Nov 18, 2009 - Durability requirements for vehicle emission standards. 35. 22 ...... Bharat Stage II norms, were introduced in the National Capital Region (NCR).
SUMMER INTERNSHIP REPORT
AIR QUALITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACT CSE, AIR POLLUTION UNIT SUBMITTED BY: VEERENDRA SAHU
2014
CENTER FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT
S.NO.
page no.
CONTENTS
1
State of ambient air quality
3
2
Sources of air pollution
17
3
Air pollution and health impact studies – outdoor/indoor air pollution
19
4
Vehicular pollution
27
5
Industrial pollution
38
6
Generator sets pollution
43
7
Open burning
47
8
Indoor air pollution
51
9
Way forward
55
Table no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
TABLE Revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Pollution Level Classification Number of locations with low, moderate, high & critical air quality Number of cities with low, moderate, high & critical air quality Annual average concentration of criteria pollutants in states Number of locations exceeding the NAAQS Ten location with highest SO2 values Ten states with highest SO 2 values Ten locations with higher NO2 values Ten state with highest NO2 values Ten locations with higher PM10 values Ten states with highest PM10 values results of various studies for Delhi &Mumbai for vehicular pollutant Emissions from different vehicle type of India Estimated pollution load in Indian cities Indian emission standard for 4- wheel vehicles Indian emission standard for 3- wheeland 2-wheel gasoline vehicles Indian emission standard for Gasoline vehicles (GVW< 3,500 kg) Road map for Vehicular Emission norms for new vehicles Recommended implementation dates for fuel sulfur content and vehicleemission standards. Durability requirements for vehicle emission standards Industrial Growth in India Various industries with the pollutants released by them Emission Limits & Smoke limit for Generator sets Types of Open Biomass Burning
PAGE NO. 4 8 9 10 10 11
12 13 14 14 15 16 22 30 31 33 33 33 34 35 35 38 39 44 47
2
1.State of ambient air quality Globally, 3.7 million deaths were attributable to ambient air pollution (AAP) in 2012. About 88% of these deaths occur in low- and middle-income (LMI) countries, which represent 82% of the world population. The Western Pacific and South East Asian regions bear most of the burden with 1.67 million and 0.936 milliondeaths, respectively. About 0.236milliondeaths occur in the Eastern Mediterranean region0.2millionin Europe, 0.176 million in Africa, and 0.058million in the Americas. The remaining deaths occur in high-income countries of Europe (0.28 million)Americas (0.094million), Western Pacific (0.067 million), and Eastern 1 Mediterranean (0.014 million). In 2010, particulate air pollution in Asia led to over 2.1 million premature deaths and 52 million years of healthy life lost, which is two-thirds of the worldwide burden. Killer outdoor air contributes to 1.2 million deaths in East Asia where economic growth and motorization are taking over, and 0.712million deaths in South Asia (including India) which is at the take-off stage. This is much higher than the combined toll of 0.4 million in EU 2 0.27 million, Eastern Europe, and Russia. Outdoor air pollution has become the fifth largest killer in India after high blood pressure, indoor air pollution, tobacco smoking, and poor nutrition, says a new set of findings of the Global Burden of Disease report. National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (N.A.M.P.) Central Pollution Control Boardinitiated National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) programme in 1984 with 7 stations at Agra and Anpara. Subsequently the programme was renamed as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).Steadily the air quality monitoring network got strengthened by increasing the number of monitoring stations from 28 to 365 during 1985 – 2009. During 2010 – 11, 93 new stations were added and the number of stations under operation increased to 456 covering 190 cities in 26 states and 5 Union Territories. As per the ENVIS (latest update 2014)number of stations under operation has been further 3 increased to 573 and distributed in 240 cities, 26 states and 5 UTs. The data shows that Maharashtra has the maximum number of monitoring stations – 77 followed by 57 in Uttar Pradesh. However Bihar has only 2 monitoring stations and Sikkim has one..
1
Burden of disease from Ambient Air Pollution for 2012 http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/AAP_BoD_results_March2014.pdf?ua=1 2 http://cseindia.org/content/air-pollution-now-fifth-largest-killer-india-says-newly-released-findings-global-burdendise 3
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING,NAAQMS/ 35 /20112012,www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_192_NAAQSTI.pdf
3
MONITORING STATIONS IN STATES AND UT'S
1 1 1
2 2
3 3
4
5 5
7
8
11 11 10 10
MAHARASTRA ORISSA PUNJAB HIMANCHAL PRADESH DELHI MEGHALAYA PONDICHERRY
16
20 20 21
24 24 23
27
29
32 31
U.P. TAMILNADU KERALA RAJASTHAN JHARKAND CHANDIGHAR J&K
48
39
77
57
A.P. KARNATAKA AASAM GOA CHATTISGARH HARYANA SIKKIM
WEST BENGAL M.P. GUJARAT MIZORAM UTTARAKHAND NAGALAND BIHAR
Source: http://cpcbenvis.nic.in/airpollution/monetoring
Parameters monitored under NAMP Under NAMP three criteria pollutants viz. PM10 (particulate matter having an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 10 μm), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) were identified for regular monitoring at all locations. Additional parameters like carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH3), lead (Pb) and ozone (O3) are being monitored at selected locations. The other parameters as notified in revised NAAQS viz. PM2.5 (particulate matter having an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5 μm), benzo(a)pyrene {B(a)P}, arsenic (As) and nickel (Ni) are slowly being added in monitoring network under NAMP (see Table 1: Revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and direction, relative humidity and temperature were also integrated with the air qualitymonitoring. Table 1:Revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) th [NAAQS Notification dated 18 November, 2009] The objectives of air quality standards are to indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety to protect public health, vegetation and property, to assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutant level; to provide uniform yardstickfor assessing air quality at national level; and to indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme.
4
Time S.
Concentration in Ambient Air Industrial, Ecologically
Pollutants Weighted
Residential,
Sensitive Area
Methods of Measurement
No. Average 1
Sulphur Dioxide
Annual*
3
2
3
4
5
6
Rural and (notified by Central other Areas Government) 50 20
(SO2), µg/m Nitrogen Dioxide 3 (NO2 ), µg/m
24 Hours** Annual* 24 Hours**
80 40 80
80 30 80
Particulate Matter (Size 90
>30
>45
>90
Low (L)
Critical (C)
Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012
CPCB report (NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING,NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012)has air quality data from January – December 2010 of 433 stations including 402stations from residential / commercial / industrial / rural area and 31 stations from ecologically sensitive area ,Adequate data on annual average concentration (with 50 and more day of monitoring) was received from 360 stations for SO 2, 362 stations for NO2 and 359 stations for PM10from residential / commercial / industrial / rural areas. The total number of stations considered for NO2 and PM10 were 402 and SO2 was 401 as the data for Byrnihat, Meghalaya in case of SO2 was outlier. Therefore, it was not considered. In case of ecologically sensitive areas adequate data was received from 25 stations for SO2, 24 stations for NO2 and 26 stations for PM10. Number of locations / monitoring stations with low, moderate, high and critical pollution level of air pollution The analysis of three criteria pollutants (adequate data) with respect to National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) during 2010 revealed that SO 2 showed low concentration in most of the locations (345 locations, 96%), moderate in 15 locations (4%) and high in 1 location. With respect to NO 2, 152 locations (42%) were in low category, 143 in moderate (40%), 38 in high (10%) and 29 (8%) in critical category. With respect to PM10 only 4 locations (1%) showed low PM10 level, 60 locations (17%) showed moderate, 103 high (29%) and 192 location (53%) were in critical category. Table 3 and the graph a shows categorization of locations according to low, moderate, high and critical level of pollutants in residential / industrial / commercial / rural and other graph b shows the same in ecologically sensitive areas. Locations at sensitive zones also showed more or less a similar trend. SO2 mainly showed low concentration in most of the locations (16 locations, 64%)) and moderate in 9 locations (36%). There were no cities in high or critical range. With respect to NO2, 12 locations (50%) were in low category, 8 in moderate (33%) and 4 in high (17%). In case of PM10 no location showed low PM10 level. 9 (35%) locations showed moderate and 1 (4%) high and 16 (62%) locations were in critical category. Table & fig. gives a picture of percentage of locations according to low, moderate, high and critical level of pollutants in both residential / industrial / commercial / rural and other and 6 sensitive areas.
Table 3: Number of locations with low, moderate, high & critical air quality (residential/industrial/commercial/rural and sensitive) Number of monitoring stations
6
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING,NAAQMS/ 35 /20112012,www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_192_NAAQSTI.pdf
8
Category
Residential / industrial / rural / commercial areas PM 10 SO2 NO2 345 (96) 152 (42) 4 (1)
Low (L)
Ecologically sensitive area
PM
SO2 16 (64)
NO2 12 (50)
0 (0)
10
Moderate (M)
15 (4)
143 (40)
60 (17)
9 (36)
8 (33)
9 (35)
High (H)
1 (0.3)
38 (10)
103 (29)
0 (0)
4 (17)
1 (4)
0 (0)
29 (8)
192 (53)
0 (0)
0 (0)
16 (62)
4
Critical (C) Inadequate data (ID)
38
37
42
5
5
No monitoring (NM) Total locations (LMHC)
3 361
3 362
1 359
2 25
2 24
0 26
Grand total (L/M/H/C/IA/NM)
401
402
402
31
31
31
Number of locations with low, moderate, high & critical pollution level in a. residential/industrial/commercial/rural b. ecologically sensitive areas
Annual Mean Concentration Range (µg/m3)
Pollution level
I/R/Ru/O
ESA
SO2
NO2
PM 10
SO2
NO2
0-25
0-20
0-30
0-10
0-15
0-30
Moderate
26-50
21-40
31-60
11-20
16-30
31-60
High
51-75
41-60
61-90
21-30
31-45
61-90
>75
>60
>90
>30
>45
>90
Low
Critical
a
PM 10
b
Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-201
Number of cities with low, moderate, high and critical pollution levels in the country The analysisdone by CPCB of three critical pollutants was done in 167 (SO2) and 168 (NO2 and PM10) cities in residential / industrial / commercial / rural and other areas. In case of ecologically sensitive area analysis of three pollutants was done in 13 cities. Data with number of monitoring days less than 50 has also been considered with respect to all the parameters. SO2 data in 2010 for residential / industrial / commercial / rural and other areas revealed that 153 cities fall under low category and 10 under moderate category, 1 (Lote in Maharashtra) under high category with respect to Sulphur dioxide (SO 2). NO2 pollution levels if considered time weighted annual averageconcentrations indicated that 83 cities are under the low category, 63 under moderate, 10 under high and 9 cities in the critical category. PM 10 indicated that 2 cities fall under low category, 35 cities in moderate category, 47 cities in high pollution levels category and 83 cities in critical category, where monitoring has not done in 3 cities for SO 2 and NO2 and 1 city for PM10The number of cities with low, moderate, high and critical categories are depicted in Table4
Table 4: Number of cities with low, moderate, high & critical air quality 9
Number of cities Cities with Residential/industrial/ Cities with sensitive area rural/commercial areas
Category
SO2 153 (93)
NO2 83 (50)
PM10 2 (1)
SO2 9 (75)
NO2 6 (50)
PM10 0
Moderate
10 (6)
63 (38)
35 (21)
2 (17)
5 (42)
3 (23)
High
1 (1)
10 (6)
47 (28)
1 (8)
1 (8)
3 (23)
Critical
0
9 (5)
83 (50)
0
0
7 (54)
No monitoring
3
3
1
1
1
0
Total cities (LMHC)
164
165
167
12
12
13
Grand total (L/M/H/C/NM)
167
168
168
13
13
13
Low
Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012CPCB,
Annual average concentration of pollutants in different states and union territories The analysis of three pollutants residential/industrial/rural/other area; only data with number of monitoring days greater than or equal to 50 days has been considered) during 2010 in each state revealed that with 3 respect to SO2 Jharkhand had the maximum annual average concentration (23 µg/m ) followed by 3 Maharashtra (17 µg/m ). According to the NAAQSannual average concentration of SO2 in ambient Air for 3 residential/industrial/rural area is 50 µg/m hence SO2concentrationwere within the standard. With respect to 3 3 NO2 West Bengal had the maximum annual average concentration (64 µg/m ) followed by Delhi (55 µg/m ). According to the NAAQSannual average concentration of NO2 in ambient Air for residential/industrial/rural 3 3 area is 40 µg/m hence the concentration of NO2 exceeded the standard by 24µg/m in west Bengal & 3 3 15µg/m in Delhi. With respect to PM10 Delhi had the maximum annual average concentration (261 µg/m ) 3 followed by Jharkhand (193 µg/m ) According to the NAAQSannual average concentration of PM10 in 3 ambient Air for residential/industrial/rural area is 60 µg/m hence the concentration of PM10exceeded the 3 3 7 standard by 201µg/m in Delhi & by 133µg/m in Jharkhand.
Table 5: Annual average concentration of criteria pollutants in states (residential/industrial/rural/other and sensitive area) States & Union territories Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Chandigarh Chattisgarh Dadra & Nagar Haveli Daman & Diu Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh
SO2 Annual average 3
(µg/m ) 5 7 5 2 11 7 7 5 14 15 14 3
pM
NO2 Standard
deviation 2 1 2 0 1 0 0 2 15 3 4 1
Annual average 3
(µg/m ) 17 15 26 16 22 18 18 55 18 23 23 15
10
Standard
deviation 4 2 9 7 2 1 1 13 10 3 6 4
Annual average 3
(µg/m ) 73 76 118 92 107 39 35 261 68 89 171 88
Standard
deviation 24 51 80* 56 14 27 21 130* 36 15 73* 39
7
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING,NAAQMS/ 35 /20112012,www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_192_NAAQSTI.pdf
10
Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Puducherry Rajasthan Tamilnadu Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal
5 23 10 4 11 17 2 2 2 5 11 6 7 9 12 10
2 3 6 1 6 7 1 0 0 1 2 2 2 3 6 4
13 39 22 13 17 31 10 6 6 18 27 13 29 20 30 64*
4 4 5 3 6 11 4 1 2 3 5 3 6 8 11 19
105 193 70 42 137 101 101 42 68 86 187 38 168 70 181 169 110
41 67* 35 16 57 40 15 10 42 25 37 12 99* 39 111* 36 70*
NB. ‘-‘ inadequate data *-exceeding NAAQS , Data of monitoring stations with monitoring days greater than or equal to 50 hasbeen considered Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012CPCB
Locations exceeding NAAQS Number of monitoring stations (with adequate data) exceeding NAAQS is presented in Table 6 for residential/industrial/rural area, taking annual average into consideration. According to the CPCB, 67 stations (for NO2) and 295 stations (for PM10) exceed the annual average NAAQS. However, no location exceeded NAAQS for SO2. Considering 24-hourly average data into consideration, 11 stations (for SO 2), 57 stations (for NO2) and 241 stations (for PM10) exceed NAAQS. For sensitive area, considering annual average into consideration, 4 stations (for NO2) and 17 stations (for PM10) stations exceed NAAQS. Considering 24-hourly average data, 19 stations (for SO2), 54 stations (for NO2), and 316 stations (for PM10) exceed NAAQS for residential/industrial/rural area.
Table 6: Number of locations exceeding the NAAQS 3
(Based on annual average data and 24-hourly data in µg/m ) Residential/Industrial/Rural area
SO2
10
PM
NO2
25
25
20
24
9
8
0
18
67
54
295
316
0
0
4
0
17
18
Inadequate data
38
38
37
37
42
42
4
4
5
5
5
5
No monitoring Total (NE & E)
3
3
3
3
1
1
2
2
2
2
0
0
360
360
362
362
359
359
25
25
24
24
26
26
24 hourly>10 0
43
24 hourly>80
64
Annual>2 0
308
24 hourly>10 0
295
Annual>60
342
Annual>4 0
360
Not exceeding NAAQS Exceeding NAAQS
24 hourly>80
Annual>6 0
10
24 hourly>80
Annual>30
NO2 24 hourly>80
Annual>50
SO2
Sensitive area
PM
11
Grand total stations
401
401
402
402
402
402
31
31
31
31
31
31
Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012CPCB
Locations, cities and states with highest PM10 values during 2010 Table 7 shows top ten locations in terms of annual average concentration of PM 10. For residential / industrial / rural / other area in which highest concentration was observed at Dindayal Nagar, 3 Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh 361µg/m Followed by second highest in town hall chandni chock delhi 3
3
354 µg/m . The highest PM10concentration was observed in Delhi (261 µg/m ). (see Table 8: Ten
states with highest PM10 values (annual average) during 2010)
Air Quality
% exceedence(24hourly)
Std. Dev.
Annual average)(µg/m3
Location
Max
City
Min
State
Station code
Sl. No.
No. of mon.days(n)
Table 7: Ten locations with higher PM 10 values (annual average) during 2010 (residential / industrial / rural / other area)
1
Madhya Pradesh Gwalior
Dindayal Nagar
479
75
110
624
361*
118
100
C
2
Delhi
Delhi
Town Hall, Chandni Chowk
146
96
76
1699
354*
201
97
C
3
Chattisgarh
Raipur
M/S Wool Worth India Pvt. Ltd. Sarora
223
51
246
431
349*
45
100
C
4
Delhi
Delhi
Janakpuri
59
78
56
681
306*
128
100
C
5
Jharkhand
West Singhbhum Barajamda U.M. Office
615
84
59
926
302*
229
83
C
6
Uttar Pradesh
Ghaziabad
Sahibabad Industrial Area
258
97
163
503
301*
88
100
C
7
Uttar Pradesh
Ghaziabad
Bulandshaar Road Industrial Area
369
88
160
517
280*
90
100
C
8
Delhi
Delhi
Mayapuri Industrial Area
345
96
38
702
275*
146
82
C
9
Haryana
Yamunanagar Ballarpur Industries
196
52
64
523
261*
116
92
C
554
105
99
649
254*
348
99
C
10 Uttar Pradesh
Allahabad
Crossing circle of Laxmi Talkies
* - Locations where annual mean concentration of PM10 exceeded the NAAQS of 60 µg/m
3
Table 8: Ten states with highest PM10 values (annual average) during 2010
Sl. No.
State
3
Min
Max
Annual average (µg/m )
1
Delhi
46
748
261*
2
Jharkhand
84
398
193*
3
Punjab
115
299
187*
4
Uttar Pradesh
96
484
181*
5
Bihar
92
504
171*
6
Chattisgarh
92
263
169*
12
7
Rajasthan
32
576
168*
8
Haryana
185
149
137*
9
Uttrakhand
36
656
118*
10
Madhya Pradesh
24
308
110* 3
* - Locations where annual mean concentration of PM10 exceeded the NAAQS of 60 µg/m for Residential/ industrial Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012
Comparison graph ofTen states with highest PM10 values (annual average) during 2010 with NAAQS 300
261
250 193
200
187
181
171
169
168 137
150 100
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
118 60
110 60
60
50 0
PM10 concentration of states in µg/m3
NAAQS for PM10 in µg/m3
Locations, cities and states with highest NO2 values during 2010 Table 9 shows top ten locations in terms of annual average concentration of NO 2 for residential / industrial / rural / other area in which highest concentration was observed at monitoring station located at Howrah 3 Municipality School, Bandhabghat in Howrah, West Bengal 84.74 µg/m .Howrah city of west Bengal have three locations with higher NO2 concentration.
1 2
Howrah Municipality School, Bandhaghat West Bengal Barrackpore Khardah Municipality West Bengal Howrah
Air Quality
% exceedence(24hourly)
Std. Dev.
Annual average(µg/m)3
Location
Max
City
Min
State
No. of mon. days(n)
Sl. No.
Station code
Table 9:Ten locations with higher NO2 values (annual average) during 2010 (residential / industrial / rural / other area)
9
103
40
169
84.74*
30
50
C
654
102
42
156
80.47*
28
39
C
13
3
West Bengal Howrah
Howrah MC Building
4
Delhi
Town Hall, Chandni Chowk
5
103
43
161
79.63*
27
38
C
146
96
38
125
75.79*
19
40
C
West Bengal Barrackpore DumDum Telephone Exchange 653
101
40
146
75.72*
26
32
C
6
West Bengal Sankrail
Bagan Police Station, Bagan
659
104
30
154
75.52*
30
30
C
7
West Bengal Kolkata
Moulali, KMC office
473
104
38
160
74.82*
28
37
C
8 9
West Bengal Sankrail
Dhulagar Gram Pachayat
656
104
30
137
74.07*
26
27
C
West Bengal Howrah
Naskarpara Pump House, Ghuseri
10
103
37
141
73.50*
25
33
C
10
Maharashtra Ulhasnagar Octroi Naka
648
94
8
197
73.46*
37
38
C
Delhi
8
3
* - Locations where annual mean concentration of NO2 exceeded the NAAQS of 40 µg/m for Residential/ industrial / other area. Std. dev:standard deviation, mon:monitoring, n:number of monitoring days; L:Low, M:moderate, H:high, C:critical Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012CPCB
3
3
Among the states West Bengal shows highest NO 2 values 64 µg/m . Followed by Delhi (64 µg/m ) second 3 3 highest and Jharkhand (39 µg/m ) third highest.and Haryana shows lowest value 22.9 µg/m among ten states Table 10: Ten state with highest NO2 values (annual average) during 2010
Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
State West Bengal Delhi Jharkhand Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan Punjab Bihar Gujarat Haryana
Min 34 26 28 15 20 18 18 11 16 16
3
Annual average (µg/m ) 64* 55* 39 31 30 29 27 26 23.1 22.9
Max 115 83 52 70 42 49 42 57 37 41 3
* - Locations where annual mean concentration of NO2 exceeded the NAAQS of 40 µg/m for Residential/ industrial / other area. Std. dev:standard deviation, mon:monitoring, n:number of monitoring days; L:Low, M:moderate, H:high, C:critical Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012CPCB
Comparison graph ofTen states with highest NO2values (annual average) during 2010 with NAAQS
14
70
64 55
60 50
40
40
40
39 40
40 31
40 30
30
40 29
40
40
27
40
26
23.1
40 22.9
20 10 0
NO2 concentration of states in µg/m3
NAAQS forNO2 in µg/m3
Locations, cities and states with highest SO2 values during 2010 Table11shows top ten locations in terms of annual average concentration of SO2 for residential / industrial / rural / 3
other area. The highest SO2 concentration was observed at Bhosari, Pune, Maharashtra 39.7 µg/m fowllowed
byMIDC Chandrapur, Maharashtra 38.4 µg/m3 second heighest and Sahibabad,Ghaziabad,Uttar Pradesh have 3 lowest 31.8 µg/m amongten location with highest SO2 values(annual average) during 2010
Air Quality
% exceedence(24hourl y)
Std. Dev.
Location
Annual average(µg/m)3
City
Min
State
Station code
Sl. No.
Max
(annual average) during 2010 (residential / industrial / rural / other area) No. of mon.days(n)
Table 11: Tenlocation with highest SO2 values
1
Maharashtra
Pune
Bhosari
312
104
11
195
39.7
28
10
M
2
Maharashtra
Chandrapur
MIDC Chandrapur
281
96
6
181
38.4
36
13
M
3
Jharkhand
Jamshedpur
Bistupur
351
89
30
41
35.6
-
0
M
4
Jharkhand
Jamshedpur
Golmuri
382
91
23
42
35.2
3
0
M
Jharkhand
Saraikela Kharsawan
Adityapur
614
86
28
41
35.0
3
0
M
6
Uttar Pradesh
Khurja
CGCRI
534
58
24
42
33.2
4
0
M
7
Maharashtra
Ulhasnagar
Octroi Naka
648
94
5
132
32.4
21
4
M
8
Maharashtra
Badlapur
BIWA House
649
92
5
86
32.3
15
1
M
9
Goa
Marmagao
Fire Brigade
435
118
7
253
31.8
35
6
M
10
Uttar Pradesh
Ghaziabad
Sahibabad
258
97
25
39
31.1
3
0
M
5
15
* - Locations where annual mean concentration of SO 2 exceeded the NAAQS of 50 µg/m3 for Residential/ industrial / other area. Std. dev:standard deviation, mon:monitoring, n:number of monitoring days; Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012CPCB 3
Table 12 shows, among the states Jharkhand shows the highest value 23.2 µg/m followed by Maharashtra 3 3 16.5 µg/m And West Bengal have lowest value of SO2 concentration 10.3µg/m all states have SO2
concentration less than NAAQS.
Table 12: Ten states with highest SO2 values (annual average) during 2010 (residential / industrial / rural / other & ecologically sensitive area) State
Sl. No. 1
Jharkhand
2
Maharashtra
3
Gujarat
4
Min
3
Annual average (µg/m )
Max
18
37
23.2
7
41
16.5
10
24
15.5
Goa
4
111
13.8
5
Haryana
7
24
13.7
6
Uttar Pradesh
8
20
12.1
7
Madhya Pradesh
14
21
11.3
8
Chattisgarh
9
13
10.9
9
Punjab
6
17
10.6
10
West Bengal
5
25
10.3
Source:NAAQMS/ 35 /2011-2012CPCB
Comparison graph ofTen states with highest SO2values (annual average) during 2010 with NAAQS
60
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50 40 30 20
23.2 16.5
15.5
13.8
13.7
12.1
11.3
10.9
10.6
10.3
10 0
SO2 concentration of states in µg/m3
NAAQS forSO2 in µg/m3
16
2.Source of air pollution Outdoor Air pollution: Vehicles:Transport sectors contribute a major share to environmental pollution (around 70%). A among these pollutants CO is the major pollutant coming from the transport sector, contributing 90% of total emission. Hydrocarbons are next to CO .It is indeed interesting to observe that the contribution of transport sector to theparticulate pollution is as less as 3-5%, most of the SPM (Suspended Particulate Matter) are generated due to re-suspension of dust out of which PM10 is the most prominent air pollutant. NOx is another 8 important air quality indicator.
Industries:India‘s strong economic performance is driven by IT services and manufacturing accounting for about 35% of industrial output. Manufacturing (specifically, textile, basic metals and alloys, and transport equipment) is the fastest-growing product categories. The industrial units in India are largely located in the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. These highly industrialized are greatly polluted and highly populated. These states have the highest concentration of SO 2 and NOx emissions in India Industry is also the largest consumer of energy; consuming about 50% of the total commercial energy produced in the country. Commercial sources include coal and lignite (57%), oil and gas (33%), hydroelectric power (3%), and nuclear power (0.2%). Energy-intensive industries include fertilizer, aluminum, textile, cement, iron and steel, pulp and paper, and chlor-alkali accounting for 80% total industrial 9 energy consumption.
Power plants:
Coal based thermal power plants affect the air quality of the surrounding region more than natural plants. Around the coal based plants the ambient sulphur dioxide concentration was in the range of 3 20-25 pg/m in and around Ramagundam. In case of Chandrapur Super Thermal Power Station the 3 3 concentration of SO2 varied from 3.61-18.9 ug/m , NOx varied from 8.89-26.55 ug/m and SPM from 52.63. 3, 193.2 ug/m The concentration of SO2, NOx and SPM varied from 3-37, 5-34, 65-482 ug/m respectively in and around Gandhinagar Thermal Power Plant (GTPP) Ambient NO x concentration in case of natural gas 3 based power plant was found to be in the range of 5-7 ug/m . From the epidemiological data of the area surrounding the Ramagundam coal based plant, it has been observed that around 6.5% of population living within a 2 km radius of the plant suffers from respiratory disorders, while the figure decreases to 3.2% at a distance of 2.5 km and becomes negligible (0.91%) at over 5 km from the plant. Thus it can be inferred that 10 people living within 5 km radius of coal based power plant suffer from respiratory ailments
Generator sets:A typical standby diesel generator produces 25-30 pounds of nitrogen oxides (NOx) per megawatt hour of power generated. Nitrogen oxides are a smog-forming pollutant. Diesel is produced from a fossil fuel and engines using it as fuel, causing air pollution and high sulfur levels. Diesel fuel also creates a distinct smell and exposure to diesel engine exhaust can also lead to health hazards. Diesel emission levels of NOx, carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, and particulate matter were a substantial contributor to poor air quality. The visible pollution generated by burning diesel contains elemental carbon. And the smell comes 11 from a group of particles called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, well-known cancer causing agents. Agricultural and open burning:Apart from affecting the soil fertility, agriculture waste burning also causes air pollution due to emission of large amounts of suspended particulate matter, besides gases like CH , CO, NO , SO , etc., leading to various health hazards like respiratory, skin and eye diseases. Intensive agriculture is also a contributor to greenhouse gases (GHG) like carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, causing climate change. At an all India level, emissions from the agriculture sector are reported to be 28 per cent of
8
www.jerad.org/ppapers/dnload.php?vl=8&is=1&st=69 India:Air Quality Profil 2010 Edition,cleanairinitiative.org/.../India_Air_Quality_Profile_-_2010_Edition.pdf
9
10
http://mospi.nic.in/research_studies_post_clearance.htm http://equinoxlab.com/d-g-emission-monitoring/
11
17
the aggregate national emissions. These include emissions from enteric fermentation in livestock, manure 12 management, rice cultivation and burning of agricultural crop residues. In rural areas, the burning of agricultural waste is a common practice among Indian farmers. Apart from affecting the soil fertility, large amounts of emissions of methane (CH 4), CO, NOx, and SO2 led to various health hazards like respiratory, skin and eye diseases as well as visibility deterioration and regional haze. More than 80% of paddy straw (18.4 million tonnes) and almost 50 %wheat straw (8.5 million tonnes) produced in Punjab is burnt in fields every year. Intensive agriculture is also a contributor to greenhouse gases (GHG) like Carbon dioxide (CO 2), CH4, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), aggravating climate change. From a country-level, emissions from agriculture are reported to be 28 %of the aggregate national emissions. These include emissions from enteric fermentation in livestock, manure management, rice cultivation and 13 agricultural waste burning.
Indoor air pollution There are four principal sources of pollutants in indoor air viz. combustion, building material, the ground under the building and biological agents. As dangerous as polluted outdoor air can be to health, indoor air pollutants can pose even a greater health risk. Indoor air pollution is a concern where energy efficiency improvements sometimes make the house relatively air tight thereby reducing ventilation and raising indoor pollutant levels. Indoor air pollution is usually associated with occupational situation particularly through combustion of biomass fuels. The greatest threat of indoor pollution exists where the people continue to rely on traditional fuels for cooking and heating. Burning such fuels produces large amounts of smoke and other air pollutants in the confined space of home, a perfect recipe for high exposures. Liquid and gaseous fuels such as kerosene and bottled gas although not completely pollution free is many times less polluting than unprocessed solid fuels. In these circumstances, exposure to pollutants is often far higher indoors than outdoors. Traditional biomass fuels amount for 80% of domestic energy consumption in our country. When these fuels are burnt in simple cook stoves during meal preparation, air inside homes get heavily polluted with smoke that contains large amounts of toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), aldehydes, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and respirable particulate matter. The resulting human exposures exceed the permissible norms by a factor in multiples.
Women and children, particularly those in rural sector spend more time indoors than outdoors. In rural areas, indoor air pollution is responsible for much greater mortality than ambient air pollution. Epidemiological studies have linked exposure to indoor air pollution from dirty fuels with at least four major categories of illness. These areacute respiratory infections (ARI) in children, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) such as asthma and bronchitis;lung cancer and pregnancy related problems. Of these, ARI appears to have the greatest health impact in terms of the number of people affected Studies in India and Nepal show that non-smoking women who have cooked on biomass stoves exhibit a higher prevalence of chronic lung disease (asthma and chronic bronchitis). The incidence of moderate and severe ailments among two year olds, increased as they spent greater hours near the fire.Exposure to high indoor smoke levels is associated with pregnancy related problems such as still births and low birth weights. One study in Western India found a 50% increase in stillbirths in women exposed to indoor smoke during pregnancy. Considerable amount of carbon monoxide has been detected in the blood stream of women cooking with biomass.Further, a 1995 study in Eastern India found the immune system of new borns to be 14 depressed due to the presence of indoor air pollution.
12
http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/home/home-SoE-Report-2009.pdf India:Air Quality Profil 2010 Edition,cleanairinitiative.org/.../India_Air_Quality_Profile_-_2010_Edition.pdf
13
14
Indoor Air Pollution Energy and Health for the Poor Issue No. 1; September 2000 World Bank, http://yyy.rsmas.miami.edu/groups/ambient/teacher/air/MODULE%20SEGMENTS/Z%20airDebateRolePlay.pdf
18
3. Air pollution and health impact studies CSE has reviewed air pollution and health impact studies that have been conducted in India during the past three decades.The findings are as follows – Indian cities have generated valuable local health evidences: Over the last two decade consistent efforts have been made at local levels to assess the health impacts of air pollution. More than 70% of the studies have been done during the decade 2000-11 that also coincides with the growing unrest in major cities over the polluted air and growing health scourge. These studies have generated very valuable data to drive action. There are a few studies by the international agencies including the World Bank and Health Effect Institute. Majority of India studies done by the doctors themselves: Most stunning finding is that most of the studies in India have been carried out by the doctors themselves – who understand our health and are concerned from what they are observing from their clinical experiences. This is a very encouraging trend that makes doctors the most important stakeholder. Their evidences have helped to move the policies. 53% of the studies have been done by the doctors themselves; 15% doctors along with other researchers and 1% doctors along with the municipal corporations. Both mega cities as well as smaller cities have tracked health effects of air pollution: The mega cities that were also the most polluted during the eighties and nineties took the lead to study health effects. But as the pollution crisis spread to other cities more local level studies have happened in smaller cities and towns as well – Bikaner, Amritsar, Varanasi, Puducherry, MandiGobindgarh, Kanpur etc. This is an important development. Studies keep pace with the changes in air quality trends – more pollutants assessed: While studies in the eighties were predominantly focused on suspended particulate matter and sulphur dioxide, the key pollutants of concerns then (making up for 33% of total studies), the basket has widened in the in the subsequent years to include other pollutants – finer particulates, NOx, ozone, VOCs and PAH etc. This clearly shows that Indian health community is aware and responding to the multi-pollutant crisis. Looking beyond lungs to other health effects: Studies are dominated by the focus on respiratory symptoms. But in the recent years they have begun to include more diverse health end points – cardiac cases, cancer, mutagenic effects, etc. Though this investigation in India is still very nascent global studies have shown more robust linkages with a wide range of health endpoints – diabetes, stroke, hyper tension, effects on brain, effects on fetus etc. Doctors have focused on the vulnerable sections – Studies have put a spotlight on the most vulnerable in our cities -- urban poor, children, elderly and those suffering from asthma, respiratory and cardiac ailments etc. Children and air pollution: Children are especially vulnerable to urban air pollution. This is serious as the future urban growth will see more young people in our cities. In Bangalore children from heavy traffic region and low socioeconomic classes had much higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms. A 2010 study of Chittaranjan National Cancer Research Institute (CNCI) shows respiratory symptoms in 32% of children examined in Delhi, in contrast to only 18.2% of the rural children. Lung function reduced in 43.5% school children in Delhi as compared to 25.7% of control group. PM10 level associated with restrictive, obstructive and combined types of lung function deficits. Also Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been noticed in children chronically exposed to high level of vehicular pollution (CNCI 2010). ADHD 4.1 times more prevalent among school children of Delhi.PM10 was positively and strongly associated with ADHD prevalence. Air pollution even affects vitamin D status of infants and toddlers in Delhi (2002). Etc. Serious concern over growing burden of non-communicable diseases in India and environmental health risks: Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has assessed the disease burden of noncommunicable diseases. Also according to the recent estimates from the the World Bank non-communicable diseases impose the largest health burden in India. In terms of the number of lives lost due to ill-health, disability, and early death NCDs accounts for 62% of the total disease burden. NCDs largely affect middle aged and older populations, the groups growing the fastest, which will lead to future increases. Cardiovascular diseases cancer, respiratory Diseases, and diabetes are the major NCDs in India. A range of factors including genetic, and lifestyle may contribute but as a public policy the role of the environmental risks should be minimised. Globally, studies are being carried out to understand the link between noncommunicable diseases and air pollution including hypertension, stroke, diabetes etc. Toxic PAH is also known to affect the fetus. India needs to strengthen this line of enquiry.
19
Worries about growing toxic risk: Given the fact that endpoint of all toxic risk is cancer, all environmental risk factors should be minimized. This is particularly serious in India that reports overall more than 700,000 new cancer cases and National Cancer Control Programme (NCCP) forecast that by 2026, more than 1.4 million people will be falling in the grip of the disease. NCCP has listed greater exposure to environmental carcinogens as one of the most important reasons. Though there is no one but the mitigation strategy must reduce environmental risk from all factors – air pollution is one of the important factors. Numerous studies in the West assessed the causes such as genetic susceptibility, environment factors and lifestyle. Found overwhelming influence of environmental factors. In one of the earlier studies of the Department of Preventive Oncology of Tata Memorial Centre in Mumbai, had found incidence of cancer in the city‘s slums very high. Air pollution plays a role in enhancing this risk. Impact on urban poor can be quite devastating. Also India is motorising at a level of technology and fuel quality that can compound health risks. There are special concerns about growing use of poor quality diesel. Several international and national health agencies have also reviewed relevant data on diesel exhaust and have classified either the exhaust mixture or the particulate component as probable human carcinogen. Diesel exhaust includes a large number of toxic compounds that cause cancer, reproductive abnormalities and other toxic impacts. More interest in how much we inhale. Researchers are looking not just at the effect of the ambient air quality – which is the quality of the surrounding air – but at the actual exposure – how much we inhale in proximity to a source like traffic. Nearly 60% of the studies are traffic exposure that include studies on occupationally exposed group like the traffic policemen, petrol pump worker and also roadside. These are the first indicators of how much we are exposed while traveling. But now we have more evolved studies from University of California and Health Effect Institute that have estimated the actual exposure. Such evidences have serious implications for the road users, public transport users, walkers and cyclists. Special concern over traffic pollution: Cities have many sources of outdoor air pollution and all require mitigation action. But vehicles pose a special challenge. In the future cities will witness rapid increase in vehicular traffic. Cities are not expected to locate new industry or power plants inside the city. Vehicular emissions contribute to significant human exposure. Pollution concentration in our breathe is 3-4 times higher than the ambient air concentration. International agencies have tracked the effect of polluted air on illnesses and premature deaths in Indian cities. The US based Health Effect Institute study in Delhi estimates approx.0.15% to 0.17% increase in mortality per 10 μg/m3 PM10 (~0.3%/ 20 μg/m3). In Delhi where overall deaths are 100,000 annually even this increase can translate into 3000 additional premature deaths annually due to air pollution related diseases. Similar studies have been carried out in Chennai. Studies of massive scale carried out in other 15 parts of the world prove beyond doubt that air pollution has definite and insidious health effects.
Indoor air pollution and household energy: Exposure is particularly high among women and young children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth. Around 3 billion people still cookand heat their homes using solid fuels (i.e. wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal and dung) in open fires and leaky stoves. Most are poor, and live in low- and middle-income countries.Such inefficient cooking fuels and technologies produce high levels of household air pollution with a range of health-damaging pollutants, including small soot particles that penetrate deep into the lungs. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can be 100 times higher than acceptable levels for small particles. IMPACTS ON HEALTH 4.3million people a year die prematurely from illness attributable to the household air pollution caused the inefficient use of solid fuels Among these deaths:,12% are due to pneumonia,34% from stroke,26% from ischaemic heart disease,22% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and,6% from lung cancer.16
15
Dialogue on Air Pollution and Our Health,www.cseindia.org/userfiles/briefing_note_doctors_meet.pdf
16
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/
20
Health impacts Pneumonia Exposure to household air pollution almost doubles the risk for childhood pneumonia. Over half of deaths among children less than 5 years old from acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) are due to particulate matter inhaled from indoor air pollution from household solid fuels. Stroke Nearly one quarter of all premature deaths due to stroke (i.e. about 1.4 million deaths of which half are in women) can be attributed to the chronic exposure to household air pollution caused by cooking with solid fuels. Ischemic heart disease Approximately 15% of all deaths due to ischaemic heart disease, accounting for over a million premature deaths annually, can be attributed to exposure to household air pollution. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Over one third of premature deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in adults in lowand middle-income countries are due to exposure to household air pollution. Women exposed to high levels of indoor smoke are 2.3 times as likely to suffer from COPD as women who use cleaner fuels. Among men (who already have a heightened risk of COPD due to their higher rates of smoking), exposure to indoor smoke nearly doubles that risk. Lung cancer Approximately 17% of annual premature lung cancer deaths in adults are attributable to exposure to carcinogens from household air pollution caused by cooking with solid fuels like wood, charcoal or coal. The risk for women is higher, due to their role in food preparation.
Source: Household air pollution and health,http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/
VEHICULAR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR HEALTH/ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Contribution of various sources towards ambient air quality Organization like TERI, UNEP/ WHO, World Bank, BARC/CESE/IIT, etc have carried out studies in the past to estimate the contribution of various sources towards ambient air quality. The summary of the results of the above studies for Delhi & Mumbai are given pollutant wise in Table 13
Major vehicle/fuel pollutants
P a r a m e t e r
Automotive vehicles emit several pollutants depending upon the type of quality of the fuel consumed by them. The release of pollutants from vehicles also include fugitive emissions of the fuel, the source and level of these emissions depending upon the vehicle type, its maintenance etc. The major pollutants released as vehicle/fuel emissions are, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, photochemical oxidants, air toxics namely benzene, aldehydes, 1-3 butadiene, lead, particulate matter, hydrocarbon, oxides of sulphur and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. While the predominant pollutants in petrol/gasoline driven vehicles arehydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, the predominant pollutants from the diesel based vehicles are Oxides of nitrogen and particulates. Table 13: results of various studiesfor Delhi & Mumbai for vehicular pollutant Delhi Mumbai
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Domestic &other sources
Industrial
Transport
Domestic &other sources
Industrial
Transport
S.No.
76% to 1.
37% to
10% to
13%
16.3%
CO
92%
8%
Nil
60%
40%
Nil
2%
82%
to
to
4%
98%
90% 66% to
1% to 13% to
2.
NOx 29% 74%
2%
5% to
Nil to
Nil to
84% to 3.
SO2 95% 12%
4%
16% Nil 3% to
2% to to
74% to 4.
53% 34%
PM
to to
16% 22%
4%
16%
96%
56%
Source:http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/Publications/Publication_506_VPC_REPORT.pdf
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HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF VEHICULAR POLLUTANTSVehicular emissions have damaging effects on both human health and ecology. There is a wide range of adverse health/environmental effects of the pollutants released from vehicles. The effects may be direct as well as in-direct covering right from reduced visibility to cancers and death in some cases of acute exposure of pollutants specially carbon monoxide. These pollutants are believed to directly affect the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. In particular, high levels of SO2 and SPM are associated with increased mortality, morbidity and impaired pulmonary function.
Pollutant
Effect on Human Health
Carbon Monoxide
Affects the cardio vascular system, exacerbating cardiovascular disease symptoms, particularly angina; may also particularly affect fetuses, sick, anemic and young children, affects nervous system impairing physical coordination, vision and judgments, creating nausea and headaches, reducing productivity and increasing personal discomfort.
Nitrogen Oxides
Increased susceptibility to infections, pulmonary diseases, impairment of lung function and eye, nose and throat irritations.
Sulphur Dioxide
Affect lung function adversely.
Particulate Matter and Respirable Particulate Matter (SPM and RPM)
Fine particulate matter may be toxic in itself or may carry toxic (including carcinogenic) trace substance, and can alter the immune system. Fine particulates penetrate deep into the respiratory system irritating lung tissue and causing long-term disorders.
Lead
Impairs liver and kidney, causes brain damage in children resulting in lower I.Q., hyperactivity and reduced ability to concentrate.
Benzene
Both toxic and carcinogenic. Excessive incidence of leukemia (blood cancer) in high exposure areas.
Hydrocarbons
Potential to cause cancer
Source:http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/Publications/Publication_506_VPC_REPORT.pdf
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SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COST OF AIR POLLUTION The health burden of air pollution:Poor air quality is one of the most serious environmental problems in urban areas around theworld, especially in developing countries. An assessment of health damages from exposure to thehigh levels of particulates in 126 cities worldwide where the annual mean 3 levels exceed 50 µg/m reveals that these damages may amount to near 130,000 premature deaths; over 500,000 newcases of chronic bronchitis and many more lesser health effects each year. The quantification of environmental-related health effects and their valuation inmonetary units play a key role for a sustainability-oriented planning of policymeasures. the calculation of air pollution-relatedhealth costs using the tri-national study of Austria, France and Switzerland onhealth costs due to transportrelated air pollution, that was conducted on behalf of the Third WHO Ministerial Conference (London, 1999). The epidemiologicalinformation on exposure-response functions (effect estimates) and health outcomefrequencies (mortality and morbidity; prevalence, incidence, or person-days)combined with the air pollution exposure of the population, provides the number ofattributable cases to total air pollution and to traffic-related air pollution. For theassessment of health costs, two different methods are available. The main methodconsists of the willingness-to-pay approach, that assesses the willingness to pay fora reduction in risk, that is for the prevention of a (statistical) fatality or illness. Thisapproach includes the material costs as well as intangible cost elements, i.e. forpain, suffering and the loss of life quality. A partial method is the human-capitalapproach that estimates the medical costs and the loss of income, production orconsumption arising due to premature mortality or morbidity and which only coversthe material cost elements. Accross the three countries (74 million inhabitants) thehealth costs due to trafficrelated air pollution for the year 1996 amount to some 27billion €. This amount translates to approximately 1.7% of GDP and an average of360€ per capita per year. In all three countries, the 17 premature mortality ispredominant, accounting for about 70% of the costs. The World Bank undertook a study that assessed the magnitude of various damages in urbanareas that may be attributed to different fuels, sectors and pollutants These damages considered in the study include: the adverse health effects ofexposure to air pollution in urban areas; local non-health effects, i.e. reduction in visibility, soilingand material damages; and global climate change impacts. The analysis was applied to six largecities in different parts of the world suffering from the high levels of air pollution -Bangkok,Thailand; Krakow, Poland; Manila, Philippines; Mumbai, India; Santiago, Chile; and Shanghai,China. These cities differ in geographical and climatic conditions; demographic characteristics; fuel mix and use patterns; sectoral composition; and income levels; and thus together represent aspan of different factors affecting the magnitude of the environmental costs of various fuel uses. Therefore, the evidence emerging from this exercise is likely to be representative of the typical situation in many urban areas of developing countries.The social costs of all environmental impacts assessed in the study reach US $ 3 billion, withhealth impacts being the largest portion of the costs for each city. Chart 1 shows the shares of the health, ‗local‘ non-health, and climate change impacts for the sample of six cities. Climate change impacts appear to be a major portion of non-health costs, but are less than half 18 of the health costs imposed by fuel burning in urban areas.
The health burden of air pollution in India : The study commissioned by the Central government has brought out how urban growth centres in the country are choking and claims that outdoor and indoor air pollution have the maximum share of this annual burden on India's economy. According to the estimates of the multilateral bank, outdoor air pollution accounts for 29%, followed by indoor air pollution (23%).This first ever national level economic assessment of environmental degradation in India focuses on particle pollution (PM10) from burning of fossil fuels, which has serious health consequences 17
Ostro, B., ‘The Effects of Air Pollution on Work loss and Morbidity’, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 10 (1983), 371-82 18 :Lvovsky Kseniya, ‗Economic Costs of Air Pollution with Special Reference to India‘, SouthAsia Environment Unit World Bank, Prepared for the National Conference on Healthand Environment Delhi, India, July 7-9, 1998.
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amounting up to 3% of India's GDP along with losses due to lack of access to clean water supply, sanitation and hygiene besides natural resources depletion. The indoor air pollution is mainly due to burning of wood, mainly in rural India.PM10 stands for Particulate Matter up to 10 micrometers in size and include smoke, dirt and dust from factories, construction sites, farming and roads. According to the bank, annually over 3.7 lakh hospital admissions are reported in India due to outdoor air pollution in urban areas.According to the report, India can make green growth a reality by putting in place strategies to reduce environmental degradation at the minimal cost of.02% to .04% of average annual GDP growth 19 rate. A study conducted by All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) and CPCB in Delhi showed that exposure to higher levels of particulate matter contributed to respiratory morbidity. It indicated that the most common symptoms relating to air pollution were irritation of eyes (44 %), cough (28.8 %), pharyngitis (16.8 %), dyspnea (16 %) and nausea (10 %). It has been estimated that the annual economic cost of damage to public health from increased air pollution, based on PM 10 measurements for 50 cities with the total population of 110 million, reached 3 billion USD in 2004.Health in India is deteriorating especially in metropolitan cities. Over 900 million urban people are affected with diseases and irritations linked with high levels of indoor and ambient harmful emissions. In Mumbai, the prevalence of both symptoms and signs of such diseases is around 22.2%. Among the six major communicable diseases, maximum cases (25,807,722) were reported for Acute Respiratory Infection while maximum number of 20 people (7,073) died due to Pulmonary Tuberculosis in India, during the year 2006.
Chart . The composition of environmental damages due to air emissions from fuel combustion in six cities
Environmental damage Non health coast
8% 28% 64%
climate change coast Health coast
Source: World Bank estimates. See Lvovsky, et al., forthcoming. Given that fuel combustion is not the only one, although significant, cause of the high level ofparticulates in cities overall health costs of poor air quality would be even greater.The economic estimates of health damages are based on certain methodological tools, and are ascredible as these tools are.
19
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/pollution/Air-pollution-costing-economy-Rs-3-75L-crorea-year-World-Bank/articleshow/21133559.cms 20 India:Air Quality Profil 2010 Edition,cleanairinitiative.org/.../India_Air_Quality_Profile_-_2010_Edition.pdf
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INSTITUTIONS HAVE CONDUCTED THESE STUDIES In order to gainfully utilize the existing expertise and infrastructure available within India, the collaboration with premier research institutes like The Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) and The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Various studies were commissioned to these institutes. Institutes responsible for carrying out various studies STUDY Source Apportionment Studies Delhi Bangalore Pune Mumbai Chennai Kanpur Development of Emission Factors for Vehicles Development of Source Emission Profiles Vehicles Non-vehicular sources
INSTITUTE NEERI TERI ARAI NEERI IITM IITK ARAI ARAI IITB
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) carried out the first government-led emissions inventory and modeling exercise for Delhi in 1994 for four source categories (industrial point source, small industry, traffic, and domestic coal consumption). In 1995, the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) conducted ―Air Accounts for NCT-Delhi Study‖ that identified relative contributions of different sources to the ambient air. Both emissions estimates show that the industrial sector accounts for most of the particulate matter (PM) and Sulfur dioxide (SO2) problem in Delhi, while Nitrogen oxides (NO x) and CO are mostly attributed to the transportation sector. (Mashelkar, R.A. et al..2002). Several organizations and academic institutions have conducted different studies to identify sources and their emissions. A comprehensive emission inventory was conducted in 1997 for Mumbai as part of the Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR). In 2002, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) New Delhi Mission initiated the Integrated Environmental Strategies (IES) program in India to help Indian policymakers identify, evaluate, and eventually implement a variety of mitigation opportunities with local and global co-benefits.
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4. Vehicular pollution Rapid, but unplanned urban development and the consequent urban sprawl coupled witheconomic growth have aggravated auto dependency in India over the last two decades. This hasresulted in congestion and pollution in cities. The central and state Governments have takenmany ameliorative measures to reduce vehicular emissions. However, evolution of scientificmethods for accurate emission inventory is crucial. WHY VEHICLES ARE A SPECIAL CHALLENGE: the rapid growth of the world‘s motor-vehicle fleet due to population growth and economic improvement, the expansion of metropolitan areas , and the increasing dependence on motor vehicles because of changes in land use has resulted in an increase in the fraction of the population living and working in close proximity to busy highways and roads — counteracting to some extent the expectedbenefits of pollution-control regulations and technologies. Motor vehicles are a significant source of urban air pollution and are increasingly important contributors of anthropogenic carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. As awareness of the potential health effects of air pollutants has grown, many countries have implemented more stringent emissions controls and made steady progress in reducing the emissions from motor vehicles and improving air quality In urban areas – both developing and developed countries, it is predominantly mobile or vehicular pollution that contributes to overall air quality problem. In Delhi, the data shows that of the total 3,000 metric tonnes of pollutantsbelched out everyday, close to two-third (66%) is from vehicles. Similarly, the 21 contribution of vehicles to urban air pollution is 52% in Bombay and close to one-third in Calcutta. Two-wheelers and cars subscribed 78 percent and 11 percent of pollution load respectively in cities 22 Twenty percent of poorly maintained vehicles produce about 60 percent of vehicular pollution in India CONTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS SECTORS TO AMBIENTAIR QUALITY IN MAJOR CITIES VARIOUS SECTORS
8% 20%
Domestic 8% Industrial 20%
72%
Vehicular 72%
The challenges for India are
o o o o o o o
High vehicle density in Indian urban centersolder vehicles predominant in vehicle vintage. inadequate inspection & maintenance facilities. predominance of two stroke two wheelers. adulteration of fuel & fuel products improper traffic management system & road conditions. high levels of pollution at traffic intersections. absence of effective mass rapid transport system &intra-city railway networks.
21
Mahindra S P, Krishnamurthy. Impact of Road Traffic on Urban Air Quality, TransportationResearch Board 84th Annual Meeting, Washington D.C.; 2005 22
Pundir B P. Vehicular air pollution in India: Recent control measures and related issues.Edited by Morris S. India Infrastructure Report 2001. Oxford University Press, New Delhi;2000: 260-263
27
Main causes for the shocking increase in vehicular emissions have been the exponential growth in the number of motor vehicles; inadequate public transport and poor management; haphazard urban development; obsolete vehicular technology; laxity in traffic enforcement; and an increase in freight moved over roads.
VEHICULAR EMISSIONS AND PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACT: Motor vehicles emit large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides(NOx), particulate matter (PM), and substances known as mobilesource air toxics (MSATs), such as benzene, formaldehyde ,acetaldehyde1,3-butadiene, and lead (where leaded gasoline is still in use). Each of these, along with secondary by-products, such as ozone and secondary aerosols (e.g., nitrates and inorganic and organic acids), can cause adverse effects on health and the environment. Pollutants from vehicle emissions are related to vehicle type (e.g., light- or heavy-duty vehicles) and age, operatingand maintenance conditions, exhaust treatment, type and quality of fuel, wear of parts (e.g., tires and brakes), and engine lubricants used. Concerns about the health effects of motor-vehicle combustion emissions have led to the introductionof regulations and innovative pollutioncontrol approaches throughout the world that have resulted in a considerable reduction of exhaust 23 emissions, particularly in developed countries. Fine Particulate Mattersuspended road dust, tire wear, and brake wear are sources of noncombustion PM emissions from motor vehicles. As emissions controls for exhaust PM become more widespread, emissions from noncombustion sources will make up a larger proportion of vehicle emissions. Noncombustionemissions contain chemical compounds, such as trace metals and organics,that might contribute to human health effects. Fine particulate matter is a serious threat to human health. Fineparticles can aggravate both heart and lung diseases. Those withdiabetes, older adults, and children are especially sensitive. Diesel Exhaust Diesel exhaust is especially dangerous, containing nearly 40 hazardous pollutants. The mixture contains carbon particles that are exceptionally small in size, less than one micron. These fine particles may be deeply inhaled into the lung and carry with them a collection of attached hazardous compounds. Diesel emissions increase the severity and duration of asthma attacks. The California Air Resources Board concluded that diesel emissions account for the majority of cancer risk created by all outdoor air pollution sources in the state. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children‘s exposure to diesel exhaust particles should be decreased and that idling of diesel vehicles in places where children live and congregate should be minimized to protect their health. School bus particulate emissions sometimes exceed the federal PM2.5 standards by as much as ten24 fold. The quantification of motor-vehicle emissions is critical in estimating their impact on local air quality and traffic-related exposures and requires the collection of travel-activity data over space and time and the development of emissions inventories. Emissions inventories are developed based on complex emissions models (of which the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency‘s MOBILE6 has been the most widely used) that provide exhaust and evaporative emissionsrates for total HC, CO, NOx, PM, sulfur dioxide (SO2), ammonia (NH3), selected air toxics, and green house gases (GHGs) for specific vehicle types and fuels. The quality of the travel-activity data (such as vehicle-miles traveled, number of trips, and types of vehicles) and the complex algorithms used to derive the emissions factors suggest the presence of substantial uncertainties and limitations in the resulting emissions estimates (NARSTO 2005). It should be noted that estimates of PM emissions have had very limited field valuation and verification. The actual measurement of motor-vehicle emissions is critically important for validating the emissions models. Studies that have sampled the exhaust of moving vehicles in real-world situations (specifically, in tunnels 23
Health Effects Institute Special Report 17 © 2010,http://pubs.healtheffects.org/getfile.php?u=553 THEHARMFUL EFFECTS OF VEHICLE EXHAUST,www.ehhi.org/reports/exhaust/exhaust06.pdf
24
28
or on roadways) have contributed very useful information about the emissions rates of the current motorvehicle fleet and also have allowed the evaluation of the impact of new emissioncontrol technologies and 25 fuels on emissions. STATE OF THE VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY AND FUELS ROADMAP
Vehicular emissions load in India In India, the number of motor vehicles has grown from 0.3 million in 1951 to approximately 50 million in 2000 and registered vehicles in India grew to 141.8 million by the year 2011. The fleet is dominated by motorcycles scooters (two-wheelers) (72%), followed by private carsof which, two wheelers (mainly driven by two stroke engines) accounts for 70% of the total vehicular population. Two wheelers, combined with cars (four wheelers, excluding taxis) (personal mode of transportation) account for approximately four fifth of the total vehicular population. The problem has been further compounded by steady increase in urban population (from approximately 17% to 28% during 1951-2001), and larger concentration of vehicles in these urban cities specially in four major metros namely, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkatta which account for more than 15% of the total vehicular population of the whole country, whereas, more than 40 other metropolitan cities (with human population more than 1million) accounted for 35% of the vehicular population of the country. Further, 25% of the total energy (of which 98% comes from oil) is consumed by road sector only. Vehicles in major metropolitan cities are estimated to account for 70% of CO, 50% of HC, 30-40% of NOx, 30%of SPM and 10% of SO2of the total pollution load of these cities, of which two third is contributed by two wheelers alone. These high level of pollutants are mainly responsible for respiratory and other air pollution related ailments including lung cancer, asthma etc., which is significantly higher than the national average.26 Growth of vehicles in India by category (1951-2011)
Source:India-California Air Pollution Mitiagtion Program (ICAMP)
Emissions from different vehicle type of India
25
Health Effects Institute Special Report 17 © 2010,http://pubs.healtheffects.org/getfile.php?u=553
26
http://www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_157_VPC_REPORT.pdf
29
The emissions calculated for different type of road transport vehicles are summarized in Table14 . Among different type of vehicles, trucks and lorries contribute 28.8% CO2 (70.29 Tg), 39% NOx (0.86 Tg), 27.3% SO2 (0.19 Tg), and 25% PM (0.03 Tg), which constitute 25% of the total vehicular emission ofIndia. Similarly two wheelers are major source of CO (0.72 Tg; 23.7%), CH4 (0.06 Tg; 46.4%), and HC (0.46 Tg; 64.2%) and buses are emitting NOx (0.68 Tg; 30.7%) and PM (0.03 Tg; 20.5%). Vehicular emissions vary with type, efficiency and type of fuel used. Emission analysis based on the vehicle type reveal that bus and omni buses contribute higher CO2 (CO2: 96.5%, NOx: 2.28%) compared to two wheelers (CO2: 86.8%, CO: 7.18%, HC: 4.6%), passenger light motor vehicles (CO2: 86.8%, CO: 7.6%, NOx: 1.9%), cars and jeeps (CO2: 98.8%), taxi (CO2: 94.6%, SO2: 4.68%), trucks and lorries (CO2: 97.6%, NOx: 1.2%), goods light motor vehicles (CO2: 98.4%), and trailers and tractors (CO2: 98.4%) are different.
Table 14: Emissions from different vehicle type of India (Gg) Categories
CO
CO
NO
PM
HC
Bus
28748.16
207.26
679.73
5.02
79.24
31.36
51.72
Omni buses
8508.42
60.94
200.53
1.49
23.45
9.28
15.11
Two wheelers
8701.08
719.64
62.15
58.88
4.25
16.36
464.49
Light motor vehicles (Passenger)
4378.10
370.29
92.93
13.07
2.11
14.52
10.16
Cars and jeeps
23901.22
212.30
22.14
18.17
5.67
3.22
28.01
Taxi
2367.08
10.23
5.68
0.11
117.05
0.80
1.48
Trucks and lorries
70288.92
491.15
859.51
12.28
193.73
38.20
118.69
Light motor vehicles ( Goods)
44654.58
442.04
110.94
7.80
123.08
17.33
12.13
Trailers and tractors
46563.85
460.94
115.69
8.13
128.34
18.08
12.65
Others
5705.22
57.41
64.54
1.83
32.19
3.98
8.96
2
x
CH
4
SO
2
Soure:CPCB :Programme Objective Series PROBES/ 136 /2010
Pollution load from road traffic in various mega cities
30
The vehicle pollution load as estimated through a joint study conducted by Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) & Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP) in the year 2002 for four key pollutants (i.e. CO, NOx, HC and PM) in eight mega cities namely Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kanpur & Agra are given in Table 15This is attributable to the highest number ofautomobiles operating in Delhi. From the table it can be seen that Delhi has the maximum vehicle pollution load compared to any other city in the country.
Table 15: Estimated pollution load in Indian cities City
Pollution load in metric tons per day CO
NOx
HC
PM
Delhi
421.84
110.45
184.37
12.77
Mumbai
189.55
46.37
89.93
10.58
Kolkata
137.50
54.09
47.63
10.80
Chennai
177.00
27.30
952.64
7.29
Bangalore
207.04
29.72
117.37
8.11
Hyderabad
163.95
36.89
90.09
8.00
Kanpur
28.73
7.25
11.70
1.91
Agra
17.93
3.30
10.28
.91
Vehicular pollution problems in India Motor vehicles have been closely identified with increasing air pollution levels in urban centers of the world (Mage et al, 1996; Mayer 1999) . Besides substantial CO emissions, significant quantities of CO, 2
HC, NOx, SPM and other air toxins are emitted from these motor vehicles in the atmosphere, causing serious environmental and health impacts. Like many other parts of the world, air pollution from motor vehicles is one of the most serious and rapidly growing problems in urban centers of India (UNEP/WHO, 1992). The problem of air pollution has assumed serious proportions in some of the major metropolitan cities of India and vehicular emissions have been identified as one of the major contributors in the deteriorating air quality in these urban centers The problem has further been compounded by the concentration of large number of vehicles and comparatively high motor vehicles to population ratios in these cities . Reasons for increasing vehicular pollution problems in urban India are as below Vehicular Pollution Control Measures taken in India For containing vehicular pollution, the Government has taken important initiatives in recent years. The Union Government and the Governments in India have been emphasizing the need for planning and developing strategies to implement mitigation measures to maintain the urban air quality and make the cities cleaner and greener for achieving better air quality and good health for its citizens. Technical and Non-Technical Measures Vehicular Pollution Control Initiatives in India can broadly be categorized into Technical & Non-Technical Measures. Technical Instruments for controlling vehicular Pollution includes Implementation of stringent emission norms for both new & In-Use Vehicles, Improvement in Vehicular Technology, Improvement in the Quality of fuels, Switching over to cleaner vehicles as well as fuels, Implementation of I/M system etc. While Non Technical instruments like Better Traffic Management system, Augmentation in public transport system, Implementation of Market based instruments i.e fiscal instruments, generating mass awareness, drives for checking adulteration etc.
31
Technical Measures for controlling vehicular pollution in India Vehicular Emission Standards Vehicle emission standards are the primary technical policy for controlling emissions from vehicles. The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, and the Central Motor Vehicles rules (CMVR) 1989, are the principal instruments for regulation of motor vehicular traffic /emissions throughout the country. The implementation of various provisions of this Act rests with the state governments. The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways acts as a nodal agency for the formulation and implementation of various provisions of the Motor Vehicle Act and CMVR. The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways is advised by the CMVR–Technical Standing Committee on various technical aspects related to CMVR. This Committee has representatives from organizations such as the Ministry of Heavy Industries, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRT&H), Bureau of Indian Standards, testing agencies such as the Automotive Research Association of India, Vehicle Research and Development Establishment, Central Institute of Road Transport, and industry representatives from the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers and Automotive Component Manufacturers Association Although the Air Act, 1981, and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 provide for the prescription of automobile emission standards by the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) or Ministry of Environment and Forests, implementation and enforcement of these standards is the responsibility of the Union Ministry of Road Transport and Highways or the Transport Commissioner at the state level. For issues related to the implementation of emission regulations the MoRT&H is advised by a separate committee the Standing Committee on Implementation of Emission Legislation. The MoRT&H has formed this 27 committee to discuss future emission norms, related test procedures and the implementation strategy
Emission standards for controlling pollution from New vehicles in India The first initiative to regulate vehicle emissions in India started in the year 1989 when Ministry of Environment & Forests constituted an expert committee to notify the emission standards for both new and in-use vehicles under the Environment (Protection) Act. The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which became effective in 1989. These idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass emission limits for both gasoline (1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles. From 1995 all new gasoline passenger cars in the four metros were required to compulsorily fit catalytic converters, which were further, made applicable to all metros, state capitals and Union Territories from 1998. Sooner the need for tighter emission norms surfaced owing to the growing problems of vehicular emissions particularly in the metro cities and in 1996 more stringent norms came into force. In year 1998 the Government notified emission norms for vehicles fitted with catalytic converters, which were over 50% stricter than the 1996 28 norms. In 2000, following the European model, Euro-I equivalent emission norms called India Stage-I were notified throughout the country which were overtaken by Euro-II equivalent Bharat Stage-II norms in the four metro cities by 2001. Bharat Stage II norms, were introduced in the National Capital Region (NCR) for passenger vehicles up to GVW 3.5T from 1 April 2000 and for heavier vehicles from 24 October 2001 in the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi. In Mumbai, were extended from 1 January 2001 and 31 October 2001 respectively. For both Chennai and Kolkata, the corresponding dates are 1 July 2001 and 31 October 2001, respectively. Fitness norms for commercial vehicles were tightened with effect from 28 March 2001. The emission norms for CNG and LPG vehicles were notified in the year 2000 and 2001, respectively. The Central Motor Vehicles Rules have been frequently amended to take into account the changing requirements. The emission norms in India are behind European ones by four to five years for all categories of vehicles except for two- and three-wheelers. For them, Bharat 2000 norms are far stricter 29 than the Euro II norms and are one of the most stringent in the world. 27
Industrial Growth in India,planningcommission.gov.in/about us/committee/.../wg_es0203.pdf Industrial pollution in developing countries,http://www.ilo.org/oshenc/part-vii/environmental-healthhazards/item/497-industrial-pollution-in-developing-countries 29 Industrial pollution in developing countries,http://www.ilo.org/oshenc/part-vii/environmental-healthhazards/item/497-industrial-pollution-in-developing-countries 28
32
Emission standard th
On 6 October 2003, a national auto fuel policy was announced, which envisaged a phased program for introducing Euro 2-4 emission and fuel regulation by 2010. The implementation schedule of EU emission standards in India is summarized below in Table 16 to Table 18
Table16: Indian emission standard for 4- wheel vehicles Standard India 2000
Reference Euro I
Bharat Stage II
Euro 2
Bharat stage III
Euro 3
Bharat stage IV
Euro 4
Date
Region Nationwide NCA*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Channai NCR*,13 cities** Nationwide NCR*,13 cities** Nationwide NCR*,13 cities**
2000 2001 2003.04 2005.04 2005.04 2010.04 2010.04
Note:*National Capital region (Delhi) ** Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmadabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur, Lucknow, Sholapur, Jamshedpur and Agra
Table 17 : Indian emission standard for 3- wheel and 2-wheel gasoline vehicles, (g/km) Year 1991 1996 2000 2005(BS II) 2010.04(BS III)
3 Wheeler Gasoline vehicles CO HC HC+NOx 12-30 8-12 6.75 5.4 4 2 2.25 2 1.25
-
1.25
2 Wheeler Gasoline vehicles CO HC HC+NOx 12-30 8-12 5.5 3.6 2 2 1.5 1.5 1
-
1
Table 18: Indian emission standard for Gasoline vehicles (GVW< 3,500 kg), g/km Year 1991 1996 1998* 2000 2005** 2010**
Reference Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3
2010**
Euro 4
CO 14.3-27.1 8.68-12.4 4.34-6.20 2.72-6.90 2.2-5.0 2.3 4.17 5.22 1.0 1.81 2.27
HC 2.0-2.9 .20 .25 .29 0.1 0.13 0.16
HC+NOx 3.00-4.36 1.50-2.18 0.97-1.70 0.5-0.7
-
-
NOx
0.15 0.18 0.21 0.08 0.10 0.11
Source : CPCB website.*For catalytic convertor fitted vehicles. ** In selected cities.
Auto Fuel Policy’s Road Map for control of vehicular pollution from New Vehicles Indian cities have different climatic conditions, human population, different vehicle population density and source of pollution. The Indian cities with a population of more than one million people with high vehicle population and the cities in which prescribed standards are violated in one or additional parameters in 72
33
non attainment cities, which require actions for vehicle pollution control ahead of the rest of the country. Since the year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for heavy-duty vehicles. In respect of 2& 3 wheeler norms, India is already ahead of most of the advanced world as far as the emission norms are concerned. The road map for vehicular emission norms Bhart Stage II, III and IV is given in Table 19 Table19 : Road map for Vehicular Emission norms for new vehicles
Date of effective Emission Norms
Entire Country
Identified Cities
New Vehicles Except 2 & 3 Wheelers
Bharat Stage II
From Year 2000 & 2001
-
Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai
From Year 2003
-
NCR, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmadabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra
From April 01, 2005
Yes
-
Yes
For all private vehicles, city public service vehicles and city commercial vehicles in indentified cities* -
From April 01, 2005 Bharat Stage III From April 01, 2010 From April 01, 2010
For all private vehicles, city public service vehicles and city commercial vehicles in indentified cities*
Bharat Stage IV New 2 & Bharat Stage II Bharat Stage III
3Wheelers From April 01, 2005
Yes
Preferably from April Yes 01, 2008 but not later than April 01, 2010 in any case
Source: Programme Objective Series PROBES/ 136 /2010 CPCB
34
Current status and the future roadmap: A roadmap has been put in place by Planning Commission Member, Saumitra Chaudhuri ( January 2014 )to bring in different grades of fuel efficiency. government is planning to expand BS-IV auto fuel norms to 50 more cities by 2015.30
STRATEGIES TO MITIGATE VEHICULAR EMISSIONS: The ICCT‘s roadmap suggests the following: Mandate lower sulfur content (10 ppm) for all road-vehicle fuels and tighten emission standards to Euro 6/VI and beyond for all vehicle types. Table20 below shows a feasible timeline Table20: Recommended implementation dates for fuel sulfur content and vehicleemission standards. 2015
2016
Fuel Sulfur content (ppm)
50
LDV Emission Standard
BS Va
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
10 BS Vb
BS VI
Euro 7/US Tier 3 equivalent
HDV Emission Standard
BS V
BS VI
Euro VII/US2010 equivalent
2/3-Wheeler Emission Standard
BS IV
BS V
BS VI
All implementation dates are for the beginning of the fiscal year (April 1)
.Increase the durability requirements of emission regulations to match levels that manufacturers have already demonstrated the ability to meet in other jurisdictions, such as the United States. Table below summarizes current and recommended emissions durability.
Table21: Durability requirements for vehicle emission standards. Vehicle category
Current (km)
Recommended (km)
Notes
2/3-Wheelers
30,000
50,000
Euro V standards proposal, Iyer NV, 2012
LDVs
80,000
190,000
Recommended is US Tier 2 requirement
N1
100,000
190,000
Recommended is US Tier 2 requirement
N2
125,000
190,000
Recommended is US Tier 2 requirement
N3 w/GVW < 16,000kg
125,000
190,000
Recommended is US Tier 2 requirement
N3 w/GVW > 16,000kg
167,000
300,000
Recommended is US MHDDE requirement
M2
100,000
300,000
Recommended is US MHDDE requirement
HDVs
30
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/bsiv-fuel-norms-may-take-time-saumitrachaudhuri/article5549494.ece
35
M3 w/GVW < 7500kg
125,000
300,000
Recommended is US MHDDE requirement
M3 w/GVW > 7500kg
167,000
300,000
Recommended is US MHDDE requirement
Source:Policy Summary: India’s VehicleEmissions Control Program(2013 International Council on Clean Transportation
Develop, by April 1, 2015, a national program to randomly select properly maintained and used vehicles and test them against their original emission standards, along the lines of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) programs, to be implemented starting April 1, 2017. India is already in the process of establishing more than ten vehicle testing centers around the country, which should be used for conducting such in-use vehicle testing. This will ensure that vehicles are meeting durability requirements, and noncompliant vehicle models are identified
Develop a national program to test fuel quality throughout the fuel supply chain, including retail stations, by April 1, 2015. A national fuel testing lab has already been commissioned in Noida, but as planned that facility would not have authority to take action against noncompliant fuels. Regional fuel testing labs should be established in all regions of the country and given authority to take legal action against fuel handlers dealing with noncompliant fuel.
Establish a National Automobile Pollution and Fuel Authority (NAPFA), as recommended by the Auto Fuel Policy Committee in 2002, with power over environmental regulations for vehicles and fuels, to ensure timely implementation of the auto fuel policy roadmap. NAPFA should have the ability and authority to work with fuel quality and vehicle emissions testing labs to issue mandatory recalls, levy fines, and take other legal action against parties dealing with noncompliant vehicles and fuels.
Mandate annual vehicle registration for all vehicle types across the country. Currently private vehicles need only be registered 15 years after initial purchase. Annual registration can be linked with PUC testing and proof of insurance. This will provide India more comprehensive data on its vehicle fleet and enable the government to streamline vehicle regulations.
Mandate Stage I and Stage II evaporative emission controls by 2017 at all urban fuel retail stations, in time for nationwide deployment of ultra-low-sulfur fuels ( 210 MW
150 mg/Nm
3
Source:Paper presented at BAQ 2006 at Yogykarta,Indonesia by cpcb Depending upon the requirement of local situations, which may warrant stricter standards as in case of protected areas the State Pollution Control Board within the provisions of the Environmental (Protection) 3 Act, 1986, may be prescribed limit of 150 mg/Nm irrespective of the generation capacity of the plant Stack height requirements: For the proper dispersion of SO2 emission from thermal power plant, stack height criteria have been adopted in country. However, for larger capacities boilers (500MW and above) space provision for installing FGD system has been recommended. power generation capacity
Stack height(mts)
0.3 Less then 200/210 MW H=Q , Q is emission rate of so2in kg/h,H is height ≥200/210 and ≤500 MW 220 500MW and above 275 Source:Paper presented at BAQ 2006 at Yogykarta,Indonesia by cpcb
Mitigation strategies : Need for adoption of Clean coal technologies To meet increasing demand of power with minimal environmental impact for sustainable development, adoption of clean coal technologies with enhanced power plant efficiency, fuel switching, use of washed coal, efficient pollution control systems and proper by-product and waste handling & utilization, is necessary. Pre-combustion Technologies : Ash, sulphur and reduced from the coal before it is burned
other impurities (coal benefaction) ca n be
Combustion technologies : Generation of emissions of SO2, NOx (FBC : CBFC, AFBC,PFBC, and CO2 can be minimised by IGCC) adopting improved combustion technologies Post combustion technologies : End of pipe treatment (installation pollution control equipments such as ESP, DENOx& De SOx systems
6. Generator sets pollution
42
A diesel generator is the combination of a diesel engine with an electrical generator (often called an alternator) to generate electrical energy. Diesel generating sets are used in places without connection to the power grid, as emergency power-supply if the grid fails, as well as for more complex applications such as peak-lopping, Grid Support and export to the power grid. Sizing of diesel generators is critical to avoid low-load or a shortage of power and is complicated by modern electronics, specifically non-linear loads. The modern corporate offices have critical equipment like servers, computers, etc., the working of which is solely dependent on regular uninterrupted supply of electricity. Due to shortage of power supply available or due to voltage fluctuations, the performances of such equipment get hampered. In industrial set ups, the working of the complex machinery too is dependent on the availability of powerThus, installation of diesel generators as the alternate source of electrical energy is very common; more so as a contingency plan but true to any other technology, operations of diesel generator have its inherent set of flip sides, which have turned out to be major reasons of concern for the Environmentalists Contribution of generator sets emissions:The impact in the operation phase is primarily related to the emission of harmful pollutants. Diesel generators are among the highest polluting energy producing units. The primary pollutants areNitrogen oxides (NOX), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Carbon monoxide (CO) , Hydrocarbons/ Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (HC/PAH), Particles (PA) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) . Use of diesel in generators – toxic emissions:A typical standby diesel generator produces 25-30 pounds of nitrogen oxides (NOx) per megawatt hour of power generated. Nitrogen oxides are a smogforming pollutant. Diesel combustion causes air pollution and high sulfur levels. Diesel emission levels of NOx, carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, and particulate matter were a substantial contributor to poor air quality. The visible pollution generated by burning diesel contains elemental carbon. And the smell comes from a group of particles called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, well-known cancer causing agents. Diesel emissions were found to cause of up to 70 percent of atmospheric pollution induced cancer 36 cases. Fine particulate matter (PM) in diesel exhaust can bypass the body‘s natural defenses penetrating deep into the lungs where it may cause or exacerbate respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses, and even premature death. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from diesel engines contribute to smog formation which has been linked to increases in hospital admissions for asthma and is most dangerous to children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease. NOx emissions also react with other air pollutants to increase the level of particulates in the air.
EXISTING AND PROPOSED REGULATIONS TO CURB GENERATOR SETS POLLUTION: The ministry of environment and forest amended the Environment (Protection) Act,1986 (Third Amendment) on , the 11th December, 2013 to curb generator sets pollution is has come into force on1st April, 2014in the Official Gazette. as per the notification Emission limits for new diesel engine up to 800 kW for generator set. Table below subject to the general conditions contained in the notification Table24: Emission Limits & Smoke limit for Generator sets
36Diesel
Generator Emission Monitoring,http://equinoxlab.com/d-g-emission-monitoring/
43
POWER CATEGORY
EMISSION LIMITS
SMOKE LIMIT (light absorption
(g/kW-hr)
coefficient, m-1)
NOx+HC
Upto 19 KW
CO
PM
≤ 3.5
≤0.3
≤4.7
≤ 3.5
≤0.3
≤4.0
≤3.5
≤0.2
≤7.5
More than 19 KW upto 75 KW
More than 75 KW upto 800 KW
≤0.7 ≤0.7
≤0.7
Note: 1. The abbreviations used in the Table shall mean as under: NOx – Oxides of Nitrogen; HC – Hydrocarbon; CO – Carbon Monoxide; and PM – Particulate Matter. 2. Smoke shall not exceed above value throughout the operating load points of the test cycle. 3. The testing shall be done as per D2 – 5 mode cycle of ISO: 8178- Part 4. 4. The above mentioned emission limits shall be applicable for Type Approval and Conformity of Production (COP) carried out by authorised agencies
Silent features of the notification are: Every manufacturer, importer or, assembler of the diesel engine for genset into India shall obtain Type Approval and comply with COP of their product(s) for the emission limits which shall be valid for the next COP year Stack height (in metres), for genset shall be governed as per Central Pollution Control Board guidelines. All the engines, individually or as part of the product shall be affixed with a conformance label containing information like Name and address of the manufacturer of engine, Statement that the engine conforms to the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, Type Approval certificate number , Date of manufacture of engine and the product or in case of import, the date of import of the engine and the product, Rated speed and corresponding gross power in kW. The Central Pollution Control Board shall be the nodal agency for implementation of these rules. The specification of commercial fuel applicable for diesel gensets shall be the same as applicable for commercial High Speed Diesel applicable for diesel vehicles in the area where product would 37 be operated, from time to time, as per policy of Government of India."
USE OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL IN CURBING EMISSIONS:
37
MOEF notification, December 2013,
http://cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pci2/Emission-Standards-Diesel-engin-upto-800.pdf
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A typical diesel generator uses about 2-3 times as much energy to produce the same amount of energy as a modern public Large Combustion Plant (LCP). It means that the release of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is up to 3 times higher than compared to energy delivered from a modern power plant.The emission of CO2 can be reduced by the use of bio diesel and the emission of air pollution components can be reduced by use of filters and catalysts. Biodiesel has been considered as an alternative fuel to petroleum-based diesel for several years. World biodiesel production has increased rapidly with an average annual growth rate of 40%. Increases in the price of crude oil are forecast to accelerate production. Standard for biodiesel Any biodiesel fuel must comply with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D-6751 standard, applicable for blends up to B20. Most diesel engine manufacturers will not void their standard warranty for engines using B20 fuel. Advantages While the main advantage for adopting biodiesel has been promoted as energy security by switching to a domestically produced renewable energy source, there are other reasons a generator set user should consider using biodiesel as detailed below: Lower exhaust emissions - Bio diesels, due to their chemical composition, produce lower exhaust emissions than diesel distilled from petroleum. Exhaust emissions and subsequent pollution fall due to a reduction in the sulfur levels. Regulations are already in place to adopt ultra-low sulfur in traditional petroleum based diesel. In addition to lower sulfur, diesels running on biodiesel (B100) have substantially lower unburned hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. Particulate matter is reduced for engines running on a 20/80 mixture (B20). Generator systems users in areas where there are very strict emission controls may wish to consider the adoption of biodiesel. Petroleum based diesel has received a close look by bodies responsible for 38 regulating emissions levels due to higher levels of particulates in the exhaust. Improved lubrication ability - With the introduction of ultra-low sulfur fuel, some older engine fuel injection systems may be subject to increased wear due to the lower lubricating properties of ultra-low fuel distilled out of petroleum. The increased lubricating properties of biodiesel (even with small amounts of blending) will reduce wear of fuel injection equipment and extend the life of the engine. Highest BTU - Biodiesel fuel has the highest BTU value of any alternative fuel, falling between the range of No. 1 and No. 2 diesel fuel. There is no noticeable reduction in power performance with the use of B20. Disadvantages The disadvantages of biodiesel, as detailed below, largely parallel those of petroleum diesel: Cold weather - B20 biodiesel will tend to gel in very cold temperatures, as does No. 2 diesel fuel. This can be countered by using the same management treatment as #2. Lower fuel blends like B2 and B5 have virtually no impact. Operation on older diesel models - Biodiesel is not entirely suitable for older diesel engines, if using blends higher than B20, impacting fuel system components. Primarily the issue is biodiesel over B20 (20% biodiesel blend) degrading natural rubber compounds (fuel hoses) and fuel pump seals. Long term storage - Currently it is recommended to be used within six months. After that period, it should be reanalyzed to ensure it still meets ASTM D-6751 specifications. There are additives available that can extend storage life.
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https://www.ungm.org/Areas/Public/Downloads/UNSP_Generators_Background report.pdf
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Fuel Filters - Biodiesel can have a cleansing effect on glazed surfaces. When using biodiesel for the first time, the fuel filter should be checked for particles that the biodiesel as cleansed from fuel injection and 39 other fuel system surfaces. STUDIES SHOWING HEALTH BENEFITS OF USING ALTERNATIVE FUELS :Some PM and HC emissions from diesel fuel combustion are toxic or carcinogenic. Using B100 can eliminate as much as 90% of these air toxics. B20 reduces air toxics by 20% to 40%. The positive effects of biodiesel on air toxics have been shown in numerous studies. Recently, the U.S. Department of Labor Mining Safety Health Administration (MSHA) has implemented rules for underground mines that limit workers‘ exposure to diesel PM. MSHA found that switching from petroleum diesel fuels to high blend levels of biodiesel (B50 to B100) significantly reduced PM emissions from underground diesel vehicles and substantially reduced workers‘ exposure. However, even low concentrations of biodiesel reduce PM emissions and provide significant health and compliance benefits 40 wherever humans receive higher levels of expo-sure to diesel exhaust.
7. Open burning OPEN BURNING AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO AIR POLLUTION Open burning is the disposal of any waste material in an open, outdoor fire and can be a large source of air pollution. Smoke from open burning contains very fine particles, gases and other toxic products of burning that can be inhaled deeply into the lungs. Scientific studies have linked exposure to fine particles to difficulty in breathing, aggravated asthma, increased emergency room visits and hospital admissions, and, in some cases, premature deaths. Those most at risk are children, the elderly and people with chronic respiratory problems. Nearly half of the World's Population and 75% of Indian Population depend on biomass for their energy needs for cooking. Main biomass types are trees, shrubs, crop residue, and dung. about 253 million tones per year of bio-fuels are used in the rural areas in the domestic sector, out of which 181 MT is estimated 39
https://www.ungm.org/Areas/Public/Downloads/UNSP_Generators_Background report.pdf http://www.biodiesel.org/docs/using-hotline/nrel-handling-and-use.pdf?sfvrsn=4
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to be fuel wood, 40 MT crop residue (the fuel potential per year of crop residue is estimated to be 52 MT, out of which 40 MT per year of crop residue is used as fuel), and 32 MT dung cake. Forests contribute about 32% of fuel wood, and the rest comes from various other sources. Cooking consumes about 95% of total rural biomass energy. Besides the above, other major components of biomass burning are forest fires, burning of agricultural residue e.g. cereal straws, woody stalks, and sugarcane bagasse etc. in the 41 fields, and burning of wood and dung cakes for heating.
Table 22: Types of Open Biomass Burning. (U.S. EPA, 1998) Type of Burning
Description
Land Type
Forestland, cropland, The planned burning of vegetative debris from rangeland, agricultural operations. (Domestic) grassland, Agricultural
Prescribed
Wildfire
wetlands
Typical Resource Management Objective(s) Restore and/or maintain fire-dependent ecosystems; control weeds, pests, and disease; manage lands for endangered species; promote various vegetation responses; reduce fuel loading to reduce catastrophic wildfire risk; improve crop yield; control invasive species; facilitate crop rotation; remove crop residue.
Forestland, The use of fire as a method of clearing land for rangeland, agricultural use or pastureland. (International) grassland, wetlands
Conversion of land into cropland or pastureland.
The planned burning of vegetation under controlled conditions to accomplish predetermined natural resource management objectives. Conducted within the limits of a fire plan and prescription that describes the acceptable range of weather, moisture, fuel, fire behavior parameters, and the ignition method to achieve the desired effects.
Forestland, rangeland, grassland, wetlands
Restore and/or maintain fire-dependent ecosystems; control weeds, invasive species, pests, and disease; manage lands for endangered species; promote various vegetation responses; reduce fuel loading to reduce catastrophic wildfire risk.
An unplanned wildland fire (such as a fire caused by lightning), unauthorized human-caused fires (such as arson or acts of carelessness by campers), or escaped prescribed burn projects (escaped control due to unforeseen circumstances).
Forestland, rangeland, grassland, wetlands
Fire suppression or other appropriate management response.
Source: http://www.epa.gov/blackcarbon/2012report/Chapter11.pdf AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES BURNING Various studies have been published dealing with the amount of biomass burned fromvarious sources such as deforestation, shifting cultivation, savanna fires, fuel wood and the burning of agricultural residues mainly in tropical regions. On a global basis, forestburning is the major source of the fire emissions due to its high carbon density and burning of agricultural waste is the second major source, 42 representing nearly 2020 Tg (approx 25% of total biomass burned) India is an agrarian country and generates a large quantity of agricultural wastes. This amount will increase in future as with growing population there is a need to increase the productivity also. Agricultural 41
Sanjeev Agrawal, et al, Pollution due to Burning of Agriculture Residue, Indian Journal of Air Pollution Control Vol. VIII No. I March 2008 pp 51-59 42
Chang, D. and Song, Y. (2010). Estimates of Biomass Burning Emissions in Tropical Asia Based on Satellite-Derived Data. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10: 2335–2351
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residues are the biomass left in the field after harvesting of the economic components i.e., grain. Large quantities of crop residues are generated every year, in the form of cereal straws, woody stalks, and sugarcane leaves/tops during harvest periods. Processing of farm produce through milling also produces large amount of residues. These residues are used as animal feed, thatching for rural homes, residential cooking fuel and industrial fuel. However, a large portion of the crop residues is not utilized and left in the fields. The disposal of such a large amount of crop residues is a major challenge. To clear the field rapidly and inexpensively and allow tillage practices to proceed unimpeded by residual crop material, the crop residues are burned in situ. Farmers opt for burning because it is a quick and easy way to manage the large quantities of crop residues and prepare the field for the next crop well in time. Agricultural residues burning may emit significant quantity of air pollutants like CO 2, N2O, CH4, emission of air pollutants such as CO, NH3, NO x, SO2, NMHC, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) and particulate matter like elemental carbon at a rate far different from that observed in savanna/forest fire due to different chemical composition of the crop residues and burning 43 conditions.
Sugarcane 17%Millets 7% Oilseeds 5%Cereals58%Maize 7%
Fibers 20% Rice53%
Fig. a
Wheat 33%
Fig.b Source:Jain et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 14: 422–430, 2014
The cereals crops generated 58% of residue while rice crop alone contributed 53% and wheat ranked second with 33% of cereal crop residues (Figs. (a) and (b)). Fibre crops contributed 20% of residues generated with cotton ranking first (90.86 Mt) with 74% of crop residues. Sugarcane residues generated 17% of the total crop residues.The oilseed crops generated 28.72 Mt of residue annually (Fig. (a)). MITIGATION STRATEGIES: 1. Reduce the number of acres burned: Reduce burning through conservation tillage, soil incorporation, or collecting and hauling crop residues to central processing sites (WRAP, 2002) and Apply alternate year burning which involves alternating open field burning with various mechanical removal techniques. The period may involve burning every other year or every third year (U.S. EPA, 1992).
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Zhang, H., Hu, D., Chen, J., Ye, X., Wang, S.X., Hao, J., Wang, L., Zhang, R. and Zhisheng, A., (2011).
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–2. Increase combustion efficiency: Use bale/stack for agricultural residue. The bale/stack burning technique is designed to increase the fire efficiency by stacking or baling the fuel before burning. Burning in piles or stacks tends to foster morecomplete combustion, thereby reducing PM emissions. This control is applicable to field burning where the entire field would be set on fire, and can be applied to all crop types (U.S. EPA, 2005b).Use propane flamers as an alternative to open field burning. – Use backing fires (―back burning‖). Flaming combustion is cleaner than smoldering combustion. Back burning ensures more fuel is consumed in the flaming phase (Ottmar et al., 2001) 3. Reduce fuel loadings– Remove straw/stubble before the burn. 4. Change burn timing from early spring to either winter or summer to reduce higher impact of BC on snow/ice. Quinn et al. (2008) suggest that this technique may be especially important for mitigating climate impacts in the Arctic, to reduce springtime deposition when the snow and icepack is large. Applicability of this technique will be limited by the type of crop, the resource objectives sought, and biological and operational constraints. 5. Convert Land Use – Convert from a crop that requires burning to a crop that does not. – Convert land to non-agricultural use. 6. Educate Farmers – Provide training to farmers on proper burning techniques that reduce emissions.
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CASE STUDIES/EXAMPLES WHERE STATES HAVE TAKEN INITIATIVE TO CURB OPEN BURNING A study conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the New York State Department of Health shows that burn barrel emissions from 2 – 40 households burning their trash daily in barrels can produce levels of toxic emissions comparable to a well-controlled 200 ton/day municipal incinerator. These chemicals can include acid vapors and dioxins. Burn barrels also emit heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, and chromium, as well as unhealthful levels of carbon monoxide. The closer you are to waste that is burning, the higher the risk of inhaling dangerous pollutants. This may not have been the case 50 or even 25 years ago, when our parents or grandparents burned trash in a burn barrel. In the past, household waste consisted mostly of paper and glass. Today, metal cans, plastic packaging, plastic products, and other synthetic materials make up a large portion of society's waste. When burned, these items can emit toxic pollutants and contaminated soot particles into the air. In addition to the health effects of breathing the pollutants, flying sparks and embers can easily 45 lead to uncontrolled fires, posing a substantial threat to life and property. A Study done by Parmod Kumar and Surender Kumar,Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC) and Department of Policy Studies, TERI University,uses data of 625 individuals collected from a household level survey conducted in three villages in Indian Punjab for 150 households.study showed that paddy stubble burning leads to air pollution and several other problems. Irritation in eyes and congestion in the chest were the two major problems faced by the majority of the household members. Respiratory allergy, asthma and bronchial problems were the other smoke related diseases which 44
http://www.epa.gov/blackcarbon/2012report/Chapter11.pdf
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www.lrkimball.com/070661/.../PADEP%20Air%20Pollution%20Doc.pdf
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affected household members in the selected villages. Almost 50 percent of the selected households indicated that their health related problems get aggravated during or shortly after harvest when crop stubble burning is in full swing during the months of October, November and December. In the peak season, affected families had to consult doctor or use some home medicine to get relief from irritation/itching in eyes, breathing problemand similar other smoke related problems. On an average, the affected members suffered at least half a month from such problems and had to spend 300 to 500 per household on medicine. In addition there were few examples where a family member had to be hospitalized for three to four days and additional expenditure was incurred. On an average, households spent around more than 1000 on the non chronic respiratory diseases like coughing, difficulty in breathing, irregular heartbeat, itching in eyes decreased lung function etc., during the year 2008-09. However, out of this total expenditure, around 40 to 50 percent was spent during the months of October and November during the time of crop stubble burning. There was an additional cost in terms of 46 household members remaining absent from work due to illness .
8. Indoor air pollution Indoor air can become polluted if contaminants accumulate inside buildings. Common contaminant groups include dusts (particulates), vapors and gasses, as well as biological agents. Some indoor contaminants occur naturally, but most are generated by materials or activities in or around the building. Certain indoor air pollutants, such as asbestos, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, and lead, cause great health risks to individuals. Indoor air pollution can occur in any type of building, including homes, offices, and schools.
SOURCES OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTION:
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http://www.cerdi.org/uploads/sfCmsContent/html/323/kumar.pdf
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There are many sources of indoor air pollution in any home. These include combustion sources such as oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, and tobacco products; building materials and furnishings as diverse as deteriorated, asbestos-containing insulation, wet or damp carpet, and cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood products; products for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies; central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices; and outdoor sources such as radon, pesticides, and outdoor air pollution. The relative importance of any single source depends on how much of a given pollutant it emits and how hazardous those emissions are. In some cases, factors such as how old the source is and whether it is properly maintained are significant. For example, an improperly adjusted gas stove can emit significantly 35 more carbon monoxide than one that is properly adjusted. Some sources, such as building materials, furnishings, and household products like air fresheners, release pollutants more or less continuously. Other sources, related to activities carried out in the home, release pollutants intermittently. These include smoking, the use of unvented or malfunctioning stoves, furnaces, or space heaters, the use of solvents in cleaning and hobby activities, the use of paint strippers in redecorating activities, and the use of cleaning products and pesticides in house-keeping. High 47 pollutant concentrations can remain in the air for long periods after some of these activities. Is there a standard for indoor air pollution in India? What norm does the WHO guideline prescribe? There is no indoor air quality standard. Indoor Air quality (IAQ) air quality within andaround buildings and structures,especially as it relates to thehealth and comfort of building occupants. Traditionally associated with Sick Building Syndrome (SBS).IAQ impacts the health, comfort, well being, and productivity of building occupants. On average, people spend at least 90% of their time indoors. exposure from indoor pollutants is 9 times that from ambient pollutants.Good indoor air quality can: safeguard health, contribute to comfort and wellbeingand improve productivity at the workplace. Maintaining good IAQ requires enhanced ventilation and hence increased consumption of energy and thus higher operating costs. Reducing ventilation rates to save energy, with no countermeasures,increases indoor-generated VOCs and small particles by an amount that may pose health risks. To strike balance between two, integrated design approach towards IAQ and energy should be used. Such an approach needs to be reflected in Indias building codes, standards and rating 48 systems. The 2005 global update of the air quality guidelines drew attention to the large impact on health of indoor air pollution in developing countries. The high concentration of particulates and gases found indoors in houses using solid fuel, including biomass, were noted and it was estimated that exposure might be responsible for nearly 1.6 million excess deaths annually and about 3% of the global burden of disease. This is a huge impact on health; indeed, far larger than that imposed by exposure to outdoor air pollutants.Work on assessing the health effects of indoor air pollution has lagged behind that on outdoor air pollution for a number of reasons, including:the fact that policy development in the air pollution field has focused on outdoor air pollution as a result of the correctly perceived need to deal with the high levels of outdoor air pollutants associated with both coal smoke and photochemical smog Questions such as: ―how could air quality standards be enforced indoors?‖ have delayed work on specific indoor air quality guidelines. However, WHO has not ignored the problem of indoor exposure to air pollutants and has stressed since the publication of the first edition of the guidelines in 1987 that they 47
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/ia-intro.html http://www.slideshare.net/prasadmodak/road-map-for-indoor-air-quality-presentation-final
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should be applicable to both indoor and outdoor air. This was reinforced in the global update published in 2006 and the guidelines were recommended for application in all microenvironments. It should be noted that the workplace has been specifically excluded: WHO air quality guidelines have not been seen as a 49 basis for occupational exposure standards. BIOMASS BURNING AS A SPECIAL FOCUS: The most significant issue that concerns indoor air quality in household environments of developing countries is that of exposure to emissions from combustion of fuels, particularly those used for cooking and heating. The use of open fires with simple solid fuels, biomass or coal, for cooking and heating exposes an estimated 2 billion people in the world to enhanced concentrations of particulate matter and gases, up to 10–20 times higher than typical urban outdoor concentrations. Although biomass makes up only 10–15% of total human fuel use, since nearly half the world's population cooks and heats their homes with biomass fuels, indoor exposures likely exceed outdoor exposures to some major pollutants on a global scale. The use of traditional biomass fuels — fuelwood, dung, and crop residues — is widespread in rural India. According to the 55th round of the National Sample Survey conducted in 1999–2000 and covering 120,000 households, 86% of rural 38 households and 24% of urban households rely on biomass as their primary cooking fuel. Burning biomass in traditional stoves, open-fire three-stone "stoves", or other stoves of low efficiency, and often with little ventilation emits smoke containing large quantities of harmful pollutants with serious health consequences for those exposed, especially women involved in cooking and young children spending 50 time around their mother. . STUDIES SHOWING HARMFUL IMPACT OF BIOMASS BURNING:Recent studies have shown strong associations between biomass fuel combustion and increased incidence of chronic bronchitis in women and acute respiratory infections in children.Indoor air pollution generated largely by inefficient and poorly ventilated stoves burning biomass fuels such as wood, crop waste and dung, or coal – is responsible for 51 the deaths of an estimated 1.6 million people annually Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are the leading cause of burden of disease worldwide and have been causally linked with exposure to pollutants from domestic biomass fuels in developing countries. We used longitudinal health data coupled with detailed monitoring and estimation of personal exposure from more than 2 years of field measurements in rural Kenya to estimate the exposure-response relationship for particulates < 10 micron diameter (PM(10)) generated from biomass combustion. Acute respiratory infections and acute lower respiratory infections are concave, increasing functions of average daily exposure to PM(10), with the rate of increase declining for exposures above approximately 1,000-2,000 3 microg/m . This first estimation of the exposure-response relationship for the high-exposure levels characteristic of developing countries has immediate and important consequences for international public health policies, energy and combustion research, and technology transfer efforts that affect more than 2 52 billion people worldwide. Many recent studies have also been conducted in rural Indian villages (Behera et al., 1991; Smith 1993; Awasthi et al., 1996; Mishra and Retherford 1997). A recent study characterized the exposure – response relationship between biomass smoke exposure and acute respiratory infection in rural Kenyan 37 households .
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WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality,www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/128169/e94535.pd
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Kalpana Balakrishnan et al., Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology (2004) 14, S14–S25. doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500354
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http://www.who.int/heli/risks/indoorair/indoorair/en/
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Ezzati M., and Kammen D.M. Quantifying the effects of exposure to indoor air pollution from biomass combustion on acute respiratory infections in developing countries. Environ Health Perspect 2001: 109: 481–489.
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Assessments of the burden of disease attributable to use of solid fuel use in India have put the figure at 4–6% of the national burden of disease (Smith, 2000; Smith and Mehta, 2003). These estimates, prepared solely on the basis of risks derived from developing-country studies, indicate that up to 444,000 premature deaths in children under 5 years, 34,000 deaths from chronic respiratory disease in women, and 800 cases of lung cancer may be attributable to solid fuel use. A more recent and thorough analysis using the same methodology, but carried out as part of the large WHO-managed Global Comparative Risk Assessment (CRA) studies (Smith et al., 2004), has reduced these estimates slightly, but they lie in 36 the same range. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COST OF BIOMASS BURNING:The main socio-economic concerns related to the use of biomass for energy include labour conditions and land-related issues. Some initiatives to develop standards for biomass production and use include social criteria. In developing countries the use of woodfuel from residues and by-products is an additional consideration in some non-industrial plantings. Farmers seldom plant trees solely for fuelwood: rather, fuelwood is often a secondary product. The woody biomass may be used in a variety of forms (e.g. twigs, stems, branches and leaves) and may also come from a range of sources, such as natural and planted forests, trees outside forests, and scrublands.
Biomass versus LPG cooks stoves – emissions/health impact: About half the world‘s households cook dailywith solid fuels, biomass or coal Manyof these households also use such fuels forHousehold heating during at least part of theyear. The simple stoves found in the developingworld are often not much more than open fires.Burning these fuels in such basic stoves typically produces substantial health-damaging airpollution, as is discussed below. In many cases, these stoves are not vented to the outside andrelease their pollution directly into the living area, producing pollution levels often 10-30 times thoserecommended by health agencies. Even whenvented, simple stoves can produce indoor airpollution levels that exceed health guidelinesthrough leakage from the stove and re-entry ofthe smoke from the outside. A recent ―meta-analysis‖ conducted by Smith, K. R., S. Mehta, et al of 13 published field studies from around the developing world examining the relationship of household solid-fuel use or other measures of indoor smoke exposure to ALRI in young children. It was found that the best combined estimate of the risk was about 2.3, i.e. children in solid-fuel-using households in developing countries have about 2.3 times the likelihood of developing ALRI as children living in households using cleaner fuels, such as LPG 53 or kerosene. Compared to most of the alternatives in developing countries, LPG is a superior household fuel,although , not without some potential problems of its own. Table summarizes the principal pluses and minuses of LPG as a cooking fuel compared with the most common cooking fuel, biomass, and the other major 54 fossil-fuel alternative, kerosene.
CHARACTERISTIC Ease of use for household
LPG COMPARED TO BIOMASS AS COOKING FUEL LPG is much easier to light, control, and store than biomass. However,
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Smith, K. R., S. Mehta, et al. (2004). Indoor Smoke from Household Solid Fuels. Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease due to Selected Major Risk Factors. M. Ezzati, A. D. Rodgers, A.D.Lopez and C. J. L. Murray. Geneva, World Health Organization. 2: 1437-1495. 54
Smith, K.R., Rogers, J. & Cowlin, S.C. 2005. Household fuels and ill-health in developing countries: what improvements can be brought by LP gas (LPG)?www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e09.htm
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cooking
it has to be bought in fairly large amounts.
Safety
LPG poses some safety concerns in local transport and use. Government attention is required to reduce risks. As it is stored in sealed containers and generally contains odorants to warn of leaks, household risks are low Local LPG transport requires the use of low-pressure cylinders, which are heavy for a woman to handle at refilling time LPG reliably produces much lower air pollution emissions for all classes of pollutants. Although always a net emitter, LPG emits far less than poorly combusted and/or non-renewably harvested biomass Less reliance on local harvesting of ,biomass can be positive, negative, or neutral depending on local conditions, such as value of women's time and alternatives available. Less pressure on local biomass resources may reduce deforestation and soil degradation rates and increase availability of biomass wastes for crop enhancement in some region.
Ease of local transport Health-damagingairpollution Greenhouse pollutants Impact on women's time Local ecosystem
Strategies to mitigate indoor air pollution/biomass burning:
Shifting from solid fuels to cleaner energy technologies – for instance, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), biogas or solar power generation – can potentially yield the largest reduction in indoor air pollution levels while minimizing environmental impacts of energy production and consumption in general. Improved design of stoves and ventilation systems can reduce indoor air pollution in many poor communities, where fuel distribution networks remain limited or alternative technologies are unavailable, providing the design is acceptable locally and systems for marketing/maintenance of the improved stove are developed. Public awareness of the health risks of indoor air pollution is also an important factor in change. For instance, mothers can be encouraged to keep small children away from constant contact with fires.
Three Basic Strategies Indoor Air Pollution Source Control 1. Air QualityUsually the most effective way to improve indoor air quality is to eliminate individual sources of air pollution or to reduce their emissions. Some sources, like those that contain asbestos, can be sealed or enclosed; others, like gas stoves, can be adjusted to decrease the amount of emissions. In many cases, source control for air quality is also a more cost-efficient approach to protecting indoor air quality than increasing ventilation because increasing ventilation can increase energy costs. Specific sources of indoor air pollution in your home are listed later in this section. 2. Ventilation Improvements Another approach to lowering the concentrations of indoor air pollutants in your home is to increase the amount of outdoor air coming indoors. Most home heating and cooling systems, including forced air heating systems, do not mechanically bring fresh air into the house. Opening windows and doors, operating window or attic fans, when the weather permits, or running a window air conditioner with the vent control open increases the outdoor ventilation rate and serves as a simple form of air cleaners, however it is not a substitute for a commercial model. Local bathroom or kitchen fans that exhaust outdoors remove contaminants directly from the room where the fan is located and also increase the outdoor air ventilation rate.Advanced designs of new homes are starting to feature newer mechanical
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systems that bring outdoor air into the home, serving as air cleaners which can reduce air pollution are increase air quality. Some of these designs include energy-efficient heat recovery ventilators (also known as air-to-air heat exchangers).
Air Cleaners There are many types and sizes of air cleaners on the market, Some air cleaners are highly effective at particle removal, while others, including most table-top models, are much less so. Air cleaners are generally not designed to remove gaseous pollutants.The effectiveness of air cleaners depends on how well it collects pollutants from indoor air (expressed as a percentage efficiency rate) and how much air it draws through the cleaning or filtering element (expressed in cubic feet per minute The long-term performance of any air cleaners depends on maintaining it according to the manufacturer‘s directions.Another important factor in determining the effectiveness of air cleaners are the strength of the pollutant source. People with sensitivity to particular sources may find that air cleaners are helpful only in 55 conjunction with concerted efforts to remove the source. 9.Way forward
While major stationary sources are often identified with air pollution, the greatest source of emissions are actually mobile sources, principally the automobile. air quality around us can be improved by making public more aware about public responsibilities towards pollution prevention and control by taking simple steps like minimum use of private transport and promoting cycling and walking and by making our children more conscious about conservation of energy and pollution control at home so that the future generations can live in better air quality.
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