Alternative pool water treatment

Alternative pool water treatment and the influence of swimmers on pool water quality

Maarten Keuten

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Cover design and layout by Maarten Keuten Printed by Ipskamp Printing, Enschede ISBN: 978-94-6186-975-3 ©2018 Maarten Keuten, the Netherlands. All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, without permission in writing of the copyright owner. 2

Alternative pool water treatment and the influence of swimmers on pool water quality

Alternatieve waterbehandeling voor zwembaden en de invloed van zwemmers op de waterkwaliteit

Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Technische Universiteit Delft op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof.dr.ir. T.H.J.J. van der Hagen, voorzitter van het College voor Promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 9 november 2018 om 10 uur door

Martinus Gerardus Antoinette KEUTEN Civiel ingenieur, Universiteit Delft, Nederland geboren te Venray, Nederland

ŝƚƉƌŽĞĨƐĐŚƌŝŌŝƐŐŽĞĚŐĞŬĞƵƌĚĚŽŽƌĚĞƉƌŽŵŽƚŽƌĞŶ͘ ^ĂŵĞŶƐƚĞůůŝŶŐƉƌŽŵŽƟĞĐŽŵŵŝƐƐŝĞďĞƐƚĂĂƚƵŝƚ͗ ZĞĐƚŽƌDĂŐŶŝĮĐƵƐ ǀŽŽƌnjŝƩĞƌ WƌŽĨ͘Ěƌ͘ŝƌ͘>͘͘ZŝĞƚǀĞůĚ dĞĐŚŶŝƐĐŚĞhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚĞŝƚĞůŌ͕ƉƌŽŵŽƚŽƌ WƌŽĨ͘Ěƌ͘Ěƌ͘Ś͘Đ͘ŝƌ͘D͘͘D͘ǀĂŶ>ŽŽƐĚƌĞĐŚƚ dĞĐŚŶŝƐĐŚĞhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚĞŝƚĞůŌ͕ƉƌŽŵŽƚŽƌ WƌŽĨ͘Ěƌ͘ŝƌ͘:͘͘ǀĂŶŝũŬ dĞĐŚŶŝƐĐŚĞhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚĞŝƚĞůŌ KŶĂĬĂŶŬĞůŝũŬĞůĞĚĞŶ͗ WƌŽĨ͘Ěƌ͘ŝƌ͘͘sĂŶƚĂƌĂŬŝƐ WƌŽĨ͘Ěƌ͘͘D͘ĚĞZŽĚĂ,ƵƐŵĂŶ WƌŽĨ͘Ěƌ͘D͘͘24h). The pre–swim shower may be shorter when pool visitors have short hair (< 3 cm), are wearing a swimming cap, or had a recent home shower (12 h

327

84

887

63 x 10⁹

Recent activity none or light

355

91

340

0.97 x 10⁹

Recent activity medium or high

387

102

292

1.3 x 10⁹

Released TOC and TN (mg/bather)

Last shower 450grams. It was assumed that besides sweating also some incidental urine release occurred. These three subjects were therefore excluded from this study.

3.3 Results 3.3.1 Sweat release rate During the laboratory time-series experiments, continual anthropogenic pollutant release data from four subjects (two men, two women) were collected. The sweat release rate was calculated from the total weight loss (Table 3). The amount of ingested water, skin hydration, substrate oxidation and respiratory water is also shown in Table 3. All subjects had an increased sweat release at increasing experiment temperatures (Figure 2). Starting at 25 °C, the average sweat release of 0.1 L/m² increased to 0.22 L/m² and 0.46 L/m² at 5 and 10 °C temperature increase, respectively. One subject did a resting experiment at a temperature of 35 °C, resulting in a normalised sweat release of 0.02 L/m²/h (Figure 2).

Normalised sweat release (L/m²/h)

Similar sweat releases are reported in literature, see Figure 3. To calculate the normalised sweat release from the Robinson and Somers’ data, the body surface area for the Olympic and World Champion medal winners was estimated at 2.0 m². Except for the subjects in this study, all subjects in literature were well-trained swimmers. Although the level of exercise 0.90 0.80

Robinson and Somers 1971

0.70

McMurray and Horvath 1979

0.60

Nielsen et al. 1984

0.50

Lemon et al. 1989

0.40

Maughan et al. 2009

0.30

Macaluso 2011

0.20

This study

0.10 0.00

23

28

33

Pool water temperature (°C)

Figure 3: Normalised sweat release in scientific literature at exercise levels >60 %VO2max. 51

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was not the same for all experiments, the level was described as >60 %VO2max. The subjects in the Macaluso experiment had a high level of exercise, estimated at 90 %VO2max which resulted in higher normalised sweat releases (Macaluso et al. 2011). The time-series subjects also participated in the on-site experiments at different levels of exercise. Figure 4 shows an increasing sweat release at increasing levels of exercise in a pool with a constant water temperature (32 °C). The sweat release was low (