AMultipurpose CADASTRAL FRAMEWORK FOR DEVELOPING ...

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A MULTIPURPOSE CADASTRAL FRAMEWORK FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES-CONCEPTS Edward Eric Duncan [email protected] [email protected]

Alias Abdul Rahman [email protected]

3D GIS Research Laboratory, Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. ABSTRACT Land acquisition and ownership for wealth creation has eluded most individuals in various regions of the Earth especially regions described as developing or less developed countries. Most European countries have developed multi-purpose cadastre (MPC) to streamline property ownership. Heterogeneity of space ownership is complex when it has to deal with space ownership above and below the surface. The concept of wealth can be measured as one’s interest in land. This research seeks to introduce a conceptual framework using tools readily available and can be adopted by most countries. Reviews of cadastre being practised in some countries are presented. Concepts within the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) framework are also presented within the concepts of some standards such as CityGML. The concept for above and below volume parcels is presented. Land package by governments in African countries will help alleviate poverty and create wealth in many African countries. A graphical interface is developed for this concept. The need for a conceptual schema for land volume parcels and marine blocks for countries having borders with the sea or ocean is emphasised. Keywords: Multi-purpose cadastre (MPC), LADM, Spatial block, Earth region 1.

INTRODUCTION

Land and property ownership is a very complicated issue when it comes to who owes what and for which period. Previously, land ownership is more of the description type using landmarks such as trees, rocks, shorelines to indicate extents of land. Various governments have also played a major role with issues associated with land, this includes government takeover of lands without appropriate compensation to the local inhabitants. At times by proclamation, some governments take over the land of some sections of the country and that also breeds conflicts across a country or a region. Access to land creates wealth and when a group of people are inhibited from accessing land it affects their social status because they become generally poor some of these people are even prepared to die to protect their land. In the Americas, Europe, Asia and especially in Africa the acquisition of land has always been a challenge. The process of acquisition of land in Africa especially in countries like Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Algeria and Botswana is complicated and the duration unusually long. Land ownership affects individuals, organisations and governments, this is more pronounced when it comes to the poor and the disadvantaged in society such as widows and children. The period of acquisition of land can take between three months to about two years for most countries in Africa for obtaining a proof of title or certificate. These are caused by many factors such as dealing with quack surveyors, fraudulent land administration personnel and lack of transparency in the land market. Litigation between local chiefs about land The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries http://www.ejisdc.org

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extents can also take a long time. There are no structured procedures in the acquisition of land, making professionals in the administration of land take advantage of innocent prospective buyers. Land owners dispose of land to multiple buyers. Stake holders in the administration of land are not committed. Two dimensional (2D) cadastre is a multipurpose cadastre (MPC) that has been adopted by many countries which can be described as consisting of components such as a reference frame with geodetic network, the cadastral parcel, accurate large scale maps showing land parcels within a sector in a district, within a region in the country, a unique parcel identifier within a land information systems and a database management system to store all the information concerning land. Most developed and developing countries have a cadastral system which consists of the components as described, some well organised and others badly organised and not digital. Some of the problems associated with 2D cadastre include duplication, accessibility and flexibility of land records. Previously, land records were a collection of paper maps and written reports, these usually will take several months to prepare coupled with poor archiving systems the retrieval of such documents were very difficult to retrieve, which brings to the fore frustrations in land acquisition which hinders wealth creation and development in most developing countries. Many well-meaning citizens wanting to develop their communities become very frustrated and are not able to achieve the level of development they will like to achieve in their communities. Currently most cities, have complex buildings and the ownership of such flats in such complex structures have become difficult to represent and document. Cadastre is the engine for the growth and development of most countries, since it involves issues related with landownership which is the backbone for most developmental issues and an indicator for wealth creation. Infrastructural levels at most city centres are at complex and hyper complex levels where structures can be hanging or flying, above and below the city surface for the same land parcel. The LADM is a conceptual ISO standard (FIG, 2012) and serves as a framework for countries to create their land administrative model. This concept is well understood and the need to replicate the LADM and the city geographic markup language (CityGML) will speed up land administration in Africa in the area of a three dimensional (3D) cadastre. The LADM needs to be adopted and a Unified Modelling Language (UML) diagram showing how to facilitate land acquisition must be initiated. Governments of the various countries must show commitment in alleviating this handicap by providing the needed resources in making sure every part of a country is well mapped. Two dimensional (2D) cadastre is already a problem in Africa and most countries have not adopted a well-structured multipurpose cadastre, but this paper is advocating for the incorporation of three dimensional (3D) MPC to hasten development and bridge the gap between other regions and Africa. Cadastre lots should be demarcated by the national survey organisations and offer attractive packages to young couples who want to go into farming, such interventions are already taking place in Botswana to help alleviate poverty. Current 2D plans usually includes the footprint of the building but this is not captured in most plans in Ghana and Nigeria, where this is indicated there is no indication of how many storeys or what type of building i.e residential or commercial can be found on such a building, implying huge revenue loss to the country. 3D cadastre will be a major challenge for most developing countries especially countries in Africa, these will include: the legal frame for the establishment of 3D property rights; 3D geometry presentation, technical challenges with the creation and maintenance of database and access to information communication technology (ICT) facilities to make the land market more transparent. The The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries http://www.ejisdc.org

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advantages of 3D cadastre when adopted will include the presentation of land features in reality, a high level of interaction which can solve problems of complex ownership. 3D data acquisition, reconstruction and management is still a challenge in adopting 3D cadastre. This research is aimed at reviewing what other countries have done in terms of multipurpose cadastre and sensitise what needs to be done by most African countries about land ownership and provide a framework by which land can be presented and made simpler, this will ultimately create wealth. 2.

REVIEW OF MULTIPURPOSE CADASTRES (MPC)

At the centre of any land administration (LA) system is the cadastre which exhibits or shows the record of all interests associated with land, this is described as the rights, restrictions and responsibilities (RRRs) associated with the land. The geometric dimensions of the land parcel in 2D is usually a polygon, the generation of 2D parcels was not a problem as most computer aided design (CAD) and Geographic Information System (GIS) application software’s could cope with the generation of 2D land parcels. Representing 2D land parcels as 3D volume parcels requires a specific spatial data model, which hitherto was not a problem, the concept of also incorporating the 3D objects above, on and below these volume parcels becomes a challenge. The cadastre consists of the geometric dimensions of the parcel, the interest, ownership and value among other attributes of the land. Individuals or groups own rights to the land according to or in relation to local laws, practices and encumbrances. Land in this context refers to the Earth surface which consists of the physical land and all water bodies (i.e. ocean, sea, river, lake, etc). The Earth surface or region in this context consists of the land volume parcels and the Marine blocks. The current LADM does not elaborate the marine part, this requires attention since most countries in Africa share boundaries with the ocean or the sea. Some countries have already set up a multipurpose cadastre (MPC) for their various jurisdictions, most of these cadastres are currently in 2D, a hybrid 2D/3D cadastre has been proposed by Stoter (2004), whilst some countries are aiming towards the full implementation of the 3D cadastre. The data model for 2D cadastre is polygonal in shape, this consists of nodes, edges and the surface (land), the data is usually in vector format with spatial information such as the XY coordinates, distances and bearings between the nodes, or the survey beacon. The 3D data model is obtained by the inclusion of depth (Z) to the 2D data model. A volume space will consist of a set of faces which enclose a 3D space representing the 2D land surface as a 3D volume parcel (Stoter, 2004; Abdul Rahman et al, 2011, 2012; Lemmen, 2012) A few examples of MPC in some African countries are highlighted in this section. Ghana implemented the MPC in the form of a Land Title Registration (LTR) which was to replace the deeds registry which was flawed due to multiple sales of a particular land parcel, Ako-Adjei et. al., (2010) reiterated that the processes governing land acquisition must be transparent and open to all stakeholders. This requires the use of digital equipment in the collection of data about all land parcels and the certification of plans by a registered licensed surveyor and a regional representative of the Director General of the Survey of Ghana. The legal framework is carried out by the Lands Commission of Ghana. The New Lands Commission has been inaugurated since 2009 and this has brought all agencies dealing with land to provide a one-stop service in the issuance of the Land title certificate. This project is a pilot project and at the moment is covering some southern cities of Ghana such as Accra and Kumasi. AutoCAD and Microsoft Excel database is currently being used to implement this, it is hoped that GIS software will be adopted to augment this process in the near future. Current problems include, inadequate archival process, footprints not being included in the cadastral The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries http://www.ejisdc.org

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plan for most areas and the process not fully automated. The LTR is being used for taxation and financial transactions. Land ownership in Botswana has been categorised into three: urban, tribal and agricultural lands. In 1970 the government enacted the State land Act Cap 32:02 for rural and urban areas, using three types of allocations: deeds of grants, fixed period state grants and certificate of rights administered by the Attorney general with assistance from the Department of lands under the Ministry of Land and Housing. Of specific interest is the certificate of rights administered by the Self-Help Housing Agency under each town or city council, this is aimed at helping middle income households by providing them with land of approximate sizes of 20 m by 20 m with certain limited rights, restrictions and responsibilities. These areas were not surveyed and do not have any title to it. This concept is aimed at alleviating poverty and making as many people as possible land owners. A multipurpose cadastre was promulgated in the form of the Botswana Land Information System (BLIS) to ensure a credible registration and spatial database infrastructure (SDI), for land valuation and taxation. Improvement of land administration procedures, capacity and systems (LAPCAS) in Botswana was started in 2009 to provide an effective, efficient and transparent framework for social and economic social and economic development (Malatsi and Finnstrom 2010). According to Oboli and Akpoyoware (2010) Nigeria promulgated the land Use Act of 1978 (Decree No. 6 of 1978) to introduce reforms into land registration which hitherto, can take on average 15 to 18 months. The process of acquisition was costly and thus difficult for the poor in society to have access to land. The challenges faced with land acquisition includes: control, legislature and selection of a specific cadastre systems to each state having its own autonomy. Hence, each state is given the powers to decide on its own processes and system of acquisition to adopt. Also the governor of a state had control over the state lands, efforts are being made to improving cadastre and land administration in Nigeria with the introduction of digital systems. Examples include, the Electronic Document management System introduced by Lagos state, Abuja Geographic Information System (AGIS) established in 2004 and the Enugu State Land Information Management Service (ESLIMS). The Federal government of Nigeria also established the Federal land Information Systems (FELIS). The current cadastre system is 2D and some of the application software’s being employed is Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). A summary of MPC in Africa showed that:  Most countries need to incorporate GIS to make interactions with land issues simpler.  A credible land information system needs to be promulgated by most African countries. The self-help housing agency concept must be replicated in most countries to give land certificates to the more vulnerable to alleviate poverty.  Professionals in land administration should be exposed to the concept of open source software to help create user defines systems for their country. A comparison with MPC initiatives in Europe (see Appendix A) showed that Africa needs to streamline MPC to ensure an efficient system for the benefit of its people. Social interventions to make land readily available to the citizens will help to alleviate poverty. Currently most of the initiatives are in their early stages and governments in Africa need to empower their people through the provision of land for shelter and agriculture purposes.

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MARINE CADASTRE

Marine cadastre is a complex issue in Africa, about 38 countries in Africa have access to the sea or ocean with some countries having internal water bodies, the demarcation of marine blocks for such countries is becoming a challenge with disputes likely to exacerbate with time. The current principle on cadastre is geared towards addressing land and its extent to the High Water Marks (HWM) for countries sharing boundaries with water bodies such as the ocean. The marine environment introduces complexities that are not inherent in land based spatial data. The marine space involves rights and responsibilities that are time based and overlapping in nature. However, often land is being introduced as being in relation to the Earth surface which includes the land and sea surface, however, an integrated administrative structure will have to be promulgated to administer and exhaust all the range of rights, restrictions and responsibilities for the land and marine environments. Hence a marine cadastre system can then record all the complexities associated with the determination of the spatial extents, rights, interests, property rights, restrictions and responsibilities within the marine jurisdiction. Marine cadastre is currently not well captured by maritime countries, the LADM does not have explicit concepts for the marine concepts. The marine environment consists of activities such as sea navigation, fishing, tourism, oil and gas. The United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (UN, 1983) has established various jurisdictions, under which a country can administer, manage and utilize its maritime environment. Maritime countries have their boundaries extending up to the Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ), the various rights for the marine cadastre are: public access, navigation, fishing, airspace, seabed use, development, mineral, water column and riparian rights (Nichols et al, 2010) of a marine block (see Figure 1). Above sea surface Public access rights Sea surface

Development rights

Navigation rights Below sea surface Fishing rights

Seabed rights

Seabed Below seabed

Mineral rights

Figure 1. Components for a marine cadastre block The rights for marine cadastre are overlapping in nature which makes the demarcation of marine blocks difficult to achieve. The management, exploration and exploitation of marine resources are usually for the benefit of the marine country and stakeholders up to its EEZ. Hence, most countries promulgate acts to further secure its marine extents. The demarcation of marine 3D volume parcels is still a challenge, this paper also attempts to introduce concepts for the marine cadastre. The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries http://www.ejisdc.org

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The identification and mapping of underground utility themes requires integration in a cadastre database (Abdul Rahman et al., 2011). A database on utilities database will enhance knowledge about the location of all utilities underground (Chong 2006, He et al., 2002, Penninga and Oosterom 2006). Such a database will create knowledge about utility rights that can be promulgated. Abdul Rahman et. al., (2011) identified some of the complications in mapping 2D utilities which gives the basis for 3D mapping: various databases have not been integrated, examples of such databases are cadastre, utility, underground features, taxation and insurance; available application software’s are in 2D; visualizing utility networks in 2D is challenging. Currently underground utility networks are developed in 2D thereby creating several difficulties in terms of height, type, width and colour on a 2D plan. 2D plans are inaccurate in terms of location due to some cartographic challenges and other overlay difficulties on a 2D plan. Hence the 2D plans cannot indicate real world events or situations. The 3D situation can represent a higher LoR and a more accurate location when it comes to underground utility. Thus, underground utilities can be handled in a more efficient way in a 3D environment. But the problem to handle pipelines in 3D is unsupported due to difficulties in geometry representation in a spatial database. Spatial database offers several basic 3D geometry types but not all 3D geometries are available, volumetric shapes and complex objects are difficult to achieve. Figure 2 shows initial results of underground 3D pipelines within a city model environment.

Figure 2. 3D surface and subsurface objects with utility network (Abdul Rahman et al., 2012) Underground utility and tunnels are of great concern to some African countries and these activities come about due to the immense buried resources of the continent, the representation of all these in a cadastre is an immense challenge, a multifaceted model will be required to overcome most of these challenges. Research for 3D cadastre is still on going and achieving a fully 3D cadastral system for land volume parcels and marine blocks in an integrated form not achieved yet, however the LADM provides a unique way of conceptualizing and integrating individual land administration concepts in Africa under one platform to facilitate land acquisition in Africa.


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CADASTRAL FRAMEWORK FOR ADOPTION IN AFRICA

There are several cadastre models in Africa, Europe and the Americas. Most of these models have their merits and demerits; some initiatives in Africa work for some specific regions and is geared towards alleviating poverty from their regions. Europe is ahead when it comes to cadastres and the concept of 3D cadastre is being adopted by almost all the countries in Europe by adopting the LADM. The United States of America (USA) has its own standard for cadastre and defines varying objects in land administration, the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC, 2008) introduced the latest version of this standard in 2008 (FGDC-STD014.1-2008). This explains in detail all the required information about the 2D parcel and introduces codelist for the cadastre which is synonymous with the concepts of LA_Party. LA_RRR and LA_SpatialUnit. In this study the LADM is adopted and concepts for adopting this as the cadastral model for land administration in Africa are presented. The SpatialUnit supports land as being made of land or water and also supports 2D, 2D/3D or 3D representations of the spatial unit for land but the water or marine parts which have different rights are not explicitly represented. This paper seeks to represent some concepts for the geometric representation of marine blocks. The geodatabase of any land administration (LA) system is the cadastre, this exhibit or show the record of all interests associated with land, this is the rights, restrictions and responsibilities (RRRs) associated with the land. The geometric dimensions of the land parcel in 2D is usually a polygon, the generation of 2D parcels was not a problem as most CAD and GIS application software’s could cope with the generation of 2D land parcels. Representing 2D land parcels as 3D volume parcels requires a specific spatial data model, which hitherto was not a problem, the concept of also incorporating the 3D objects above, on and below these volume parcels becomes a challenge. The cadastre consists of the geometric dimensions of the parcel, the interest, ownership and value among other attributes of the land. Individuals or groups own rights to the land according to or in relation to local laws, practices and encumbrances. Most European countries have set up a multipurpose cadastre (MPC) for their juridicial boundaries. The cadastres are currently in 2D, a hybrid 2D/3D cadastre has been proposed by Stoter (2004) and implemented in some countries, whilst some countries are aiming towards the full implementation of the 3D cadastre. The data model for 2D cadastre is polygonal in shape, this consists of nodes, edges and the surface (land), the data is usually in vector format with spatial information such as the XY coordinates, distances and bearings between the nodes, or the survey beacon. The 3D data model is obtained by the inclusion of depth (Z) to the 2D data model. A volume space will consist of a set of faces which enclose a 3D space representing the 2D land surface as a 3D volume parcel (Stoter, 2004; Abdul Rahman et al, 2011, 2012; Lemmen, 2012). From the previous review of cadastre in some countries in Africa the concept of MPC is still lacking, countries such as Ghana, Zambia, Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa have a conceptual framework but the actualisation of these into a credible database is still lacking due to differences in tenure, ownership and transparency in land ownership. Current cadastre data models are 2D, the extension to 3D is possible and can be extended as consisting of the landowner (InterestHolder), Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRRs) and EarthRegion (Figure 3), this embraces land and marine. The landowner is any individual, organisation or group with an interest and rights over a specific extent of land within a planning scheme in a district, within a region or state in a country (van Oosterom et al., 2006; Aien et al., 2011). The need to incorporate marine cadastre blocks and land volume parcels are required, Abdul Rahman et. al., (2012) indicated that marine blocks The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries http://www.ejisdc.org

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are not part of the current LADM. The marine part of the earth requires attention as rights are overlapping and not being adhered to by individuals, interest groups and governments, the ability to rule over the marine areas depends a country’s technology to assess the marine region.

InterestHolder

Rights (RRR)

EarthRegion

MarineBlock

LandvolumeParcel

Figure 3. 3D cadastral model The challenge is a spatial data model has to be introduced for 3D. The concept of 3D volumes (Abdul Rahman et al., 2011, Lemmen, 2012) has been suggested. 3D volume parcels with a standard height (e.g. 2 – 5 m) can be adopted to describe a 3D volume, the adoption of a standardised height for all 3D parcels will introduce some uniformity when it comes to the description of 3D volume parcels. The problem with the standard height will be the height for complex and high rise buildings, this, introduces complexities which requires attention. Currently, most 3D cadastre models are using the hybrid approach and most researchers support this concept, the land parcel is 2D, then with the footprints within the 2D land parcel being extruded to create the 3D model of say a building or man-made construction on the parcel. The idea of a fully integrated 3D cadastre model should deal with 3D volumes for all objects found on, above and below the earth surface. The current Spatial Unit which has been defined to support the 3D concept, has the parcel as 2D and the buildings and Utility Network are in 3D. The Rights inherent in a 2D parcel are clearer when stated or established, in the case of 3D the Rights (RRRs) inherent are complex, multidimensional and can best be established in 3D (see Figure 4). A fully integrated 3D is proposed in Figure 6. This presents the SpatialUnit as a SpatialBlock to depict it as being 3D.

InterestHolder

Rights (RRR)

Parcel

Spatial Unit

Building

Utility Network

Figure 4. Spatial package in current cadastral data models (ISO/DIS, 2011)


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InterestHolder

Rights (RRR)

SpatialBlock MarineBlock

LandVolume

VolumeParcel

LandFeatures

MarineBlock

UtilityNetworks

MarineFeatures

UtilityNetworks

Figure 5. An Integrated Cadastre 3D Model. Rights for landVolume will not be the same as the rights for marineBlock but interestHolder for landVolume and marineBlock can be the same. The proposed 3D model will have a multi-level approach which includes multi-levels above, on and below the EarthRegion. The LADM has been described as a complex conceptual model that can be adopted by most countries in different parts of the EarthRegion, this paper also advocates the integration of marine blocks to integrate every region of the world, since the marine environment makes up more than two-thirds of the earth region. The concept of land features and marine features includes natural and artificial features found above, on and below the earth region. The advent of information communication technology (ICT) will play an important role in this integration. 3D objects such as buildings will also have to be visualised at different level of details to provide pertinent answers to some functionality to the LADM. Some expectations of the 3D cadastre is to visualise the RRR’s, determine their storage and management of such data in a database management system. The prototype for 3D cadastre attempts to solve some of the challenges enumerated. 3D modelling involves the usage of 2D maps or digital orthophotos displaying cadastre parcels. Footprints of buildings or other features within a specific parcel are then either extruded or using implicit geometry (OGC, 2012) to create the appropriate wireframe from which the facades of such buildings can be created and textured to give such buildings a level of realism. In this research the 3D TIN is used to generate the basic cube using the tetrahedron which can be used to represent volume parcels for buildings or any other features on a parcel of land. The LADM is a concept which consists of the Party Package, Administrative package and the Spatial Unit package which includes the surveying and representation subpackage. For the purpose of this research, the concern is the Spatial Unit Package with emphasis on the representation subpackage. The Surveying package has been well covered by Lemmen and Oosterom (2011). The LA_SpatialUnit can be replaced by LA_SpatialBlock to introduce the concept of 3D. The LA_SpatialUnit has spatial properties such as LA_AreaValue, LA_DimensionType, referencepoint and LA_VolumeValue for geometric properties. LA_LegalSpaceNetwork and LA_LegalSpaceBuilding unit are in association to LA_SpatialUnit by legal connotations. Other feature types such as LA_level, LA_RequiredRelationshipSpatialUnit and LA_SpatialUnitgroup established relationships such as height (Level), topology and database criteria for the LA_SpatialUnit The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries http://www.ejisdc.org

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(LA_SpatialBlock is proposed). The UML concept for the creation of a prototype Unified Cadastre Data Model (UCDM) with geometric qualities within the LA-SpatialUnit of the LADM (ISO/TC211, 2012) is presented (Figure 6). The LA_Non Spatial is related to the land administration part of the LADM which covers LA_Party, LA_RRR and LA_BAUnit are not the focus of this paper.

LA_Party LA_Non Spatial

LA_Spatial Unit

UCDM_Geometry

UCDM_Data

LA_RRR

LA_BAUnit UCDM_DataReference

Figure 6. Unified Cadastre Data Model (UCDM) The UCDM_Geometry is the geometric model adopted for this research which uses the 3D TIN using the concept for volume parcels. UCDM_Data relates to the ways by which data was collected, techniques and other information required to obtain 3D volumes for the unified object (see Abdul Rahman et. al., 2012), this is adopted from the surveying package. Currently 3D data for feature objects are not readily obtained and other data has to be referenced such as Computer Aided Design (CAD), Building Information Models (BIM) and Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) data may be referenced to complement previously collected data. This is a generic model which is representative of the situation in most city centres for 3D cadastre. The parcel identification (ID) for the on surface is linked to parcel ID’s for the strata and stratum for the 3D cadastre (Duncan and Abdul Rahman, 2012). These volume parcels could bring some level of consistency in land administration. Man-made objects at all levels for a given volume parcel can then be accurately described and all overlapping rights indicated. 5.

IMPLEMENTATION

Implementation of a simple cadastre volume parcel is shown in Figure 7. This used the tetrahedron to form the solid volume parcel which can be developed for a block of flats and combined with the on surface and below surface objects.


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Figure 7 Algorithm for 3D representation Figure 8 shows the implementation of a simple volume parcel within a graphical user interface (GUI) using the solid form of 3D TIN. The centroid and volume of space for such a land volume parcel is computed.

Figure 8 . Generation of a volume parcel


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Figure 9. Query of a Wireframe with semantic data

Figure 10 Representation of different ownerships within a land volume parcel. The implementations described implies all African countries require some level of information communication technology (ICT) and this will include training of all personnel involved in land administration. Also UML diagrams of every process in the land administration process need to be advertised for all the citizenry to appreciate the procedures involved in the acquisition process. 6.

CADASTRE AND WEALTH CREATION

Inequality in land distribution and the misappropriation of resources directly affects the poor and increase the level of poverty in a country. In Africa, this a major problem and governments are not doing enough in making land available to the citizenry. Interventions or capacity building programmes are not being initiated to arrest this situation. Ownership of The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries http://www.ejisdc.org

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land volume parcel and marine blocks either by individuals or organisations or groups or governments has been used as a measure of wealth. In Africa, for an individual to owe land is considered a source of prestige and wealth, as such individuals will not be classified as being poor. Having a legal title in most of the African countries studied is a source of grave concern as the processes are most of the time shrouded in secrecy and not transparent enough thus the marginalised in society become disillusioned about the process of land acquisition and ownership. Government takeover of land by decree, usually affect some of these land owners whose prove is only by word from ancestral lineage. Thus, land including natural, human and physical assets, such as forests, minerals, agriculture and fossil fuels becomes the preserve of wealthy governments, organisations and individuals. This affects the poor and marginalised in the society. 7.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The LADM can be studied in depth and adopted by most African countries and streamlined to fit the respective countries. Most African countries need to adopt the LADM concept and CityGML modelling to help enhance and provide the necessary framework in ensuring efficient land administration. The African Union (AU) can setup a commission to look into some of the interventions in alleviating poverty by making land available for representative individual countries. Slum areas need some mitigation concepts as has been practised in some parts of the world: Governments should start some social interventions such as: redemarcating slum areas and create model condominiums that will be affordable for the category of people leaving in these slum areas, these could be council flats as practised in some parts of the world. Research collaborations with land agencies are currently low and there is the need to boost this up The need to embrace the digital technology in all identifiable areas are very important to make the management of earth regions and other natural resources of a country. Immense benefits for initiating 3D concepts will include energy consumption maps for policy makers, noise pollution maps, efficient land information systems, minimise the incidence of urban sprawls and the efficient use of space. The 3D TIN model and framework described can be adopted by most African countries if they are to adopt 3D cadastre to enhance land acquisition and ownership for wealth creation. The discussions in this paper should inform most African countries of the need to unify land registration within the concept of the LADM in other to derive the following benefits:  Introduce social interventions for fast economic growth.  Make land affordable and available to both the inhabitants, organisations and governments.  Remove economic inequality in relation to land values by dealers in the land market. 8.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to convey our deepest acknowledgement firstly to the 3D GIS Research Group, Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate, University Technology Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia. Lastly, our appreciation to the University of Mines and Technology (UMaT) of Ghana for sponsoring an author. 9.

REFERENCES The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries http://www.ejisdc.org

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Abdul Rahman, A., Hua, T.H. and van Oosterom, P. (2011). Embedding 3D into Multipurpose Cadaster. FIG working week, Marakech, 18-22 May. Abdul Rahman, A., Van Oosterom, P. Hua, T.C. Sharkawi, K.H., Duncan, E.E., Azri, N. and Hassan, I.H. (2012). 3D Modelling for Multipurpose Cadastre 3rd International Workshop on 3D Cadastres: Developments and Practices 25-26 October 2012, Shenzhen, China, 185 -202. Abdul-Rahman, A., Stoter, J.E. and Nordin, A.F. (2005). Towards 3D Cadaster in Malaysia. International Symposium and Exhibition on Geoinformation (ISG 2005). Penang, Malaysia., 10. Aien, A., Kalantari, M., Rajabifard, A., Williamson,, I.P. and Bennet, R. (2011) Advanced Principles of 3D Cadastral Data Modelling. Paper presented at the 2nd International Workshop on 3D Cadastres Proceeding, Delft, The Netherlands. Arko-Adjei, A., Jitske, D.J., Jaap, Z. and Arbind, T. (2010) Customary Tenure Institutions and Good Governance”, http://www.fig.net/pub/monthly_articles/september_2010/ september_2010_arkoadjei_et_al.pdf. Astrand, L. (2008) Experiences of 3D Cadastre in Are, Sweden-Implementing a New Tool for the Property Market. FIG Working Week 2008-Integrating Generations. Stockholm, Sweden. 14-19 June. http://www.gdmc.nl/3dcadastres/literature/3Dcad_2008_02.pdf. Breunig, M., Cremers, A., Muller, W. and Siebeck, J. (2001) New Methods for Topological Clustering and Spatial Access in Object-oriented 3D databases. In: Proceedings of the 9th ACM International Symposium On Advances in Geographic Information Systems, 148-153: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=512194. Chong, C.S. (2006) Toward a 3D Cadastre in Malaysia – An Implementation Evaluation. Delft, Delft University of Technology: 110. http://repository.tudelft.nl/view/ir/uuid%3A2ee8984d‐e1ab‐4c64‐912c‐a0b1be61fe35/

Döner, R., Thompson, R., Stoter, J., Lemmen, Ch., Ploeger, H., van Oosterom, P. and Zlatanova, S. (2010). 4D Cadastres: First Analysis of Legal, Organizational and Technical Impact - With a Case Study on Utility Networks. In: Land Use Policy, 27, 1068-1081. Ericsson, A. (1995) The Cadastral System in Sweden, http://www.geom.unimelb.edu.au/fig7/Delft_seminar_95/paper6.html. Ericsson, A. (2008) What Makes the Swedish Cadastral System so Special and Successful?, http://www.fig.net/pub/monthly_articles/june_2008. ESRI (2005) GIS for Cadastral Management, published by ESRI, USA. 20pp. FGDC (2008) Geographic Information Framework Data Contents Standard, Part 1- Cadastral (FGDC-STD-014. 1-2008). 15pp. FIG (2012) ISO Standard for Land Administration Approved, http://www.fig.net/. GLTN (2006). Global Land Tool Network (GLTN). Themes and Issues. Nairobi, Kenya, UNHABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme: 29 p. http://www.gltn.net/images/Downloads/gltn_themes.pdf. Hassan, M.I. and Abdul Rahman, A. (2010) Malaysian Integrated 3D Cadastre Registration System, In: FIG Congress, Sydney, Australia 1-16 April, pp. 14. He, J., Li, L. and Deng. M. (2002) The Design of Urban Underground Pipeline GIS, based on UML Flexibility Software Developing Model. In: IAPRS, Vol. XXXIV, PART2, Com II, Xi’an, Aug. 20-23, China, pp. 169-170.


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ISO/TC211 (2012). ISO/TC 211 Geographic information-Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), ISO/FDIS 19152 (final draft international standard). Kaufmann, J. and Steudler, D. (1998) Cadastre 2014 Report of Commission 7 Working Group 7.1, Modern Cadastres, FIG, Commission 7, Tech. Rep. 8 pages, http://www.fig.net/cadastre2014/presentation/1998-07-kaufmannsteudler-brightoncad2014-paper.pdf Lemmen, C. (2012) A Domain Model for Land Administration, PhD Thesis, ITC dissertation number 210. ISBN 978 90 6132 3365. 234pp. Lemmen, C., van Oosterom, P., Uitermark, H., Thompson, R. and Hespanha, J.P. (2009). Transforming the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) into an ISO standard (ISO19152). FIG Working Week Eilat, Israel. http://www.gdmc.nl/publications/2009/LADM_to_ISO_Standard.pdf. Lemmen, C., van Oosterom, P., Thompson, R., Hespanha, J.P. and Uitermark, H. (2010). The Modelling of Spatial Units (Parcels) in the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM). In: XXIV International FIG Congress, 2010, Sydney, 28 p. Lemmen, C. and van Oosterom, P. (2011) ISO-The Land Administration Domain Model, SEASC 2011, TS1B_PAPER_3.pdf. Malatsi, B. and Finnstrom, A. (2010) Reformation of the Land Administration in Botswana. FIG working week 2011-Bridging the Gap between Cultures. Marakech, Morocco, 18-22 May. Nichols, S., Sutherland, M., Cockburn, S. and. Ng'ang'a, S. (2001) Toward a 3D Marine Cadastre in Support of Good Ocean Governance. International Workshop on 3D Cadastres, 2001, Delft, 99-114 OGC, (2012). Open Geospatial Consortium, CityGML Encoding Standard Version 2.0, OGC Doc No 12=019, 04-04-2012, Eds: Gerhard Gröger, Thomas H. Kolbe, Claus Nagel, Karl-Heinz Häfele, 326pp. Oboli, C.E. and Akpoyoware, O.A. (2010). Reform in Cadastre and Land Administration in Nigeria-Coping with Challenges in Development. Facing the Challenges-Building the Capacity, FIG Congress 2012. Sydney, Australia, 11-16 April 2010. 15pp. Oosterom, P.J.M. v., Lemmen, C., Ingvarsson, T., Molen, P.v.d., Ploeger, H.D., Quak, W., Stoter, J. and Zevenbergen, J. (2006) The Core Cadastral Domain Model, Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 30, 5, 627-660. Peninga, F. and Van Oosterom, P. (2006). Kabel en Leidingnetwerken in de Kadastrale Registratie, GISt Rapport No 42, http://www.gdmc.nl/publications, 36 p. (in Dutch). Skrubbeltrang, J. (2004) The Danish Multipurpose Cadastre- Experiences so far, http://www.fig.net/pub/athens/papers/ts01/ts01_4_skrubbeltrang.pdf. pp1-15. Stoter, J.E. (2004). 3D Cadastre. PhD Thesis TU Delft, Publications on Geodesy 57, Netherlands Geodetic Commission, Delft, 327 p. Stoter, J.E. and Van Oosterom, P.J.M. (2005) Technological Aspects of a Full 3D Cadastral Registration. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 19, 6, 669696. Stoter, J.E and Van Oosterom, P.J.M. (2006) 3D Cadastre in an International Context: Legal, Organizational and Technological Aspects, Taylor&Francis, 323 p. UN-HABITAT (2008) Secure Land Rights for all. Nairobi, Kenya, United Nations Human Settlements Programme http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/getElectronicVersion.aspx?nr=2488&alt=1.


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UN (1983) U.N. Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for the Law of the Sea, Law of the Sea Bulletin, No.1, September 1983, p.14, at http://www.un.org /Depts/los/doalos_publications/LOSBulletins/bulletinpdf/bulE1.pdf. APPENDIX A-EXAMPLES OF MPC IN SOME EUROPEAN COUNTRIES COUNTRY NETHERLANDS (Lemmen, 2012) SWEDEN Ericsson (1995, 2008) and Astrand (2010) DENMARK Skrubbeltrang (2004) ITALY ESRI (2005) NORTHERN IRELAND ESRI (2005)

CADASTRE TYPE 2D and 3D

TOOLS USER DEFINED (ELAN +3D PDF)

2D and 3D

USER DEFINED (ArcCadastre)

2D

GIS

2D

GIS / REMOTE SENSING

2D

GIS
