significant

3.91

Significant

Table 3:Comparison Between Male And Female Teachers In Various Domains Of Occupational Stress A close examination of the table 3, has made it clear that computed t-value for comparing male and female teachers in the domains of role overload, role conflict, under-participation, intrinsic impoverishment, low status and strenuous working condition is less than critical value at 0.05(1.96) level of significance. So mean difference in male and female teachers is not significant in case of all the above said domains is not significant. It means that male and female teachers do not differ in these areas. But in the domains of unreasonable group and political pressure, responsibilities for persons, powerlessness, poor peer relationship and unprofitability, the calculated value of t-ratio is greater than critical values. Thus in these areas the mean difference between male and female teachers is significant. In the area of role ambiguity, there was found no difference between male and female teachers. Type of School

No. of Teachers

Mean

St. Dev.

t-ratio

Significance Level

Govt.

30

134.8

23.14

0.108

Not Significant

Private

50

135.4

25.40

Table 4:Comparison Of The Teachers Working In Government And Private Schools In Their Level Of Occupational Stress From the table 4, it is clear that the calculated t-value is 0.108 which is less than critical value at 0.05 level of significance. Thus the difference between the means of teachers working in Government and Private Schools is not significant at 0.05 level of significance. Thus the Ho “There is no significant difference between Government and Private primary school teachers in their level of occupational stress” is rejected at 0.05 level of significance. Thus it can be concluded that teachers working in Govt. and Private schools do not differ significantly in their level of occupational stress. The findings of INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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the study are in contrast with Kaur (2006) in which Private school teachers were found to have more occupational stress than Govt. teachers.

S.No


Govt. Mean

S.D.

Private Mean S.D .

1

Role overload

21.0

2.37

20.0

2

Role Ambiguity

9.2

1.72

11.6

3

Role Conflict

15.0

2.97

13.8

4

15.0

1.79

14.2

10.6

0.8

9.4

6

Unreasonable group and Political Pressure Responsibilities for persons Under-participation

11.8

2.14

12.8

7

Powerlessness

8.8

1.47

10.0

5

3.5 8 2.0 6 1.9 4 1.4 7 1.3 6 2.4

tratio

1.49 5.58 1.97

Level of Significanc e 0.05 level Not Significant Significant

2.05

Not Significant significant

5.0

Significant

1.96


2.8 2.5 3 8 Poor Peer Relationship 9.8 3.37 11.6 1.4 2.77 Significant 9 9 Intrinsic 8.8 1.94 9.6 2.5 1.57 Not Impoverishment 8 Significant 10 Low Status 7.4 1.2 7.2 1.4 0.65 Not 7 significant 11 Strenuous Working 10.2 1.77 8.6 1.5 4.32 Significant Condition 0 12 Unprofitability 7.2 1.6 6.6 2.7 1.25 Not 2 significant Table 5:Comparison Of The Teachers Working In Government And Private Schools In Various Domains Of Occupational Stress From the table 5, it is clear that the calculated t-value in the domains of role overload, role

conflict,

unreasonable

group

&

political pressure,

under

participation,

powerlessness, intrinsic impoverishment, low status and unprofitability is not significant. Thus the teachers working in Govt. and Private schools do not differ in these areas. But in the domains of role ambiguity, responsibilities for persons, poor peer relationship and strenuous working condition, there was found a significant difference.


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6.Discussion Of The Results On the basis of results, following conclusions are made: The primary teachers were found to have moderate level of occupational stress. Male and female teachers did not differ in their levels of occupational stress. But if we critically examine the domains of occupational stress, male and female teachers did not differ in the domains of role overload, role conflict, under-participation, intrinsic impoverishment, low status and strenuous working condition. Male teachers were found to have more stress in comparison to their counterpart due to unreasonable group & political pressures and responsibilities for persons. The reasons for workplace stress in female teachers were found to be powerlessness, poor peer relationship, low status and unprofitability as compared to their counterpart. The teachers working in Govt. and Private schools were not found to differ in their level of occupational stress if we look at the overall mean value of occupational stress. But from critical analysis, it was found that the teachers working in private schools had more stress due to role ambiguity, poor peer relationship and powerlessness. The teachers working in Govt. schools were found to have more stress due to unreasonable group and political pressures, strenuous working conditions and responsibilities for persons.

7.Suggestions To Reduce Workplace Stress Following are the some of the means which can be adopted to improve mental health of primary teachers:

Improve economic condition



Improve social status



Improvement in the condition of service( service security)



No much interference by higher authority



Place for mental hygiene in the curriculum



Providing recreational facilities



Overcrowd in the classes should be avoided



Work overload should be reduced( reasonable workload)



Democratic administration



Arrangement for Seminars, workshops, conferences



Spiritual exercise like meditation and yoga


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Establishment of teacher clubs.

8.Delimitation Of The Study This study is delimited to the area of Panipat district in Haryana, India only.. Only 100 primary school teachers have been selected to collect the data. Only Male/Female and Govt./Private school teachers were selected for the collection of data.


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9.Reference 1. Ahmad S., Khanna P.(1992). Job stress and Job Satisfaction of Middle Level Hotel Employees. Journal of Personality and Clinical Study, 8(1-2)51-56 pp. 2. Anand V.(1997). A Study of Effect of Mental Health on Occupational Stress of Higher Secondary School Teachers. Perspective in Psychological Research Vol. 19 & 20,60-70 pp. 3. Antoniou A.S. (2003). Occupational Stress, Job Satisfaction and Health State in Male & Female Junior Hospital Doctors in Greece. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18, 592-621. 4. Bindu C.M.(2007). Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Stress Coping Skills of Primary School Teachers. EDUTRACKS, 6(2), 34-36pp. 5. Blasé J. ( 1986). A Qualitative Analysis of Sources of Teacher Stress; Consequences for Performance. American Educational Research Journal,23(1), 13-40 pp. 6. Bogg J. & Cooper C. (1995). Job Satisfaction, Mental Health and Occupational Stress among Civil Servants, Human Servants. Human Relations, 48(3) 327341pp. 7. Borg G.M. & Riding J.R. (1993). Occupational Stress and Job Satisfaction among School Administrators. Journal of Educational Administration, 31(1), pp20. 8. Carr A. (1994). Anxiety and Depression among School principals – Warning, Principal ship can be Hazardous to Your Health. Journal of Educational Administration, 32(3), 4-21 pp. 9. Chao S. (1995). A Study on Occupational Stress among Teachers in Primary and Secondary Schools. Unpublished Paper of a Directed Research Project (Conversion) Lignan College , Hong-Kong. 10. Comish R. & Swindle B. (1994). Managing Stress in the Work Place. National Public Accountant, 39(9), 24-28 pp. 11. Dakshinamurthy R.(2008). Stress and Mental Health. Journal of Community Guidance and Research,25(1).. 12. Deighton, Lee,C.(1971). Encyclopedia of Education. Vol.6 ,USA ,The Macmillan Company and the Free Fren,316.


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13. Dhillon K.P. (1989). Relationship between Occupational Stress and Job Satisfaction. Indian Journal of Current Psychological Research. 4 (1) . 14. Dornan A. (2002). Addressing Stress Related Absence in Schools. Published by Bussiness Health Group, London. 15. Englezakis D.(2001). Occupational Stress, Job Satisfaction and Coping Actions among Cyprus Head Teachers. Dissertation Abstract International 62(7),2483-A. 16. Kyriacou C. & Sutcliffe J.( 1977). Teacher Stress Prevalence, Sources & Symptoms. British Journal of Educational Psychology Vol. 48, 158-187. 17. Kyriacou C. & Sutcliffe J. (1979). Teacher Stress and Satisfaction. Educational Research Vol. 21 89-96pp. 18. Kyriacou C. & Pratt(1989). Teacher Stress and Burn-Outs. An International Review of Educational Research, Vol. 29(2), 146-152 pp. 19. Kaur Kuljeet (2006). Occupational Stress of High/ Higher Secondary School Teachers in Relation to Mental Health and Coping Resources. Recent Researches in Education and Psychology,12(1-2), 2007. 20. Kaur Satwinderpal (2008). Occupational Stress in Relation to Teacher Effectiveness among Sec. School Teachers. EDUTRACKS, 7(10). 21. Mangal S.K. (2002). Statistics in Psychology and Education. 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 22. Mathews A.S.(2005). The Occupational Stress of Teachers. Journal of Community Guidance and Research, 22, (2). 23. Moodie Rob . et. al. (2006). Work Place Stress in Victoria – Developing a System Approach. A Summary Report May 2006 Presented by Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Vic Health) , Australia. 24. Mrinal N.R. (2004). A Study of Stress and Coping Resources. Psycholingua, 34 (2), 125- 131. 25. Mukherjee D. & Singh P. (2006). Occupational Stress and Its Effect on Official Status in relation to Job Involvement. Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education, 37(1). 26. Ravichandran R. & Rajendran R. (2007). Perceived Sources of Stress among the Teachers. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. 33(1), 133136.


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27. Sabu S. & Jangiah C. (2005). Adjustment and Teachers’ Stress. Edu Tracks, 5 (1), 32-35pp. 28. Sanlier N. & Arpaci F. (2007). A Study into the Effects of Stress on Women’s Health. Humanity and Social Sciences Journal 2(2), 104-109. 29. Selye H. (1974). Stress Without Distress. New York; NAL Penguin Inc. 30. Siu Oi – Ling (1995). Occupational Stress among Teachers - A Review of Research Findings Relevant to Policy Formation. Educational Journal Winter 1995, 23(2). 31. Takeda F. ,Yokoyama E. & Ohida T. (2002). Mental Health and Job Factors in Social Workers at Social Welfare Offices. Journal of Occupational Health, 44, 385-390.(Japan) 32. Upadhaya, B.K. & Singh B. (1999). Experience of Stress: Differences between College Teachers and Executives. Psychological Studies, 44(3), 65-68. 33. Upadhaya, B.K. & Singh B.( 2001). Occupational Stress among College and School Teachers . Psycholingua, 31(1). 34. Vashishta A. & Mishra P.C. (1999). Tangible Support as a Moderator of Variable of the Occupational Stress – Organizational Commitment Relationship. Psychological Studies 44(3), 51-54pp. 35. Vijayalakshmi N.S. (2008). Teacher Stress Coping Strategies to Alleviate Stress. EDUTRACKS,7(12). 36. Younghusband L., Garlie N. & Church E. ( 2003). High School Teacher Stress in Newfoundland, Canada- A Work in Progress. Presented at Hawaii International Conference on Education, Jan. 7-10, 2003.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Challenges And Realities Of Falling Standard Of Primary Education In Nigeria Dr. Mani Ahmed Department Of Education,Umaru Musa Yar’adua University,Katsina

Abstract: This paper reviewed the primary school level of education in Nigeria by looking at the trends, efforts and the consequences of such efforts. It exposed fact that the lowering quality of primary education is as a result of the shift from the manpower approach to social demand (SDA). The difference between the two approaches being access to all will school age children qualified for admission. The SDA is acceptable and in tune with internal efforts towards wiping out illiteracy. However, to improve the system for a better tomorrow, there is the need to depoliticize education; improve data supply, teacher supply and funding. Political will is necessary for any policy to succeed.


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1.Introduction Primary Education refers to the type of education given to children from age 4 – 15 years of age and in most cases in our (Nigeria context) to children age 6-15 because preprimary education is not accessible to most children. It is referred to as Basic Education, Elementary Education or primary Education. These names mean the same thing within the context of this paper.It is on record that the Regional Governments made efforts to expand the primary school level of education due to the realization of the crucial role it would play as a foundation for the social, economic and political developments of the country. As a result of these efforts, the Western Region introduced Universal Basic Education, in 1955, the eastern region in 1957. The Northern Region could not introduce the same due to lack of teachers, funds and reservations among the political and other leaders that the north was not prepared for this expansion.However, there were many problems that stemmed from the introduction of Universal Primary Education in the 1950`s. These included among others, lack of qualified teachers, lack of management staff, inadequate teaching materials and lack of funds. These developments led to the establishment of Banjo Commission in the western region (1961). In the Eastern Region, Dike Commission submitted its report (1962). The two Commissions were informed by the problems faced in the course of implementation of these policies. Equally important is the fact that because these regions made these bold attempts, they became more educationally advanced, developed, more politically conscious and the issue of educational gap and others were, and are still as a result of mass education when the “NORTH” was not ready for the project. For this reason, the development of primary education became imbalanced in the country and this has social, economic and political implication on the nation.

2.Trends In Primary Education In Nigeria The historical realities coupled with our experiences as a nation culminated into the evolution of the National Policy on Education. This was because after the civil-war, the needs to further develop policies and structures that would ensure National Unity, integration and effective citizenship became necessary. The journey towards the evolution of National Policy on Education was therefore kick-started in the country. The political leadership was able to realize that education is the core of development and progress in modern societies because it is one of the most powerful weapons known for reducing poverty, inequality and could therefore be used for laying the foundation for a INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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sustainable growth and development of any nation (Akinbote, 2007)At the international level, education is considered a fundamental human right and therefore access to education is one of the yardsticks with which the level of development of nations are measured. In fact, most nations are members of the United Nations and are therefore signatories to its charters and other conventions that apply to members nations. For this and many other reasons, Nigeria is a signatory to Education For All Policy and is considered a developing nation. This situation is one of the factors that influenced national leaderships to introduce policies and programmes that were intended to provide access to education for all school age children. The benefits derivable include among others:Parents are conscious of the benefits derivable from schooling and have been demanding for educational institutions for their communities. Education is a campaign issue and a reliable tool of penetration i.e. establishment of educational institution in certain areas to make political gains. A literate population is politically conscious and participates better in democratic processes. People learn to discharge maximum civil obligation competently i.e. political orientation, voting and civil rights. People also learn and function with minimal supervision or guidance. Human Resources Development in the areas of skilled and semi-skilled manpower is a necessary component of the agenda of government for its obvious short and log-term benefits. The political class therefore, conscious of the above benefits, made deliberate attempts to provide access to education. It should be clear that apart from making political gains, the citizen benefits, the country gains regional and international recognition. Education promotes self-reliance, productivity and independence. More-so, developed countries, international Donor agencies and Non-Governmental Organizations provide funds to developing and underdeveloped nations with a view to encouraging basic education in these countries.These deliberate attempts to make access to education possible were and are still not without problems. These problems include among others; lack of teachers, infrastructure, funding and lowering standards. The beneficiaries of these programmes are continuously becoming a liability instead of assets that would facilitate the socioeconomic and political transformation of the nation. Thus, the stakeholders are getting confused because the educational sectors are not performing, graduate can hardly read or INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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write. The private sector/employers of labour are not getting the envisaged skilled manpower. All these are because the primary level of education has not been established on a solid foundation to enable other systems perform effectively and efficiently.

3.Theoritical Consideration For any project to be conceived and implemented there ought to be some theoretical consideration on the nature, type and scope of such projects. For education planners and managers to start any educational program at the state, national or international levels there are three basic approaches that are considered in such attempts. Specifically, nations plan their educational sectors bearing in mind their needs, aspirations, human, material resources and their socio-political circumstances. For purposes of clarification, these approaches are briefly discussed:-

3.1.Social Demand Approach An approach where government provides education for all school age children willing to attend schools. This approach is popular in most developing nations because it provides for a mass training, reduces illiteracy and provides access to all. However, it has always been characterized by shortage of facilities (teachers, classroom, instructional materials).

3.2.Manpower Approach This is a situation whereby access to schooling is based on projected manpower needs of a given country. It narrows down the chances of willing applicants and it is accused of being selective and elitist.

3.3.Cost-Benefit Approach An educational arrangement in which schools and programmes are designed to meet some socio-economic yardsticks in terms of returns that may accrue to the trainee, their parents and their government. In this case, education is planned with the obvious social, economic and other returns in view. It is the approach used to supply manpower needs in difficult and scarce areas such as medicine, nuclear science, etc. for example, foreign scholarship/technical aid, other special training programmes and private schools, colleges or universities.The decision to use any of these approaches rests with the political leadership/government of the day. It is, therefore, at this juncture that politics play a critical role in the sense that the decision will have to be matched with political INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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will and willingness to invest resources to meet the desired objectives. That is why education is one of the Seven Points Agenda of the Federal Government. By implication, its commitments towards educational development as it affects the entire system are clear. However, there appears to be some issues or impediments. (Ahmed 2008).

4.What Went Wrong? The ideas and intention to provide education to all citizens were aimed at producing an effective, useful and functional citizen as contained in the National Policy on Education (1977) revised (1981). No sensible citizen would quarrel with national objectives, provisions and the processes outlined in the document. However, there was a gap between the policy document and implementation. This created among others, dramatic increase in enrolments. Lack of classrooms, teachers and inadequate funding become major obstacles.Another serious issue that brought down the quality education in the country was poor planning. It appears that the policy makers do not give serious attention to the training of education managers who are supposed to implement these policies. For example, in all the three cases of the introduction of Universal Primary Education, Western Region (1955), Eastern Region (1957) National level (1976) and the Universal Basic Education (1999), very little time was devoted to teacher supply to man these programmes before their respective take-offs. Hence, all of them were started without an appreciable number of trained teachers. To date the issue of qualified teachers in our schools remain embarrassing. According to 2006 Universal Basic Education (UBEC) report, out of 534,794 primary school teachers in the country, only 246,985 are NCE graduates while less than 40,000 have higher degrees. It is therefore obvious that over 40% of serving teachers are not qualified to teach in our schools (Falola 2009).The above presents a national picture of the teaching personnel. It is therefore expected that the quality of such teachers may vary depending on the efforts of individual states and their individual commitments to the education due to the following problems of implementation which are briefly highlighted as put forward by Bello (1999).

5.Political Constraints Educational decisions are political. Therefore, irrespective of the recommendations made by commissioners, committees, workshops or seminars, education policy makers respond more quickly and with more rigors, to political demands than true educational needs.


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This can be seen in the state policies with regards to citing, funding and modification of program to suit political goals.

6.Misplaced Priorities This refers to a situation where political leaders make pronouncement on educational matters before policy planning, as was the case with UPE and its plans, in this case(s) planning commenced after implementation.

7.Political Considerations Another important aspect of educational system that is odiously wrong is the political consideration in the appointment of persons to positions of responsibility. At the operation level, such appointees pay more attention to issues largely on political consideration instead of technical, professional or managerial considerations.

8.Corruption And Greed The issue of corruption and greed has been a source of concern to many; at primary school level, for example, there are known cases of improper utilization of funds that are meant for building of schools, supply of teaching equipment, materials and most importantly, recruitment of teaching staff. These allegations imply that there are a lot of wastages in the primary school level of education. If avoided, such funds would contribute, in no small measure, towards the implementation of the system.

9.What Is The Difference Between Yesterday And Today In Terms Of Admnistration Of Primary Schhol Systems? For purposes of clarity, we need to draw a line between what we call yesterday and today. This would enable us discuss these differences more concisely. Within the context of this paper, yesterday refers to pre-universal primary education period. This is because during the period, the approach to education was based on manpower needs. The man-power approach was in place before the introduction of UPE in the western region up to 1955, the eastern region up to 1957 and in the northern region up to 1976 when the UPE was introduced at the national level.


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9.1.The Man-Power Approach As earlier mentioned in this approach, the educational system is allowed to train citizens, using manpower requirements. It is based on projected need to train skilled and semiskilled manpower for the nation. This projection is arrived at using employers’ opinion, incrementalism, density ratio and other means to arrive at the desired figure/number. As a result of the above arrangement, schools were also built based on such numbers. The primary schools established were very few. At the completion of primary school level of education, graduates were admitted into secondary, technical, commercial and other training centres based on the projected needs. Those unable to proceed were either dropped or utilized for jobs that require unskilled personnel. The manpower approach is considered selective and elitist; this is because only a few citizens were allowed to have access to education. The few that were selected were properly trained because they had good teachers, conducive educational facilities and the quality of education cannot be compared to what is obtained now. The quality of education was carefully guarded because of the fact that the trainees were carefully chosen, trained for a definite purpose, i.e. to fill in existing vacancies that were known to be available due to the projection and manpower planning in place, employment was automatic.

9.2.Primary Schools During The Manpower Approach Policy During the period under discussion, primary schools were very few (about 10 schools per district). The schools were the most attractive places in the villages. The Headmasters were the most highly educated and respected persons in the village, they were elderly, well composed and conscious of their relevance to the society in which they operate. They had special liking for children, sports and had a responsibility to report and collaborate with the village head or district head on any matter affecting the school. The schools were funded well and the school children were being supplied with uniforms and soap. Some primary schools were boarding. Those were the days when Nigeria relied on revenues accruing from sale of farm produce. Financing of education was being handled by regional governments.The qualification of those dedicated was either Grade III or Grade II. It is important to add that morale and discipline was high, as teachers were recruited based on merit, attitude, physical features and sound character. Teachers then emphasize personal hygiene good character, honesty and competition among pupils.


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There were prizes to be won at the end of each term and at the end of the gift and prizes were always awarded to deserving ones.

9.3.Primary Education Of Today The introduction of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1950-79 marked the end of manpower approach to educational planning. The implication of Universal Primary Education Programme is that schools will be accessible to all those who qualify for admission.

9.4.Social Demand Approach (SDA) The social demand approach is the simplest approach to educational planning. It relies on private demand for education and stipulates that all who demand education should be given the opportunity provided they are qualified. According to Coombs (1974), the social demand approach is used to mean:‘the aggregate “popular” demand for education, that is, the sum total of individual demands for education at a given place and time under prevailing cultural, political and economic circumstances” In his own explanation of the social demand approach, Adesina (1981) added that: “Only those who qualify for admission will have their demands met. It simply charges the education authorities with providing schools and facilities for all students who demand admission who are qualified to enter” Social demand approach is one of the techniques of planning educational development that has been adopted by government of developing countries whenever they plan to provide education for all their citizens such education has tended to be limited to the first and second levels of education.

9.4.1.Application of SDA In preparing a plan based on SDA the planners need to first forecast the expected enrolment. Secondly, use the available data to estimate the number of teachers, classrooms and other facilities that would be required to accommodate new enrolment. Thirdly, adequate cost data need to be used to estimate the total expenditure and search for a way of finding the plan.


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9.4.2.Advantages of SDA Social demand approach to educational planning encourages mass education or mass literacy. That is, its implementation increases the level of literacy in the society. It democratizes educational opportunities in the society. Through this approach, education is made available to everyone both rich and poor. It is less complex to adopt. It is simplest approach to educational planning. It reduces the level of social tension and as well as income gaps in countries where education acts as a ladder. It provides educational planners with a precise target of spaces to be provided. It facilitates the process of income redistribution.

9.5.Primary Education As Universal Basic Education (UBE) Primary Education is now called basic education to differentiate with the UPE due to changes intrinsic in the programmed. The decision to introduce UBE was necessitated by the desire of the political leadership to entrench viable participatory democracy and enhance national socio-economic development as a consequence of a free and compulsory regime of Basic Education. UBE was also intended as evidence of Nigeria’s commitment to the world declaration as Education for all, at Jomtien (1990) and Dakar (2000), as well as to the New Delhi Declaration of (1991). This was follow-up with a conference in Beijing (2001). Other conventions require nation to double up efforts toward primary more access to education among G9 countries (Nine countries with the largest number of illiterate adults and the OAU decade of Education in Nigeria due to the above and many other considerations, many developing countries opted for SDA. Therefore the education system expend beyond imagination.

9.6.Implications Of Social Demand Approach The implications of the this approach are to do with the continuous failing standard of Education and lowering morale of teachers, teacher trainees and the attitudes of the public towards teaching and the teaching profession; Emphasis on the teaching professional are informed by the conviction that no education system can rise above the quality of its teachers,The Educational system we are operating is in a state of confusion because there are no teachers (qualified) to operate the system. Those in the field are not willing; those in training are there not because of interest but availability of the training (Akinbote 2007). It was found that students enroll in Colleges of Education to train as INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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teachers not because they are interested in teaching but because it was the training available. In a study involving 1,200 students in 7 colleges of Education fund that 525 (43.75%) found their ways into colleges of Education because there no other institutions that could offer than admission, 150 (12.50%) come in as a result of their personal desire to become teachers. The rest claimed that they were training as teachers to satisfy to wish of their parents 45 (3.75%); encouragement from friends 108 (9.00%) and to use the training as a stepping stone 372 (31.00%) The above study gives a very relevant picture of the perception of the younger ones toward teaching. Teachers being the foundation an which educational systems are built are lacking in attitude, aptitude and therefore willingness to deliver, one should not expect such potential teacher.

10.How Would Tomorrow Look Like If Todays Methods Are Maintained? As at today, the Nigeria’s educational system is in a state of confusion. All stakeholders is worried that the system is not producing the desired result due to the following; Products of Basic Education not being above to read, write or speak good English Teachers not qualified (above 50%) Teachers un-willing and frustrate Brain drain and continuous alteration to other services Presence of frustrated, un-employment graduate Armed Robbery and relate crime Examination malpractice Area Boys, yan-daba, Boko Haram and other groups Corruption penetrating all spares Frustrated Inspectors and Supervisory Headmasters Many others 100 numerous to mention Granted the circumstances, regret to say that of the situation at our primary school level of Education is not addressed, the problem will continue to confound. I foresee a situation where drop-out, unemployment, corruption, Armed Robbery, social arrest, examination malpractice and many new social ills will continue to emerge. This is due to poor implementation of Universal Basic Education law as contained in UBE act (2004). The reason is simple – we are “mis-educating the young”, giving wrong orientation on the values, needs and aspiration of the nation i.e. building a house as a Faculty foundation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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11.The Way Forward These problem being experienced are becoming more complex by the day, due wrong training, by wrong teachers (in most cases) and in wrong environments. To improve and raise the quality of primary Education, we must treat education as a public health issue. This is due to the understanding that the success of any democratic system depends on the ability of the individuals to analyze problems and make thoughtful decisions. Primary education should be given the necessary attention to enable the system train children towards productivity. A productivity fostered by “free, critical, and creative thoughts on issues of common interest”, that is rational, acceptable and in tune with the national needs and aspirations, by taking the following steps.

11.1.De-Politicize Educational Matters There is no doubts that educational polices are products of political consideration and no educational policy may see the light of the day if it lacks political merit. However, the political leadership should allow educational planners and manners make input to provide for effective and efficient implementation.

11.2.Data For Planning Purposes All policies and programs are better planned and implementation if accurate data are made available and utilized correctly. We need to develop a cultural of data generation, storage and honest utilization. Planning without reliable data relating to primary education is wrong. We need to know the numbers of pupils, teachers, classrooms, teaching equipment and other materials needed for the system. Unfortunately, most of these things are inflated for political and other reasons.

11.3.Teacher Supply For Primary Level Of Education Teachers are the pillars on which educational systems are built. It is a fact that no educational system can rise above the quality of its teachers and therefore, where half of the teachers are not qualified, the productivity will be lower, and this is why we are experiencing dwindling quality. We need to make teaching profession attractive, get the best brains, plan good conditions of service and make their training attractive. There is also the need for re-orientation, sensitization and other deliberate effort to change the public image of teachers and the teaching profession.


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11.4.Funding Of Universal Basic Education The Universal Basic Education is free and compulsory for all school age children. It includes early childhood care and education, the nine years of formal schooling and other aspects of adult, non formal, nomadic and other forms of education for special groups in Nigeria. The scheme is ambition, laudable and in tune with what is obtained in most countries.Funding of this scheme has some implication on its quality due to the problems of unreliable data, political will, corruption and lack steady teacher supply in terms of funding for training and recruitment. Due to these, schools are under funded, teachers in short supply because there was no accurate data on the needs of these schools. Where the funds are available, corruption political consideration and miss-use becomes the problems.The truth is, government alone cannot at this point in time finance quality primary education because education is competing with other sectors of government. To be realistic, and for a qualitative education of our dream, the political class should consider making U.B.E. PARTIALLY FREE e.g free tuition, accommodation or uniforms, it may introduce charges that may be called as:Education levy Community involvement in building structures Household education levy Individual education tax Personal effort Cooperate efforts Any other source/names

11.5.Political Will In Respect Of UBE Political class should be willing to support the implementation of educational programmes. This is because education is the key to developments in other areas of the economy, hence, the need to give support to primary education at their respective levels.

12.Conclusion This paper traces the fact that the problems being encountered regarding the quality of primary education was due to the changes in our approach to primary education. The country has opted for Social Demand Approach (SDA), an approach that allows for mass education. We therefore, have to contain the implication of such decision, recognize the need to depoliticize education, provide accurate data, improve teacher supply INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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mechanisms and diversify the source of funding primary education. Also, employment, placement and allowing the technocrats (qualified teaching and non-teaching staff) to implement the primary education policies rationally will in my opinion make the difference.


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13.Reference 1. Ahmed, M. (2008) Education and Democracy: Challenges Ahead. A paper presented at the six National conference by Federal College of Education, Katsina, 18th July, 2008, College Auditorium 2. Adesina, S. (1998) The development of modern education in Nigeria. Ibadan, Heinemann education books (Nig) Ltd. 3. Akinbote, O. (2007) problems for Teacher Education for Nigerian Primary Schools:Beyond Curriculum design and implementation Essays in Education Volume 22, fall 2007. 4. Bello, S.A (1999) Fundamentals of Educational Planning and Model Building,Vitaman Educational Books, Lagos. 5. Coombs, P.H. (1974) What is educational planning? HEP 6. Dike, V. (2010) The State of Education in Nigeria and the Health of the Nation. www.afbis.com/analysis/education 7. Fafunwa, A.B (1976) History of Education in Nigeria. George Allan and University London. 8. Falola, F. et al (2009) Northern States Harbour Largest Number of Unqualified Teachers- investigation, future education, punch, 17th April, 2009. 9. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1978) National Policy on Education, Lagos NERDC press. 10. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) The compulsory, free Universal Basic Education Act, 2004 and other related matters, UBUC, Abuja.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Security Design Of Des Using Reversible Logic Shikha Kuchhal Student Mtech, H.C.E.,Sonepat Rakesh Verma Astt. Prof., H.C.E., Sonepat Abstract: Reversible logic is an emerging research area. Interest in reversible logic is sparked by its applications in several technologies, such as quantum, CMOS, optical and nanotechnology. Reversible implementations are also found in thermodynamics and adiabatic CMOS. Power dissipation in modern technologies is an important issue, and overheating is a serious concern for both manufacturer and customer. One of the main benefits that reversible logic brings is theoretically zero power dissipation in the sense that,

independently

of

underlying

technology,

irreversibility

means

heat

generation.Synthesis of multiple-output functions has to be done in terms of reversible objects. This usually results in addition of garbage bits which in contrast to the nonreversible case is technologically difficult and expensive. The amount of garbage is a very important criterion for a good synthesis procedure, since in most technologies the addition of only one bit of garbage is very expensive or even impossible to implement. Minimal garbage realization may require a larger number of gates in the circuit, but it is better to have a large but working circuit than a small one that is not ready for the technology.Encryption system demands not only high security but low power consumption. Reversible logic arose more and more attention in the recent past due to its less heat dissipating characteristics. We analysis the functional module of DES system, and designed respectively a reversible circuit of a 4- bit counter and a reversible circuit of two-way shift register. By using a series of reversible device, we realized the design of reversible circuits for the functional modules.

Keywords: Encryption, Cryptography, Reversible logic, DES. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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1.Introduction We are going to design a circuit for DES using reversible logic. Now question arises i.e. what is cryptography and what is the meaning of reversible logic. Answers to these questions are: Cryptography is the science of writing in secret code and is an ancient art; the first documented use of cryptography in writing dates back to circa 1900 B.C. when an Egyptian scribe used non-standard hieroglyphs in an inscription. Some experts argue that cryptography appeared spontaneously sometime after writing was invented, with applications ranging from diplomatic missives to war-time battle plans. It is no surprise, then, that new forms of cryptography came soon after the widespread development of computer communications. In data and telecommunications, cryptography is necessary when

communicating

over

any

untrusted

medium,

which

includes

just

about any network, particularly the Internet.

1.1.Reversible Computing This is a model of computing where the computational process to some extent is reversible, i.e., time-invertible. A necessary condition for reversibility of a computational model is that the relation of the mapping states of transition functions to their successors should at all times be one-to-one. Reversible computing is generally considered an unconventional form of computing.

2.Data Encryption Standard DES is the most popular symmetric-key algorithm. It was standardized in 1977 but expired in 1998. DES is a block cipher, which means that during the encryption process, the plaintext is broken into fixed length blocks and each block is encrypted at the same time. One block is 64 bits and the key is 64 bits wide (but only 56 bits are used).So we can in a more formally manner describe the algorithm like this: · _ = _ = { 0,1,2, … ,264-1 } · _ = { 0,1,2, … ,256-1 } · each xi has 64 bits *each key has 56 bits


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This description is not complete without the encryption function and the decryption function. The principle of DES encryption is made of an initial permutation, followed by 16 rounds and ended by a final permutation, as we can see in the next figure: We can see the key-scheduling part at the right which is responsible to give a new 48 bits sub key for each round. Inside each round, the right part of the data is simply swapped while the left part is xored with the result of the f-function applied to the left part. Now take a closer look at the core of the DES algorithm: the f-function.

Figure 1:F-Function As we can see, the data coming to the f-function goes first through an expansion block and is then xored with the sub key. After that, the data arrives at the S-boxes,which are look-up tables. The next step is a simple permutation and finally, the resulting data is xored with the left part. At this moment, we must find out how the key-scheduling achieves to build the sub keys. We saw before that the key is initially 64 bits wide. But in the algorithm, only 56 bits are really used. So we can notice in the above figure that the component PC-1 removes these 8 bits to have the correct size. PC-1 also permutes the other bits.Then, at each step the key is shifted on the left one or two times. Before delivering the sub key, the component PC-2 reduce and permutes the 56 bits shifted key.Now that we had a good overview of the encryption function (ek), we can take look at the decryption function (dk).


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Figure 2: Key-Scheduling The decryption process is very similar as the encryption one, as we observe in the next schematic:

Figure 3: Decryption Obviously, the decryption is very similar to the encryption. Only the key-scheduling is reversed. Additionally, we must highlight that there are four standardized modes of operation of DES: ECB (Electronic Codebook mode), CBC (Cipher Block Chaining mode), CFB (Cipher Feedback mode) and OFB (Output Feedback mode). We won’t detail all the modes of operation; we just need to know that in our project, we will use INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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the ECB mode, for a detailed description of DES, [2]. In ECB mode, each plaintext block is encrypted independently with the block cipher.

3.Concept And Theory Of Problem From the literature survey mentioned in the previous chapter , we can conclude that different techniques are available to design reversible logic circuits, From IEEE Paper [1] “Function Modular Design Of The Des Encryption Using Reversible Logic Gates “we can design cryptographic technique using reversible logic The principle of DES encryption is made of an initial permutation, followed by 16 rounds and ended by a final permutation, as we can see in the next figure:

Figure 4: DES Block Schematic A more detailed version of this illustration:The figure below is called the Feistel network. We can see the key-scheduling part at the right which is responsible to give a new 48 bits sub key for each round. Inside each round, the right part of the data is simply swapped while the left part is xored with the result of the f-function applied to the left part. In our base paper [1] “function modular design of the des encryption using reversible logic gates “ there is the proposed design of DES using reversible logic using 4 mux, which is a quite complex design to consider. Hence we have implemented the proposed design with reversible counters and register which is much simpler and easy to understand.


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Figure 5: Feistel network 4.Result And Discussion This chapter includes the results of proposed work. The results show the encrypted data with minimum power dissipation as compared with existing circuits. For preparing this work the base paper “Function Modular design of the DES encryption system based on reversible logic gates” was implemented practically using Xilinx software. The proposed circuit for the encryption using reversible logic is as follows: Figure 6: Complete distribution of key and operation module. Figure 7: Timing diagram of the result with data 11000011. Figure 8: Timing diagram of the result with data 11000011.

Figure 6: Complete Distribution Of Key And Operation Modu INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Figure 7: Timing Diagram Of The Result With Data 11000011

Figure 8: Timing Diagram Of The Result With Data 11000011 5.Conclusion And Future Scope In these section future aspects for the dissertation has been recommended. That is the properties which can be enhanced in future by applying more efficient implementations or the same implementation more efficiently.In this dissertation DES algorithm of cryptography is implemented using reversible logic so as to secure data more efficiently with least power consumption.This dissertation is very enriching, from the course of cryptographic engineering before the beginning of the semester, through the tests with the software’s and finally the work at the laboratory with sophisticated tools. Despite the tests couldn’t take place with the logic analyzer, this brought some new knowledge with such professional and interesting equipments.


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Some improvements for this project which have been discussed could be applied in future work.In future work properties like secrecy and integrity in transmission and storage, authentication of identity , threshold systems etc can be enhanced and the circuit can be designed more efficiently using reversible gates having less garbage outputs and less quantum cost. TDES algorithm can also be designed using reversible logic as TDES is more secure cryptographic technique.


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6.Reference 1. Yiqing Zhang, Zzhijin Guan, Zhilang Nie, “Function Modular Design of The DES Encryption using Reversible Logic Gates”,2010,104-107 2. Wenping Guo, Zhenlog Li, Ying Chen, Xiaoming Zhao, “Security Design For IMS Based On RSA and TDES”,2010 3. Wen Pinn Fang, “VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY in Reversible style”, 4. CarlM.Campbell, “Design And Specification of Crytographic Capabilties”,1978 5. P.Kitsos, S.Goudevenos and O.Kouopaulau, “Vlsi Implimentation of TDES Block Cipher”,2003,76-79 6. F.-X. Standaert, G.Rouvroy, J.-JQuiqueter, “FPGA Implimentation of DES and TDES Masked against power Analysis attacks”,2006 7. Hasan Rehan, Sharoj Jamshed,Absar ul hq, “why TDES ith 128 bit key, and not Rijindael should be AES”, 8. Robert Wille, “An Introduction To Reversible Circuit Design”, 2011 9. Efficient ADDER Circuit Based on Reversible Logic Gates 10. Maryam Ehsaupour, Payman Moallem,Abbas Vafaei, “Design of a novel reversible Multiplier Using Modified Full Adder”,2010,V3-230-V3-234 11. Siva Kumar Sastri Hari,Shyam Shraff , SK Noor Mahammmadand V Kamakoti, “Efficient Building Blocks For Reversible Sequential Circuit Design", circuits and systems,2006,437-441 12. Stefan frehse, Robert Wille, Raff Drechsle,”Efficient Simulation based Debugging of Reversible Logic”,2010,156-161 13. Yu Pang,Jinzhao Lin, Sayeeda Sultana, Katarzyno Radecka, “A Novel Method Of Synthesizing Reversible Logic”,2011,2851-2860 14. Mozammel H A Khan, Marek Perkowski,”Synthesis Of Reversible Synchronous Counter”, 2011, 242-247 15. New directions in cryptography—invited paper


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Quality Improvement By Root Cause Assesment A Case Study Mr. Rupesh Kalantri Assistant Professor(Mechanical Engineering),Rajasthan Institute Of Engg. & Technology,Chittorgarh (Raj.)India Mr. Saurabh Chandrawat Head Of Deptt.(Me),Mewar Niversity,Chittaurgarh, India

Abstract: Root-cause recognition for quality related problems are key consideration

for

manufacturing processes. It has been a very painstaking engineering problem specially in a multistage manufacturing, where large number of processes and activities are performed. Whilst,it can be easily implementedon in indivsual or group of activities in any manufacturing processes.Kaizen is objected towards decreasing in different types of losses i.e. Failure Loss/ B, Minor blockage, idling loss, Setup loss etc.So as to improve quality.In this report, root-cause assesment methodology has been taken into consideration to eradicate the rejection of product manufactured by the industry and increasing the life of product. Diffferent type of RCA tools have been used to find out the reasons of product failure and various problems in tubular strander which is used in wire industry to make wires.Remedies of these troubles have also described in this report. A detailed study has described the effectiveness of the proposed research.

Keywords:RCA(Root Cause Assesment) FBD(Fish-Bone DiagramTQM(Total Quality Management) SR(Stress Relieving) Tubular Strander Machine(TSM).


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1.Introduction RCA is the method to find out the basic failure of any equipment or process in progressive way. RCA once applied ensures that problems will not generate back.RCA helps to stay in quickly changing market by analyzing the basic reason of failure by reviewing the event thoroughly from every angle.It can analyse all the problems related to quality.RCA is the method of interpreting the contributory factors of problem occurrence in way an engineering approach.

1.1.Basic Terminology Adopted In RCA Unfavourable occurrence Hurdles Brainstorming Adjoining Cause Resources Circumstances Basic reasons

1.2.Various Techniques Used In RCA Fish Bone Diagram(FBD) WW Analysis (WWA) Current Reality Tree (CRT) Multi Variance Analysis(MVA) Brainstorming Sessions(BS)

1.3.Root Cause Assessment Methods Contributory factor analysis Transformation Analysis Barrier analysis Risk pyramid Analysis Employee performance assessment

1.4.Distinction Between RCA Tools And RCA Methods


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RCA Tools are the techniques to obtain effective solutions of the problem by ensuring the non-occurrence of the problems again. RCA Methods are the ways to know how the provided solutions will give clear understanding of meeting the targeted goals.

1.5.When To Use RCA There are many ways to solve a problem.RCA is a very planned approach to review the problem step-by-step and find out,why something has occurred and what are the ways to prevent its occurrence.RCA is a lengthy and time absorbing process.But one has to apply this to ensure better quality of product.

1.6.Root Cause Assesment Process

1.6.1.Team Formation A group of experienced and knowledgeable persons is formed.Size of group is taken as 2 to 7.

1.6.2.Brain Storming(Maximum Solutions) Ideas are collected from all the team members by discussions.All type of Causes of problem is found out by the rigorous discussions After above phase there is Separation of causal and non-causal factors.Result of above discussions isolates the reasons of failure in contributing and non-contributing categories.

1.6.3.Pyramid Construction A pyramid is constructed to find out the final to initial failure’s cause in a precedence manner.It is done till it cannot be traced further.Each cause must be related to its preceded cause. Once this excersise is done and analysed,team finds out the changes that has to be incorporated to prevent the regeneration of causes.

1.7.Phases Of RCA Application Recognise the matter INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Formation of team Describe the physical phenomenon of reason Use 2H3W technique. Take every cause into consideration Classify all logical and illogical issues. Bifurcation of physical cause and human error cause.

2.Case Study Study was done at wire fabrication machine plant. It produces variety of wire making machines.Focus is done on Tubular Strander Machine(TSM).

Figure1:Tubular Strander Various problems in the machine were Exessive Vibrations and noise Fracture in Frame But, no root causes were observed. It was challenge to find out the basic reason behind above mentioned problems . 2.1.Probable Causes Of Fracture Stresses developed due to poor machining. Improper method of fabrication. Centrifugal force due to High Speed. Low quality of material.


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Figure 2: Fracture In Tube 2.2.Probable Causes Of Vibration And Noise Improper balancing Improper installation Lack of proper maintenance Metal to metal contact of mating members. Fishbone Diagram has been used to incorporate multiple pobable causes with a individual effect. The diagram is formed to identify and organize the possible causes for a particular effect. After deciding the possible causes of the problem, root cause was identified.



Materials

Team

Brainstorming

Circumstances

Problem



Machines

Noise

Measuring

Design

Figure 3:Fishbone Diagram 2.3.Acknowledgment of root cause The root cause or most fundamental reason that led to the failure has to be identified. By analyzing the FBD. the following root causes were identified


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Fracture in tubular strander machine was due to residual stresses by poor fabrication. Vibration occurred due to “out of centre” running of pipe.

2.4.Solutions Of The Problems From RCA following remedies were found out Internal residual stresses were removed by various heat treatment processes such as hardening,carburizing,annealing etc Out of centre running of machine can be eliminated by complete dynamic balancing of pipe with the help of balancing machine so that vibration as well as quality of the product can be improved.Which will ultimately help in reducing the formation of fracture. Noise can be reduced by using suitable alloy(hylem) rollers inplace of metallic rollers.

2.4.1.Removal Of Stresses Stress removal is applied to both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys with the aim to remove internal residual stresses due to various improper manufacturing methods.Else further processing will lead to undesirable distortion and the service problems will appear like stress corrosion cracking. Different steels can be given two types of stress relief: Treatment at 170-220°C removes high stresses after hardening without reduction of hardness Treatment at 550-700°C provides total stress relief.

2.4.1.1.Advantages By Stress removing and normalising metals and alloys processed further easily and having good service conditions. They improve the machinability and better service, eradication of fracture. 2.4.1.2.Stress Can Also Be Removed By Resonant Vibration Method In Which The work pieces are subjected to low frequency, high amplitude vibrations for a small period of time based on the weight of the work piece.But it is not suitable for extrusion or cold worked jobs.


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2.4.2.Balancing The eccentric rotor will transmit the vibrations to the bearing ,foundation as well as the nearby machine which is very harmful and that is why proper care has to be taken of,for smooth running. Unbalance force is directly related by following formula F α v2 F=Force due to Unbalancing v=Speed of rotor Continuous exposure of vibration leads to damage of the machine,badly affecting its accuracy and performance.So dynamic balancing has to be done.

2.4.2.1.Causes Of Imbalancing 2.4.2.1.1.Manufacturing Causes Density Porosity Voids Blow holes Misshapen castings Eccentric machining Poor assembly Rotational Stresses Aerodynamic Thermal changes

2.4.2.1.2.Assembly – Causes Are Stack-up of tolerance Keys and Keyways

2.4.2.1.3.Installation Causes Corrosion, Wear, Distortion, and INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Deposit build up.

2.4.2.2.Corrections When unbalance has been identified and quantified, the correction is straightforward. Weight has to be either added or removed from the rotating element. The ultimate aim being to reduce the uneven mass distribution so that the centrifugal forces and hence the vibrations induced in the supporting structures are at an acceptable level

2.4.2.3.Effects There are many documented “good effects” associated with a well balanced, smooth running rotor. Included among these are: Lesser vibration Reduced noise Reduced structural stress Less operator fatigue and annoyance Improved machine life long bearing life Improved product quality Increased personnel safety Improved productivity Lesser Operating costs Extra machines are not required “just in case” of breakdowns. Spare capacity is kept to a minimum. Energy consumption is reduced.It's the foremost preliminary step for proceeding with any research work writing. While doing this go through a complete thought process of your Journal subject and research for it's viability by following means: Read already published work in the same field. Goggling on the topic of your research work. Attend conferences, workshops and symposiums on the same fields or on related counterparts. Understand the scientific terms and jargon related to your research work.


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3.Result Analysis Product of the company on which RCA applied is Tubular Strander. One of the problems observed during present work is

3.1.Fracture Occurring In Cradle Tube By evaluating the RCA sheet, many brainstorming session and technical discussions with the team members, the following root causes of the above said problem was found Fracture in TS occurred due to internal residual stresses generated by prior fabrication process.

3.1.1.Solution Of The Problem From brainstorming, RCA sheet and literature reviews following solution was find out of the above stated root cause. Internal residual stresses generated in pipe due to fabrication process can be removed by stress relieving. SR can be done either by heat treatment or by Resonant Vibration Method.

3.2.Vibration And Noise In Machine Second problem generated is Vibration in machine. In the TS vibration is the second major problem. By analyzing the RCA the following root cause of the above said problem is found: Vibration is occurring due to eccentric running of cradle i.e. complete balancing of the rotor is not done.

3.2.1.Solution Of The Problem From RCA and literature reviews following solution was find out of the above stated root cause. Eccentric running of tubular strander machine can be avoided by complete dynamic balancing of pipe by fully automatic balancing machine so that vibration as well as quality of the product can be improved. This will also be helpful in reducing the formation of cracks.


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4.Kaizen Activity Numbers of Kaizen activities were taken up for improvement in quality. Some of these activities are discussed below: Switch over from metallic supporting rollers to Hylem rollers

Figure 4: Hylem Roller Application

Figure 5 Steel rollers cause a huge noise when rotor rotates at high speed (750 rpm) because there is metal to metal to contact between cradle and supporting rollers. To reduce the noise a layer of hylem is used on the steel roller. Circular shape of hylem is cut from hylem sheet. Hylam Sheet also known as Phenolic Laminated Sheets, Bakelite Sheet, Tufnol Sheet. Phenolic Resin Bonded Cotton Fabric Laminates (SRBF) has an exhaustive range of Industrial Laminates Paper & fabric base Bakelite Sheets in electrical & mechanical variety.Phenolic Resin Bonded Cotton Fabric Laminates are used where mechanical strength, wear resistance and resilience are more important than electrical insulation. Typical applications of fabric laminates are gears, textile shuttles, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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bearings, pickers, bushes and marine application. Different grades are offered to suit specific applications. Hylem grade F107 is used in the industries. So the results of a RCA are typically utilized to guide and direct changes to processes, the environment, and human behavior in order to prevent or reduce the probability that the adverse event will occur in the future.

5.Conclusion The conventional Root Cause AssesmentTools and Methods provide some planned approach to the process of human event problem solving. This empirical study shows as to how they can be used and how it can be communicated to others with full appreciation. How the solutions will prevent the problem from recurring. The Root Cause Tools and Methods could be utilized according to prevalent conditions and situations of Man, Material, Machines, Systems and Processes. .


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6.Reference 1. Swami Rajshekhera and Mahadevappa,B.“The current practices of ISO 9001:2000 certification and its effectiveness”, productivity, vol., 47, No. 1-2, April-Sept 2006, P.P. 144-154. 2. Olsson, Ulf and Ericson, Mats. “A practical approach to quality control and quality analysis and depth of data”. 3. Sproull, B. (2001), “Process Problem Solving: A Guide for Maintenance and Operations Teams”, Portland: Productivity Press 4. Brown, J. I. (1994), “Root-Cause Analysis in Commercial Aircraft Final Assembly”, Master’s Abstracts International, 33(6), 1901-. 5. Anderson, B., & Fagerhaug, T., (2000), “Root Cause Analysis: Simplified Tools and Techniques”, Milwaukee: ASQ Quality Press. 6. Chaterjee, Pradeep K. “Quality Excellence for productivity improvement”. Productivity, vol. 33, No. 4. July–September, 1993, P.P. 288-291. 7. Singh, Ajit, “Corporate vision and quality policy: Creating an organization culture”. Productivity, vol. 33, No. 4. January–March, 1993, P.P. 667-670. 8. Mukherjee, Kampanand Krishna, C.M. “Quality and productivity: Study on a public sector unit”. Productivity, vol. 36, No 3. October – December, 1995, P.P. 430-436. 9. Mahadevappa, B and Kotreshwar, G. “Competing Definitions of Quality”. Productivity, vol. 44, No.2, June–September, 2003, P.P. 258-264. 10. Black, Rex. “Quality risk analysis”. 11. Arcaro, J. S. (1997), “TQM Facilitator’s Guide”, Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie Press. 12. Shichang Du, Lifeng Xi, Jun Ni, Pan Ershun and C. Richard Liu “Product lifecycle-oriented quality and productivity improvement based upon stream of variation methodology”, Computers in Industry, issue 59, 2008, pp 180-192 13. A.P. Kedar, R.R. Lakhe, V. S. Deshpande, P. V. Washimkar and M. V. Wakhare, “A comparative review of TPM, TPM and related organizational performance improvement programs”, First international conference on 88 emerging trends in engineering and technology, DOI 10-11- 09/ICETET.2008.133, pp. 725-730.


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Impact Of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme In India - A Case Study On Gourangachak Of Hooghly In West Bengal Utpal Khara Research scholar (PhD), University of Calcutta, India Biplab Das Research scholar (PhD), Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Kolkata, India

Abstract: Over the last seven years the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) has delivered the largest employment programmed in human history. It has two category of objectives, primary objective is augmenting wage employment and auxiliary objectives is strengthening natural resource management through works that address causes of chronic poverty like flood, drought, soil erosion and encourage sustainable development. In this study the researcher tried to find out impact of the scheme on a village.


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1.Introduction Over the last seven years the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) has delivered the largest employment programmed in human history. It has two category of objectives, primary objective is augmenting wage employment and auxiliary objectives is strengthening natural resource management through works that address causes of chronic poverty like flood, drought, soil erosion and encourage sustainable development. In this study the researcher tried to find out impact of the scheme on a village.

2.Background Of The Study National Rural Employment Guarantee Act was enacted on 5th September, 2005 and came into force w.e.f. 2nd February, 2006. On 31st December, 2009, the Act was renamed by an Amendment as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005. It is now commonly referred to as Mahatma Gandhi NREGA. In its first year 200 districts were covered. This was followed by extension to 130 districts in the following year. Finally, in the 3rd year of its operation i.e. 2008-09, it was extended to 285 districts. In the meantime several new districts were created by division of older districts. Thus the coverage of districts under Mahatma Gandhi NREGA currently stands at 619.The Act made supplementary livelihood in rural areas through unskilled manual work a legal right. Any rural household seeking unskilled manual work could register its family in the Gram Panchayat and obtain a job card. With the possession of a job card, the registered rural household could apply for work for at least 100 days in the Gram Panchayat. Gram Panchayat was entrusted with the legal duty of providing work to such applicant within 15 days of the receipt of the application, failing which unemployment allowance would become payable to the rural household. The law prescribes payment of wages every week and not later than a fortnight of the work done. In the event of delay in payment of wages, workers were entitled to compensation under Payment of Wages Act, 1938. The study area (Gourangachak village) is located at the eastern side of Khanakul-II block(Hooghly District).Latitudinal and longitudinal extends are 22041’22”N and 87 054’32”E respectively. The village is surrounded by Howrah district in eastern side, Balaichak village in southern side, Malancha and Solasta is western side and Par 24-pur in northern side. In this village total population is 3200. Total numbers of family are 680. Basically three category of caste population are present like general (53%), other INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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backward class (1%) and schedule caste (46%).The most of the SC population are belong in BPL. They are maximum landless people, and doing as agricultural or constructional labour. This area is agriculturally dominated. Double to four crops can be cultivated in most of the agricultural land. The study area has been moderate to highly flood frequented by the river of Damodor and Mundeshary.

3.Significance Of The Study The regime of right to livelihood was to be financially supported by the Central and State Governments. State Governments were made responsible for ensuring the guarantee of livelihood and timely payment of wages. State would provide the necessary technical and administrative support through the Districts and the Blocks to ensure proper implementation of the Act. Separate provisions have been made for incurring administrative expenses by empowering the Central Government to fix a proportion of total cost of the scheme to be used for administration of the Act. The Act permits certain categories of work to be taken up for providing employment to the job seeking rural households. These categories are generic in nature such as water conservation, drought proofing, irrigation, land development, rejuvenation of traditional water bodies, flood control and drainage work, rural connectivity and work on the land of SC/ST/BPL/IAY beneficiaries/land reform beneficiaries/ individual small and marginal farmers.

4.Objectives Of The Study 

To enumerate the degree of eradication of seasonal unemployment by the scheme.



To narrate the status of improvement of rural connectivity.



To find out the developmental condition of water conservation.



To explain the arrangement for reducing the flood condition.



To describe the implementation of social forestry.



To explain the arrangement of micro-irrigation project.



To analyze other aspects in rural area.

5.Methodology During the survey, following methodology has been adopted.


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5.1.Selection Of The Study Site Initially,Gourangachak village,under Chingra panchayat and Khanakul-II block has been selected as a study site with the purpose of locating implementation of MGNREGS. It’s a remote, economically backward as well as flood affecting area.

5.2.Sampling & Sampling Techniques One round of field survey was conducted for the study. A total of fifty samples MGNREGS worker families were interviewed. Household surveys of beneficiaries enable to establish a linkage between objectives and outcomes. And another survey was also conducted to supervisors of the village for collecting necessary documents related the study. The sampling technique is non-probability, purposive. An observation technique also was the most effective in this study.

5.3.Tools For the purpose of the research work questionnaires were used as tools. One questionnaire was developed for the household survey, and another one was for survey to supervisors.

5.4.Analytical Procedure Of Study Analysis of this paper is divided into seven sections on the basis of objectives of the study. Collected data were tabulated and compiled by different statistical techniques, and finally represented for empirical analysis of the performance of the MGNREGS in the village. The last section attempts to draw conclusion and offers recommendations for streamlining processes of implementation for maximizing effectiveness.

6.Results

6.1.Degree Of Eradication Of Seasonal Unemployment By MGNREGS. The primary objective of the scheme is augmenting wage employment which also related with eradication of seasonal unemployment. In agricultural based villages main problem is seasonal unemployment. After implementation of the programmed (100 day’s job in a year) has been reducing of seasonal unemployment in village area. Agricultural worker only got job in highly agricultural season, and about half of the year they were unemployed; but now its nature has changed, Labour class people also get job in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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agricultural leisure season. The following table helps to identify the time period of seasonal unemployment that is moderate to deficient agricultural season.

Highly

Agricultural Moderate

Season

Agricultural Deficient

season

Middle of November to February

Season to

middle

March

last of December

agricultural

of Last December to End of January

Middle of April to Middle -

Middle March to Middle of

of June

April

Middle of July to end of -

Middle of June to end of

August

July September to middle of Middle

-

October

of

October

to

Middle of November

Table 1: Concentration nature of agricultural season a year Source: Primary Survey, 2012

WAGE RATE IN RUPEES

YEARWISE CHANGE OF WAGE RATE 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Wage rate in rupees

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 YEAR

Figure 1: Yearwise Change of Wage

6.2.Improvement of rural connectivity in village After implementation of the scheme many unmetalled road were already constructed. Those are given below:


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From

To

Near Bidhan kanrar land

Near Adak land(700m)

Goluipara

Temuni(250m)

Krishna Roy’s house

Nemai Samanta’s cottage(920m)

Manasatala

Gorumara khal(500m)

Kartik’s bag house

Manasatala(800m)

Rabin Golui’s home

Mohan Pranamick’s house(500m)

Adhikari para bridge

Soumen Adhikari’s home(250m)

Table 2: Construction of village road by the scheme Source: Primary data-2012

Figure 2: New Constructed Road

From the above table (no.02) reveals that near about four kilometer rural road was constructed. It was helped to connect different important nodal point entire of the village. By the improvement of this type of connectivity people can communicate with their nearest market place (24-pur) and agricultural field. During heavy rains and low flood height condition it was not possible to communicate with the market and another villages, now it is very much possible. It is also mentionable more road will be develop in upcoming years which are already sanctioned (Annual Action plan) by the respective authority.


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Response in percentage

RESPONSE ON ROAD CONNECTIVITY IMPROVED 40 20 0

Road connectivity improved in percentage

Response nature

Figure 3: Response on Road Connectivity Improved

6.3.Development Of Water Conservation In The Village For the supply of needable water like house holder use and irrigation purpose also it’s necessary to conserve the water from rainy season. So MGNREGS also excavate and reexcavate of pond. After the implementation of the programmed two big pond re-excavate (khanrar para pond and shee para pond). It’s a rule that any private pond re-excavated by the government scheme, owner of the pond allow to give water in deficient water season to his neighbour people for irrigation purpose. By the way this scheme also helps to develop a good cooperative village society. It’s a good sign for sustainable development in many aspects.

6.4.Arrangement For Reducing Flood Level In The Village Flood is main natural constrain in this area. In every year low to very high flood has been occurred by damaged of embankment or over flow of Damodar and Mundeshary River. Now it’s impossible to manage high level of flood due to many causes particularly lower Damodar and Mundeshary basin but it is possible to control low to moderate inundation stage. By the reconstruct of the embankment besides the khals(canal) it can prevent over flow. With the implement of the scheme two embankments is reconstructed to control flood (Netai Khanra house to Mondal para and Kishlay Sangha to Kole para). It also important fact that part of the embankment was concretized by boulder and two are now under construction.


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Figure 4: Arrangement for Flood Reduction

6.5.Implementation of social forestry Social forestry is an important part of environmental and social issue. This forestry system is also auxiliary objective of MGNREGS. By the scheme many vacant space as well as besides the newly constructed road have been beautified with near rapidly growth plant (eucalyptus etc.), and also a food-garden was implemented besides primary school (Gourangachak Primary School).

Figure 5: New Plantation

6.6.Arrangement of micro-irrigation project In the deficient water season many acre of land remain uncultivated. By the scheme so many culvert installed under the road to use boro-water (in deficient period which supplied by reservoir).Many sluice gate also constructed to control the irrigation system. In Annual Action Plan (AAP) were sanctioned two river pump irrigations projects which INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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known as micro-irrigation project. By implementation of the projects will be helped to farmers of the village.

7.Others Impact On The Rural Area

7.1.Impact On Household Income After the implementation of MGNREGS house hold income is gradually increasing, specially within the landless or agricultural workers families. This scheme has not influenced to increase income directly within rich families. About 49% income has been earning from the scheme entire poor villagers,43% income comes from agricultural labour and allied activities and rest of 8% earn comes from non agricultural wages (construction labour, money-lender’s labour etc.)

SHARE OF INCOME FROM M.G.N.R.E.G.S AND OTHER SOURCES 8%

43% Agricultural labour and allied activities Earning from MGNREGS Non agricultural wages

49%

Figure 6: Source of Income

7.2.Impact on household expenditure The impact of MGNREGS as supplementary income source, adding to total household income was seen to result in increased expenditure of the household. Household spent part of their total income on other consumption such as marketing of green vegetable, sufficient rice, clothes, developing to house environment (more clean than before condition, other physical minimum equipments etc.),clothes and also notably to some extent on health and education, besides in some instances on festivals and ceremonies and also repaying some past debt.


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RESPONSE IN PERCENTAGE

IMPACT OF M.G.N.R.E.G.S ON INCREASING EXPENDITURE OF HOUSEHOLD 80 60 40 20 0 Response in percentage

NATURE OF RESPONSE

Figure 7: Actual Condition of Expenditure in Village

8.Major Findings And Sugessions Following findings can include from the study:-

8.1.Positive Findings 

The scheme contributes to eradicate of seasonal unemployment in to some extent.



It has been improving rural connectivity than prior situation.



It has developed water conservation and allied activities (fishing etc.) of the village.



By the scheme has been improved to control low to moderate level of flood.



It guided to villagers for implementation of social forestry.



By the scheme micro-irrigation projects which already sanctioned in Annual Action Plan (APP) will improve.



The scheme has been helping household income as well as expenditure in the rural area.

8.2.Negative Findings 

It has been creating labour crisis in agricultural field, as result labour cost has been increasing and simultaneously agricultural production cost also augmenting.



Lack of effectiveness of supervisor to implement of a sanctioned scheme with in a time.


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8.3.Suggestions 

Stress should be given to increase working days in deficient agricultural season for fulfillment 100 days in a year.



Need to more connectivity improvement with main road (24-Pur to Tarakeswar Road) which help to direct access with Hooghly’s different agricultural growth centers (Chapdanga, Arambag, Tarakeswar etc.).



Need to more attention on re-excavation of ponds to store rainy water because many ponds become dry in summer season due to their lack of depth.



To set up more calvert (a concretized hole under a road) by which excess water can easily drain out from the low land in rainy season and after flood.



Thrust should be given on the development of social and agricultural forestry to increase level of income and also to have green environment. Local people and local government have to be involved to protect, observe and implement the forestry purpose.



Need for more comprehensive training to supervisor and authority should be taken some effective steps to aware the local people.



Local government (Gramshova, panchayat ) should be taken some necessary steps to manage labour crisis in highly agricultural season.

9.Conclusion Any local people related Governmental scheme will be going properly by the help of effective higher to local administration and local people awareness. In this scheme every higher as well local (gram panchayat and gramsova) administrators have been working as per their norm but still local people have not aware about the scheme. After implementation of the scheme maximum rural area gradually developing in many kinds entire India, like rural road improvement, water conservation, emergence of social forestry, development of irrigation, improvement of land condition, over all household income as well expenditure in positive way etc. At the end, it stated that implementation of the scheme in Indian rural area has been progressing in sustainable development.


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10.Reference 1. Aiyar, Y and Samji, S. (2009), Transparency and Accountability in NREGA – A Case Study of Andhra Pradesh, Working Paper 1, New Delhi: Accountability Initiative. 2. Bhaduri, A. (2005) Development with Dignity, New Delhi: National Book Trust CEC (2009) Delivering NREGS – Challenges and Opportunities, Hyderabad: Centre for Environment Concerns. 3. Das.B and Bandyopadhyay.A.(2012). ‘Causes of Flood by Indian River’ A Case Study of Transboundary River Icchamati in Gangetic Delta, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Electronics Engineering,Volume 1, Issue 7, September 2012,277-292, ISSN: 2277 – 9043. 4. Das.B(2011).Flood Risk Management by Transboundary River of Gangetic Delta ,Lap Lambert Academic Publishing ,Saarbrücken, Germany,65-79. 5. Giri.P, Barua.P and Das.B(2012).’Sundarban Delta: Perspective for the Long Term Future’, Lap Lambert Academic Publishing ,Saarbrücken, Germany,84143. 6. Economic Survey, (2011-2012), Government of India, Minister of Finance, Department of Economics Affairs, Economic Division, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp.307-315. 7. Economic Review, (2010-11), Government of West Bengal, Kolkata. 8. Khullar,D.R.

(2006),

India-

a

comprehensive

geography,

Kalyani

Publishers,Kolkata. 9. Mehrotra, S. (2008) – “NREG Two Years On: Where do we go from here?”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 43, No. 31, pp.27-35. 10. Rajsekhar, B. (2009) ‘Transparency and Accountability Initiatives – The Social Audit Experience in Andhra Pradesh’, workshop on National Rural Employment Guarantee in India – Lessons from Implementation, Institute for Human Development and Institute of Social Studies Trust,Bangalore. 11. Reddy, D. N. Tankha, R. Upendranadh, C. and Sharma, A.N. (2010) ‘National Rural Employment Guarantee as Social Protection’, IDS Bulletin, Vol. 41, No.4, pp. 63-76.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Global Meltdown and Tourism Industry in Goa: An Alternative Approach Dr. Dinesh Das Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Gossaigaon College, Kokrajhar, Assam, INDIA

Abstract: Tourism as a service industry supports many economics in the world including merging economies.

At the same time it is very sensitive

industry to global events. The impact of global meltdown was felt on national income of many economies. This study is a state level study of Goa from the point of view with regard to global meltdown and its impact on inflow of tourists. Though the economy of Goa tourists driven economy, is in position to reap the benefits of the same even in times of world crisis by diversify its tourism activities to the extent of attracting tourists throughout the year.

Keywords: Tourism Industry, Infrastructure, Goa, India


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1.Introduction Tourism is the most dynamic and vulnerable service industry which employed around 225 million people around

the world and generated 9.6 percent global GDP in

2008(WTTC ,2009). Events like 9/11 terror attack, wars in Afghanistan, tsunami in South East Asia, present recession have taken its toll on tourism industry but because of globalization of tourism different regions were able to sustain the industry along with different challenges.(Dorin & Ozal, 2009). Tourism is being vulnerable to all these challenges has shown

its impact in terms of reduced expenditure of household

consumers of travel as well as cost cutting by business houses affecting travel & tourists business destinations. India is no exception to this. Tourism industry is one of the enormous service industry with its contribution of 6.23 percent to national GDP & 8.78 percent of Total employment, witness more than 5 million annual foreign tourists arrivals & 562 million

domestic

tourists. According

competitiveness report,

to WTTC, the travel

2007 ranked tourism in India 6th

and

in terms

tourism of price

competitiveness & 39th in terms of safely & security. According to Tenth five year plan document, percentage share of all employment in tourism sector in India is amongst the lowest in world. One such tiny state has its own position on the global map is Goa which is very famous for its scenic beauty and beaches. Goa is very famous among foreign as well as domestic tourists for decades. A blend of western traditional culture, rich cultural and religious heritage attracts the attention of tourists. Over the years

state

has

experienced

diversification in tourism ranging from beach tourism to sports tourism, village tourism, medical tourism leisure tourism etc.

2.Objectives Of The Study This paper makes an attempt to find out the fall in domestic and foreign tourists arrival during recessionary period and its implications on Goa’s economy. Possibility of alternative tourism to survive despite recessionary trends is also taken into consideration for the state of Goa.

3.Methodology And Database Data is used on actual

arrival of domestic and foreign tourists from economic

survey of Goa, 2007-08 & 2008-09 considering that recessionary trends had started INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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from mid 2007 onwards, linear regression model was fit from 1991 to 2007 on actual arrival of domestic and foreign tourists on the basis of which projected population of foreign and domestic tourists arrival was calculated for the period 1991-2008. The Chisquare test was used for goodness of fit. In order to find out the changes in tourist arrival, the difference between projected arrival and actual of tourists was calculated and the same difference being converted into percentage shows the difference in fall/rise in tourist’s arrival. The data on actual & projected arrival of tourists is divided on the basis of domestic tourists arrival, foreign tourists arrival and total tourists arrival for the period 1991-2008 in order to find out the changes during recession.

4.Results And Discussion From the Table-1 it is evident that in fact before the onset of recession there was increase in actual population as compared to projected population from 2003 onwards except that for the two consecutive years of 2006 & 2007 there was marginal increase by percentage point which is a clear indication of the fact that the state

received

substantial domestic tourists and higher as compared to previous year of 205. But as evident from the data, for the year 2008 there was fall in arrival of domestic tourists population by 4.76 percent that the projected arrivals indicating the fall due to recessionary trends. Year

Actual tourists

Projected tourists

Difference between

population

population

projected & actual

1991

75686

484610.3

-272176

-35.96

1992

774568

580616.2

-193952

-25.04

1993

798576

676622.1

-121954

-15.27

1994

849404

772628.1

-76776

-9.03

1995

878487

868634

-9853.04

-1.12

1996

888914

96439.9

75725.87

8.51

1997

928925

1060646

131720.8

14.17

1998

953212

1156652

203439.7

21.34

1999

960114

1252658

292543.6

30.46

2000

976804

1344664

371859.5

38.06

2001

1120242

1444669

324427.4

28.96

2002

1325296

1540675

215379.3

16.25


% difference

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Actual tourists

Projected tourists

Difference between

% difference

population

population

projected & actual

2004

2085729

1732687

-353042

-16.92

2005

1965343

18286693

-136650

-6.95

2006

209854

1924699

-173955

-8.28

2007

2208986

2020705

-188281

-8.52

2008

2020416

2116711

96294.79

4.76

Table 1: Actual Population & Projected Population of Domestic Tourists arrival in Goa Source: Economic Survey, 2008-09, Government of Goa From the Table-2 it is evident that there has been fluctuations in the arrival of foreign tourists in the state, from 2001-2003 the actual arrivals were less than the projected on where as in the year 2004 the actual arrivals were more than the projected by 5.55 percent and again for the year 2005 the actual arrivals were less than the projected by 6.59 percent. The year 2006 witnessed a rise in actual arrivals were over the projected by 1.43 percent but in the subsequent years i.e. in the year 2007 the fall in the actual arrival was just by percentage point of .63 percent but in the year of recession the fall is significant where in the difference between the actual arrivals were less than the projected by 15.88 percent. This indicates that indeed during the recessionary period there is substantial fall in the foreign tourist’s population. Year

Actual tourists

Projected

Difference

%

population

tourists

between

difference

population

projected & actual

1991

78281

135501

57220.01

73.09

1992

121442

151465.7

30023.66

24.72

1993

170658

167430.3

-3227.69

-1.89

1994

210191

183395

-26796

-12.74

1995

229218

199359.6

-29858.4

-13.02

1996

237216

215324.3

-21891.7

-9.22

1997

261673

231288.9

-30384.1

-11.61

1998

275047

247253.6

-27793.4

-10.10

1999

284298

263218.2

-21079.8

-7.41


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Actual tourists

Projected

Difference

%

population

tourists

between

difference

population

projected & actual

2001

260071

295147.5

35076.51

13.48

2002

271645

311112.2

39467.16

14.52

2003

314357

327076.8

12719.81

4.04

2004

363230

343041.5

-20188.5

-5.55

2005

336803

359006.1

22203.11

6.59

2006

380414

374970.8

-5443.24

-1.43

2007

388457

390935.4

2478.41

0.63

2008

351123

406900.1

55777.06

15.88

Table 2: Actual Population & Projected Population of Foreign Tourists arrival in Goa Source: Economic Survey, 2008-09, Government of Goa Through recessionary tendencies began in the developed economies in mid 2007, the state as such witnessed substantial rise in total arrivals of tourist’s for the year 2007, with actual arrivals exceeding the projected by 7.15% but compared to the year 2006 there was fall by .08 percent. But there is definite fall in total arrival of tourists by 6.41 percent as compared to earlier years, clearly indicating that recession has engulfed the tourism industry in Goa (Table-3). Year

Actual tourists

Projected tourists

Difference between

population

population

projected & actual

1991

835067

620111.3

-214956

-25.74

1992

896010

732081.9

-163928

-18.29

1993

969234

844052.5

-125182

-12.91

1994

1059595

956023

-103572

-9.77

1995

1107705

1067994

-39711.4

-3.58

1996

1126130

1179964

53834.14

4.78

1997

1190598

1291935

101336.7

8.51

1998

1228259

1403905

175646.3

14.30

1999

1244412

1515876

2714643.8

21.81


% difference

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Actual tourists

Projected tourists

Difference between

% difference

population

population

projected & actual

2001

1380313

1739817

359503.9

26.04

2002

1596941

185788

254846.5

15.95

2003

2039497

1963758

-75738.9

-3.71

2004

2448959

2075729

-373230

-15.24

2005

2302146

2187699

-114447

-4.97

2006

2479068

2299670

-179398

-7.23

2007

2597443

2411640

-185803

-7.15

2008

2371539

2523611

152071.9

6.41

Table 3: Total arrival of Domestic and Foreign Tourists in Goa Source: Economic Survey, 2008-09, Government of Goa The state has more than reasons to worry. The recessionary conditions are forecasted to continue up to 2010 (WTTC, 2009). In the light of this, if current trends continue than the fall in the tourist’s arrival might continue up to 2010 before showing signs of recovery. The national level comparison on the basis of percentage share of tourists suggest that Goa is not among the top ten favoured destinations by domestic tourists where as Goa’s position is at the bottom most with 3 percent share of foreign tourists ( India Tourism Statistics, 2007). Thus state will have to make more than required efforts to attract domestic as well as foreign tourists. 5.Challenges Ahead Of Goa As Tourist’s Destination Diversification of tourism activities may provide solution to attract more foreign tourist’s which despite of recession or off season or low income levels might still prefer to visit the state. One such diversified avenue is medical tourism. This type of tourism attract both poor & rich tourists, poor tourists are more likely to engage in cross border medical tourism while rich patients are able to purchase services further from home(Bookman & Bookman, 2009). A study done on experience of medical tourism in South India suggests that subcontinent medical hubs like Mumbai, Bangalore, Pune & Goa might become destinations where one can combine tummy tuck with a trip to Taj Mahan(Rajeev & Latif, 2009) , India

as such is preferred destination

for knee

replacement surgery because of less procedural cost and better treatment solutions and care is fast growing in India despite recession. (Dental Health Magazine, 2009). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Goa as such can tap this potential of both medical and dental tourism that can attract tourists despite of any challenges and the global front. With chain of private hospitals providing state of the art technology are functioning very effectively in the state like Apollo Hospital, Wockhardt etc. Besides state has two district government run hospital with good number of facilitate along private hospitals providing much better facilities & treatments. Similarly Goa can also reap the benefits by expanding in the arena of dental Tourism. Goa dental college being modal dental government centre can cater to the tourist’s from North Goa along with private clinics and in South Goa too there are similar

private clinics like Dr. Hubert Gomes clinic that offers advanced dental

cosmetic and corrective surgery. Nonetheless, the field of

medical and tourism has its own intricacies

though a

promising area such as infrastructural development by government that would provide dental health care in particular and general health care at lesser cost than aboard in order to encourage medical tourists. At the same time there are international obstacles that developing countries face and that are faced by India as well as Goa such as maintaining international standards and accreditation, health insurance, legal recourse, protection of patients, transportation and entry requirements. (Bookman & Bookman, 2009). There is also new concept of wellness tourism meant for those tourists who otherwise spend very stressful and hectic life and desire to take complete rest by spending couple of days in one single isolate place. Wellness tourism has no seasonal limitation. It plays bigger role in advanced world among living person as it keeps an eye on optional state of body, mind and soul, the so called bodily and psychological holiday. (Gal IIdiko, 2009). This includes all alternative medical therapies like hydrotherapy, detoxification, and body-spray treatment, stone Therapy, Reiki, Thai chi etc. Goa as a tourist destination provides these facilities to tourists with moderate levels of income in an unprofessional manner and on a very small and scatted bastes. However

these

facilities are widely provided in fives tar hotels but beyond the purchasing capacity of large

number of domestic and foreign tourists. With

proper

planning and

infrastructural investment by private as well as public sector can help the state to attract tourist throughout the year. Yet another challenge that lies ahead of the state is to maintain its image as safe tourism state in the coming years. The state has got publicity in the recent months due to not so right reasons like murder of foreign tourist on the beach side, availability of party INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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drugs & death of domestic tourist due to overdose of the same, rape of foreign tourist and the most current is the rising cultural conflict between people residing in extreme north Goa with that of settled Russian population over there. All this may tarnish the image of the state as being that of tourists friendly and safe to that of tourist deathly destination. This calls for the attention of policy makers to yet another area and that is ethics in tourism. Tourism ethics is concerned with the management of tourism at both industry as well as individual tourist level. (Dorin & Ozal, 2009). Several attempts are made by Goa government to maintain ethical standards by intensifying the police patrolling on seashores and in tourists spots, appointing life guards at seashore. Sensitising local population about suspicious movement of tourists to avoid drug pedaling, terror attacks, to prevent and detect pedophile activities etc.

6.Conclusion Indeed the recession has reduced the inflow of both domestic foreign tourists in the state for the year 2008 and if the trend continues than the economy of state might have serious repercussions on its GSDP. However the state also has an option of diversifying tourist activities that might flourish despite of recession such as medical and wellness tourism. But the state would be able to prove by the times to come ahead. Similarly, it is facing tough challenge in terms providing safety to its tourists. Thus state along way to go to achieve the status of most preferred destinations by domestic as well as foreign tourists among other Indian states.


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7.Reference 1. Aliqah and Al-rfou (2010). The Role of Tourism Sector an Economics Development in Jordan during period 1990-2008, European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, Vol.18, pp. 173-180. 2. Bookman, Milica and Kala R. Bookman (2009). Medical Tourism in Developing Countries, PASOS: Revista de Tourismo Y Patrimonio Cultural, Vol. 7, Issue 1, pp. 133-136. 3. Bac, Dorin and Akosz Ozal (2009). Exogenous challenges for the Tourism Industry in the beginning of Twenty First Century, Annals of the University of Oreadea, Economic Science, Vol. 2, Issue 7, pp. 29-33. 4. Dental Health Magazine (2009). Dental Tourism on rise in India despite Recession, July. 5. Dieke, Petsf U.C (2004). Tourism in African’s Economics Development: Policy Implication, Management Decision, Vol.41, No.3, pp. 287-295. 6. Economic Martin, J. H., N. H. Morales, and R. Scarpa (2004). “Tourism and Economics Growth in Latin American Countries: A Panel Data Analysis”, Fondazione Eni Enrico Mttie Working Paper Series. 7. Fayissa, B.C. Naish, and B. Tadasse, (2007). “The impact of Tourism an Economic Growth and development in Africa”, Middle Tennessee State University, Department of Economics and Finance, Working Paper No. 16. 8. Government of India (2007). India Tourism Statistics, New Delhi. 9. Government of Goa, (2007-08 & 2008-09). Economic Survey, Government of Goa 10. J. Gal, Ildiko Horvath Galve (2009). The Opportunities of Health Tourism in Town Gyula, Lucrari Stiintifice and Management Agricol, Vol. XI, Issue 4, pp. 49-56. 11. Kreishan, F. M (2010). Tourism and Economic Growth: The Case of Jordan, European Journal of Social Sciences, Vol.15, No. 2, pp. 63-68. 12. Rajeev, A. and Sanam Latif (2009). Study of Knowledge Attitude and Expeience of Medical Tourism among target group with special emphasis on South India, Online Journal of Health & Allied Sciences, Vol. 8 Issue 2, pp. 45-52. 13. Sinclier, D. and T. Huybers, (2005). Tourism and Economics Development: A Survey, Journal of Development Studies, Vol.84, no. 5, pp. 1-51.


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14. Tosun, C (1990). An Analysis of contributions international inbound tourism to the Turkish Economy, Tourism Economics, Vol.5, pp. 217-250. 15. World Travel and Tourism Council’s (2009). Travel and Tourism on Economic Impact.


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“Maha Nand Sharma As A Poet: A Study Of His Themes” Dr. Sunita Rana Associate professor and H.O.D App Sc., Hindustan College of Engineering and Technology, India

Abstract: Maha Nand Sharma was a great poet. In his poetry we see that he has the spiritual strain like Krishna Srinivas, the great south poet. He is also a great Rishi who has spiritual themes in his poems. Spirituality is the basic theme of his all poems. The poet has composed a vast work of poems but unfortunately it has come to the knowledge of very few devoted scholars. He is a profound scholar of three literatures-Sanskrit, Hindi and English. The poet is a great literary man in English literature. He was a gifted poet with a multi-dimensional vision. His explorations into spirituality, his devotion and dedication to the Supreme Being and his adherence to the cardinal values amaze his admirers and readers. His love for learning and reading and his life long engagement with education shape and enrich his views on education and find full flow in his Poetry.


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1.Introduction Maha Nand Sharma like Krishna Srinivas is a great contemporary poet. He was born on July 11, 1924 in BulandShaher and was educated at many places like Kanpur, Meerut, Agra, Allahabad and Hyderabad. He was brought up in an humble traditional family of Brahmans. Since his student life his genius was flowed through his verses and articles on education. His critical work, “Wodehouse the Fictionist “(1980), has earned glowing tributes in the reviews in Patriot Freedom and Modern Fiction studies, and from eminent Wodehouse Scholars like David A. Jasen, Robert A. Hall Jr, and R. B. D. French. He was a University teacher and also a great scholar of English and Sanskrit literatures. The poet is a great literary man in Indian English literature. He is a gifted poet with a multi-dimensional vision. His explorations into spirituality, his devotion and dedication to the Supreme Being and his adherence to the cardinal values amaze his admirers and readers. His love for learning and reading and his life-long engagement with education shape and enrich his views on education and find full flow in his poetry. The poet has taken birth in a traditional religious family where Sanskrit was talked to every child from his childhood. Maha Nand Sharma as a gifted and talented child picked up Devnagri quiquery which helps him in his literary life. Sanskrit poetics mirrors his life not only in its themes but in its aesthetic aspects also. The aesthetic factor, involving the reader’s sensitivity to the beauty of the poet’s life-the formative influences on him-forms the back ground to the aesthetic approach to his poetry from the point of view of art. From his childhood Maha Nand was also very much impressed with the ideal thoughts of the father of the nation.. He lived in the Gandhian atmosphere all around and under the British rule with its emphasis on the rigorous enforcement of discipline among the citizens. Such was the influence of Gandhi and the freedom struggle on the poet that he ran away from his brother’s house at Agra during the Quit India Movement in August 1942 and walked a distance of thirty- three miles, in two stages to Mathura and returned home only after a good deal of persuasive advice by the Principal of an Intermediate college whom he happened to meet at Mathura. Of his impression of Gandhiji, he writes: “In my boyhood I heard Gandhiji on two occasions. He looked as pure as a child not only in his voice and ways but also in the innermost depths of his heart. In the Harijan, his answers to questions had the straight forwardness of a child’s utterance- the utterance which is devoid of ‘ifs’ and ‘buts’ of mean politicians.”(Maha Nand Sharma, 1996) The poet like other freedom fighters was very much influenced with the great national leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Pt. Jwahar Lal Nehru, Sarojini Naidu, Rabindranath INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Tagore etc. He decided to lead the value base life like his father. This weekend easily trace out in his poetic works. He is greatly influenced with the sublime character of his father. In the preface of his collection of poem A Rudraksha Rosary he says, I bow to the souls of my father, a devout worshipper of Lord Shiva, and my mother who told me stories of Lord Shiva and Parvati, in my childhood as I lay by her side with rapt attention. The poet has authored nine works. Of these only one is non – Poetical work which is a critical work on fiction. The title is ‘Wodehouse the Fictionist’. Among his work of poetry are three epics – ‘Flowering of a Lotus’, consisting of hundred eighty seven Spenserian stanzas and A Rudraksha Rosary and A Spiritual Warrior, each running into more than four thousand lines of blank verse. His works also include four collection of poems – ‘Divine Glimpses’, ‘Flowers and Buds’, ‘Scattered Leaves’ and ‘Gushing Streams’ ‘Divine Glimpses’ has ten poems – the first and the last remaining eight running into nearly three hundred liness of blank verse. The other three collections include poems in different metres and forms such as sonnet, lyric burlesque etc. His earliest work The Pageant of Seasons contains seventy five quatrains, each with alternate rhymes. The poems in all collections comprise several sonnets and more than forty other poems. Some other poems, including sonnets, have been published in Journals such as Metverse Muse and Brain Wave. Thus he has to his credit about thirteen thousand lines in blank verse, two hundred fifty nine Spenserian stanza, twenty four sonnets and more than forty short poems and several long poems as well. Maha Nand Sharma has composed a vast work of poems but unfortunately it has come to the knowledge of very few devoted scholars. Like Krishna Srinivas he has devoted his full time in the literary pursuit but very few critics have come out to have the study of his works and write critical books on them. It is a wonder that Krishna Srinivas has become a inter national figure on account of his spiritual poetic works and Maha Nand Sharma has written near about the same works like that of Krishna Srinivas but in spite of his great works his poetry is unable to earn the recognition even in his own land. No full length study of his works has been taken up so far although they have been dealt with in chapters in books in thirty two reviews. It is the most suitable time for an intensive and extensive exploration of the artistic qualities of his works partly because Flowering of a Lotus is his last ‘long work’. He has been given proper attention by some University professors and academicians like R. K. Singh, M. K. Nair, K. H. Ansari, A. K. Dixit, Ganga Ram Garg, V. K. Gokak, K. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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R. Srinivas, and Satish Kumar etc. They have given the critical reviews on his poetic works in very high words. Dr. R. K. Singh in his introduction to creative forum observes: Maha Nand Sharma is perhaps the only recent poet, who is visionary and proffers a blend of fancy, feelings, philosophy, scriptures, myths, legends and literatures. Echoes of the literature of Sanskrit and Hind enrich his poetry.(Dr.R.K. Singh , 1991) Sharma’s use of diction, images and style is very closely related to his subject – matter and themes. His narrative art is lustily admired. Of his long poem, ‘The Test Divine’ Professor C. Brian Cox says, his poem is a splendidly entertaining story of Shiva………It

moves quickly to a surprising climax…….the detailed account of

characters and scenery gives richness to the narrative.(Maha Nand Sharma, 1984) Mr. Srinivasa RangaSwami Points to the simplicity of language and lucidity of style’ in his narrative poems. Of the pictorial qualities of his descriptions, he says, Added to its lucidity is the author’s penchant for picturisation which places it close to the cinematic. The camera eye of the author would not allow the reader to miss any detail, however small. The result is a succession of visuals in close up. This is to be found everywhere…(Srinivas Rangaswami, 1996) Dr. A.H. Tak finds verbal ecstasy and visual beauty in his poems dwelling upon characterization and structural aspects in his poems. Dr. Tak continues: “The structure of his poems is dramatic and in each of the poems in Divine Glimpses, he places a character at the centre and entire poem become the projection of his consciousness and his reaction to the situation or situations in which the poet places him. The Test Divine is a transcreation of a Sanskrit poem ‘Mirkandu Markandya Katha’ running into forty four slokes and first published in Meerut University News and Views”.(Dr. A.H.Tak, 1996) His three epics-‘A Rudraksha Rosary’, ‘A Spiritual Warrior’ and’Flowering of A Lotus’ represents his great faith in God that makes an interesting reading. The poet is a great worshipper of nature like Wordsworth and Krishna Srinivas, but his natural description is not only aesthetic it is also spiritual and his diction elevates the inner beauty of worshipper. Outer and Inner beauty are join together which creates the sublime harmony. In his epic poem, A Rudraksha Rosary he presents the sublimity of the natural beauty with the purity of soul. In the following lines its diction elevates with its appropriate expressions of the beauty of nature: On mount kailash, as far as eye could see, A sheet of snow, as spotless white and hard INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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And smooth as marble, spread o’er miles and miles From topmost peak to foothills on the shore Of pure and sacred Mansarover lake As vast- and –endless looking as the sea.

(Maha Nand Sharma 1987)

Thenceforward, his short poems have their direct source in his own mind. They present life more comprehensively in all its various dimensions. The maturity of old age imports into them several characteriastics such as reflective and spiritual outlook, critical power, indulgence for childhood and keen observations. The sensual love of youth was transformed into spiritual love-love for god-in his old age.

2.Themes Maha Nand Sharma is a religious poet like Krishna Srinivasa, Tulsidas and Surdas. His eight poetical works are sufficient proof that he is a great religious poet. His poetic volumes “A Rudraksha and A Spiritual Warrior” are composed in blank verse while his “Flowering of a Lotus” composed in Spenserian stanzas. All the three are great epics. The epic, ‘A Rudraksha Rosary,’ is the first part of the book. The second part consists of the other poems. ‘The Pageant of Seasons’ is a long poem of seventy five quatrains. ‘Divine Glimpses’ is a collection of ten poems – two consisting of seventy two Spenserian stanzas in all and each of the rest running into nearly three hundred lines of blank verse. ‘Gushing Streams and Scattered Leaves’ are collection of short poems including about ten sonnets and in addition to them, about forty short poems in different stanza forms. Some more poems have been published in Journals such as Metverse Muse and Brain Wave. He has thus published about thirteen thousand lines in blank verse, two hundred fifty nine Spenserian stanzas about twenty sonnets and more than forty short poems in addition to several long poems. His poetical corpus is very vast and has spiritual themes. Dr. Prema Nanda Kumar finds in Sharma’s poems, the spiritual calm of the benevolent Yogeshwara Shiva. According to Dr. A. H. Tak, Dr. Maha Nand Sharma is one of those few contemporary Indo – Anglian poets who have realized the seriousness of spiritual crisis……..Srinivasa Rangaswami infers from the preface to ‘Divine Glimpses’ the poets meaning of spirituality as Light of pure conscience and ……..some other aspects of God. In the light of these comments, the theme of spirituality and its aesthetic aspects deserve comprehensive exploration. The poet is a great worshipper of nature like Wordsworth and Krishna Srinivas, but his natural description is not only aesthetic it is also spiritual and his diction elevates the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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inner beauty of the worshipper. Outer and inner beauties are join together which creates the sublime harmony. In his epic poem, A Rudraksha Rosary he presents the sublimity of the natural beauty with the purity of soul. In the following lines its diction elevates with its appropriate expressions of the beauty of nature. The poem is a spiritual poem and therefore it portrays the war of soul’s and spirit against the five senses? These five senses are often become the cause of destruction of man because they often lead him towards misdirection. In the poem Bhism is a great spiritual character who is a warrior not for senses but that physical power is not as important as spiritual power. The above poetic lines present an echo of in the great poet Kabir, Jal mein kumbh, kumbh mein jal hai, Bahar-Bheetar pani Phoot kumbh jal jalhi samana (Acharya Hazari Prasad Diwedi, 1973) The great Hindi poet in the above couplet wants to say; there is pitcher in the water and water in the pitcher. There is water both inside and outside the pitcher (in the vast ocean). The pitcher breaks, and the water in it merges in the water outside. The same idea we find in the great romantic poet William Wordsworth who is like Kabirdas is a great sublime nature poet. Like Maha Nand Sharma he also believes in the intimation of immortality of soul. William Wordsworth in his great ‘Ode on Intimation’ wants to say the child is in the beginning a real copy of God but unfortunately, generally when he becomes in the contact with society in the years to follow he began to stop on the corrupt face of life. The poet in his poetic book ‘Divine Glimpses’ presents spirituality as the core of all religious. In his dedication of this work to Lord Shiva, he says All faiths are thine, O Shiva, therefore This work which weaves a rainbow bright Of sues which form their spiritual core Is shine, Accept, O sources of light? (Maha Nand Sharma, 1996) These lines are symbolical and present various aspect of spirituality. In his preface to Flowering of a Lotus, he says “; My divinity or spirituality is not the spirituality of caves and mountains. It blooms in the mires of life. In A Rudraksha Rosary, Lord Shiva descends from Heaven to Earth and plays his Lila till at last in the last book, he associates himself with Arjuna, a man who belongs to history and not to mythology. In A Spiritual Warrior, Bhism is a figure of history. In Divine Glimpses, all the spiritual INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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luminaries except the mother are figures who, like Lord Shiva and the great Bhisma, lived spirituality upon Earth. The mother in Mother’s Crucifixion typifies common human being who, like all the mothers and fathers, are naturally spirituality in their actions but whose active spirituality like that of millions of human beings in other capacities, is not recognized. “(Mrs. Krishna Sharma, 1998) These poems are the best specimen of the poet’s love for spiritual themes. These poems are merely a drop in the ocean of his exhaustive treatment of the theme of love in his epics and some lyricist. The poet presents three facets of love-(i) sensual love (ii) spiritual love and (iii) conjugal love. Sensual love is portrayed by him on two planes: (i) the romantic plane and (ii) the naturalistic plane. He also presents the elevation of love from the sensual to the romantic and from the romantic to the spiritual level. His romantic love is related with the spiritual love. As Dr. A. H. Tak says: “Nowhere does Dr. Sharma display his inherent power more clearly than in his treatment of love in poems like ‘Mother’s Crucifixion’, ‘The Thorny Rose’ and ‘Bonds of Blood’ (Dr. A.H.Tak, 1996) It is fruitful to discern in of realism this discussion of realism that the spirituality of even the common types such as the mother in Mother’s Crucifixion, the trader Serivan in The Fatal Prize, and the labourer Sukkha in The Bleeding Breakfast is not ignored by the poet. What Dr. Satish Kumar says of his mysticism fully applies to his treatment of the theme of spirituality also: Sharma’s poetry is suffused with mysticism and spirituality, but his is the mysticism not of a visionary living in complete isolation from the realities of the world. His is the mysticism of a realist…..”(Divine Glimpses, 1996) It is needless to say that while the sensual love is based upon the attraction of the flesh, the spiritual love is free from such attraction. It rests solely upon the desire to do well to others. It does not feed upon flesh. Conjugal love is a blending of both the sensual and the spiritual love. Both the sensual and the spiritual attitudes play an important part in love between husband and wife. Love on the romantic plane is mirrored in the poems To My Dejecting Mistress and The Telling Silence.(Scattered Leaves, 1991) Though speaking not one word, the girl With radiant smiles beamed. Her playful eyes, her lustrous curls With a thrilling life teemed.

(To My Dejecting Mistress)


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She with her telling silence, was A poem of love lines To me, her silence lent, alas A poet’s restlessness.

(The Telling Silence)

The romantic element in the themes lends lyrical tinge to his poetry.Maha Nand Sharma’s The Thorny Rose and Flowering of a Lotus spotlight his contention convincingly and comprehensively. The naturalistic presentation of love imports realism into poetry. It is clearly visible in Lord Shiva indulging in foreplay with Parvati foreplay in which, according to Prema Nanda Kumar, “the Yogeshwara is to be transformed as Bhogeshwara for the good of humanity. “12. In Flowering of a Lotus, the poet goes beyond foreplay and potrays Bhartrahari indulging in sex with Pingla: The foreplay over, Pingla Bhartrahari Are lying on a cozy, cushioned bed In tight embrace, The King with boundless glee, By soul-devouring burning passion led The hope of sucking all the juicy they had, In pressing kisses on her rosy lipsThe lips in chandliers’ light shining red, His rose upon her leaf-like nose he slips, The more the hungry lust is fed, the more it grips.(Dr. Prema Nanda Kumar, 1988) In the preface of the poem Maha Nand Sharma says in difference in the preface of his poem Flowering of a Lotus that a poet should imitate the life like Wordsworth. He should function, his personal experiences into his poetry. He says that poet is like a surgeon whose function is to see the organs of the body for a patient recovery. In the VIII chapter of the the’ Kumar Sambhvam’ by Kalidas has used such lines in his portrayal. He has used physical love to elevate spiritual love.In his poem he has defined spiritual love which finds expression in the worship of God in controlling the senses to save oneself from sensuality, and in doing good to others with the realization that there is the same spirit in others as there exists in one’s own self at is obvious that the perfect love on this level is beyond the reach of man. The poet says: As I have chased mirage of perfect love And have not found the perfect love so far, Yon cloud is chasing in the sky above INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Its earthly shadow, fleeting far and far.(Maha Nand Sharma, 1956) Maha Nand Sharma is in great favour of conjugal love because it is an ideal love and has its relation with the physical attraction of the wife and the husband. .It both sensual as well as spiritual love. Lord Shiva and his love for Parvati is the best model of love between husband and wife. His love for Parvati is very limited as physical love but it is unlimited as spiritual love. Once when Parvati’s father not invites her and her husband in the yug at Kankhal she burnt herself in the fire of Yug.: She jumped headlong into the flames; The leaping, dancing flames around her licked Her different parts-the hair, the face, the neck The breasts, the waist, the legs, from head to foot And tried their best to lick her down to dust Before they could have turned her frame to ash.(A Rudraksha Rosary, 1987)

3.Conclusion To sum up, the themes of Maha Nand Sharma’s poetry include spirituality, love education, politics and poverty of the ase, spirituality is most important, in A Rudraksha Rosary, the poet brings out the endlessness of God, the need for spiritual reflections to control the senses, the penance for the spirit for union with the universal spirit with matter and the theory of Karma propounded in the Geeta. ‘A Spiritual Warrior’ the war of soul against the senses and the spirit trying to become one with the Universal spirit both in strength and the character. Spirituality is presented as the core of all religions in ‘Divine Glimpses.’ Through various long poems , the poet highlights spiritual qualities such as mercy, unflinching faith in Truth and God, introspection without judging others, correction of one’s own self before correcting others courage to speak the truth fearlessly, honesty as the best virtue to be followed and practiced self-sacrifice, abstention from Lesbian love, and brotherly love as a strong cementing force. Two other facts, emphasized by ‘Divine Glimpses’, are the closeness of the poor to God and the honest hard work as the real worship of God. ‘Flowering of a Lotus’ portrays the progress of a soul towards its destination, God through the mire of life. The diction and the setting of the poem is most appropriate. it has a spiritual theme and leaves as impression of sublimity on the mind of readers. The poet has given the theme of sublimity in its chronological order. The poet has mingled the two themes. There are three facets of love in Sharma’s poetry-sensual, spiritual and conjugal. Sensual love is INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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delineated on two levels, romantic and naturalistic. The elevation of love from the sensual to the romantic and from the romantic to the spiritual plane is also delineated by him. Conjugal love in Sharma’s poetry is a mingling of both, the sensual and the spiritual.


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4.Reference 1. Sharma Maha Nand; “Divine Glimpses: Preface, Meerut; Published by Mrs. Krishna Sharma, 1996, p,7. 2. Singh R.K; “Introduction an article reviewing the poet’s works”, Creative Forum; Vol..IV, NO. 1-4, Jan-Dec., 1991, P,p 13-15.Sharma Maha Nand, “Flowers And Buds”, Ashutosh Prakashan Meerut, 1984, pp.vii. 3. Rangaswami Sriniwasa , “In his reviews of Maha Nand Sharma’s Divine Glimpses”, Metverse Muse, Vol. 1, No. 2.July 1996, pp. 91. 4. Tak A.H, in his review of “Maha Nand Sharma’s Divine Glimpses”, Metverse Muse vol 1 no 2 July 1996 pp. 92. 5. Sharma Maha Nand, “A Rudraksha Rosary”Meerut Ashutosh Prakashan, 1987.pp. 21-22. 6. Acharya Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, “Kabir” (Delhi: Raj Kamal Prakashan, 1973,) pp 63. 7. Sharma Maha Nand; “Divine Glimpses”: Preface, Meerut; Published by Mrs. Krishna Sharma, 1996, pp5. 8. “Flowering of A Lotus”, “Preface”,(Meerut Mrs. Krishna Sharma,1998.)pp. xiixiii. 9. Tak A.H. , in his review of Maha Nand Sharma’s “Divine Glimpses”, Metverse Muse, Vol. 1, No. 2, (July, 1996), pp. 90. 10. Divine Glimpses, pp. 5. 11. Scattered Leaves, ‘The Telling Silence”, .(Meerut, Ashutosh Prakashan, 1991) pp.3. 12. Dr. Prema Nanda Kumar, in her review of Maha Nand Sharma’s “A Rudraksha Rosary” and other poems’ Bhawan’s Journal, 35, No. 6.(Oct 31, 1988), pp . 9293. 13. Flowering of a Lotus, Canto iii, “Beginning of Mire”, pp.44. 14. Sharma Maha Nand: “The Pageant of Seasons”, (Lokhati; M.N.Sharma, 1956). 15. “A Rudraksha Rosary and Other Poems”, (Meerut Ashutosh Prakashan, 1987). Pp.28.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

RUDIMENTARY TESTING AND EVALUATION IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Dr.(Mrs).N.L.N.Jayanthi M.A, M.Ed.,M.Phil.,Ph.D(English)., Ph.D(Education), Associate Professor, Department of Education, Annamalai University, India

Abstract: The students who learn English as a foreign language are considerably poor in using the language and it is common to come across a number of students committing mistakes while speaking, reading or writing in English. The reasons for defective or inadequate rudimentary learning may be due to (a) Pull of the mother tongue (b) Over-learning or over generalization of a rule (c) Inherent difficulty of a particular item (d) Defective teaching and,( e) Imitation of wrong models. Therefore, the teacher should keenly sort out the persistent and serious errors committed by majority of students by administering various language proficiency tests and should to try to evolve a systematic treatment of various learning difficulties of students. Hence, it is high time that more emphasis is laid on administering various kinds of tests for evaluating the language proficiency of students at rudimentary stage so that good communication skills may be fostered among the students at rudimentary level itself.


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1.Introduction The students who learn English as a foreign language are considerably poor in using the language and it is common to come across a number of students committing mistakes while speaking, reading or writing in English. Hence, at the rudimentary level, one of the most important tasks before the language teacher is in making the students first unlearn, and then re-learn, quite substantial chunks of the language, which they have learnt wrongly earlier. Therefore, the teacher should keenly sort out the persistent and serious errors committed by majority of students by administering various language proficiency tests and should to try to evolve a systematic treatment of various learning difficulties of students. The main focus of this paper is on administering different kinds of tests based on essential aspects related to (i) Orthography (ii) Pronunciation (iii) Vocabulary and, (iv)Syntax. The reasons for defective or inadequate rudimentary learning may be due to (a) Pull of the mother tongue (b) Over-learning or over generalization of a rule (c) Inherent difficulty of a particular item (d) Defective teaching and,( e) Imitation of wrong models. Specific methods for (i) analysis (ii) classification and, (iii)correction of oral-– written--lexical errors .Hence, it is high time that more emphasis is laid on diagnostic testing and remedial teaching at rudimentary level so that further learning of wrong language usage is curtailed and better command on communication skills is fostered among the students in future.

2.Test Performance, Not Knowledge Tests conducted in the language class are performance tests. One should not aim at testing the student’s knowledge of English grammar. One should conduct a test to know how the students produce, understand, and use English in communicative contexts. One should not be merely interested in testing how well the students remember the facts about English language. As language professionals, one must be interested in testing how well the students actually use English in communicative contexts.

3.Kinds of Tests Achievement tests test the progress the students have made in reference to particular lessons. Students’ level of achievement in terms of the structures and words taught through a lesson or a specific number of lessons is the focus of achievements tests. The drills and exercises given in a lesson gauge the progress of students even as these help him to understand, master, and use the content, structures, and words given in the lesson. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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Proficiency tests, on the other hand, focus on the overall mastery of the students in English irrespective of the lesson. It may be described as a cumulative test, taking into account all the structures and words that a student may have been exposed to so far: a sort of final exam, a comprehensive exam.

3.1.Productive and Receptive Tests Language proficiency tests may be of a productive nature where students are asked to produce - speak, read aloud, write - utterances, or perform tasks. These may be of a receptive nature where students are asked to read silently and answer multiple choice questions, which demand correct recognition rather than the production of the answer. More often than not, most well-prepared and widely-used TESOL tests are in the form of answering multiple choice questions.

3.2.Vocabulary Tests Vocabulary tests are of several kinds. Beginner’s vocabulary skill is tested through questions which expect a yes or no answer, or by asking them to perform a simple task. In multiple choice questions, “a sentence with a missing word is presented; students choose one of four vocabulary items given to complete the sentence. A third type, multiple choice paraphrase, is a test in which a sentence with one word underlined is given. Students choose which of four words is the closest in meaning to the underlined item. A fourth kind of test, simple completion (words), has students write in the missing part of words that appear in sentences” .Synonyms and antonyms may also be elicited. Testing the knowledge and use of subtle shades of meanings reflected in words somewhat synonymous is another useful test. Asking the students to use words in appropriate sentences is another exercise which has been traditionally used in language textbooks.

3.3.Grammar Tests Limited response questions which ask students to perform certain tasks, multiple choice completion, simple completion of sentences, and cloze test are some of the test forms used in the grammar section. The grammatical structures offer an endless list of test items. Variety of exercise models can be used to test the students’ mastery of structures.


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3.4.Pronunciation Tests Pronunciation tests focus on effective communication, not on perfect pronunciation. Pronunciation of individual sounds, phrases, or sentences is not any more highlighted. “One reason for this view is that even after much training, very few adolescents or adults ever achieve perfect pronunciation in their second language”. Oral repetition, multiple choice hearing identification, reading aloud, simple dialogues, and simple narrations are very useful forms to test the pronunciation skill.

3.5.Reading Tests Reading tests range from reading aloud to reading comprehension. Students in the beginning levels need to be tested as to their ability to “read” the words, phrases, and sentences with appropriate pronunciation and sentence melody. This requires the mastery of the letter-sound correspondence and other phonological rules such as vowel reduction, placement of stress, and use of appropriate syllabic pauses. Reading comprehension, reading speed, and skimming techniques are other items of importance to be covered in reading tests.

3.6.Writing Tests Sentence combining, sentence expansion, sentence reduction, copying, and dictation are often used in the beginning level tests in writing. Guided writing and changing the passage are also popular test forms.

3.7.Listening Tests Picture cues have been found very effective in testing listening skill. One may provide a number of exercises on listening which can be profitably used to test the progress and proficiency in the listening skill. One should test the students only in forms that are familiar to them. One must not introduce new test forms during testing. However, one may combine several situations already familiar to the students and create new ones from out of the familiar contexts. One must also not introduce new vocabulary or idioms or new structures in the tests. All tests administered must be brief and focused upon specific language skills.


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4.Conclusion Hence, it is high time that more emphasis is laid on administering various kinds of tests for evaluating the language proficiency of students at rudimentary stage so that good communication skills may be fostered among the students at rudimentary level itself.


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5.Reference 1. Baruah T.C. ( 1987) English Teachers Handbook. Penguin Publishers: New Delhi. 2. Ravi Sheory(2007) Essentials of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press.: New York.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Reading Comprehension In English Of High School Students In Relation To Certain Variables Dr.( Mrs. )N.L.N.Jayanthi Associate Professor, Department of Education Annamalai University, India

Abstract: Education of a child is imperfect, unless he/she is equipped with the ability to read, to decipher, to interpret and to understand properly the contents of the material being read. The present study intends to find out the reading comprehension of the High School students, with respect to certain variables. “The Reading Comprehension Test in English”, constructed and validated by Pramila Ahuja (1999) has been administered to a random sample of 300 students studying in different schools of Cuddalore educational district of Tamilnadu state. These were categorized on the basis of their gender, type of management and, location of the school. The study reveals that only small percentage of the students involved in the study possessed better reading comprehension.


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1.Introduction Reading is one of the most important avenues of effective learning. Reading is a process of thinking, evaluating, judging, imagining, reasoning and understanding the written matter. The ultimate goal of reading is not the process of reading itself but unraveling of the meaning represented by the words, phrases and sentences. Sometimes reading between the lines is also demanded. Reading is a highly synthetic process which requires simultaneous functioning of the eye and the articulatory muscles, recognition of separate words and phrases and immediate recollection of what has just been read. It also involves the student’s interest in the reading material and a sufficient degree of intelligence to understand what is read. Comprehension takes place only when all these elements work together and a failure to comprehend may be due to any malfunctioning of one or any one of these factors. In the educational institutions reading is the most important study tool. Next to the teacher the text book is usually the principal educative agency contributing to the academic success. Efficient reading depends upon rapidity and accuracy in seeing and recognizing symbols and upon exact comprehension of their meaning. Hence, it is very important that students acquire a good command on the reading skill during their period of study. That is why the topic has been selected.

2.Need And Importance Of The Study “Reading maketh a full man”, says Francis Bacon. Reading is first of the three R’S and it has been accepted that the ability to read well has social significance as well as individual value. As Richard Steele points out “Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body”. According to Ghanchi and Trivedi “Education of a child is imperfect, unless he/she is equipped with the ability to read, to decipher, to interpret and to understand properly the contents of the material being read. The intellectual advancement of a child is strictly limited, if he/she is unable to read”. Hence an attempt to deal with the range of differences in reading achievement must necessarily begin with an awareness of the reading achievement levels of the students. In this study an attempt has been made to find out the reading comprehension and achievement of the High School students in English.


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3.Objectives Of The Study The study has been undertaken to find out the following 

To find out the level of reading comprehension

in English of XI standard

students. 

To find out the whether there is any significant difference in the reading comprehension in English of students based on gender.



To find out the whether there is any significant difference in the reading comprehension in English of students based on type of management.



To find out the whether there is any significant difference in the reading comprehension in English of students based on the location of the school.

4.Hypotheses Suitable hypothesis have been formulated based on the above objectives.

5.Definition of Terms 5.1.Reading Comprehension The main purpose of reading is comprehension in understanding the meaning of words and relationship between ideas. D. H. Russell defines comprehension as “an understanding of the meaning intended by the author. No reading is complete unless comprehension aspect is taken into account.

5.2.Method of Study Normative Survey method has been used in the present study. It involves describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting the data which are all directed towards a better understanding of the educational problem and finding solutions for them.

5.3.Sample The sample of 300 students belonging to the Cuddalore educational district of Tamilnadu, were selected by random sampling technique. They were categorized on the basis of gender, type of management, and the location of the school.


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5.4.Tools The Reading Comprehension Test constructed and validated by Pramila Ahuja (1999) was used in the study in order to find out the level of Reading Comprehension in English of the High School students. The reliability was found to be 0.85 .The scale consists of 50 statements, followed by five options. The questionnaire is divided into nine paragraphs and each correct response will fetch one mark each. 50 is the maximum possible score that a respondent can obtain in the inventory.

6.Statistical Techniques Used The data collected for the study was subjected to the following statistical analysis. 

Descriptive Analysis and



Differential Analysis

6.1.Level of Significance All hypotheses formulated in this study were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

6.1.1.Statistical Analysis of Data To analyze the data the mean, standard deviation and “t” value for different sub- samples have been calculated. The mean and standard deviation of the total population is found to be 13.84 and 5.66 respectively. Since the mean value is less than 50% of the maximum score (50), it can be concluded that the reading comprehension of the high school students is low, though there is a wide disparity in the dispersion of scores.

S.No.

Categories

Mean S.D

N

t value S/NS

Level

Gender

Male

13.42

5.41

150

0.578

NS

0.05

Female

14.26

5.92

150

Government

8.92

7.692

S

0.05

11.78

S

0.05

Type of

Management Private

Location of

3.75

158

19.32

8.43

142

Rural

6.50

2.24

159

Urban

20.35

8.91

141

the School Table 1:Comparison of the Mean Reading Comprehension Scores of Different Sub-Samples


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6.2.Findings of The Study 

The reading comprehension of high school students is low.



The students do not differ significantly in their reading comprehension score on the basis of gender.



The students differ significantly in their reading comprehension score on the basis of type of management..



The students differ significantly in their reading comprehension score on the basis of location of the school.

Significant difference has been found between the mean of the various pairs of sub samples involved in this study in respect of their reading comprehension. . There is no significant difference in the reading comprehension of male and female students (0.578). Students studying in urban schools have better reading comprehension than the students studying in rural schools (3.59). Students studying in private schools have better reading comprehension than the students studying in urban schools (3.59).

7.Conclusion Better reading comprehension is seen only in a small percentage of the students involved in the study. In the same way poor reading comprehension is seen in the maximum number of pupils involved in this investigation. This is really discouraging from the academic point of view, because poor reading comprehension in a language may hamper the academic performance of the students during tests and examinations. Popular belief that students of urban schools are more likely to have better reading comprehension than the students of rural students, that government and private school students may differ in their level of reading comprehension get support from the present study, because significant difference is found between the various pairs of sub samples in respect of their level of reading comprehension.


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8.Reference 1.Henry E. Garret. (1973) “Statistics in Psychology and Education” Bombay: Vakils ; Feffer and Simons Pvt.Ltd. 2. Pahuja, N.P(1995) Teaching of English. New Delhi: Anmol Publications. 3. Pramila Ahuja(1999). The Reading Comprehension Test” The National Psychological Corporation: Agra.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Cedaw And Women’s Rights: Assessing Knowledge And Practice Among Women In Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria Anyalewa Alan -Ajonye Department Of Psychology, Benue State University, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria Ronke G.Awopetu Department Of Psychology, Benue State University, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria

Abstract : This research assesses women’s knowledge and practice of principles on the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). A total of one hundred and seventy – nine women participated in the survey. A self – developed questionnaire measuring women’s knowledge and practice was used to collect data. Three hypotheses were formulated and tested using Pearson r and one – way ANOVA. The results indicated no statistical relationship between women’s knowledge and practice r = .128; p> 0.05. Further analysis revealed that there was significant difference in educational qualifications and level of practice F = 8.615, df(2); p< .05. This implies that level of practice of women’s rights may not necessarily be a function of exposure to the CEDAW document but other source of information sharing on women’s rights. It was recommended that domestication of CEDAW and using advocacy, media, government and non – governmental organizations to intensify more effort in the area of information dissemination about CEDAW and all it represents would make the goal realizable.


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1.Introduction The term “Rights” consists of a moral power to claim something as one’s own (Chukwudozie, 2000). It usually points to general good – will and conscience. Even when the individual lacks the physical force to enforce claims, his/her rights are not invalidated. Rights are therefore something that are applicable to every person and should not be discriminatory nor restricted or even denied persons. The general law of right is to be a human being respecting other humans. A person’s rights give her/him moral and inviolable powers, and the same token charge everyone to respect and refrain from infringing upon the rights of others. This lends credence to the cliché that your rights stop where the rights of others begin. Human rights therefore have universal application. They are irrespective of circumstances of birth (for example, female or male; rich or poor), race, colour, political, cultural and religious differences. The overall guiding principle of the declaration of human rights of the United Nations and others is to respect and protect the rights to life, the liberties/freedoms and dignity of every human person no matter her/his race, colour, creed, status or circumstances (Chukwudozie, 2000). However, looking at presentation of our social life, there are many cases of injustices meted out to individuals and groups. Worthy of mention is women’s rights abuse as well as children’s and other underprivileged groups’ like the disabled, prisoners and detainees, and other sub – groups. For instance, Nigerian women like their colleagues elsewhere have been subjected to various forms of domestic violence throughout history (Genyi, 2005). There have been efforts made internationally and nationally over the years to stall and reduce issues of discrimination against women and give equal opportunity to thrive. One of such moves is the initiation of the document promoting rights and equity of women popularly known as the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).

2.CEDAW The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is an international standard-setting document that establishes the universally accepted principle of equality of rights between men and women and makes provisions for measures to ensure equality of rights for women throughout the world in all fields. The 30-article convention sets out in legally binding form internationally accepted principles and measures to achieve equal rights for women everywhere. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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It reflects the depth of the exclusion and restriction practiced against women solely on the basis of their sex, by calling for equal rights for women, regardless of their marital status in all fields – political, economic, social, cultural and civil. It provides for adoption at the national level of legislation prohibiting discrimination and recommends the adoption of special temporary measures to accelerate the establishment of de facto equality between men and women including changing the paradigms and models of socio-cultural behaviour patterns that perpetuate discrimination. (CIRDDOC, 2008)

3.Brief History of CEDAW The International Bill of Human Rights, combined with related human rights treaties, thus lay down a comprehensive set of rights to which all persons, including women are entitled. However, the fact is that women’s humanity proved insufficient to guarantee them the enjoyment of their internationally agreed rights. The inception of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) has sought to define and elaborate the general guarantees of non-discrimination in these instruments from a gender perspective. The effort of CSW has culminated in a number of important declarations and conventions that protect and promote the human rights of women. Initially, established in 1946 as a subsidiary of the Commission on Human Rights, it quickly gained the status of a full Commission as a result of the pressure exerted by women activists. The mandate of CSW included the preparation of recommendations relating to urgent problems requiring immediate attention in the field of women’s rights with the object of implementing the principle that men and women should have equal rights and the development of proposals to give effect to such recommendations. Between 1949 to 1965, the Commission elaborated on series of conventions; Convention on the Political Rights of Women (adopted by the General Assembly in 1952), Convention on the Nationality of Married Women adopted in 1957, the Convention on Consent to Marriage Minimum Age and Registration of Marriages adopted in 1965. These treaties were very specific and considered strictly areas of perceived vulnerability while the bulk of women’s rights remained within the embers of the general human rights treaties. Although these instruments reflected the growing sophistication of the UN system with regard to the protection and promotion of women’s human rights, the approach they reflected was fragmentary, as they failed to deal with discrimination against women in a comprehensive way. In addition, there was a concern that the general human rights


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regime was not, in fact, working as well as it might to protect and promote the rights of women. This led to the resolution of the General Assembly in 1963 inviting the CSW to prepare a draft declaration that would combine in a single instrument international standard articulating equal rights for men and women. This move was supported through out by women activists within and outside the UN system. The drafting of the Declaration began in 1965 with the Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women adopted by the General Assembly in 1967. The Declaration, a statement of moral and political intent without a contractual force was considered for a treaty following the emergence of a new consciousness of the patterns of discrimination against women and a rise in the number of organizations interested in combating the effect of such discrimination in the 1960s. In 1974, the Commission decided, in principle to prepare a single, comprehensive and internationally binding instrument to eliminate discrimination against women. The instrument was to be prepared without prejudice to any future recommendations that might be made by the United Nations or its specialized agencies with respect to the preparation of legal instruments to eliminate discrimination in specific fields. Between 1976 to 1979, different working groups within the Commission prepared the text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and were adopted by the General Assembly in 1979 by votes of 130 to none, with 10 abstentions. At the special ceremony that took place at the Copenhagen Conference on 17 July, 1980, 64 states signed the Convention and 2 states submitted their instruments of ratification. On 3 September, 1981, the Convention entered into force – faster than any previous human rights convention had done, thus bringing to a climax United Nations efforts to codify comprehensively international legal standards for women. The document which is in six (6) parts has Part 1 (Article 1-6) covering definition and condemning discrimination against women while promoting the principle of equality of men and women as enshrined in national constitutions; emphasizes legislative measures to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women calling for general development and advancement of women so that they exercise and enjoy human rights and fundamental freedoms on a basis of equality with men.


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Part 2 (Article 7-9) emphasizes women’s rights to political participation and representation.



Part 3 (Article 10-14). Here, accesses to education, economic, social services are highlighted. These include health, social security, programmes, information and services in family planning, housing, sanitation, electricity, transport and communities are issues of concern and are addressed.



Part 4 (Article 15-16). This is on legislature, marriage and family rights.



Part 5 (Article 17-22) makes statement on implementation, rules and procedures.



Part 6 (Article 23-30) is on adoption, domestication and review. (CIRDDOC, 2008).

4.Statement of Problem Sequel to CEDAW, in 1985, there was a conference in Nairobi, Kenya to formulate strategies for advancing women’s rights. This was followed by a “plan of action” defined in 1995, in Beijing. The goals of the Beijing conference then was to reflect on promised provisions of equality, development and peace for all women everywhere (Shah, 2010). The concerns highlighted in the conference by the many organizations in attendance included issues of 

Women’s reproductive rights



Abduction of girls



Child soldiers and armed conflict



Poverty and Economy



Education and training



Health



Violence



Decision making



Institutional mechanisms



Human Rights



Media



Environment



The Girl – child (Shah, 2010)


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How far have these concerns been met? In the Nigeria CEDAW NGO Coalition Shadow Report submitted to the 41 st session of CEDAW in 2008, highlighting the peculiar nature of women rights concern in Nigeria and suggesting measures to accelerate and advance equality between men and women were stated. In spite of these measures, there are challenges in the various areas articulated. The CEDAW document is over thirty (30) years. How well have the provisions been achieved? Do individual women know of these provisions? How have they been applying and protecting them? This research takes an approach looking at the women themselves. Are they aware of the provisions of CEDAW. Have they any opportunities or avenues at equipping themselves with the knowledge of these rights through conferences, seminars or workshops? Education is a key factor in women empowerment (Mishra, 2005). Are the more educated women more conversant with women’s right issues than the less educated? Is there a difference between knowledge of the CEDAW provisions and its practice by women? Do religious affiliations of women play a significant role in the practice of the CEDAW provisions? These are some of the questions this work will attempt to answer.

5.Hypotheses To assess women’s knowledge and practice of the CEDAW document, three hypotheses are being postulated: (1). There will be a statistically significant relationship between knowledge and practice of CEDAW document among women (2). There will be a statistically significant difference between educational qualifications and knowledge of CEDAW document among women (3). There will be a statistically significant difference between educational qualifications and practice of principles of CEDAW document among women.

6.Method of Study

6.1.Design It was a cross – sectional survey but targeted at women’s knowledge and practice based on the CEDAW document.


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6.2.Participants Participants were mainly women drawn from various fields of work and are residents of Makurdi, Nigeria. Participants aged 15 years and above were sampled in market places, schools, homes, offices and shops. A total of 179 women participated in the study. They are of different ethnic groups and also of varied religious groups and educational qualifications. Among them were married, single, divorced, separated and widowed women.

6.3.Instrument A self – developed questionnaire with two scales – one on knowledge and the other on practice of women’s rights based on the CEDAW document was used. The CEDAW knowledge and practice sections contain 16 statements each with a range of response options fashioned after the Likert Scale with a five – point response range of degree of agreement. The Cronbach alpha reliability index for items on Knowledge is .73 while that on the Practice is .83. The preliminary section of the questionnaire is for collection of demographic variables such as age, ethnic groupings, sex, religion, marital status, educational qualifications and occupations.

6.4.Procedure With the aid of assistant researchers, copies of the questionnaire were distributed to women in public places – market, offices, schools, shops, and hospitals in Makurdi town.

6.5.Statistics The statistics used to test the postulated hypotheses are Pearson correlation and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

7.Result The result of table 1 shows that the entire participant were female (n= 179; 100%); age range 25-34; (n= 61; 34.1%). Many of them are singles and married with equal value, Single, (n=75, 41.9%); Married (n= 75; 41.9%). Also, many of these women were secondary

school

leavers

and

B.Sc/HND

holders.

Secondary

education

(n=56; 31.3%); B.Sc/HND (n=51, 28.5%). Majority are civil servants followed by trading. Civil servants (n=67; 37.4%); Business/trader (46, 25.7%).


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November, 2012 N

Vol 1 Issue 9 %

Sex Female

179

100

15-24

52

29.1

25-34

61

34.1

35-45

54

30.2

46 and above

07

3.9

Single

75

41.9

Married

75

41.9

Divorced

03

1.7

Separated

02

1.1

Widow

13

7.3

Others

3

1.7

Primary education

09

5.0

Secondary education

56

31.3

Diploma/nce

38

21.2

Bsc/hnd

51

28.5

Msc,M. Ed & M.a

16

8.9

Phd

04

2.2

Missing data

05

2.8

Business/trader

46

25.7

Civil servant

67

37.4

Farmer

04

2.2

Housewife

05

2.8

Others

32

17.9

Missing data

25

14.0

Age

Marital Status

Educational Status

Occupation

Ethnic Group Idoma

54

30.2

Igede

17

9.5

Tiv

79

44.1

Hausa

02

1.1


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Sample Characteristics

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N

%

Igbo

17

9.5

Yoruba

02

1.1

Others

04

2.2

Missing data

04

2.2

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents (N=179)

Variables

N

df

r

p

Knowledge & Practice

179

1

.128

NS

Table 2: Pearson Correlation table showing relationship between knowledge and practice of CEDAW. * NS – Not Significant In the first hypothesis which was to measure relationship between knowledge and practice of CEDAW principles, the results indicate no statistical relationship r = .128; p> 0.05. Source (practice)

SS

DF

MS

F

P

Between Groups

342.943

2

171.471

2.622

NS

Within Groups

11182.189

171

65.393

Total

11525.132

173

Table 3: ANOVA table showing the difference between educational background and knowledge of CEDAW among women Note: SS= sum of square; df= degree of freedom; MS= mean square; F= calculated for ANOVA and P= significant level

Source (practice)

SS

DF

MS

F

P

Between Groups

1979.35

2

989.68

8.62

0.05). In expressing grief over the inability to domesticate CEDAW in a retreat organized by Civil Resources Development and Documentation Centre (CIRDDOC) in 2009, the then Deputy Chairman of the House Committee on Human Rights blamed it on lack of knowledge of the document (CIRDDOC, 2009). For a major breakthrough in fulfilling the demand and intents, public knowledge of CEDAW is important. When educational qualifications of women in the study were marched with practice of CEDAW principles, there was a significant difference. This goes to reiterate the age – long knowledge that education makes a difference. The more educated, the more exposed to information and the more likely the individual stands to practice that which is learnt. However, since there was no significant relationship between women’s knowledge and practice of the CEDAW, it could be reasoned that women with appropriate practice of women’s rights is not primarily a function of exposure to the CEDAW document but could be informed through other sources. One thing seems obvious; women are not aware of the knowledge and information on CEDAW. There is poor mobilization of women especially at the grassroots towards meeting the goals and aspirations of CEDAW. It would require that facilitators of the process go back to the drawing board and re – strategize on effective mobilization.

9.Suggestions / Recommendations To achieve the purpose for the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), the approaches must be holistic involving and revolving round the target group at all levels. Civil societies, government and non – INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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government are stakeholders. For effectiveness, the approach must be bottom – up rather than top – down. The government should be last on the rung of consultation. The women at the grassroots must be facilitators of the change process. This can be achieved if they know what CEDAW represents. The bottom – up approach initiates and sustains ownership by which not only domestication but implementation will be made easy. Civil societies working on human rights should aid in creating structures for continual education to ensure sustainability while acting as advocacy instruments with law makers and the policy implementers to mainstream the provisions of CEDAW. They must carry the target group along while doing so. Abridged version of the CEDAW document should be made available to the public continually. Periodic meetings of women can be held with focus on the document and suggestions collated for national report before being made available to review committees at international level. The views sent forth should be those generated at the grassroots.

10.Conclusion The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is the central and must comprehensive human rights treaty on the elimination of violence against women. It is the leading modern document on Women’s rights. CEDAW entered into force as an international treaty since September 3, 1981 barely two years after it was adopted on December 18, 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. The Nigerian government became a state party to this important Convention when it was ratified in 1985 without reservations and then ratified in Nigeria in 2004 (CIRRDOC, 2009). However, domesticating CEDAW has remained an elusion largely due to lack of understanding and the issues surrounding it. The women that are the focal point of the document have problem knowing of its existence and implementing its principles. To this end, civil society organizations (CSOs) should work assiduously towards raising awareness and domesticating the document while encouraging women participation in politics especially at parliament. This is essential as women are more likely to legislate and implement policies that affect women and children than men irrespective of how gender sensitive the men may be. Domestication of CEDAW is key to popularizing the principles and its practice. If women’s rights are seen as beneficial to men and women, the various strata of government and civil society would see its legacy of posterity beyond its current use. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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That perspective should be an energizer to popularizing CEDAW and making its precepts viable. The will of the people if not engendered is endangered. In general, the public not just women require accurate and comprehensive information and education on CEDAW so that it can be taken as a public document rather than being sectionalized.


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11.Reference 1. CEDAW. http://www.cedaw2011.org/index.php/about-cedaw Accessed on 11th February 2012 2. Chukwudozie, C. M. N. (2000). Introduction to Human Rights and Social Justice. Enugu: Ochumba Printing Co. Ltd. 3. CIRDDOC/NDI/GAA Legislators’ Retreat on the Domestication of CEDAW and Africa Women’s Protocol in Nigeria held at Transcorp Hilton Hotel in 2009. 4. Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Abridged version – CIRDDOC Public Education Publication Series 2008. 5. Genyi, G. (2005). Domestic Violence and Women’s Rights in Nigeria. In Angya, C.

(Ed.) Perspectives of Violence against Women in Nigeria. Centre for

Gender

Studies, Benue State University, Makurdi. Makurdi. Aboki

Publishers. 6. Mishra, R. C. (2005). HIV/AIDS Education. India: APH Publishing Corp. 7. Shah, Anup (2010). Global Financial Crisis. www.globalissues.org/768/globalfinancial-

crisis. Accessed on February 14, 2012

8. The Nigeria CEDAW NGO Coalition Shadow Report (Nigeria’s Periodic Country Report submitted to the 41

– 2004 -2008; Implementation of CEDAW in Nigeria) – st

session of the United Nations Committee on the

Elimination of all forms of

Discrimination against Women – United Nations

Plaza, New York: June 30 – July

18, 2008


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

New Approch To Work On A Single Surface Dimple Ahuja Student Department of computer science & Engineering Dronacharya college of engineering,Gurgaon, India Dipti Bahuguna Student Department of computer science & Engineering Dronacharya college of engineering,Gurgaon, India Deepak Kataria Student Department of computer science & Engineering Dronacharya college of engineering,Gurgaon, India Annu Gupta Student Department of computer science & Engineering Dronacharya college of engineering,Gurgaon, India Deepika Yadav Student Department of computer science & Engineering Dronacharya college of engineering,Gurgaon, India Abstract: A new type of technology that is surface technology which is based on switchable interaction screen can be made spread under electronic control. It has a 360-degree user interface, a 30-inch reflective surface with a XGA DLP projector beneath the surface which projects an image onto its base, while five cameras in the machine's housing record reflections of infrared light from objects and human fingertips on the surface. The surface is skilled of object recognition, object/finger orientation recognition and tracking, and is multi-touch and is multi-user. Users can work together with the machine by touching or dragging their fingertips and objects such as paintbrushes across the screen, or by placing and moving placed objects. The user interface works without a mouse or keyboard ,allowing people to share content and information by using their hands and natural movements.


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1.Introduction Over the past couple of years, a new class of interactive device has begun to merge, what can best be described as “surface computing It is user friendly computer which make possible the user to use computer without relying on other devices like mouse, keyboard. Today’s computers allow you to have multiple applications in multiple windows. But they may have only one key board and one mouse. And only one person can operate at a time. If you want to watch photo album on your computer along with three or four of your friends, just imagine every one trying to see them. Microsoft Surface allows people to sit across in different positions and watch the images. Spread the photos across the Microsoft Surface and any one can pull photos towards them like you pull physical photos, with fingers. Its display just looks like a coffee table or carom board with 30 inch wide screen with three dimensional images. This is complete rebellion in computing because keyboard was in since many years. It was modified form of type writer. It was not much significant change with respect to surface. There are many convincing aspects to such systems – for example the interactions have analogies to real-world interactions, where objects can be directly operated with our fingers and hands. It can be easily used separately by more then one persons at a same time and share information with each other .Multi use helps to communicate easily which will not affect the efficiency of machine. It makes use of various rear projection vision system used in many research prototypes. It gives information by single touch. It acts as a communication machine which interacts with the user by just touching and grabbing. Such systems support capabilities beyond that of regular touch screens, permitting multiple fingers, and even other tangible objects near the surface to be sensed. Digital pictures can be easily resized and can be easily moved by using fingers. Two opposite corners of the picture can be grabbed and will be enlarged. Pictures can be transferred by placing digital cameras on the top by wireless connection. The diffuser is a key part of these systems. It displaying the projected image and ensure that the camera can only detect objects close to the surface.


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2.Microsoft Surface Architecture

2.1.The architecture of Microsoft windows consists of following components 

Screen



Infrared



CPU



Projector

These four parts use the various technologies and various functions of Microsoft .It gives the result which are just unimaginable by a normal human being.

2.2.Screen The first aspect that is to be discussed is the screen. Screen of other computing campaign are used to show the output and the working of the processes that are running. But the Microsoft surface technology use screen as both for input and output. It works same as the touch screen technology that is been used in mobiles, iPods and other computing devices. The chemistry of dispersal process is taken for the purposes that are accountable for prove at every single part of screen. The diffusion also makes the touch screen technology enabled at the device that is been used.

2.3.Infrared The second part of the structural design of the Microsoft technology is known as infrared. This Infrared is similar to the infrared used in mobiles. This infrared technology is generally used by everyone each and every person knows about this particular technology. This infrared has an important role in providing the touch screen technology and some other functions of the Microsoft surface. An LED is present behind the screen. The choice of LED depends on the reason for which the device is being used. For example for a packet size device composed of Microsoft technology the LED will be different when compared to the device that is been made for the purpose of presenting lectures in United Nations conferences.


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When the screen of the device is touched the light present behind it are disturbed(using the diffusion process) and the functionality of touch screen is in movement. The light moves at different corners and for each and every corner a function has been made to work and produce outputs. For each corner there is a function that is being developed whenever it feel the touch of any finger the function of that particular place get activated and the desired operation is being produced. There are several cameras installed there for taking use of light and they are intended particularly for the working of the infrared . The number of cameras depends on the constraint similar to the range of LED’s. The working of those cameras is quite similar to the optical mouse.

Figure 1

2.4.CPU The third main feature of the Microsoft surface is the CPU installed inside the computing device. Its processor is dependent on the environment for been which it has to work for. The CPU has RAM present for the use of Microsoft surface, that RAM could be upgraded naturally to make it ordered and up to date. A graphics card is attached inside for the colorful layer of lights. Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are also been used here in Microsoft surface technology for dealing with the electric signals emitted by the movement of light. The CPU is the significant part of the device as all the working is planned and controlled by it. It is intelligent and can manage the whole of device. The speed of the functionality of the device been used if very much reliant on the CPU. It detects and processes the movement of lights and generates the exact output for the function to perform. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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2.5.Projector The last part of the Microsoft architecture is the Projector that is currently been used in the High definition televisions. Its working is to route the lights inside the device and transfer those to the CPU to take action as it has been planned. The surface present is designed in such a way that it has the ability to take action against fifty four touches at the same time without any break. This is a very gigantic accomplishment done by the engineers. The disadvantage that the architecture of Microsoft surface technology has is that the electric signals greatly affect its users in worst way. So the challenge will be to reduce the hazards and the disadvantages of surface will be some great changes in the architecture of the Microsoft surface that is much and more friendly and is not harmful to the people using it. T-mobile company of USA is using surface technology in stores for displaying their products. It facilitates the client for comparing two different cell phones their features applications and their pieces. By this highly developed technology small store are being turned into a big stores where customers have the surety of getting information about variety of things in their own manner. Coverage of 2008 American presidential elections was examined through surface technology.

3.Working Of Surface Computing 

Screen: A large horizontal “multitouch” screen, The Surface can recognize objects by reading coded “domino” tags.



Projector: The Surface uses DLP light engine found in many rear projection HDTV's. The footprint of the visible light screen (1024 x 768 pixels) Projector. Wireless Communication



Infrared (IR cut filter): Surface uses a 850-nm light source.



CPU: Core2Duo processors 2GB of RAM 256MB graphics, The same components found in everyday desktop computer



Camera (IR pass filter): The Camera is used for the capturing process.Images are displayed onto the underside of the screen. Fingers, hand gestures and objects are visible through this screen to cameras placed underneath the display. Camera images


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are then processed using an image processing system which detects, fingers, and objects such as paint brushes. These objects are then recognized and the correct application begins running.

4.The Four Key Attributes 

Direct interaction



Multi-user experience.



Multi-touch.



Object recognition

 4.1.Direct Interaction

Figure 2:Direct Interaction



Direct interaction means that, we can interact with the Surface by using our fingers.



No other input device is needed to give input.



This provides a natural interface effect

4.2.Multi-user Experience

Figure 3:Multi-user experience INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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

A single touch screen can support more than one user.



Each user can interact independently with the surface.

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4.3.Multi-touch Contact:

Figure 4: Multi-touch Contact

Figure 5: Multi-touch



Ordinary touch screens provide only single touch sensing



In surface more than one touch can be recognized at the same time.

4.4.Object recognition:

Figure 6: Object recognition



Object recognition is done in the surface by using special bar codes called Domino tags.



These are infrared sensitive patterns which are read by the infrared sensing cameras inside the Surface.

The objects can be recognized by the domain tags. The infrared sensing cameras can able to read the object placed on the surface of the screen. If any two mobiles are placed on the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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surface screen then the entire features are displayed, through this the mobile features can be known. No requirement to have any external wires as the entire touch screen components are situated safely behind the glass which enables the user for easy accessing an infrared ray of light is projected under the table, then reflected by the fingertip. All the infrared light changes are then processed by the webcam and sent to the software.

4.4.1.Downloading Images & Videos To Mobile

Figure 7: Placing Mobile on the Screen Just place a mobile on the screen the different images can be viewed and directly it can be loaded into a mobile device. Similarly videos can also be downloaded. It’s an easy process of downloading.

Figure 8: Viewing Images

Figure 9: Selecting Images

Figure 10: Loading Images to Mobile


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The size of the images can be changed just by the finger gestures. For example take a digital camera and just by placing the camera on screen all the images in the camera gets displayed , then the images can be resized or the selected image can be directly downloaded into the mobile device. The work becomes more and faster and multiple users can use any image on the screen and can resize the entire images on the screen.

4.4.2.Music Player Audio Tracks Selecting audio tracks

Figure 10:Selecting the Audio Tracks Mobile

The songs can be downloaded and also we can listen the songs by placing the mobile on the surface of the screen and selecting the tracks and forwarding it to the mobile device. This reduces the process of using the USB cables, because the downloading and uploading process is done directly and also in an easy manner.

6. Future Aspects It is future approach in schooling as well as in hospitality.

6.1.Future approach in schooling In future every wooden desk would be replaced by surface table top. Every desk will be equipped by surface computer. It will reduce the burden of carrying lots of heavy books and


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bags that are also very much difficult to handle. Teacher will use the same technology to teach the students by keeping an eye over all the students individually or in the form of groups.

6.2.Future approach in Hospitality Patients will be examined online using this technology. They will be checked using the surface only there diagnosis will be possible on the surface itself. online operations could be launched.

6.3.Future approach in defense field Generally in defense area people spend there time on interact with the computer by using keyboard, mouse and various other traditionally used devices surface computing would save there time by interacting with the system just by surface of the computer.

7. Conclusion It is a step towards next generation. The traditional input devices are just completely ignored and they are being replaced by the very new surface technology. This is easy to use, handle and allow direct interaction between user and the system. It allows interactions beyond the display. The technology brings together varied ideas and concepts from many different research areas and integrates these into single, self-contained conclusions. Various factors which affects to its wide usage are: 

The use of switchable diffusers for interactive surfaces.



Simultaneous projection.



FTIR multi-touch on the surface and on secondary displays above the surface with the sensing and processing integrated in the tabletop unit. These various factors helps in concluding that surface computing can become a part of this vast world in technological and industrial field. This can be helpful for each and every person in this world either for his personal utilization or for his professional tasks. We have described the hardware and software we used to create our model in some detail, allowing others to explore these new forms of interactive surfaces.


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8.Reference 1. http://surfacecomputing.com/information 2. http://books/surfacecomputing 3. http://www.scribd.com/doc/14518534/Surface-Computing 4. Apple iphone Multi-touch.http://www..apple.com/iphone/ 5. http://www.displaytech.com/pdf/photonics shutters ds.pdf. 6. www.wikipedia.com


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

To Improve Register File Immunity Against Soft Error B.Ashok Kumar M.Tech Student, Department of ECE, Prakasam Engineering college K.Koteswara Rao Assistant professor,, Department of ECE, Prakasam Engineering college

Abstract: Gradually shrinking in feature size, increasing power density etc. Increase the vulnerability Of microprocessors against soft errors even in terrestrial Applications. The register file is one of the essential Architectural components where soft errors can occur in regular manner. This errors may rapidly spread from there throughout the whole system and the output results my get damage. Thus, register files are recognized as one of the major concerns when it comes to reliability. This paper introduces Self-Immunity, a technique that improves the integrity of the register file with respect to soft errors. Based on the observation that a certain number of register bits are not always used to represent a value stored in a register. This paper deals with the difficulty to exploit this

obvious observation to enhance the register

file integrity against soft errors. We show that our technique can reduce the vulnerability of the register file considerably while exhibiting smaller overhead in terms of area and power consumption compared to state-of-the-art in register file protection .we developed our project by using 64-bits register .

Keywords:ECC(ERROR CORRECTION CODE); FPGA(SPARTAN-3,XC3S400).


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1.Introduction Over the last decade, and in spite of the increasing Complex architectures, and the rapid growth of new Technologies, the technology scaling has raised soft errors to become one of the major sources for processor crashing in many systems in the nanotechnology era. Soft errors caused by charged particles are dangerous primarily in high atmospheric, where heavy alpha particles are available & high power dissipation However, trends in today’s nanometer technologies such as aggressive shrinking have made low-energy particles, which are more superabundant than high-energy particles, cause appropriate charge to provoke a soft error. Furthermore, there is a prevailing prediction that soft errors will become a cause of an inadmissible error rate problem in the near future even in earthbound application Researchers have mainly and traditionally focused on mitigating soft errors in memory and cache structures due to their large sizes. On the other hand relatively work had been Conducted for register files although they are very Susceptible against soft errors Despite the overall rather Small area footprint of the register file, it is accessed more frequently than any other architectural component.Thus, corrupted data in any register, if not taken care of,may propagate rapidly throughout the other parts of processor, leading to drastic system reliability problems In fact, soft errors in register files can be the cause of a large number of system failures.& more power consumption was conventionally a major concern in embedded system due to their conceder effect on system So in my project we present a technique for improving the immunity of register file against the software error by sorting

ecc (error correction code) in the

unused bits of register file , so that the data may not corrupt. By this process we can secure our data from hackers also ,instead of using additional circuit to protect the register file from soft error we introduce error correction code which we can reduce circuit size & simple processes

to develop .my project can also support register file

integrity i.e which reduce space in the memory cells &highly protection scheme.

2.Block Diagram The block diagram and operation processes writing the code ecc in to .64-bits register here in this architecture consist of encoder , mux , self-π ®ister


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Figure 1:Block diagram represent writing ecc in to register in encoder

2.1.Writing In To Register The operation how to write ecc code as given below .when ever an instruction writes a value into a register it checks the upper six bits of that value if they are '0' or not. If they are (52-bit register value case), the corresponding self-π bit is set to '1' indicating the existence of Self-Immunity. The ECC value is generated and stored in the upper unused bits of the register. Hence, the data value and its ECC are stored together in that register. In the second case (over-52-bit register value), the corresponding self-π bit is set to '0' and the value is written into the register without encoding shown in Fig. 1

2.2.Reading From Register In read operations, the self-π bit is used to distinguish between a Self-Immunity case and a non self-Immunity case. In the first case, the value and the corresponding ECC are stored together in that register and consequently the read value should be decoded. In the second case, the stored value is not encoded and as resulte there is no need to decode is

Figure 3: Micro architecture support to read a register value decoder INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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2.2.1.Goal The goal of our technique is to reduce the register file vulnerability with minimum impact on both area and power overhead. Let N be the total number of registers and V the vulnerability of a register, then the vulnerability of the register file is (Σi=1 Vi) . Since the power overhead2 mainly stems from accessing the encoder and decoder, it can approximately be modeled through the number of accesses Let M is the number of protected register values and A the number of accesses, then the total power overhead can be estimated as

2.2.2. Effectiveness Of Our Technique in a full protection scheme, an ECC generation is performed with each write operation and similarly ECC checking is performed witheach read operation. Our technique decides to protect the value depending if it is valid for Self-Immunity, then it activates the ECC generator to compute the ECC bits. Otherwise, the ECC generation is skipped. Similarly, on every register read operation, instead of always checking ECC, our technique checks whether the ECC is being embedded in the register value, and only if it is, ECC checking is performed. As is demonstrated in Fig. 1, on average 12% of the data will be stored in the register file without protection. As a result, our technique reduces M and it may lead to reduce the consumed power. As is shown in Fig. 3, when studying 64-bit architectures, 93% (on average) of the total vulnerable intervals are vulnerable intervals of valid register values for our technique. In other words, around 93% of vulnerable intervals will potentially be invulnerable. Thus, our technique promises to reduce the vulnerability of the

2.2.3.Effectiveness Of Our Technique In a full protection scheme, an ECC generation is performed with each write operation and similarly ECC checking is performed with each read operation. Our technique decides to protect the value depending if it is valid for Self-Immunity, then it activates the ECC generator to compute the ECC bits. Otherwise, the ECC generation is skipped. Similarly, on every register read operation, instead of always checking ECC, our technique checks whether the ECC is being embedded in the register value, and only if it is, ECC checking is performed. As is demonstrated in Fig. 2, on average 12% of the data will be stored in the register file INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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without protection. As a result, our technique reduces M and it may lead to reduce the consumed power. As is shown in Fig. 3, when studying 32-bit architectures, 93% (on average) of the total vulnerable intervals are vulnerable intervals of valid register values for our technique. In other words, around 93% of vulnerable intervals will potentially be invulnerable. Thus, our technique promises to reduce the vulnerability of the

3.Design The design process here we are using 64-bits register to store the data and encoder to encode the ecc code here we also using multiplexer to combine encode value and upper twelve value . We used , self-π to check the values in the register file.here , self-π play a major role in my project . Here self-π is one we require self –immunity code and ecc is written in register file if self-π is zero we does not require ecc code it directly given to multiplexer. here in here in this project we are using fpeg –kit to dump and check the output waveforms and we used 104 –flip flop to store the value

3.1.Top Level Design Block the top level diagram which represent 64-bits input here we are using clock signal & reset signal to the decoder to control decoder

Figure :3.Block design inside the tope level

3.1.2.Simulation Results the simulation result of the encoder


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Figure:4.test wave form for encoder

Figure 5

4.Conclusion For embedded systems under stringenth cost constraints, where area, performance, power and reliability cannot be simply compromised, we propose a soft error mitigation technique for register files. we developed our project by using 64-bits register file to improve register against soft error and reduce the hacking technique Our experiments on different embedded system applications demonstrate that our proposed Self-Immunity technique reduces the register file vulnerability effectively and achieves high system fault coverage.. It is very highly secure for both transmit & receive data in communication system

Moreover, our

technique is generic as it can be implemented into diverse architectures with minimum


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5.Reference 1. The Design Warrior’s Guide to FPGAs--Clive “Max” Maxfield 2. FPGA Prototyping by VHDL Examples Xilinx SpartanTM-3V ersion----Pong P. Chu 3.

A VHDL Primer ----Jayaram Bhasker

4. MiBench(http://www.eecs.umich.edu/miben/) 5. Greg Bronevetsky and Bronis R. de Supinski, ”Soft Error Vulnerability of Iterative Linear Algebra Methods,” 6. g.mimik ,m t kandemir & Ozturk increases

register file integrity to transist

error in design of automation and tested in the Europin


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Aware: The Most Unaware (A Reflection of Constitutional Understanding of the Educated People of Pakistan Regarding Human Rights) Dr. Mubasher Nadeem Director, Division of Arts & Social Sciences, University of Education, Lower Mall Campus Lahore, Pakistan

Abstract: Constitutional processes are marked by original and ongoing negotiations. There is often no closure to the constitution-making process (Hart 2001; Tully and Chambers 1998). Pakistanis have experienced activities related to the making or revision of constitution but despite all efforts most of the people of Pakistan remained unaware about the importance of constitution so far as human rights are concerned. This article focuses on the importance, knowledge, and development of constitution and its clauses related to human rights by conducting interview of 100 high educated people who are either studying or professionals in different walks of life after having completed 14 years of schooling. The findings of the study reflect that high educated people seem to have either very casual attitude towards the process of democracy or appear to be least concerned with constitutional development in the country. A majority of respondents knows only one definition of democracy and human rights and similarly has not read constitution of Pakistan or even single clause given in the constitution related to citizen rights and is found least interested in 18th amendment, etc. Hence, the study suggests that relevant parts of constitution must be included in the curricula of the Universities keeping in view the need of the Pakistanis and media should play a nucleus role to educate people regarding the awareness about the importance of human rights. The study recommends that by equipping the graduates with such knowledge will pave way to ensure peaceful future to posterity as it has been found that educated people have started preferring bread and butter to such awareness and feel satiation of hunger is bigger requirement than awareness about the constitution, as the study manifests.


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1.Background And Introduction Constitutional government is an ideal, and like all ideals it can be achieved only as an approximation. Even the countries that appear to be near the ideal are revealed on examination to be not so near. Constitutional government, to the extent it is achieved, reflects a state of affairs that remains under constant threat from power seekers, ideological opponents, ill-informed social engineers, and manipulative special interests. It is also being eroded in the postindustrial era through a serious depletion of social capital, weakening the

institutional foundations of constitutional government

(Fukuyama, 2000). But on the other hand we see that the countries with the greatest institutional deficits are also the ones least capable of coping with humanitarian catastrophes, whether manmade or natural (Sen, 1999). And Pakistan could be included among them without keeping in view any expediency. The present (2008) projected literacy rate for Pakistan is 56% (male 69%: female 44%): Punjab 60.2%, Sindh 57.7%, Khyber Pukhtonkhawa 49.9%, and Balochistan 48.8%. However, only 2.9% Pakistanis were enrolled in higher education in 2004 that undoubtedly reflects bleak picture of the state of affairs we are facing in higher education. The total enrolment at degree colleges’ stage is 352,303 whereas the total enrolment in the universities is 741,092 in the year 2008. But so far as higher education is concerned there are total 1,202 degree colleges of which 826 (69%) are in public sector, whereas 376 (31%) are in private sector. The total enrolment at degree colleges stage is 352,303 of which 320,786 (91%) is in public sector, whereas, 31,517 (9%) is in private sector. The total boys enrolment at degree colleges stage is 138,097 (39%), whereas, the girls enrolment is 214,206 (61%). The total teachers at degree colleges level are 20,971, out of which 15,763 (75%) is in public and 5,208 (25%) are in private sector. There are 10,281 (49%) male teacher and 10,690 (51%) are female teachers. There are total 124 universities of which 68 (55%) are in public sector, whereas 56 (45%) are in private sector. The total enrolment in the universities is 741,092 of which 637,037 (86%) is in public sector, whereas, 104,055 (14%) is in private sector. The total male enrolment in the universities is 398,967 (54%), whereas, the female enrolment is 342,125 (46%). The total teachers in the universities are 46,893, out of which 38,266 (82%) is in public and 8,627 (18%) are in private sector (Pakistan Education statistics: 2007-08). Although alarming but when we see that there are people who are trying to attain higher education we start thinking about the better future of this country by feeling that they will contribute in transferring their awareness about the importance of democratic INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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government, human rights through constitution, and citizenship, etc. For example in the recent debates on 18th amendment it was thought that this was the biggest achievement of the present government and it became the center of attention of almost all the stakeholders of the country but irony of fate is that most of the people talked about the transfer of powers from President to the Prime Minister; as well as provincial autonomy, etc., and nothing of the people who should be the ultimate beneficiaries. We have also seen that except some, most of the corners didn’t try to highlight the importance of human rights for which a majority of people of this country is waiting to have since independence. Human rights can be defined as the rights of all individuals regardless of sex, race, colour, language, national origin, age, class or religious or political beliefs to certain fundamental freedoms (Women’s Human Rights Step by Step). Human rights are universal, inalienable, indivisible and interrelated (Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 1993). It is growing day by day but it is apt to see whether or not this educated class is concerned with democratic system by having awareness about the constitution that provides people a complete social system to live in the state. It could be accepted that economic stability shuns off many social problems but it is also important to note how this class contributes in the making of Pakistan a true democratic country through their active involvement. It is great achievement of Pakistan to have constitutional government after nine years’ dictatorship and it is important to refer to Suri Ratnapala who says that constitutional government requires its appreciation and acceptance by critical sections of the intellectual community—persons whose actions and decisions shape higher-order institutions as well as others who influence them strongly. This community includes government ministers, legislators, judges, senior civil servants, statutory authorities, trade union heads, leaders of important nongovernmental organizations, and powerful business people, as well as opinion shapers such as university professors, clergy, journalists, authors, producers, directors, and entertainers of various kinds (Ratnapala, 2003). The above sheds light on the role of educated people of a society that calls itself a constitutional/democratic and their indifference to the objectives of constitution could affect otherwise. Hence, it is very important that this particular class must play its assigned role in the democratic process of the country.


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2.Objective, Methodology And Research Questions Of The Study This qualitative study was conducted, through interview, on one hundred graduates who were either studying or professionals in different walks of life to know their understanding about constitution or constitutional development in Pakistan particularly with reference to human rights and their importance in a democratic country. It also aimed to find out (answer the question of) the seriousness of high educated class in Pakistan pertaining to citizen/human rights given in the constitution of Pakistan as well as their priority in the present political scenario. The subjects were asked the following questions for the findings of the study.

3.Interview Questions 

How would you define democracy?



Do you think for democracy constitution is necessary? How?



Do you know how many constitutions have been made since independence in Pakistan? Can you name them?



What makes a ‘Republic’? What are your views?



Is Pakistan a ‘Republic’?



Have you read 1973 constitution of Pakistan or some of its clauses?



Do you know about 18th amendment?



Have you read the text of 18th amendment or some of its parts?



Have you ever read something about the citizen rights/human rights given in the constitution of Pakistan?



What is the importance of human rights in country?



Do you think a constitution gives guarantees of human rights? Can you elaborate?



What do you feel about the requirements of the people of Pakistan in the present time?

4.Review Of Literature The constitution provides the overarching legal framework for a country.

It is the

highest form of legal authority in a state, and no other laws enacted by the government can contradict it. Constitutions are usually, but not always, written documents. The constitution contains the fundamental principles of government and enshrines the basic INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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rights of individuals in relation to the state. It also establishes the basis for political and judicial systems (What is Constitution?). At the same time the spread of constitutional review has both ideational and institutional underpinnings. Constitutional review is closely associated in the popular mind with what has been characterized as the most important idea of the twentieth century, the notion of human rights (Henkin, 1990). Around the world, a growing crisis of legitimacy characterises the relationship between citizens and the institutions that affect their lives. In both North and South, citizens speak of mounting disillusionment with government, based on concerns about corruption, lack of responsiveness to the needs of the poor and the absence of a sense of connection with elected representatives and bureaucrats (Commonwealth Foundation 1999; Narayan et al. 2000). During the late 1990s, several parallel shifts in development thought have given rise to the emergence of ‘citizenship’ as an area of debate. The focus of participatory development, long rooted in concern with participation at the project level (often apart from the state) began to turn towards political participation and increasing poor and marginalized people’s influence over the wider decision-making processes which affect their lives (Gaventa & Valderrama 1999; Cornwall 2000). Alongside this shift was the rise of the ‘good governance’ agenda and its concerns with increasing the responsiveness of governments to citizens’ voices (Goetz & Gaventa, 2001). Human rights have become particularly important in contemporary constitutions, especially for mobilizing and developing the constitution: they give the people space to organize and aggregate interests, and the authority to challenge state institutions. The ‘mobilization’ of rights does not depend on the state, but on the people. Rights give people tools to protect themselves and to compel the state to take specified action (many contemporary rights regimes being highly programmatic). Rights are no longer devices for maintaining the status quo, as was the case in the US constitution, but are means critical for dynamic change and they assume an active citizenry (Ghai, 2001). To be meaningful, arguments for participation and institutional accountability must become grounded in a conception of rights which, in a development context, strengthens the status of citizens from that of beneficiaries of development to its rightful and legitimate claimants (Cornwall, 2000). UNDP Human Development Report 2000 argues that ‘the fulfillment of human rights requires democracy that is inclusive’. For this, elections are not enough. New ways must be found to ‘secure economic, social and


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cultural rights for the most deprived and to ensure participation in decision making’ (UNDP 2000: 7–9). Avagian & Miroumian (2009) say that within the last century the role of the safeguard for universal human stability was mainly reserved to the Fundamental Law of a state, a written constitution which, enshrining the goals emanating from the common civilizational values of a particular society and the fundamental principles of social existence, stipulates the basic rules of social behavior, the nature of relations between the individual and the state, the procedure and the limits for the exercise of power, creating a necessary environment based on social accord conducive for the full implementation of the human potential for creation and progress. This becomes possible at a certain stage of development of civilization and social conscience. The human community, as a system of social cohesion, dates back to about ten millennia, whereas constitutionally regulated nation-state. It surely generates awareness about rights which are normally called human rights. Human rights can be defined as the rights of all individuals regardless of sex, race, colour, language, national origin, age, class or religious or political beliefs to certain fundamental freedoms (Women’s Human Rights Step by Step). Human rights are universal, inalienable, indivisible and interrelated (“Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 1993). Although modern human rights laws were formulated in the wake of World War II, they have ancient and global origins. The great religious traditions— Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Judaism and Islam—include such universal human rights tenets as the responsibility of human beings towards others and respect for human dignity. Philosophies around the world have long explored the nature of relations between individuals and the moral responsibilities of individuals within Society (Lauren, 1998). Amendment XVIII (the Eighteenth Amendment) of the Constitution of Pakistan, was passed by the National Assembly of Pakistan on April 8, 2010, removing the power of the President of Pakistan to dissolve the Parliament unilaterally, turning Pakistan from a semi-presidential to a parliamentary republic, and renaming North-West Frontier Province to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The 'historic' bill reverses many infringements on Constitution of Pakistan over several decades by its military rulers. After XVIII the present Government has also unanimously passed the amendment claiming to have done ‘Hercules’ task. Shahid Javed Burki writes that there cannot be any doubt that the 18th amendment will have a profound impact on the way the country is governed and its INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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economy is managed. If the federating units – the provinces – receive additional powers as a result of the abolition of the concurrent list put into the 1973 constitution by its framers, it will mean transferring large amounts of economic authority to the provinces. They will, for instance, have the right to manage labour laws; environmental impact of development in both the public and the private sectors of the economy; generation of much larger amounts of electricity than currently permitted; development of infrastructure; movement of goods and commodities within their own boundaries; improving the level of education and providing for the acquisition of usable skills by the populace (Burki, 2010). It is pertinent to write that on 29 October 2004 in Rome, Heads of State and Governments from the 25 Member States of the European Union signed a Treaty establishing a Constitution for the Union. But on 20 February 2005, the Spanish became the first Europeans to go to the polls for a referendum on the Constitution’s text. With 76.72% voting ‘Yes’ in a 42.32% voter turnout, the Treaty establishing a European Constitution obtained the approval of the Spanish people in a consultative referendum, a process which has only been used on three previous occasions: the ratification of ‘la Ley de Reforma Política’ (Political Reform Law, 1976), the Spanish Constitution (1978), and to decide upon the country’s continued membership of NATO (1986). Has it been asked the way Europeans have done? The answer may be in the negative. There is no denying the fact that constitution of a country is such a document that provides the entire socio-economic structure for the people. The elements of civil society range from groups based on religion and ethnicity to more fluid voluntary associations organized around ideology, professionalism, social activities or the pursuit of money, status, interest, or power. They range from circles of friends … to single purpose political advocacy groups. Civil society also includes communities, like formally organized religious settlements, with their implication of primary socialization, strong attachment, and common history and expectations (Post & Rosenblum, 2002: 3). Nor is there any disagreement about including in civil society the great variety of social movements, village and neighbourhood associations, women’s groups, religious groupings, intellectuals, and where they are reasonably free, the press and other media, civic organizations, associations of professionals, entrepreneurs, and employees, whose purposes and direction are not controlled by the institutions of state (Hawthorn, 2002: 276).


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There is a perception that civil society promotes true democratic system as well as generates such environment in which state starts finding it accountable to citizens. But how does it contribute for the consolidation of democracy? Schmitter listed: it stabilizes expectations within social groups; inculcates conceptions of interest and norms of behaviour that are civic; it provides channels for self-expression; serves to govern the behaviour of its members with regard to collective commitments; and provides important reservoirs of resistance to arbitrary action by rulers (1995: 60). On the contrary a majority in Pakistan is indifferent to the importance of constitutional awareness because it seems that feudal forces (constitutionally aware sections) in a country like Pakistan have not allowed even the highly educated people to read, comprehend or practice constitution in true letter and spirit either directly or indirectly. 5.Findings And Conclusion A majority of respondents appeared to be very excited about the role of democracy by defining it in a clichéd manner without knowing the importance of the crammed definition of democracy and were of the opinion that democracy is very important for Pakistan. It is interesting to mention that while commenting on the economic state of affairs in the country most of the respondents compared present democracy with previous dictatorship and looked little suspicious about democracy or democratic system. The results also manifest that subjects were not clear about the term ‘republic’ or the ingredients that make a country republic. At the same time most of the respondents showed sort of inability to know constitutional development in the country and have been found unclear about the exact constitutional development. Respondents were found less comfortable while responding to the question about the constitutional development in the country as most of them have not read either of the constitution and particularly 1973 constitution on whose restoration the present government feels proud of. Similarly the respondents knew much about the debates occurred on media on 18th amendment but were didn’t know anything of it except that through this province are going have provincial autonomy. The most alarming part of the responses is the knowledge of the respondents about human rights which almost every one is conscious of but the essence of the same was beyond their understanding as the results tell us. Moreover, it is pertinent to mention that the respondents didn’t know such clauses/parts of the constitution that guarantee human rights in the country because, according to


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them, they never read the constitution of Pakistan except the part which was included in the syllabus in the courses of studies as a compulsion. The researcher is not in the position to determine the causes of such negligence but at least could say that fewer efforts have been made by the privileged section of the country to train the nation to delve deep understanding to know duties and rights of a citizen. As we have seen that most of the respondents expected much from the government without mentioning their duties which reflects that people are lead by those who know constitution well and generate public opinion resulting in the supremacy of dominating class that could exploit constitution according the way they like leaving a lot for the common people, even the highly educated ones, to desire.

6.Implications In light of the findings and discussion, the study draws the following implications: 

Government should take such measures that could guarantee compulsory secondary education and steps should be taken to include human rights components in the courses of studies from secondary education.



No syllabus be deemed complete without necessary constitutional parts that manifest humans/citizen rights’ education.

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Universities should take appropriate steps to orientate their graduates in human rights education.



Media could play a vital role by arranging such discussions where human rights are elaborated for practical purposes.



State governed television could pave way by starting programmes where importance of the knowledge about human rights is discussed by the scholars and other concerned people.



Seminars should be arranged to educate people of Pakistan about the significance of human/citizen rights and its benefits.



It is strongly suggested that T.V channels must make indirect human rights education a part of their entertainment programmes because such programmes are mostly viewed by public.


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7.Reference 1. Avagian, R., & Miroumian, K. (2009). (Eds). Constitutional culture: The lessons of history and the challenges of time. English Translation (2009) by Artashes Emin. ISBN 978-99930-66-51-4 2. Cornwall, A. (2000). Beneficiary, Consumer, Citizen: Perspectives on Participation for Poverty Reduction, Stockholm: SIDA 3. European Constitution Post-Referendum survey in Spain. Survey: February 2005 Analytical Report: March 2005 4. Fukuyama, F. (2000). The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order. London: Profile. 5. Gaventa, J. and Valderrama, C. (1999). ‘Participation, citizenship and local governance – background paper for workshop: strengthening participation in local

governance’,

mimeo,

IDS,

Brighton,

21–24

June

1999,

www.ids.ac.uk/particip (5 March 2011) 6. Ghai, Yash, Human Rights and Social Development: Towards Democratisation and Social Justice (Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), 2001 7. Goetz, A-M., & Gaventa, J. (2001). ‘From consultation to influence: bringing citizen voice and client focus into service delivery’, IDS Working Paper No 138, Brighton: Institute of Development Studies 8. Hart, Vivian, ‘Constitution-Making and the Transformation of Conflict’, Peace and Change, 26/2 (2001), pp. 153–75 9. Hawthron, G. (2002). “The Promise of Civil Society in the South”. In Sudipta Kaviraj and Sunil Khilnani (eds.), Civil Society: History and Possibilities. New Delhi: Foundation Books. 10. Henkin, L. (1990). The Age of Rights. New York: Columbia University Press. 11. Jolynn Shoemaker: What is Constitution? Retrieved June 2, 2011 from www.international-alert.org/sites/default/files/.../TKConstitutionalRights.pdf 12. Narayan, D., Chambers, R., Shah, M.K. and Petesch, P. (2000). Voices of the Poor: Crying Out For Change. Washington, DC: World Bank 13. Pakistan Education Statistics. (2007-08). Academy of Educational Planning and Management National Educational Management Information System Ministry of Education, Islamabad


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14. Lauren, P.G. (1998). The Evolution of International Human Rights. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. 15. Post, R, C., & Nancy L. R. (2002). “Introduction”. In Nancy L. Rosenblum and Robert C. Post (eds.), Civil Society and Government. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 16. Sen, A. K. (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 17. Schmitter, P. C. (1995). “Civil Society and Democratization”. In INPR, International Conference on Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies: Trends and Challenges. Taipei: Institute for National Policy Research. 18. Shahid Javed Burki. The 18th Amendment: Pakistan’s Constitution Redesigned. ISAS Working Paper, No. 112 – 3 September 2010. Institute of South Asian Studies, National University of Singapore. 19. Suri Ratnapala. Securing Constitutional Government: The Perpetual Challenge. The Independent Review, v. VIII, n.1, Summer 2003, pp. 5– 26. 20. Tully, James and Chambers, Simone, ‘Contract or Conversation? Theoretical Lessons from the Canadian Constitutional Crisis’, Politics and Society, Vol. 26, No. 1, (1998), pp. 143–72 21. UNDP, (2000). Human Development Report 2000, New York: UNDP 22. “Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action,” UN General Assembly, A/Conf. 157/23, 12 July 1993, para. 5. 23. Women’s Human Rights Step by Step. Washington, DC: Women, Law and Development International, 1997.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Reducing Leakage Current And Improving SRAM Cell Stability Using Independent –Gate Finfet Technology Over Conventional CMOS Technology Kalpana Agrawal Dept. of VLSI, Mewar University, Gaziabad, India Gaurav Jain Dept. of ECE, RKGIT College of Engg., Gaziabad, India Prof.K.K Tripathi Dept. of ECE, RKGIT College of Engg., Gaziabad, India

Abstract: In VLSI technology conventional CMOS transistors are continuously scaling down to obtain faster speed of devices and very large scale integrated circuits. But the main drawbacks of CMOS scaling are high leakage current and heavy channel doping. So using CMOS SRAM beyond 45nm cell stability and controlling leakage current are becoming difficult in today’s fast low power applications. FinFET may be an alternative of conventional CMOS transistor. In this paper independent double -gate FINFET structure based SRAM 6-Tcell has been proposed to controlling leakage current and improving SRAM cell stability . By adjusting threshold voltage(Vt) without affecting cell ratio we can reduce leakage current so that power during off state of transistor. In conventional CMOS due to heavy channel doping carrier mobilities are reduced which also increases process variations. In independent double gate FINFET technology, two separate gates are used. Threshold voltage of one gate can be altered by varying the voltage at the other gate. In this technology nearly intrinsic channel is used so carrier mobilities will be higher which results in higher speed of devices. Using the thin silicon fin, ratio of ION/IOFF can also be increased. Due to vertical gate, there will no overlapping between source-gate and drain-gate so depletion and junction capacitances will be effectively eliminated. Wiring delay and bitline capacitance of SRAM will also be reduced . Keywords: conventional CMOS, FinFET, SRAM, leakage current, threshold voltage(Vt).


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1.Introduction As SRAM occupies a large area in any memory chip so it consumes a large power. It is necessary to scale down conventional CMOS 6-T SRAM cell to obtain high speed. As the channel length of a conventional CMOS is reduced to the nanometer scale, main obstacles are short channel effects, sub-threshold leakage current, reduced carrier mobilities due to heavy channel doping and device-to-device variations [1]. At sub45nm channel lengths, obtaining a large current drive while maintaining a low off-state leakage current becomes challenging [2]. The use of independent gate FinFET can provide better control of short-channel effects, lower leakage current and better carrier mobilities [3,4]. In the FinFET, independent control of front and back gate can be used to improve the performance and reduce power consumption[5].The cell leakage is commonly suppressed by using a higher transistor threshold voltage . Utilizing a higher transistor threshold voltage also helps to improve the read margin[15]. This paper explores the use of independent gate FinFETs for SRAM, which have emerged as promising substitutes for conventional CMOS at the 32nm technology and beyond. FinFETs are reported to have much shorter delay and less power consumption compared to traditional CMOS devices at the 32nm technology [13]. The paper is organized as follows. FinFET structure and modes are described in Section II; Conventional CMOS SRAM design challenges are described in Section III; CMOS 6T design tradeoff’s in Section IV; The new independent – gate FinFET SRAM 6-Tcell is presented in Section V; Results are given in VI;Finally ,some conclusions are offered in Section VII.

2. Finfet Structure And Modes FinFETs are double-gate devices.There are two types of FinFETS : shorted gate (SG) and independent –gate(IG) FinFETs. The two gates of FinFET can either be shorted for higher perfomance or independently controlled. In SG FinFET, both gates are tied with each other. In IG FinFET, both gates are independent so can be controlled separately for lower leakage or reduced transistor count. Figure 1 shows the basic structure of FinFET for SG and IG mode.


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Figure 1(a): FinFET Structure SG Mode. Figure 1(b): FinFET Structure IG Mode

Rather than a plane Si surface, FinFET structure has a Si fin as the channel, the two gates are on the both sides of channel which are electrically isolated from the channel using a thin insulator. These two gates can allow for the independent operation[15]. The various dimensions of FinFET structure are as follows: HFIN :Height of silicon fin, Lgate:Physical gate length, Tsi:Thickness of silicon fin, Tox:Thickness of the oxide layer, Wg:Width of source/drain; WFIN:Width of silicon fin defined as WFIN=2HFIN + Tsi . For example if HFIN =45nm, Tsi =5nm then WFIN =95nm.By using very thin silicon fin, short channel effects(SCE) can be suppressed greatly[19]. Due to light doping and thin body of FinFET depletion and junction capacitance will also be lower. Additional factor of FinFETs double gates are self aligned to each other and to source and drain which gives high performance and better control of channel length.

3.Conventional Cmos Sram Design Challenges CMOS scaling has traversed many anticipated barriers over the past 20 years to rapidly progress from 2 μm to 90nm . For further CMOS scaling, subthreshold and gatedielectric leakages have become the dominant barrier . Conventional CMOS scaling beyond the 45 nm channel length requires heavy channel doping to control Short Channel Effects (SCE) and heavy super-halo implants to control sub-surface leakage currents. Heavy doping degrades the carrier mobility and increases parasitic junction capacitance. In the power consumption equation

=

, operating voltage is main factor for

reduction of power but if we decrease operating voltage,the gate delay td and maximum clock frequency ∝

(

)

of a chip degrade by the equations(1) &(2)[16]. (1)


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(2)

A better solution to scale down is to decrease threshold voltage Vt but decreasing threshold voltage increases leakage current exponentially. Also process variations of threshold voltage does not scale accordingly[17]. Independent gate FinFETs, in which a second gate is added opposite the traditional (first) gate, have better control over short-channel effects [SCEs]. SCE limits the minimum channel length at which an FET is electrically well behaved.

4.Conventional Cmos Sram Cell Stability

4.1.Read Failure The read stability of the cell can be defined using the static noise margin (SNM). SNM is calculated by the side of the largest square inside the SRAM cross-coupled inverter characteristic measured during the read condition [15]. A read failure occurs in the SRAM cell when enough charge on the bitline is transferred to the internal cell storage node and flips its state during a read access. In CMOS scaling, to improve the read stability is to increase the cell ratio (β)by upsizing the NMOS pulldown transistor or downsizing the NMOS access transistor[7].

4.2. Write Failure The write stability of the cell can be quantified using the write noise margin (WNM), given by the smallest square that can fit between the butterfly curves from both a read and a write simulation [18]. A write failure occurs when insufficient charge is transferred from one of the storage nodes to the grounded bitline . Write stability can be improved using a weaker pull-up transistor or larger access transistor[7]. So there is trade off between read stability and write stability.

5.The Proposed Independent – Gate Finfet Sram 6-Tcell Figure 2 shows the independent gate FinFET SRAM with additional feature level shifter(LS). Two threshold voltage control lines VG2n and VG2p are connected with LS. Second gate of each transistor in SRAM is connected with INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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correspondingly. These two control lines are parallel with world line(WL). WL is also connected with LS.A level shifter is coupled between the first gate and the second gate of each transistor. The level shifter is configured to select a supply voltage output for a circuit including one of the first supply voltage and the second supply voltage in accordance an input signal, where the input signal depends on at least one of an operation to be performed .

Figure 2: Proposed Independent Gate FinFET 6-T SRAM Cell

When read or write operation is to be accessed, threshold voltage(Vt) of each transistor is decreased using LS. This gives high ION current and improves static noise margin(SNM). During standby mode, Vt of each transistor is increased using LS through control lines which reduces IOFF. Threshold voltage Vt is flexible and control the whole operation.

6. Results In proposed FinFET SRAM, apart from WL , BL and BLB lines, the cell has two other control gates for the access, the pull-down, and the pull-up transistors. Figure 3 shows the curve for short circuit current. To balance the drivability of the transistors, both of the VG2n and VG2p need to be controlled in the opposite direction. The butterfly curves of the FinFET SRAM do not change with the bias voltages because the beta ratio of access to the pull-down transistor is unchanged. The short circuit current in the circuit can be flexibly controlled by the second gate bias voltage . By controlling threshold voltage Vt of each transistor not only the static leakage current, but also the dynamical power consumption can be controlled by independent gate FinFET SRAM.


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Figure 3: Short Circuit Current Curve for Different Values of Control Gates

7.Conclusion This paper proposed independent gate FinFET SRAM using Level Shifter(LS). By controlling the threshold voltage Vt of FinFET transistor using double gate, standby leakage current can be greatly suppressed. Dynamic power consumption can also be reduced.Two control lines VG2n and VG2p are used to control the threshold voltage of every transistor. VG2N control line is used to control access and pull down transistor. VG2p control line is used to control pull up transistor. So FinFET technology is the future of faster devices.


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8. Reference 1. Etienne Sicard, Sonia Delmas, “Basics of CMOS cell design” book, (2006). 2. S. Borkar, "Design challenges of technology scaling," IEEE Micro, vol. 19, issue 4, Jul-Aug 1999, pp. 23-29. 3. T.-J. King, “FinFETs for nanoscale CMOS digital integrated circuits”. In Proc. Int. Conf. Computer-Aided Design, pages 207–210, (2005). 4. L. Wei, Z. Chen, and K. Roy, “Double gate dynamic threshold voltage (DGDT) SOI MOSFETs for low power high performance designs.” In Proc. IEEE Int. SOI Conf., pages 82–83, (1997). 5. Anish Muttreja, Niket Agarwal and Niraj K. Jha, “CMOS logic design with independent-gate FinFETs” ©2007 IEEE 6. Kazuhiko Endo, Shin-ichi O’uchi, Yuki Ishikawa, Yongxun Liu, Takashi Matsukawa, Kunihiro Sakamoto, Meishoku Masahara, Junichi Tsukada, Kenichi Ishii, Hiromi Yamauchi, and Eiichi Suzuki, “Independent-Gate Four-Terminal FinFET SRAM for Drastic Leakage Current Reduction”, 978-1-4244-18114/08/$25.00 © 2008 IEEE. 7. Eric Chin1, Mohan Dunga, Borivoje Nikolic, “Design Trade-offs of a 6T FinFET SRAM Cell in the Presence of Variations”. 8. Kazuhiko Endo, Shin-ichi O’uchi, Yuki Ishikawa, Yongxun Liu, Takashi Matsukawa, Kunihiro Sakamoto, Meishoku Masahara, Junichi Tsukada, Kenichi Ishii, Hiromi Yamauchi, and Eiichi Suzuki, “Independent-Gate Four-Terminal FinFET SRAM for Drastic Leakage Current Reduction”, 978-1-4244-18114/08/$25.00 © 2008 IEEE. 9. Gary Yeap, “Practical Low Power Digital VLSI Design” ,Springer. 10. S. O’uchi, M. Masahara, K. Endo, Y. X. Liu, T. Matsukawa, K. Sakamoto, T. Sekigawa, H. Koike and E. Suzuki, ICICE Trans. E91-C, 534 (2008). 11. J.P. Colinge, “FinFETs and Other Multi-Gate Transistors” , Springer. 12. Doorn, T.S., Maten, E.J.W. ter, Croon, J.A., Di Bucchianico, A., Wittich, O., “Importance sampling Monte Carlo simulations for accurate estimation of SRAM yield,”

Proceedings

34th

European

Solid

State

Circuits

Conference

(ESSCIRC2008), Sept. 2008,pp. 230-233. 13. B. Swahn and S. Hassoun, “Gate sizing: FinFET vs. 32nm bulk MOSFETs,” in Proc. Design Automation Conf., pp. 528-531, Jul. 2006.


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14. E. Seevinck, R. List, and J. Lohstroh, “Staic-Noise Margin Analysis of MOS SRAM Cells,” IEEE JSSC, vol. SC-22, pp.748-754, Oct. 1987. 15. Z. Guo, S. Balasubramanian, R. Zlatanovici, T. J. King, and B. Nikolić, “FinFETBased SRAM Design,’’ ISLPED’05, pp. 8–10, August 2005. 16. A.Chandrakashan,S.Sheng and R.Brodersen,”Low-Power Digital Desgn,”IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,vol.27,no.4,pp.473-484,Apr.1992. 17. M. Horowitz, T. Indermaur and R. Gonzalez, “Low Power Digital Design,” Digest of Technical Papers, IEEE Symposium on Law Power Electronics, pp. 811, 1994 . 18. A. Bhavnagarwala, et. al, “Fluctuation Limits &Scaling Opportunities for CMOS SRAM Cells.”IEDM, Dec 2005. 19. Balwinder Ra1, A.K. Saxena and S. Dasgupta, “ HIGH PERFORMANCE DOUBLE GATE FINFET SRAM CELL DESIGN FOR LOW POWER APPLICATION” , International Journal of VLSI and Signal Processing Applications, Vol. 1, Issue 1(12-20), ISSN 2231-3133. 20. http://www.google.com/patents/US20110085390 21. http://www.faqs.org/patents/app/20090116307#b


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The Replica-Based Data Access Optimization in Distributed Environment P. Sathiya Member, IEEE, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, V.S.B. Engineering College, Karur K. N. Vimal Shankar Department of Computer Science and Engineering, V.S.B. Engineering College, Karur

Abstract: Distributed systems are groups of networked computers, which have the same goal for their work. According to that, achieve the goal for data distribution that can improve the allocating file chunks on the computing environment. When a new process arrives at the system, the approach verifies if there is any automaton capable of representing it. If automaton is used to estimate resource requirements for this next process. In this system applies many strategies for supporting the online prediction of application behavior, even though the data access operation finds to be though in optimizing the operation. Which checks the operation conducting on the application through the reducing the iteration in migration and replication process with strategies models designed for Schedulers. Distribution and Data access Process has also been made simple through PSO based on scheduler by tracking the Metadata of Data placed in the Datacenters.

Keywords: Distributed System, PSO (particle swarm optimization), Optimization.


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1.Introduction The distributed environment is a software system that includes a framework and toolkit for developing client/server applications. Some major components uses in the distributed environment are 1) The Security Server (SS) that is responsible for authentication 2) The Cell Directory Server (CDS) that is the repository of resources and ACLs and 3) The Distributed Time Server (DTS) that provides an accurate clock for proper functioning of the entire cell. Distributed system mainly available for powerful yet cheap microprocessors continuing advances in communication technology and applications rely on cluster and grid environments. If the systems have uses any computing technologies for a goal-oriented Technologies mainly used for large-scale computing infrastructure currently available in the system that can characterize by both hardware and software heterogeneity. Some challenges have been made from system that involving a different objects designed models such as job scheduling, load balancing, communication protocols, highperformance in hardware architectures, and data access optimization. Migration is also considered in the system for ordering the data that use bring data closer to where it is requested. In this system mainly consider for replication schema that to increase performance and resilience against failures to access their data optimizing in distributed system. The data access in distributed manner within that organizations then it allows greater flexibility in structure and more redundancy for a system. This work proposes two prediction approaches uses for Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique: 1) the first considers one prediction model for every data access request; 2) the second models and predicts observations based on an average behavior of requests. In this Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique mainly applies the concept for social interaction to problem solving. The basic concept of PSO technique lies in accelerating each particle toward its pbest and the gbest locations that is, this technique use to easily find position and velocity of the resources. In this propose system, it invokes a computational method for optimizes a problem that is, iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality. This technique to optimize a problem for having a population of candidate solutions, here dubbed particles, and moving these particles around in the search-space according to simple mathematical formulae over the particle's position and velocity. It


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uses a number of agents (particles) that constitute a swarm moving around in the search space looking for the best solution. So that, it easily to predicts and access replicate resources. Then works still need to employ an extra effort for reducing application execution time, what depends on data access patterns and dynamically predict resources in distributed system.

2.Related Works Some related works done in the prediction of application behavior and data access prediction approaches.

2.1.Prediction On Behavior As one of the first works in this area is statistical approach to predict the consumption of CPU, file system I/O, and memory. If so, this automaton is used to estimate resource requirements for this next process. Trace-driven experiments confirm a strong correlation in between next and past executions. It employs [1] machine learning techniques to model requests to storage devices, based on Classification and Regression Trees (CART). It's easy to understand what resources are important in making the prediction. If some resources are missing, they can still make a prediction by averaging all the resources the system. The model gives a jagged [4] response, so it can work when the true regression surface is not smooth. If it is smooth, though, the piecewise-constant surface can approximate it arbitrarily closely. There are fast, reliable algorithms to learn these predictions. Mello employ Chaos-Theory [3] concepts and nonlinear prediction techniques to model and predict process behavior over time. Results confirm behaviors can be modeled using Dynamical Systems and, particularly, that Radial Basis Functions are good estimators for future process states. This work mainly based on framework to execute, control, and monitor applications. A new protocol study that adjusts sending rate according to calculated backlog presents a model to predict the current number of flows which could be useful to predict the future number of flow All of the models presented have either poor accuracy or they need a lot of information to be collected from then work or from the user.


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2.2.Data access prediction To improve performances data access prediction in distributed environments and it as mainly worked on data replication, distribution, and consistency. Armada [6] builds graph structures to represent processing and data flows. Graphs, representing process also used in resources dependencies and to support decisions on moving data toward processes, thus reducing execution time. Experiments compare applications running on a traditional environment and also on Armada [4] improve network throughput in the resource utilization. Kim et al. [9] propose a heuristic to improve resources access of the application, i.e., reduce execution time of data-intensive applications. This heuristic attempts to find the lowest cost data source for every process and then results confirm that heuristic outperforms conventional latency based and random allocation approaches. AL-Mistarihi and Yong [2] propose an approach to select the best replica for applications, that is, which presents the lowest access cost. It considers the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to solve that problem; [1] they evaluate this approach using the OptorSim simulator and compare it to a random one. The main drawback of work only considers read operations, what tends to limit their applicability in real-world scenarios. They employ static approaches to optimize access, i.e., mechanisms that do not consider the dynamic system behavior.

3.The Replica-Based Data Access Optimization This paper proposes an approach to support the prediction of application behavior in an attempt to optimize data access operations on distributed environment. In that to evaluate process behavior and select modeling techniques, which are used to predict of replica based schema.

Figure 1: Schema Approach


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3.1.Applying Application Knowledge Acquisition If constructing the grid architecture and it architecture consist of gridlet, user .etc. and also construct transaction application and batch application. It is responsible for monitoring process behavior by using event interception. The interception mechanism is associated with the process under execution. At every function call, this mechanism is informed, being capable of taking further decisions or simply log information. Different libraries and tools provide interception. The most common ones are the Unix DLSym and Unix Ptrace.

3.2.Organization Of Process Behaviors As Time Series After extracting the application behavior, transform the sequence of read-and-write events in a multidimensional time series. Every event is described by quintuple as which pid is the process identifier that performed the operation, i node is the file identifier, amt is the amount of data read or written to disk, time represents the time interval in between consecutive operations, and op is the operation type.

3.3.Classifying Data Sets and Assessing the Time Series Generation Process All tools are organized according to a tree view and also indicate models for every branch. When a series is deterministic, it is better studied using Chaos-Theory tools, making unnecessary further evaluations. When under that branch, series still must be evaluated in order to select the best modeling approach. Thus, proceed with the third level which verifies series linearity. Nonlinear series can be addressed by using nonlinear modeling approaches.

3.4.Prediction Of Process Behavior And Implementation Of Optimization The prediction is performed on the time series, which represents process behaviors. The measurement considered to evaluate prediction results was the Normalized Root Mean Squared Error (NRMSE defined in which

is the maximum and x-min is the

minimum observed values, xi is the expected value at time instant is the obtained value at time instant.

f


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In this use a PSO technique for accessing at dynamitic calculation of CPU time get a better performance i.e., to predicate performance in time series. PSO use each particle's movement is influenced by its local best known position and is also guided toward the best known positions in the search-space, which are updated as better positions are found by other particles..The parameter for the data optimization namely – 

Execution time of job request



Cost of completion of job ie.CPU cost.



Expected Completion time of job etc,

are given as input to the PSO algorithm.PSO is a meta heuristic as it makes few or no assumptions about the problem being optimized and can search very large spaces of candidate solutions. The goal is to find a solution a for which f(a) ≤ f(b) for all b in the search-space, which would mean a is the global minimum. Maximization can be performed by considering the function h = -f instead. Here, the x, v and p and the result g are arrived based on the input given to the PSO. This is expected to move the swarm toward the best solutions A basic PSO algorithm is then:

1) For each particle i = 1... S does: a) Initialize the particle's position with a uniformly distributed random vector: xi ~ U (b lo, bup), where blo and b up are the lower and upper boundaries of the search-space. b) Initialize the particle's best known position to its initial position: p i ← xi c) If (f(pi) < f(g)) update the swarm's best known position: g ← pi d) Initialize the particle's velocity: vi ~ U (-|bup-blo|, |bup-b lo|). 2) Until a termination criterion is met (e.g. number of iterations performed, or a solution with adequate objective function value is found), repeat: a) For each particle i = 1, ..., S do: b) For each dimension d = 1, ..., n do: Pick random numbers: rp, rg ~ U(0,1). c) Update the particle's velocity: vi, d ← ω vi,d + φp rp (p i,d-xi,d) + φg rg (gd-xi,d). Update the particle's position: xi ← xi + vi. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

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d) If (f(xi) < f(pi)) do: Update the particle's best known position: p i ← xi. 3) If (f(pi) < f(g)) update the swarm's best known position: g ← p i a) Now g holds the best found solution b) Update the particle's position: xi ← xi + vi c) If (f(xi) < f(pi)) do: Update the particle's best known position: p i ← xi.

4) If (f(pi) < f(g)) update the swarm's best known position: g ← p i. 5) Now g holds the best found solution.

4.Simulation Experiments A data access optimization approach which uses predictive techniques for distributed computing environments. The main objective is to calculating CPU time dynamically i.e., to predicate performance in time series and to get a better performance for accessing a data optimizing application time.

Figure 2: Resource Creation and CPU Time


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Figure 3: Resource Replica Schema

Figure 4:Replica Time Series (Predicate)

5.Future Direction The data access operation finds to automatic and online prediction of read-and-write operations performed by processes. So, to extend the strategies model for application monitoring and prediction using PSO based Technique i.e., dynamically to predict CPU performances to accessing the resources in efficient way.


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6.Conclusion In this paper present that technique as replica based data access optimization, the objective is to minimize the application execution time by optimizing data accesses and therefore, improving decisions on replication, migration, and consistency. From that, data access operations are transformed into time series. By modeling those series, understand the behavior of applications. Therefore, to predicate time series and to get a better performance for accessing a data optimizing application.


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7.Reference 1. Renato Porfirio Ishii and Rodrigo Fernandes de Mello “An Online Data Access Prediction and Optimization Approach for Distributed Systems” IEEE transactions on parallel and distributed systems, vol. 23, no. 6, june 2012. 2. H. Stockinger, “Defining the Grid: A Snapshot on the Current View,” The J. Supercomputing,vol. 42, pp. 3-17, http://www.springerlink.com/content/906476116167673m, 2007. 3. T. Hey and A.E. Trefethen, “Cyber infrastructure for E-Science,” Science, vol.

308

no.

5723,

pp

.817

-

821,

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/308/5723/817, 2005. 4. J.P. Collins, “Sailing on an Ocean of 0s and 1s,” Science, vol. 327, pp. 14551456, Mar. 2010. 5. G. Fox and D. Gannon, “Computational Grids,” Computing in Science and Eng., vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 74-77, 2001. 6. J. Gray, “eScience: A Transformed Scientific Method,” The Fourth Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery, T. Hey, S. Tansley, and K. Tolle, eds., Microsoft Research, 2009. 7. R. Ranjan, A. Harwood, and R. Buyya, “A Study on Peer-to-Peer Based Alhajj, “A Predictive Technique for Replica Selection in Grid Environment,” Proc. IEEE Seventh Int’l Symp. Cluster Computing and Grid, pp. 163-170, May 2007. 8. M. Nielsen, “A Guide to the Day of Big Data,” Nature, vol. 462, pp. 722-723, Dec. 2009. 9. R.P. Ishii and R.F. de Mello, “An Adaptive and Historical Approach to Optimize Data Access in Grid Computing Environments,” INFOCOMP J. Computer

Science,

vol.

10,

no.

2,pp.

26-43,

http://www.dcc.ufla.br/infocomp/, 2011. 10. H.H.E. AL-Mistarihi and C.H. Yong, “On Fairness, Optimizing Replica Selection in Data Grids,” IEEE Trans. Parallel Distributed Systems, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1102-1111, Aug. 2009. 11. M. Devarakonda and R. Iyer, “Predictability of Process Resource Usage: A Measurement-Based Study on Unix,” IEEE Trans. Software Eng., vol. 15, no. 2, pp.1579-1586,http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ Dec. 1989.


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12. M. Faerman, A. Su, R. Wolski, and F. Berman, “Adaptive Performance Prediction for Distributed Data-intensive Applications,” Proc. ACM/IEEE Conf. Supercomputing (Supercomputing ’99), p. 36, 1999. 13. M. Wang, K. Au, A. Ailamaki, A. Brockwell, C. Faloutsos, and G.R. Ganger, “Storage Device Performance Prediction with Cart Models,” Proc. IEEE CS 12th Ann. Int’l Symp. Modeling, Analysis, and Simulation of Computer and Telecomm. Systems (MASCOTS ’04), pp. 588-595, 2004. 14. L. Senger, R.F. Mello, M.J. Santana, and R.H.C. Santana, “An On-Line Approach for Classifying and Extracting Application Behavior on Linux,” High Performance Computing: Paradigm and Infrastructure, pp. 381-401, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2005. 15. L.J. Senger, M. Santana, and R. Santana, “An Instance-based Learning Approach for Predicting Parallel Applications Execution Times,” Proc. Third Int’l Information and Telecomm. Technologies Symp., pp. 9-15, Dec. 2005.


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ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online)

Effect Of Aerobic Training Resistance Training And Concurrent Training On Speed Endurance And VO2 Max On Male Employs M. Sathish Ph.D Scholar Department of Physical Education, Prist University, Thanjavur.

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to find out the effect of aerobic training, resistance training and concurrent training on selected variables. For this study, sixty male employee were selected randomly as subjects and divided into four groups as aerobic, resistance and concurrent training. Test namely speed endurance and VO2 Max were tested at the beginning and end of 12th week experimental treatment. The collected data was statistically analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). It was found that there was a significant improvement in experimental groups in speed endurance and VO2 Max.

Keywords : Aerobic training. Concurrent training. Speeed endurance, VO2 Max


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1.Introduction Successful athletes understand athletic programme and the real reason behind their efforts. It doesn’t predominalty have anything to do with the improvement of their workouts and specific sport skills. The smart players are making themselves better athletes, which in turn make them better players. That is the key difference. The most successful players know that they can maintain their specific sport skills; by spending their time hitting the weights and mastering the skills of athletic performance they get to better specific sport skills. There has obviously been a shift in priorities of these more dominate players. Most team sports such as the football, hockey, netball and basketball require the development of different physical capacities for optimal performance. For example, the physical capacity of speed is required to ‘beat’ opponents, strength is needed for body collisions and physical contacts and endurance capacity allows the player to recover and repeat sprint efforts. Many sports are characterized by the need to blend multiple fitness components in order to achieve optimum performance. These include football, hockey, netball, basketball and many others. As an athlete involved in such a sport, one are unlikely to have the luxury of training any one of these components in isolation over a period of time, and one’s conditioning programmes probably involve the concurrent training of several fitness components across a number of micro cycles.

2.Methodology To achieve the purpose of this study, 60 male subjects were selected at random from gold Industry male embloyes, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India. The age of the participants ranged between 18 and 25 years. The selected participants were divided into three experimental groups and a control group with fifteen participants (n=15) in each group. Experimental group I (ATG = 15) underwent aerobic training, Group II (RTG = 15) underwent resistance training, Group III (CTG = 15) underwent concurrent training and Group IV served as control group (CG=15). All the experimental groups underwent 12 weeks of training, 3 sessions per week. All the subjects were tested on selected variables prior to and immediately after the training period. The dependent variables namely speed endurance was assessed by conducting 120mts run test and VO2 Max was assessed by using Spiro meter.


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3.Analysis Of Data The data collected from all the four groups were statistically analysed with analysis of convariance (ANACOVA) as four groups were involved. Whenever the ‘F’ ratio was found to be significant, Scheffe’s test was used as post hoc test to determine which of the paired menas differed significantly.

In all cases the criterion for statistical

significance was set at 0.05 level of confidence (P