ALGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY New Vistas
— Editor —
Mihir Kumar Das G.M.College (Autonomous) Sambalpur – 768 004 Orissa, India
2010
DAYA PUBLISHING HOUSE Delhi - 110 035
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© 2010 MIHIR KUMAR DAS (b. 1961– ISBN 81-7035-647-4 ISBN 978-81-7035-647-9
)
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Preface
The term ‘algae’ is a very difficult one to define. It may appear in text books of Botany, Zoology and Microbiology. In general, algae are organisms that include seaweeds and a number of single celled and multicellular microscopic forms. Algae are ubiquitous; they inhabit oceans, freshwater bodies, rocks, soils and trees. There may be over 50,000 algal species on the earth. Man’s uses of algae have a long history. In China; marine algae were used as food as far as back as 600-800 BC. In recent decades, there has been renewed interest in the utilization of algae as sources of health food and high value chemicals and pharmaceuticals and for aquaculture, agriculture and wastewater treatment. Even so, the biotechnological potential of algae is still far from fully exploited. The eating patterns of people all over the world have recently undergone marked changes, due to the globalization of markets along with innovation in food technology. Seaweeds are being consumed because they contain considerable quantity of proteins, fatty acids, vitamins and essential micronutrients like Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu needed to maintain a healthy life. They also form a source of antioxidants. There is an increasing interest in the importance of dietary minerals from seaweeds, in the prevention of several diseases like cardiovascular and thrombosis. Seaweeds have been used as food besides forming a major source for phytochemicals like agar, alginate and carrageenan. Alginate is extracted from brown algae, mainly species of Ascophyllum, Laminaria and Macrocystis. The value of the world alginate production is more than US $ 180 million and Norway accounts for 25 per cent of this amount. Alginate has traditionally been used in foods, pharmaceuticals and dyes, but now whole new vistas are opening up in the fields of
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biotechnology, pharmaceuticals and medicine. It is conceivable that in time, Norway’s seaweed forests could become as valuable a national resource as her fish farms. For decades, the algal industry moved forward very slowly. In a world economy with low prices for fossil fuels and foods, alternative food and energy production sources made no economic sense. Interest in algae as a food source spurred considerable research after each of the world wars but production problems and costs ended those efforts. Excitement about algae as an energy source reignited algal research in the 1970s but faded due to production problems and oil prices at $10 a barrel. Recently, the combination of escalating costs for energy and foods combined with climate change has renewed interest in algae as a clean, carbon neutral energy source. Unlike other forms of green energy such as solar, wind, waves, tides and geothermal, algae offer the only practical source for liquid transportation fuels that may displace oil imports. In the U.S. and many other countries, about 97 per cent of oil imports are liquid transportation fuels and increasing costs and availability jeopardize the stability of nations. Disruption of fossil fuel imports would be catastrophic to the economy, food supply, military and transportation for most countries. Consequently, many countries are examining the potential for algae as an energy source. Research and production experience suggest that algal biomass offer considerable advantages over land-based biofuels such as ethanol. Ethanol production consumes its energy contribution in fossil resources required for growing, harvesting, refining and distribution. Ethanol competes with food crops for cropland, freshwater, fossil fuels and scarce agricultural chemicals thereby increases demand and prices for all agricultural inputs and drives up food and feed costs. Algal production does not compete with food because the biomass can be grown on deserts or wastelands using no freshwater and no or few fossil fuels. Algae produce biomass use abundant resources that are surplus and cheap and will not run out. Algae use sunshine, carbon dioxide, waste or brine water and some nutrients. Algal production can use green energy for supporting biomass growth such as solar or wind. Algae are harvested to remove the remaining contaminants. A last stage of bioremediation, still in development, will ensure that the water discharge from the process exceeds acceptable quality standards. The water and sludge treatment process offers a clean-up and management service for sewage treatment systems while also generating a low-cost feedstock for conversion to fuel. The result is an algae-based extract that will ultimately be converted to an alternative fuel source. Aquaflow Binomics expects to be able to produce a viable biofuel on a commercial scale. Algal Biotechnology has a lot of promises for its industrial applications in the field of biological nitrogen fixation, nutraceuticals and other bioactive compounds. Recent advances in cyanobacteria for bioactive compounds have revealed the potency of cyanobacteria to produce a large variety of cytotoxic compounds active against a number of disease causing bacteria, viruses and fungi. The progress in physiological and biochemical study of cyanobacteria disclosed their significant potential for colorants, polysaccharides, pharmaceuticals and pharmacological probes.
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The role of algae in the field of environment protection is well established. Further, there is a need for conservation of natural resources and also developing technologies which are environment friendly. Cyanobacterial blooms can produce health and environmental hazards in water and affect potability of water and recreational purposes. How, why, and when? The blooms are produced and how to deal with them are questions whose answers are necessary for the safety of human and animal health in regions where these organisms occur in abundant. The blooms are linked to eutrophication of water i.e. the biological response of water to over enrichment by plant nutrients. Some chapters deal with the discussions regarding the growth of cyanobacterial blooms, their nature, distribution and impact on human health. There is great potential for the use of diatoms in nanotechnology. This potential lies in the pores and channels which give rise to a greatly increased surface area, and the silica structure which lends it to chemical modification. In addition there is a huge variety in the sizes and shapes of diatoms available, providing scope for the selection of a particular species of diatom tailored to a particular requirement. The silica walls of diatoms can be used for the attachment of active biomolecules, such as antibodies, using either primary amine groups or the carbohydrate moiety. These modified structures can, therefore, be used for antibody arrays or for use in techniques such as immuno-precipitation. These small organisms can help biologists and nanotechnologists to work together to further research. Algal biotechnology has come a long way since the early days of agronomy/ mariculture for food use and the recovery of agars, carrageenans and alginates. Our increasing knowledge of algal physiology and biochemistry, combined with genetic engineering is opening up new vistas. For example there is the genetic engineering of Phaeodactylum by the Carnegie and Martek groups to enable heterotrophic growth. The application of the ability to grow microalgae to very high yields in bioreactors, to a percentage of a theoretical maximum, as opposed to ponds, holds great promise for the future of algal biotechnology. The uses of microalgae have generated a surge of activity in optimising bioreactor technology and design, including some applications of growing algae on foam plants. There is the potential application of some microalgae that produce extra-cellular polysaccharides being used as a means of drag reduction for ship hulls. At the macroalgal side possibilities on the horizon involve their use as a source of antifoulants, the possible use of sulfated polysaccharides in biomedical applications and the possibility of genetically engineering macroalgae to provide deterrence to microbial pathogens in mariculture. In the final analysis the expanded future of applying algal biotechnology for good, new and imaginative use must lie in ensuring that good science is tied to good economics. The aim of bringing out of this book is to bring together the multi-disciplinary researches going around the world in the area of Algal Biotechnology and to disseminate information on latest technology in mass cultivation and industrial applications of algae. This book can not be made possible without the help and effort of many. First of all, I am indebted to the authors of the various chapters for their excellent contributions.
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Second, I would like to thank the reviewers whose critical comments and constructive suggestions have helped to improve the quality of this book greatly. Third, I would like to thank my wife, Mrs Ratna Choudhury and my daughter, Miss Saptaparna Das for their moral support, without whom it would have been very difficult to complete this book. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Daya Publishing House, New Delhi in producing this book. Mihir Kumar Das
Contents
Preface List of Contributors 1.
The Algal Industry Survey Mark Edwards
2.
Prospective in Diatom Nanotechnology Jannendra Rath, Sikha Mandal and Bijaya Kumar Padhi
3.
Programmed Cell Death: An Integral Event in the Development of Algae and Higher Organisms Shiv Shanker Pandey, Vivek Ambashtha and Budhi Sagar Tiwari
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25
36
4.
Spirulina: The Superfood and Medicine Preeti Das, A.K. Mishra and Mihir K. Das
62
5.
Application of Seaweeds as Food: A Scenario P.V. Subba Rao, K. Ganesan and K. Suresh Kumar
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6.
UV-B Radiation-Induced Stress and Protection Strategies in Cyanobacteria R.P. Sinha, M.B. Tyagi, Sushil Kumar and Ashok Kumar
7.
Growth Response of Cyanobacteria from Sandy Soil and Mine Waste Burdened Soil to Different Environmental Variables Pramila Tripathy and S.P. Adhikary
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111
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8.
The Impact of Fungicides on Rice Field Cyanobacteria Anshuman Das and Mihir Kumar Das
133
9.
Role of Blue Green Algae in Rice Production Y.V. Singh
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10. Biotechnological Relevance of Microbes in Agriculture Rajan Kumar Gupta
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11. Lipids and Fatty Acids from Marine Algae: A Potential Biofuel Resource S. Chakraborty and T. Bhattacharya
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12. Algal Biodiesel: Procedures and Resources for Laboratory Study Simrat Kaur, H.K. Gogoi, R.B. Srivastava and M.C. Kalita
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13. Industrial Utilization of Algal Fatty Acids S.B. Padhi, P.K. Swain, S.K. Behera and G. Behera
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14. Cyanobacterial Toxins Anjana Pandey and Archana Tiwari
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15. Algae and the Human Affairs in the 21 st Century
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Surendra Singh, Shipra Das and Anuradha Tiwari 16. Responses of Rice Field Cyanobacteria to Insecticides Mihir Kumar Das
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17. Cyanobacterial Toxins and Public Health Mukesh Kumar
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18. Cyanobacteria for Biofertilizer, Bioremediation and Bioactive Compounds
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Kaushal Kishore Choudhary 19. Production of Nutraceuticals and Antioxidant Enzymes in a Tropical Food Alga Nostochopsis lobatus Usha Pandey 20. Bioremediation of Heavy Metals by Microalgae V.D. Pandey
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Author Index
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Subject Index
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List of Contributors
Adhikary, S.P. Centre for Biotechnology, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan – 731 235, West Bengal, India Ambashtha, Vivek School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi–110 067, India Behera, G. Algal Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Orissa, India Behera, S.K. Algal Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Orissa, India Bhattacharya, T. Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Institute of Science and Technology for Advanced Studies and Research, V.V. Nagar – 388 120, Gujarat, India Chakraborty, S. Department of Biological and Environmental Science, N.V. Patel College of Pure and Applied Sciences, V.V. Nagar – 388 120, Gujarat, India Choudhary, Kaushal Kishore Department of Botany, B.R. Ambedkar Bihar University, Muzaffarpur – 842 001, Bihar, India
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Das Mihir Kumar P.G. Department of Botany, G.M. College (Autonomous), Sambalpur – 768 004, Orissa, India Das, Anshuman P.G.Department of Microbiology, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bubaneswar – 751 003, Orissa, India Das, Preeti P.G. Department of Botany, G.M. College (Autonomous), Sambalpur – 768 004, Orissa, India Das, Shipra Algal Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biological Science, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur – 482 001, India Edwards, Mark Department of Food Marketing and Sustainability, Morrison School of Management and Agribusiness, Arizona State University, USA Ganesan, K. Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Discipline, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR), Bhavnagar – 364 002, India Gogoi, H.K. Bioenergy Division, Defense Research Laboratory (DRDO), Assam Gupta, Rajan Kumar Department of Botany, Pt. L.M.S. Government Post Graduate College, Rishikesh – 249 201, Uttarakhand, India Kalita, M.C. Department of Biotechnology, Gauhati University, Guwahati, Assam Kaur, Simrat Bioenergy Division, Defense Research Laboratory (DRDO), Assam Kumar, Ashok School of Biotechnology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi – 221 005, India Kumar, K. Suresh Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Discipline, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR), Bhavnagar – 364 002, India Kumar, Mukesh Department of Botany, Sahu Jain College, Najibabad – 246 763 U.P., India Kumar, Sushil School of Biotechnology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi – 221 005, India Mandal, Sikha Department of Botany, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan – 731 235, West Bengal, India
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Mishra, A.K. P.G. Department of Botany, G.M. College (Autonomous), Sambalpur – 768 004, Orissa, India Padhi, Bijaya Kumar Centre for Environmental Studies, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan–731 235, West Bengal, India Padhi, S.B. Algal Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Orissa, India Pandey, Anjana Nanotechnology and Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Biotechnology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad – 211 002, U.P., India Pandey, Shiv Shanker School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi–110 067, India Pandey, Usha Department of Botany, Faculty of Science and Technology, M.G. Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi – 221 005, U.P., India Pandey, V.D. Department of Botany, Govt. Post-Graduate College Rishikesh – 249201, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India Rao, P.V. Subba Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Discipline, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR), Bhavnagar – 364 002, India Rath, Jannendra Department of Botany, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan–731 235, West Bengal, India Singh, Surendra Algal Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biological Science, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur – 482 001, India Singh, Y.V. Centre for Conservation and Utilization of Blue Green Algae, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi – 110 012, India Sinha, R.P. Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi – 221 005, India Srivastava, R.B. Bioenergy Division, Defense Research Laboratory (DRDO), Assam Swain, P.K. Algal Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Orissa, India
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Tiwari, Anuradha Algal Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biological Science, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur – 482 001, India Tiwari, Archana Nanotechnology and Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Biotechnology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad – 211 002, U.P., India Tiwari, Budhi Sagar School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi–110 067, India Tripathy, Pramila P.G. Department of Botany, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar – 751 004, Orissa, India Tyagi, M.B. Mahila Maha Vidyalaya, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi – 221 005, India
Algal Biotechnology: New Vistas (2010) Editor: Mihir Kumar Das Published by: DAYA PUBLISHING HOUSE, NEW DELHI
Pages 1–24
Chapter 1
The Algal Industry Survey Mark Edwards* Department of Food Marketing and Sustainability, Morrison School of Management and Agribusiness, Arizona State University, USA
ABSTRACT The Algal Industry Survey was designed to provide a baseline of information about the emerging industry. Respondents were generally positive about the future of the industry and optimistic about algae’s potential to help solve critical social and economic problems. Recommendations to move the industry forward include better access to information, substantial increases in public and private funding for algal R&D, stronger education and training, more information on production issues and better networking and collaboration. Future of algal industry research needs to drill down on production, supply chain and social and economic issues. Improved information on industry needs will support industry participants and provide critical information needed for public policy decisions and support. Keywords: Algal industry, Biofuels, Survey.
1. Introduction For decades, the algal industry moved forward very slowly. In a world economy with low prices for fossil fuels and foods, alternative food and energy production sources made no economic sense. Interest in algae as a food source spurred considerable research after each of the world wars but production problems and costs ended those efforts. Excitement about algae as an energy source reignited algal ——————— * E-mail:
[email protected]
2
Algal Biotechnology: New Vistas
research in the 1970s but faded due to production problems and oil prices at $10 a barrel. Recently, the combination of escalating costs for energy and foods combined with climate change has renewed interest in algae as a clean, carbon neutral energy source. Unlike other forms of green energy such as solar, wind, waves, tides and geothermal, algae offer the only practical source for liquid transportation fuels that may displace oil imports. In the U.S. and many other countries, about 97 per cent of oil imports are liquid transportation fuels and increasing costs and availability jeopardize the stability of nations. Disruption of fossil fuel imports would be catastrophic to the economy, food supply, military and transportation for most countries. Consequently, many countries are examining the potential for algae as an energy source. Research and production experience suggest that algal biomass offer considerable advantages over land based biofuels such as ethanol. Ethanol production consumes its energy contribution in fossil resources required for growing, harvesting, refining and distribution. Ethanol competes with food crops for cropland, freshwater, fossil fuels and scarce agricultural chemicals thereby increases demand and prices for all agricultural inputs and drives up food and feed costs. Algal production does not compete with food because the biomass can be grown on deserts or wastelands using no freshwater and no or few fossil fuels. Algae produce biomass use abundant resources that are surplus and cheap and will not run out. Algae use sunshine, carbon dioxide, waste or brine water and some nutrients. Algal production can use green energy for supporting biomass growth such as solar or wind. Relatively little is known about the algal industry for three reasons: newness, intellectual property protections and extravagant claims. Minimal credible research has examined this new industry and most the major firms are extremely secretive. Intellectual property protections for proprietary strains of algae are carefully protected and proprietary production methods undermine scientific collaboration. Numerous scientists at algal conferences complain that they have signed nondisclosure agreements with their companies and cannot share critical details about what they have learned from their algal production experiences. The consequence of secrecy is that new firms are sentenced to repeat past mistakes. Companies have gone out of business repeating the same algal production mistakes because prior knowledge was locked up in intellectual property protection. The algal industry lacks credibility because many firms make grandiose claims on their websites and corporate brochures with the intent of attracting capital investors. These firms carefully avoid reporting their actual production figures or production failures in order to maximize the probability of obtaining the next round of funding. The Algal Industry Survey is intended to provide a baseline of industry information and to assist in creating strategy for research, development and demonstration priorities.
2. Methodology The Algal Industry Survey examines the critical industry issues including especially algal production. Survey responses came from participants of Algae World 2008 which met in Singapore in November and yielded 137 respondents. Algae World 2008 was among the first few high profile international conferences focused
