An Efficient Approach against Rushing Attack in MANET

RGI International Journal of Applied Science & Technology, Vol. 08 & 09, No. 01 & 02, Jan – Dec 2015

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A Review of Cloud Computing Environment with Special Emphasis on Cloud Security 1

Anushree Pandya,2 Jitendra Dangra and 3M.K. Rawat 1,2,3 CSE, LNCT Indore 1 [email protected] , [email protected], [email protected]

The main advantages of cloud computing are: low cost, improved performance, infinite storage space etc.

Abstract Cloud Computing is becoming the heart or the central theme for all sort of computing. Cloud is a remote place, at which user can upload data, can download data, can do processing of data, etc. Cloud provides space, computing power, platform and many more services on rent. This paper presents a brief introduction to the concept of clouds & its services. This paper also presents the issues related to the security of data in cloud environment. A few modern attribute based encryption models for the data security have been discussed. Keywords: cloud balancing.

computing,

encryption,

Load balancing in cloud computing systems is really a challenge now. A distributed solution is required. As it is not always practically feasible or cost efficient to maintain one or more idle services just as to fulfil the required demands. All jobs can’t be assigned to appropriate servers and clients individually for efficient load balancing as cloud is a very complex structure and components are present throughout a wide spread area. Fig. 1 shows the cloud architecture.

load The cloud computing holds the promise of providing computing as the fifth utility [1] after the other four utilities water, gas, electricity, and telephone. The major benefits of cloud computing include reduced costs and capital expenditures, the increased operational efficiencies, high scalability, flexibility and so on. There are many service-oriented cloud computing models have been proposed. It includes Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS) and Software as a Service (SaaS). Fig. 2 depicts a cloud computing environment.

Introduction Now a days, cloud computing is the heart favorite topic to many researchers. It will become more popular in coming years as the reach of internet is increasing day by day. Cloud computing has three basic models, which are Platform as a Service (PaaS), Infrastructure or Hardware as a Service (IaaS/Haas), Software as a Service (SaaS).

Fig. 2: Cloud Computing Environment Fig.1: Cloud Architecture

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RGI International Journal of Applied Science & Technology, Vol 08 & 09, No. 01 & 02, Jan – Dec 2015

Some of the Cloud Computing features & advantages are:

servers like Google Cloud Connect come with customizable spam filtering, email encryption, and implementing SSL for secure HTTPS access, among other security measures.

Availability and Accessibility CSP are answerable for the accessibility of information and services to their clients, for this CSP has service groups which are skill in overseeing cloud frameworks and gives accessibility constantly. As this cloud machines are gotten to by means of Internet however it could be gotten too universally.

Privacy Cloud computing comes with the risk that unauthorized users from accessing your information. To protect against this happening, cloud computing services offer password protection and operating in secure encryption technology with data servers.

Maintenance Loss of control Services and assets are on rental premise client requiring not stressing over support of software as it is completely overseen by CSP. Client just need to utilize it however in the event that one who are utilizing framework or stage than upkeep of security and API is client's worries and all other sort of support work is under CSP.

Cloud computing entities control users. This includes not only the amount you have to pay to use the service, but also what kind of information can be stored, where you can access it from, and many other factors. You depend on the provider updates and backups. If for some reason your server goes down, you run the risk of losing all your information.

Scalability Internet Reliance Services and assets of Cloud computing are given by CSP on rental premise. Clients or Organization use service as indicated by their requests around then, however in the event that after at some point or in future on the off chance that they need to build their assets than they can undoubtedly do it by request more assets to CSP.

While the Internet is becoming ever more widespread, it is not yet available everywhere. If the area you are in does not have Internet 38 access, you will not be able to open any of the documents you have stored in the cloud. Literature Survey

Easy to access

Sahai and Waters [2] first introduced the public-key cryptography attribute based encryption (ABE) for cryptographically enforced access control. In ABE both the user secret key and the ciphertext are associated with a set of attributes. A user is able to decrypt the ciphertext if and only if at least a threshold number of attributes overlap between the ciphertext and user secret key. Different from traditional public key cryptography such as IdentityBased Encryption [3], ABE is intended for one to many encryptions in which ciphertext are not necessarily encrypted to one particular user. In Sahai and Waters ABE scheme, the threshold semantics are not very expressive to be used for designing more general access control system. To enable more general access control, Goyal et. al. [4,5] proposed a key-policy attribute-based encryption (KP-ABE) scheme – a variant of ABE. The idea of a KP-ABE scheme is as follows: the ciphertext is associated with a set of attributes and each user secret key is embedded with an access structure which can be any monotonic tree access structure. A user is able to decrypt a ciphertext if and only if the ciphertext attributes satisfy the access structure embedded in her

To get to cloud services one needn't bother with additional equipment. To get to Cloud services one just need a PC and program introduced on and high velocity web association. It's like deal with Web Servers. E. High Processing Power: For individual it is extremely troublesome to utilize such framework that have transforming force like super machine, yet Cloud is comprises number of high power machines which all things considered gives framework like super workstation. Disadvantages of Cloud Computing Security When a cloud computing service, you are essentially handing over their data to a third party is used. The fact that the entity and users worldwide are accessing the same server can cause a security problem. Companies that handle sensitive information may be particularly concerned about the use of cloud computing such as data, possibly, could be harmed by viruses and other malware. That said, some 4

A Review of Cloud Computing Environment with Special Emphasis on Cloud Security

secret key. In the same work, Goyal et al. introduced the concept of another variant of ABE – ciphertext policy attribute-based encryption (CP-ABE). CPABE works in the reverse way of KP-ABE in the sense that in CP-ABE the ciphertext is associated with an access structure and each user secret key is embedded with a set of attributes. Formally, KP-ABE and CP-ABE can be defined as follows.

Key Generation This algorithm takes as input a set of attributes associated with the user and the master secret key. It outputs a secret key that enables the user to decrypt a message encrypted under an access structure if and only if matches. Decrypt

Key-Policy Attribute-Based Encryption A KP-ABE scheme consists of the following four algorithms.

This algorithm takes as input the ciphertext and a secret key for an attributes set. It returns the message if and only if satisfy the access structure associated with the ciphertext .

Setup This algorithm takes as input a security parameter and returns the public key as well as a system master secret key. It is used by message senders for encryption, used to generate user secret keys and is known only to the authority.

In ABE, including KP-ABE and CP-ABE, the authority runs the algorithm Setup and Key Generation to generate system, and user secret keys. Any user knowing the system public key is able to encrypt data by calling the algorithm Encryption. Only authorized users (i.e. users with intended access structures) are able to decrypt by calling the algorithm Decryption. In this dissertation, we just consider the case of one-writer-and-multiple-reader in non trusted storage for brevity. The only writer is the data owner, who also acts as the authority and is in charge of key generation. This means that the data owner takes the role of both the authority and the encryptor. In the following part of this dissertation, we will alternative call this party by “authority” or “data owner”. The decryptor will be called as “data consumer”, or just “user” for brevity.

Encryption This algorithm takes a message, the public key, and a set of attributes as input. It outputs the ciphertext. Key Generation This algorithm takes as input an access structure and the master secret key. It outputs a secret key that enables the user to decrypt a message encrypted under a set of attributes if and only if matches. Decryption

Conclusion

It takes as input the user’s secret key for access structure and the ciphertext, which was encrypted under the attribute set. This algorithm outputs the message if and only if the attribute set satisfy the user’s access structure.

Cloud is mostly used for storing data & processing the data. Many organizations have critical data, which is required to be kept confidential from the outside world. So the security of data is a burning issue in cloud environment. In this paper, the security issues have been discussed. A good number of existing cloud security model has also been reviewed.

Ciphertext-Policy Attribute-Based Encryption A CPABE scheme also consists of four algorithms: Setup

References

This algorithm takes as input a security parameter and returns the public key as well as a system master secret key. It is used by message senders for encryption, to generate user secret keys and is known only to the authority.

[1]. R. Buyya, C. ShinYeo, J. Broberg, and I. Brandic, “Cloud computing and emerging it platforms: Vision, hype, and reality for delivering computing as the 5th utility,” Future Generation Comput. Syst., vol. 25, pp. 599–616, 2009. [2]. A. Sahai and B. Waters. Fuzzy Identity-Based Encryption. In Proc. of EUROCRYPT’05, Aarhus, Denmark, 2005. [3]. D. Boneh and M. Franklin. Identity-Based Encryption from The Weil Pairing. In Proc. of CRYPTO’01, Santa Barbara, California, USA, 2001.

Encrypt This algorithm takes as input the public parameter, a message, and an access structure. It outputs the ciphertext .

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[4]. M. Pirretti, P. Traynor, P. McDaniel, and B. Waters. Secure Atrribute-Based Systems. In Proc. of CCS’06, New York, NY, USA, 2006. [5]. V. Goyal, O. Pandey, A. Sahai, and B. Waters. Attribute-Based Encryption for Fine-grained Access Control of Encrypted Data. In Proc. of CCS’06, Alexandria, Virginia, USA, 2006.

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An Efficient Approach against Rushing Attack in MANET 1

Ankita Rathore, 2Rajiv Srivastava M.Tech. Scholar, CSE ,SIRT-E, 2Director, SIRT-E BHOPAL, 1 [email protected] , [email protected]

1

physical security, bandwidth limited, complex routing are the major constraints, that makes the ad hoc networks vulnerable to different types of attacks [5]. First of all the dictionary meaning of „RUSHING ATTACK‟ is a “sudden attack,” [5].

Abstract Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a network of mobile nodes that nodes link to each other for a period of time to exchange information. MANET can be creating anywhere because there is no requirement of infrastructure prepared the nodes to organize them into a network and establish routes for a communication. Rushing attack comes under the category of reactive routing protocol. They divert the route discovery process to another route, attacker quickly forwards the route request before the other nodes, and data firstly reach to the destination node forwarded by attacker node. In this research we provide a mechanism which is helpful to prevent the network from rushing attack as well as to detect the rushing attack on Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol. The network parameters like number of hops per route, route discovery time and routing traffic sent and received.

Fig.1 shows a simple mobile ad-hoc network. Node A and node C are not within range of each other; however the node B can be used to forward packets between node A and node C. The node B will act as a router. In such a scenario, if A and C want to exchange their data packets then an onward transmission from A to B and B to C would be required.

Keywords: AODV, DSR, MANETs and Rushing Attack. Introduction An Ad Hoc network is a wireless network characterized by the absence of a centralized and fixed infrastructure. The absence of an infrastructure in ad hoc networks poses great challenges in the functionality of these networks. We refer to an Ad Hoc network with mobile nodes as a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET). A MANET is a collection of mobile nodes that connects to each other via wireless link. In MANET some nodes are directly connected to each other they directly exchanging there information when there is no direct connection between two nodes they communicate via intermediate nodes and transfer their data through intermediate nodes.

Fig.1 Example of Mobile Ad Hoc Network Rushing attack is a new attack that results in denial of service attack when used against all previously published on-demand ad hoc network routing protocols [2]. Specifically, the rushing attack prevents previously published secure on-demand routing protocols to find routes longer than twohops. In on-demand routing protocol are based on a property of forwarding only the first route request (RREQ) for each route discovery request query. This „vulnerability‟ of the on-demand routing protocols is exploited to mount the rushing attack. The source discovers a route to a destination and if the attacker is able to reach first to the neighbor of target node, before arrival of other RREQ [4]. In an on-demand protocol, a node needing a route to a destination floods the network with RREQ packets in an attempt to find a route to the destination [3].

MANET is an autonomous system of mobile stations connected by multi-hop wireless links to form a network capable of operating without any fixed infrastructure s and more popular because of their important applications such as ranging from emergency rescue operation, mining operations, sensor networks commercial use like exhibitions and military applications [5]. Dynamic topology, limited

In this paper authors explained in details the rushing attack, the overview of routing protocols and related 7


work, proposed solution defined in details and studied the performance factors in the developed protocols and analyzed the results, Finally concluding the paper.

and hybrid routing protocol. Proactive routing protocol is also called 'Table driven routing protocol'. Proactive routing protocols play a role before any node want to send a packet in the network. Every node maintains a one or more routing tables to representing the entire topology of the network. These tables are updated regularly in order to maintain up-to-date routing information from each node to every other node in the network. Thus, when there is a need for a route to a destination, such route information is available immediately. Examples of proactive routing protocols are OLSR, DSDV, and GSR. Reactive routing protocol is also called 'ondemand routing protocol'. The reactive routing protocols play a role only when nodes want to send a data packet to a destination. Examples of reactive routing protocols are AODV, DSR and TORA [5]. Hybrid routing protocol is the combination of proactive and reactive. Example of Hybrid routing protocol is ZRP.

Rushing Attack Rushing attack comes under the category of reactive routing protocols. Rushing attack diverts the route discovery process to another route, attacker node receives a RREQ packet from the source node and it broadcast the packet more quickly throughout the network before the legitimate nodes. When source node wants to send a RREQ packet to another node in the network, if another node as an attacker they will accept the RREQ packet and send the packet to its neighbor with high speed as compared to other nodes in the network, packet forwarded by the attacker will reach first to the destination node because of high transmission speed. Destination node will accept this RREQ packet and discard those RREQ packets reached later. For further communication same route is used because receiver found this route is valid route, attacker will successfully gain access in the network.

Ad Hoc on Demand Distance Vector AODV routing protocol described in [11] when any source node wants to send a packet to a destination, it broadcasts a RREQ packet to its neighbors and that neighbor forward the RREQ to their neighbor and so on until the packet reaches to the destination. AODV uses destination sequence numbers to ensure that all routes are loop-free and contain the most recent route information. Each node maintains its own sequence number as well as its broadcast ID. The broadcast ID is incremented for every RREQ the node initiates, and together with the node‟s IP address, uniquely identifies an RREQ along with its sequence number and the broadcast ID, the source node includes in the RREQ the most recent sequence number it has for the destination. Intermediate nodes can reply to the RREQ only if they have a route to the destination whose corresponding destination sequence number is greater than or equal to that contained in the RREQ.

Fig. 2, source S starts a route discovery process to the destination node D by sending a RREQ. Source node sends the RREQ to node A, B and C. Attacker node A quickly forwards the RREQ to its neighbor F and then to the destination. Request forwarded by the attacker node is reached first to the destination as compared to the other nodes. Destination node accepts the rush request and discard the other requests.

During the process of forwarding the RREQ, intermediate nodes record in their route tables the address of neighbors from which the first copy of the broadcast packet was received, there by establishing a reverse path. If additional copies of same RREQ are later received, these packets are silently discarded. Once the RREQ has reached the destination or an intermediate node with a route reply (RREP) with a “fresh enough,” route, the destination/intermediate node responds by unicasting RREP packet back to the neighbor from which it first received the RREQ.

Fig. 2 Rushing Attack Formation Overview of Routing Protocols Routing protocols for ad hoc network [5] is classified in following three categories are proactive, reactive 8

An Efficient Approach against Rushing Attack in MANET

As the RREP is routed back along the reverse path, nodes along this path set up forward route entries in their route tables that point to the node from which the RREP came. These forward route entries indicate the active forward route. Because RREP is forwarded along the path established by an RREQ, AODV only supports the use of symmetric links [11]

Because, the number or sequence of intermediate hops needed to reach any destination may change at any time, the resulting network topology may be quite rich and rapidly changing [6]. DSR contains two phases: Route Discovery and Route Maintenance. Fig. 3 shows the Route Discovery Block Diagram.

In AODV, routes are maintained as follows: If a source node moves, it has to reinitiate the route discovery protocol to find a new route to the destination. If a node along the route moves, its upstream neighbor notices the move propagates a link failure notification message (an RREP with an infinite metric) to each of its active upstream neighbors to inform them of the erasure of that part of the route [7].

Fig. 3 Route Discovery [6] The Route Discovery process is started [8]:

These nodes in turn propagate the link failure notification to their upstream neighbors, and so on, until the source node is reached. The source node may then choose to reinitiate route discovery for that destination if a route is still desired [11].

Authors had considered the following points: 1) Node A had sent a RREQ packet by flooding the Network. 2) If node B had recently seen another RREQ form the same target or if the address of node B was already listed in the Route Record, Then node B discarded the request. 3) If node B was the target of the Route Discovery, It returns a RREP to the initiator. The Route RREP contained a list of the “best” path from the initiator to the target. When the initiator received this RREP, it caught this route in its Route Cache for use in sending subsequent packets to this destination. 4) Otherwise node B was not the target and it was forwarded the RREQ to its neighbours.

An additional aspect of the protocol is the use of hello messages which are periodic local broadcasts made by a node to inform each mobile node of other nodes in its neighborhood. Hello messages can be used to maintain the local connectivity of a node [11]. However, the use of hello message is not required. Nodes listen for retransmission is not heard, the node may use any one of a number of techniques, including the reception of hello messages. Hello messages may list the other nodes from which mobile have heard, there by yielding a greater knowledge of network connectivity [11]. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) DSR) is a simple and efficient routing protocol designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes. DSR allows the network to be completely self-organizing and selfconfiguring, without the need for any existing network infrastructure. Network nodes cooperate to forward packets for each other to allow communication over multiple “Hops” between nodes not directly within transmission range of one another. As nodes in the network move about or join or leave the network and as wireless transmission conditions such as sources of interference change, all routing is automatically determined and maintained by DSR.

Fig. 4 Route Maintenance [6] If node C does not receive an acknowledgement from node D after some number of requests, it returns a Route Error to the initiator A. As soon as node receives the Route Error message, it deletes the broken-link-route. If A has another route to E, it sends the packet using the new route [6]. Fig 4 shows a Route Maintenance Flow Sequence. Related Work Y. C. Hu et. al. [2] developed a new component 9


which is called rushing attack prevention (RAP) for secure route discovery. To resist the rushing attack by rushing attack prevention (RAP) protocol, that protocol can be applied on any on-demand routing protocol. They described a various mechanism such as Secure Neighbor detection, Secure Route Delegation, Randomized RREQ Forwarding and Secure Route Discovery that together applied to defend against the rushing attack. No cost for RAP protocol unless the other protocol fails to find a working route. RAP provides security properties against the rushing attack.

the similar manner. Anil Rawat et. al. [4] discussed the functioning of Secure Routing Protocol (SRP) and described rushing attack variants. Also, analyze the behavior of rushing attack under the condition of rushing attack. In this paper, attempt has been made to evaluate the possibility of Denial of Service using rushing attack on SRP, which has been found to be ineffective and SRP can withstand the rushing attack. They also discussed various scenarios in which the attacker can attempt to disrupt the route discovery process.

AL Shahrani and Abdullah Saad [1] proposed two solutions for the prevention of rushing attack in MANET on Secure Dynamic Source Routing (SDSR) routing protocol. Firstly, to address the rushing attack and introduced a simple concept is called as safe neighbors. The attacker can be modified in three lists such as the white list, the black list and the gray list. Secondly, prevent the network by randomized message forwarding technique some nodes have random choice. Randomized message forwarding technique collect and hold the packet for a particular time, then randomly selected one packet and forward that packet to the other nodes which requires extra time.

V. Palansamy et. al. [13] proposed the best position to launch the rushing attack is at three conditions. The goal of the project is to draw the graph based on the rushing position in the network. Rushing attack is at near the receiver have high success rate, rushing attack is at near receiver have low success rate and attack is at anywhere in the network have least success rate. RushaNandy and Debdutta Barman Roy [8] presented how rushing attack works on DSR protocol. Self organized clustering technique schemes have been proposed. A parameter k has been defined for number of hop away from the cluster head. Thus the hop forms the cluster with its cluster head and routing is performed by transferring data within the cluster or between the clusters. A rushing attack detection technique have been suggested in which the cluster examine the nodes of cluster. If the RREQ transmission frequency is greater than normal frequency, node is malicious and hence removed from the cluster.

L. Tamilselvan et. al. [3] provided a solution to counter the rushing attack and focused on the security of DSR protocol for the prevention of rushing attack. It is noticed that on the basis of their simulation study, the new protocol is successful in preventing the rushing attack and provides security against the rushing attack. In rushing attack, attacker node forwards the first received request to its neighbor to overcome this attack. They introduced a solution for the rushing attack such as each node collect the request from different nodes and randomly select a request to forward; the chance of rushing attack is minimized. Also in their new protocol it is seen that the SDSR protocol not only enhances the security but also enhances the basic properties of DSR, so that the throughput and packet delivery ratio is increased during data transmission.

Proposed Solution In rushing attack, the attacker quickly forwards the RREQ packet and receiver receives the rushed packet and discards the other RREQ packet. To identify the rushing attack by fixed the threshold value and minimize the chances of rushing attack using collect and store the RREQ and forwards randomly. When source node S want to send packets to destination node D. S will check route is available or not in route cache. If route is not available, it broadcast a RREQ packet include header. The header contains source address and request id. On receiving the RREQ packet each node checks the sources address and request id. If node received a RREQ packet from the same source discard the packet, otherwise node send

Sushant Kumar and BibhudattaSahoo[5] worked on DSR protocol. They defined DSR routing protocol and analyzed the impact of rushing attack on the route discovery and route mechanisms. Discuss the cause and effect of rushing attack on both mechanisms such as route discovery and route maintenance of the DSR protocol which is also applicable to other on-demand routing protocols in 10


the RREP packet to the source. Source node calculates the threshold value and threshold value is fixed value for all node. Packet should be reached before the fix interval of time; it means attacker is present in the network. The neighbour node will inform about the attacker and discard the packet. After the threshold time check out the paths.

Performance Evaluation The performance of the two routing protocols (AODV and DSR) is studied with implemented simulations. Simulation Environment The routing protocols have been implemented with Optimized Network Engineering Tool (OPNET). The reason of its popularity has attractive GUI (Graphical User Interface) and visual features. Simulation Parameters shown in table: Table 1: Simulation parameter

Fig.5 Working Principle In On-Demand routing protocol, first received RREQ forwarded by all nodes and RREQ received after first are discarded. Fig. 5 there is many paths to reach the destination D. Every node does not forward the request comes first, it waits for some time , collect and store the number of request comes from different nodes and select a request from them to forward. Set a timer, for collecting the request and if time is over then discards the packet. If packet arrives before the timer collects and stores the packet and selects randomly to forward the packet by this method almost prevent the network from rushing attack. Some steps on the working principle enumerated as under:

Parameters

Values

Simulation area

50*50 km

Simulation time

10000 Second

Numbers Nodes

1) Creating the network of N mobile node in the MANET. 2) Creating a connection between nodes. 3) Setting the threshold time on the node. 4) Attacker taking the RREQ packet and quickly forwarding to the upcoming node. 5) Checking the time of the packet if packet arrives before the threshold time it means malicious node in the network. 6) Neighbour nodes informing about the attacker and discard the packet. 7) After that collecting and storing method is applied. 8) Every node collects and stores the RREQ packet. 9) Randomly selects a request to forward, minimize the chances of attacker.

of

Mobile

17

Routing Protocol

AODV & DSR

Data Packet Size

1024 Bytes

Data Rate

15 Kbps

Speed of Node

10 Km/h

Numbers of Malicious Nodes

2

Mobility

Random Way point(030msec)

The performance of the developed routing protocols has been measured in terms of following metrics: Number of Hops per Route Number of hops can be defined as number of intermediate nodes in the route (source to destination). Number of hops should be as low as possible which decrease the chances of link breakage. 11


Fig .7, graph showing a result in four condition of network one when there is not any attack in network another is when attack present in network, when a secure schema in the network and last when apply proposed schema between average route discovery time for AODV and DSR protocol. There is much better performance of network for the route discovery time Routing traffic received Fig. 8, the graph plotted between x-axis simulation time in minute and on y-axis traffic received. No attack condition is depicted by violet and yellow color in AODV and DSR respectively. When rushing attack occurs performance of graph is high in compare to normal AODV and DSR. In this graphs shows better result as compared to attack condition after apply a secure proposed solution Fig. 6 Average number of hops per route Based on Fig. 6, showing average number of hop per route is here when attack came in the network is shown by blue color and pink color. When attack happen the graph goes up as compared to normal so number of hops per route near equal to normal condition after securing it. Route Discovery Time Route Discovery Time is the time needed for the source node to discover a route to the destination.

Fig. 8 Average Routing Traffic Received

Routing Traffic Sent Fig. 9, represent the average routing traffic sent for AODV and DSR, the graph plotted between x-axis simulation time in minute and on y-axis traffic sent. Normal condition is depicted by violet and yellow color where no attack happened. In DSR, when attack occur traffic sent packet very high as compared to normal. Hence in secure traffic sent packet is near equal to normal condition. Fig.7 Average Route Discovery Time 12


[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

Fig.9 Average Routing Traffic Sent [7]

Conclusion The overall idea of proposed method was to detect the rushing attack with the threshold value, threshold value was a fixed value for a transmission, there packet should be reached at the fixed interval of time. If packet reached before the time, attacker in the network would take the advantage. The proposed scheme prevent the network from the attacker by collecting and storing the packet for a particular time and choosing one request to forward, the chance of attacker occurs in route was minimized so that many paths to reach the destination in the particular network were not used. The proposed scheme improved the performance of network and provided an attacker free environment.

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

Acknowledgement

[12]

Authors would like to take the opportunity to thank the institute and staff for giving continuous support to complete this work. Authors also thank all the faculty who have helped directly and indirectly.

[13]

References [1] AL Shahrani and Abdullah Saad, “Rushing Attack in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,” in IEEE Third International Conference on Intelligent Networking and Collaborative Systems(INCoS), 2011, pp. 752–758. [2] Yih-Chun Hu, AdrainPerrig and David B. Johnson, “Rushing Attacks and Defense in 13

Wireless Ad Hoc Network Routing Protocols,” in proceedings ACM on Wireless Security (WiSe), San Diego, California, USA, September 19 2003, pp. 30–40. L. TamilSelvan and V. Sankaranarayanan, “Solution to Prevent Rushing Attack in Wireless Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,” in IEEE Ad Hoc ubiquitous Computing, (ISAUHC), 2006, pp. 4247. A. Rawat, P. D. Vyavahare, “Evaluation of Rushing Attack on Secure Message Transmission (SMT/SRP) protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,” in IEEE International Conference on Personal Wireless Communication (ICPWC), 2005, pp. 62-66. Sushant Kumar and BibhudattaSahoo, “Effect of Rushing on DSR in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks,” ACM 978-1-4503-0729-9/2011. David B. Johnson, David A. Maltz and Josh Broch, “DSR: The Dynamic Source Routing For Multi-Hop Wireless Ad Hoc Networks”, in Ad Hoc Networking, edited by Charles E. Perkins, Chapter 5, Addison Wesley, 2001, pp. 139-172. C. E. Perkins and E. M. Royers, ”Ad Hoc OnDemand Distance Vector Routing”, in Second IEEE Mobile Computing Systems and Applications, Proceedings WMCSA, , 1999, pp. 90-100. RushaNandy, Debdutta Barman Roy, “Study of Various Attacks in MANET and Elaborative Discussion of Rushing Attack on DSR with Clustering Scheme”. Int. J. Advanced Networking and Applications, Vol. 03, 2011, Pages: 1035-1043. Mike Burmester and Breno de Mereiros, “On the Security of Route Discovery in MANETs”, TRANSACTION ON MOBILE COMPUTING, Vol. 8, No. 9, September 2009, pp. 1180-1188. Eman S. Alwadiyeh and Ala F A Aburumman, “Interference-Aware Multipath routing protocols for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,” 13th Annual Workshop on Wireless Local Networks, IEEE, 2013, pp. 980-986. C. K. Toh, “Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks”, Pearson Education, 2002. Ranjankaparti, Dan Likarish, “OPNET IT GURU: A Tool for Networking”, MSCIT Practicum Paper, REGIS University, 2008. V. Palanisamy, P.Annadurai, “Impact of Rushing Attack on Multicast in Mobile Ad Hoc Network”, International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security (IJCSIS), Volume: 04, No. 1 and 2, 2009.

Analysis of Belt Drive System Integrated with Briquetting Plant 1

Ajay Kumar Choubey*, 2Anil Kumar Dubey 1 Research Associate, Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal-462038 2 Principal Scientist, Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal-462038 *Corresponding Author : [email protected], [email protected] Abstract

tapered die system on to the cooling track in the form of briquettes. Briquettes formed are cylinder shape. [3]

In briquetting plant, briquettes produces through small pieces of agro residues or by dry material which having moisture contain below 10%. Briquetting plant consists from biomass grinder, screw conveyor and piston-press machine. The piston - press machine operates through open belt drive system. Pulley and belt system is an important part of the briquetting plant, which function is to transfer speed into reciprocating system. In this study, effect of slip and COF on belt life analysis has done through mathematical formulation and numerical simulation. Present study deals pulley simulation has done through help of Finite Element software ANSYS 12.0.1.

In this study, we discussing about belt drive-open system of piston-press machine. Belts are used when the distance between the axes of the two shafts to be connected is considerable. A flat belt is a belt with a narrow rectangular cross-section. The flat belts are easier to use and are subjected to minimum bending stress. In the present paper, the pulley is simulated with ANSYS 12.0.1 Software. This way the concern of different process parameters such as coefficient of friction, power, thickness of belt, slip and tension on belt are studied.

Keywords: ANSYS, Briquetting plant, COF, Pulleybelt, Slip.

Discussion of Various Parts

Introduction

Briquetting plant consists from various parts. The main part is as follows:

We all are well known by the importance of energy and its sources. Energy is the key factor in economic development of every country. The demand of energy is increasing day by day and the supplies of sources are limited. It is globally red alert for fossil fuel like Petrol, Kerosene, Natural Gas, LPG, and Lignite etc. This has made a huge gap between the demand and supply of energy. Renewable energy is the ultimate solution, which can fill this gap.

(i) Biomass-grinding machine : It is an important part of the briquetting plant, which function is to convert aggregate material in to small pieces. (ii) Screw conveyor: it is used to carry the raw biomass from storage place to hopper. It is also used to mix the moisture socking agent from the raw biomass. (iii) Piston-press machine a. Hopper : Hopper is use to move the raw material from screw conveyor to processing place. It includes extruder which is used to give a motion to raw biomass only in a one direction. b. Ram : Ram is used for forcing the raw biomass in a die holder. Ram is fixed in ram holder. These ram moves in a horizontal direction with the help of motor. c. Collar : Collar is use to fix the die in a die holder. Also it is used for to prevent the flow of raw biomass in a wrong direction i.e. in motor direction.

The briquette is an alternate source of energy. The biomass briquettes are substitute for coal and L.P.G., and research is going on. The Biomass briquettes are made up of renewable source of energy. The briquetting piston-press is a reciprocating crank type mechanical press with flywheel. The main motor through continuous flat belt drives flywheel. The ground material is feed through a hopper by means of a screw conveyer with its own motor. The vertical screw pre compresses and forces the material downward in to the feeding chamber. From the chamber the materials forced by the ram through a 14


d. Die : Die is the part where the briquette get the shape to from the briquette. (iv) Cooling tower : After process of briquette formation it cool at cooling tower and move in a direction of storage place. [4]

Input Data Diameter of Driver d1=0.15 m; Diameter of Follower d2=0.85m; Speed of Drier N1=1475rpm; Speed of Follower N2=?; Power P=20 kW; Estimation of Tension during Rotation of Driving Pulley

In piston-press machine all the rotary as well as reciprocating parts moving through the pulley belt arrangement. Therefore, pulley belt system is very important part of briquetting plant. In this study, discussing about pulley and bet system of briquetting plant.

A highly elastic belt is used for belt drive, which is operated by 15 hp electric motor and at the speed of driver & driven pulleys are 1475 rpm & 260 rpm, The diameter of driver & follower pulleys are 150 mm & 850 mm. Center to Center distance is 1.575 m. Step

I. V.R.

II. Slip III. Tensions

Value N2=260 rpm (Without considering thickness) N2=269 rpm (If thickness of belt taken account) S=3% (If thickness of belt taken account) T1=3.59 kN (Tension in Tight side at 20 kW power) T2=1.89 kN(Tension in slack side)

Fig 1 : Schematic details of belt drive Aim of Study The main aim of this study is to investigate – Effects of coefficient of friction (COF) Effect of different Belt thickness (t) on the quality of belt Effect of tension (T) on pulley Effect of slip (s).

Mathematical Modeling

Methodology

Review of Briquetting plant

Problem observed in pulleybelt system

Analysis

Numerical Modeling Fig 2 : Methodology of study 15

Solution

Analysis of Belt Drive System Integrated with Briquetting Plant

Finite Element Simulation of Pulley Fig 3 showing FE model of pulley model prepared in ANSYS 12.0.1.

Fig 4 : COF vs Tensions

Fig 3 : FE Model for Pulley The 3-D FE model for pulley was created by using ANSYS 12.0.1 software. The shaft is analyzed in ANSYS in three steps. First is preprocessing which involves modeling, geometric clean up, element property definition and meshing. Next comes, solution which involves imposing boundary conditions and applying loads on the model and then solution runs. Next in sequence comes post processing, which involves analyzing the results plotting different parameters like stress, strain, natural frequency, harmonic frequency and many. The mesh has been generated using tetra free element. The Solid 45 element type is adopted to mesh the model. The mesh of the pulley consists of 83198 elements. 17492 nodes are included in the finite element model. [1-2,5]

Fig 5 : Thickness vs slip Fig 5 is showing the lines when the thickness of belt increases (also with increase of pulley diameter) then the slip of belt increase. But, when the thickness of belt increases also with decrease of pulley diameter than the slip of belt decreases.

Results and Discussions Present study deals with the coefficient of friction between belt and pulley and variation of thickness of belt. The stress analysis have been done through numerical simulation which is shown in fig 5-7. Fig 4 is showing the detail when the coefficient of friction (COF) between the belt and pulley has increased than the value of tension (slack side & tight side) which decreases. But both the lines follow same pattern. Also the coefficient of friction of 0.2 to 0.3 will have better value friction between belt and pulley. Fig 6 : Total Deformation of Pulley

16


Fig 6 showing pulley simulation of piston-press machine, this simulation shows the total deformation of pulley. In this figure value of maximum deformation is 0.193E-04.

3. The simulation is easily finding the stress on pulley that occurs due to belt tension. References [1] Deepak Singathia, Dr. M. L. Aggarwal, “Finite Element Modeling for Replacement of C.I. Pulley with Suitable Material”, International Journal of Modern Engineering Research, Vol. no. 2, Issue no. 5, Page no. 3028-3031, 2012. [2] Deniz Yilmaz, H. Kürşat Çelik and Ibrahim Akinci, “ Finite element analysis of a failure in rear-mounted mower pulley”, Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol. no. 7 Issue no. 3, Page no. 8 6 5 - 8 6 8 , 2 0 0 9. [3] Mangesh V. Wasekar, R.N.Baxi, “Failure analysis of collar of Biomass Briquetting Machine: A Review”, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, Vol. no. 3, Issue no. 2, Page no. 437439, 2013. [4] Kapil A. Pakhare, R. N. Baxi, “Failure analysis of taper die of biomass briquetting machine: a review”, IJESS, Vol. no. 2, Issue no. 10, Page no. 39-50, 2012. [5] Shrikant A. Thote, M.K. Sonpimple, G.D. Mehta, “An Approach to Find the Stresses Induced In a Flat Belt during Half Rotation of a Driving Pulley”, International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, Vol. no. 2, Issue no. 3, 2013.

Fig 7 : Stress with respect to time Fig 7 showing that the von-Mises stress and shear stress on the pulley periphery through simulation.

Fig 8 : Power vs stress Fig 8 showing simulation results. In this graph of belt tension has analysed in terms of power. When the belt tight side tension has increased than the value of stresses (von-Mises stress, principal stress, shear stress) have follow same pattern, but the stress will also increasing. Conclusion 1. 2.

Coefficient of friction has play major role in tensions on belt. Change of belt thickness decrease as well as increase the slip of belt. Also the change in diameter of pulley affects the slip of belt. 17

Authentication Attacks in Cloud Computing: A Survey Sneha Naik M.Tech Student, CSE, SVCE Indore [email protected] Cost can be an important factor in this computing environment for accessing any software, rather than pay for it once and be done with it, the more uses are made, the more users will have to pay (“pay-foruse”).SaaS provides network based access to commercially available software. Since the software is managed at central locations; customers can access their application wherever they have web access. Software as a service, provides end user application, scientific application, office automation and photo editing [1], e.g. Google documents, facebook, flicker and salesforce.

Abstract Cloud may be a concept of accessing the information from their own data centers such the possibilities of eavesdropping and storage value is reduced. In this paper the author had tried to conduct a brief and quick survey of assorted cloud based techniques enforced and observed till now. Though the brief survey covers the ways having numerous techniques enforced up till now for the cloud computing, however, here a tendency to square measure was observed giving a survey of not solely cloud based but mostly based on techniques. However, additionally the concept of smart cards for the authentication between clouds was used.

Platform as a service Platform as a service is another application delivered model that provides all the resources required building application and services completely from the internet without having to download or install software. PaaS provide runtime environment for application and development and data processing platform. PaaS services include application design, development, testing, deployment and hosting. [1] e.g. Hadoop, Aneka, Google App Engine etc.

Keywords: Cloud Computing, Security on Cloud, Authentication Attacks. Introduction Cloud computing allows us renting infrastructure, runtime environment and services on pay per use basis. One requirement is that users need to have an internet connection in order to access the cloud. This meant that if user has housed in the cloud, then he must first establish an internet connection either through a wireless or wired internet or a mobile broadband connection. This Computing model enabled the cloud users to increase their capacity and capability dynamically without investing in new infrastructure, training new personnel, licensing new software etc [1].

Infrastructure as a service Infrastructure as a service is also called the hardware as a service. Infrastructure as service is a provision model in which an organization outsources the equipment used to support operations including storage, network, server and networking components. The service provider owns the equipment and is responsible for housing, running and maintaining it. The client typically pays on pay-per-use basis. [1] e.g. Amazon, ec2, S3, Rightscale and vcloud, etc.

Services in Cloud Services in a cloud computing is the concept of being able to use reusable and five grained component across a vendors network. This is widely known “as a service”. Services of Cloud Computing are divided in following categories and many more.

Applications of cloud: Improve resources utilization. Quick and easy implementation. On demand self services. Broad network access. Resource pooling Scalability. Multi – tenant efficient. Measured services and many more.

Software as a service (SaaS). Platform as a service (PaaS). Infrastructure as a service (IaaS). Software as a service Software as a service is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a putting service. 18


Category of Authentication Attacks in Cloud Computing

Authentication Attacks

Evesdroppi ng

Man-in-themiddle

cookie poisoning

Stolen Verifier Attack

Replay

Video Recording Attack

Password Discovery

Dictionary Attack

Session Hijacking

Denial-ofservice

Insider

Brute Force Attack

Customer Fraud

Reflection

cloud malware injection

Shoulder Surfing

Guessing Attack

Fig. 1: Classification of Authentication Attacks in the Cloud Environment. [2]

Man-in-the-Middle Attack (MITM)

Dictionary Attack

Since the inception of web2.0, MITM has become quite popular in the SaaS environment. Here the attacker intercepts the communication channel established between legitimate users and modifies the communication between client and server without their knowledge [3].

Here the attacker tries to guess a password from a pre-computed dictionary of passwords. To resist this type of an attack, the password should be random and should not be a dictionary word. Even passwords in mother tongues are not secure as attackers have dictionaries of most of the regional languages [3].

Password Discovery Attack Brute Force Attack Attacker adopts several mechanisms to retrieve passwords stored or transmitted by a computer system to launch this attack. A few strategies adopted depending upon the availability of information related to the password are mentioned in the following paragraphs:

This attack is launched by guessing passwords containing all possible combinations of letters, numbers and alphanumeric characters until the attacker get the correct password. Brute force attack usually carried out using automated methods demands a lot of computing power and time to be successful.

Stolen Verifier Attack The attacker performs this attack by accessing the password table stored at the verifier. Then he launches an offline guessing attack by running a script which performs hash on each entry of the dictionary and compares the generated message digest with the stored digest of the verifier, until a match is found. This attack can have a disastrous effect in a cloud environment hosting data belonging to multiple customers [3].

Guessing Attack Most often people use easy to remember passwords which make them vulnerable to guessing attack. An adversary observes some information related to the password, tries to guess it and then verifies it by trying to login multiple times until he gets the access. In offline scenario, the attacker has a high chance of guessing the right password as there is no restriction on the number of attempts he makes. But in online guessing scenario the system blocks the user after a certain number of login attempts.

Video Recording Attack In such type of attack launched in public places, the attackers with the help of camera equipped mobile phones or miniature camera captures the password while the victim enters the same.

The above mentioned password discovery attacks, focuses on obtaining the password of a legal user which in turn is used to illegally impersonate the user to a verifier. Such attacks will result in a successful authentication, if and only if the authentication 19

Authentication Attacks in Cloud computing: A Survey

process is solely based on static passwords. In a cloud scenario, this can be mitigated by using graphical passwords, one-time passwords, avoiding the storage of passwords, using Zero Knowledge Proof (ZKP) mechanisms, protocols implementing 2factor authentication mechanisms without password tables etc. Fig. 1 depicts a schematic chart by covering authentication of attacks.

Session Hijacking Session hijacking is possible, if the Session ID issued to the authenticated users is not protected properly, which in turn can be used for spoofing identity. Session side-jacking uses packet sniffing tools to capture a login sequence and thus gain access to the user’s session key Encrypting the communication channel can prevent this type of Session hijacking attack. These attacks exploiting the loopholes such as insecure communication protocols and unencrypted data can be thwarted by using a secure communication protocol such as Hyper Text Transfer Protocols (HTTPs), by encrypting the files that store user or administrative login credentials etc. A strong authentication mechanism that rules out the possibility of unauthorized authentication and mechanisms that protect secrets such as session keys or avoid the storage of secrets is required in a cloud environment to prevent such attacks. The sidejacking attack can be mitigated by avoiding the transfer of session keys across the communication channel. A key exchange mechanism, that involves the calculation of session key separately by the client and server, resulting in the same key value, can also be adopted [3].

DDOS Attack (60%)

Password Based Attack(22%)

MITM Attack(12%)

DNS cache poisoning(6% )

Denial-of-Service (DOS Attacks) The main objective of DOS attack is to overload the target machine with bogus service requests to prevent it from responding to legitimate requests. Unable to handle all the service requests on its own, it delegates the work load to other similar service instances which ultimately leads to flooding attacks. Cloud system is more vulnerable to DOS attacks, since it supports resource pooling. This attack on availability can be controlled to a certain extent by data transfer throttling which deliberately regulates the amount of data transferred per unit time among the communicating entities and by limiting the allocation of network bandwidth. An authentication protocol that does one level of authentication at the client side will reduce the overhead of authentication process at the server side.

Fig. 2: Percentage of attacks [5].

Percent of Customer Impacted App Attack Brute Force Malware Web Application… 0% CHP

20%

40%

60%

Cloud Malware Injection Attack

On premises

The attack aims at injecting a malicious service implementation or virtual machine instance, which appears as one of the valid service instances running in the cloud. The adversary launches the attack by creating its own malicious service implementation module (SaaS or PaaS) or virtual machine instance (IaaS) and injects it into the cloud. If the attacker is

Fig. 3: Percentage of Customer Impacted

20


successful, then the cloud system treats the new instance as a valid instance for the particular service attacked by the adversary. The server thereafter starts redirecting the valid user requests to the malicious server implementation and the adversary’s code is executed. The code can carry out different activities such as eavesdropping via subtle data modifications to full functionality changes [4]

different owners whose interests are not aligned. It offers information tagging schemes and enforcement techniques that may facilitate form the aforesaid trustworthy code base and cloud-hosted services that have end-to-end information flow control. In 2011 Pengfei Sun Qingni Shen, Ying Chen Zhonghai and Wu Cong Zhang [9] proposed a new security load balancing architecture that is predicated on Multilateral Security (LBMS), once it reaches on peak-load it will migrate tenants’ VMs mechanically to the perfect security physical machine. This protocol is based on CloudSim, a Cloud computing simulation. This design makes an attempt to avoid potential attacks when VMs migrate to physical machine owing to load balancing.

One way of tackling this attack is to store a hash value on the original service instance’s image file and comparing with that of all new service instance images. If a modification is done to a valid service instance, then the hash value will be modified which indicates the presence of an attacker. Again if a new service instance is created by an attacker and inserted into the cloud, then it should have a hash value similar to that of an existing one. But the probability of creating a service instance with a hash value, similar to the hash of another service instance is almost negligible.

In 2012 Tekin Bicer, David Chiu & Gagan Agrawal [10] focused on cost and time sensitive data processing in hybrid cloud settings, where both computational resources and data might be distributed across remote clusters. These authors developed a model for the class of Map-Reducible applications which captures the performance efficiencies and the projected costs for the allocated cloud resources. There model is based on a feedback mechanism in which the compute nodes regularly report their performance to a centralized resource allocation subsystem. The resources are then dynamically provisioned according to the user constraints.

Distributed Denial of Service Attacks DDOS may be called an advanced version of DOS in terms of denying the important services running on a server by flooding the destination sever with large numbers of packets such that the target server is not able to handle it. In DDOS the attack is relayed from different dynamic networks which have already been compromised unlike the DOS attack. [6] Fig. 2 shows the percentage of attacks based on statistical data.

Authors have extensively evaluated there system and model with two data-intensive applications with varying cost constraints and deadlines. There experimental results show that the system effectively adapts and balances the performance changes during the execution through accurate cloud resource allocation. They show that there system is effective even when one of the involved clusters drastically and instantly reduces its compute nodes. The error margins of our system’s ability to meet different cost and time constraints are below 1.2% and 3.6% respectively. Fig. 3 shows the percentage of customer impacted.

Literature Review In 2009 Qian Wang, Cong Wang, Jin Li1, Kui Ren, and Wenjing Lou [7] introduced a new scheme which provide remote information integrity and verifiability means that dynamic information operations. The method first off identifies the difficulties and potential security issues of direct extensions with absolutely dynamic information updates. It achieves proficient information dynamics and improves the Retrievability model by manipulating the classic Merkle Hash Tree (MHT) construction used for block tag authentication. It’s extremely proficient and secure technique.

In 2012 Alex Kantchelian Justin Ma and Ling Huang [11] method for blog comment spam detection taking the assumption that spam is any reasonably uninformative content. It offers a language to measure the in formativeness of a group of blog comments and tokenization independent metric. It uses an ungenerous hand-labeling strategy will operate at a capricious high exactitude level, and it dominates exactitude and recall. This model provides the content complexity metric, the utilization of a

In 2010 Jean Bacon, David Evans, David M. Eyers, Matteo Migliavacca, Peter Pietzuch, and Brian Shand [8] proposed a approach for planning and deploying end-to-end secure and distributed software for the safety of information. It guarantees that above a little trustworthy code base data can't be leaked by buggy or malicious software parts. This can be crucial for cloud infrastructures, during which the keep information and hosted services all have totally 21

Authentication Attacks in Cloud computing: A Survey

noise-tolerant logistic regression and the analysis methodology.

way that it uses steganography as an additional encryption scheme. The scheme achieves authentication using secret sharing. Secret sharing allows a part of the secret to be kept in both sides which when combined becomes the complete secret. The secret contains information about both parties involved. Further, out of band authentication has been used which provides additional security.

In 2013 F. Omr, S. FoufoU, R. HamiIa & M. Jarraya [12] introduced a handwriting authentication system. The process allows secure access to restricted data in the cloud using a mobile phone. It is composed of pre-processing, feature extraction, classification and authentication process. The classification process is based on three different classification techniques: ANN, KNN, and Euclidean Distance classifier. The classifier algorithm employs parallel combination of classifiers in order to achieve satisfactory accuracy on both recognition and error rate.

In 2014 Dan Gonzales, Jeremy Kaplan, Evan Saltzman, Zev Winkelman & Dulani Woods [15], demonstrated how Cloud-Trust can be used to assess the security status of IaaS CCSs and IaaS CSP service offerings, and how it is used to compute probabilities of APT infiltration (high value data access) and probabilities of APT detection. These quantify two key security metrics: IaaS CCS confidentiality and integrity. Cloud-Trust also produces quantitative assessments of the value and contribution of specific CCS security controls (including several optional security controls now offered by leading commercial CSPs), and can be used to conduct sensitivity analyses of the incremental value of adding specific security controls to an IaaS CCS, when there is uncertainty regarding the value of a specific security control (which may be optional and increase the cost of CSP services).

In 2015 Napa Sae-Bae & Nasir Memon [13], propose a simple and effective online signature verification system that is suitable for user authentication on a mobile device. The benefits of the proposed algorithm are as follows. First, a histogram based feature set for representing an online signature can be derived in linear time and the system requires a small and fixed-size space to store the signature template. In addition, since the feature set represents only statistics about distribution of original online signature attributes, the transformation is noninvertible. As a result, the privacy of the original biometric data is well-protected. Second, a userspecific classifier comprising of a user-specific quantization step size vector and its associated quantized feature vector can be trained using only enrollment samples from that user without requiring a training set from a large number of users. Several experiments performed on MCYT and SUSIG datasets demonstrate effectiveness of the proposed method in terms of verification performance as compared to existing algorithms.

In 2014 Daniel Ricardo dos Santos, Carla Merkle Westphall and Carlos Becker Westphall [16] presented dynamic risk-based access control architecture for cloud computing, with an application to cloud federations. The architecture was built as an XACML extension, adding flexibility for resource and information sharing in a dynamic environment such as the cloud, while keeping the distribution and scalability features. The architecture was based on the use of risk policies, which describe the risk metrics considered most important by users and providers.

Security analysis of online signature verification system as compared to that of 4-digits PIN, and two usability metrics is also presented. Further investigation includes the use of other biometric key binding approaches, like fuzzy commitment, in order to strengthen security of the system, even when stored templates, helper data etc., are compromised, while preserving verification performance. Lastly, it is possible to derive a fusion approach by combining the proposed method with other existing approaches, e.g., DTW, HMM-based, etc., in order to improve verification performance, especially for applications where privacy of the signature traits is less critical.

Conclusion Cloud computing is a fast growing technology that offers a wide range of benefits to small and medium enterprises. But security, privacy and trust are the major concerns preventing the mass adoption of cloud. A cloud environment that provides varied services and hosts multiple resources can be secured only by allowing legitimate users to access the resources. Hence strong user authentication mechanisms restricting illegal access are the primary requirement for securing cloud. A user authentication mechanism designed for cloud should be strong enough to protect cloud from various possible authentication attacks. This work surveys the

In 2014 Nimmy K., Sethumadhavan M. [14] proposed a Novel mutual authentication protocol for cloud computing using secret sharing and steganography. The protocol is designed in such a 22


[11] Alex Kantchelian, Justin Ma, Ling Huang, Sadia Afroz, Anthony D. Joseph and J. D. Tygar, “Robust Detection of Comment Spam Using Entropy Rate”, AISec’12, October 19, 2012, ACM Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. [12] F. Omr, S. FoufoU, R. HamiIa & M. Jarraya presented paper entitled “Cloud-based Mobile System for Biometrics Authentication” at IEEE 2013 13th International Conference on ITS Telecommunications (ITST). [13] Napa Sae-Bae & Nasir Memon presented paper entitled “Online Signature Verification on Mobile Devices” at IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION FORENSICS AND SECURITY, VOL. 9, NO. 6, JUNE 2014. [14] Nimmy K. and M. Sethumadhavan, “Novel Mutual Authentication Protocol for Cloud Computing using Secret Sharing and Steganography”, 978-1-4799-225914/$31.00©2014 IEEE. [15] Dan Gonzales, Jeremy Kaplan, Evan Saltzman, Zev Winkelman & Dulani Woods presented paper entitled “Cloud-Trust - a Security Assessment Model for Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) Clouds” at IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON JOURNAL GONZALES, TCC-2014-03-0102. [16] Daniel Ricardo dos Santos, Carla Merkle Westphall and Carlos Becker Westphall, “A Dynamic Risk-based Access Control Architecture for Cloud Computing”, 978-1-4799-09131/14/$31.00 c 2014 IEEE.

authentication attacks on cloud and the corresponding mitigation measures. References [1] Subedari Mithila, P. Pradeep Kumar (2011) “Data Security through Confidentiality in Cloud Computing Environment” International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technologies, Vol. 2 (5), 1836-18. [2] Meiko Jensen, Jörg Schwenk, Nils Gruschka, Luigi Lo Iacono (2009) “On Technical Security Issues in Cloud Computing” IEEE International Conference on Cloud Computing. [3] B. Sumitra, C.R. Pethuru, M. Misbahuddin “A Survey of Cloud Authentication Attacks and SolutionApproaches”http://www.ijircce.com/uplo ad/2014/october/36_A%20Survey.pdf [4] M. Misbahuddin, “Secure Image Based MultiFactor Authentication (SIMFA): A Novel approach for Web Based Services, Ph.D Thesis, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, [Online], http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/34 73, 2010 [5] ALERT LOGIC CLOUD SECURITY REPORT SPRING 2014: Research on the Evolving State of Cloud Security http://www.rackspace.com/knowledge_center/whi tepaper/alert-logic-cloud-security-report-spring2014-research-on-the-evolving-state-of-cloud [6] X. Yu and Q. Wen, “A view about Cloud data security from data life cycle,(2010),” in Proc. IEEE Intl. Conference on Computational Intelligence and Software Engineering, pp. 1-4, 2010 [7] Qian Wang, Cong Wang, Jin Li, Kui Ren, and Wenjing Lou, “Enabling Public Verifiability and Data Dynamics for Storage Security in Cloud Computing”, ESORICS'09 Proceedings of the 14th European conference on Research in computer security, Pages 355-370 SpringerVerlag Berlin, Heidelberg ©2009. [8] Jean Bacon, David Evans, David M. Eyers, Matteo Migliavacca, Peter Pietzuch, and Brian Shand, “Enforcing End-to-end Application Security in the Cloud”, Middleware '10 Proceedings of the ACM/IFIP/USENIX 11th International Conference on Middleware, Pages 293-312 Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg ©2010. [9] Pengfei Sun, Qingni Shen, Ying Chen, Zhonghai Wu and Cong Zhang," POSTER: LBMS: Load Balancing based on Multilateral Security in Cloud", CCS’11, October 17–21, 2011, ACM Chicago, Illinois, USA. [10] Tekin Bicer, David Chiu & Gagan Agrawal presented paper entitled “Time and Cost Sensitive Data-Intensive Computing on Hybrid Clouds” at 2012, 12th IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Cluster, Cloud and Grid Computing. 23

Biochar- A better use of Biomass for Agronomic and Environmental Management 1

1 2, 3

Harsha M.Wakudkar +, 2 Anil Kumar Dubey and 3Sandip Gangil Senior research fellow, Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh, Bhopal Principal Scientist (AEP), Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh, Bhopal + Corresponding author email: [email protected] Keywords: Bio-char, Biomass, Crop yield, Recovery, Soil amendment

Abstract Bio-char is produced by pyrolysis of bio-materials such as crop residues, forestry waste, industrial byproduct, municipal waste and animal manure, in a zero or a low oxygen environment. In India, about 435.98 MMT of agro-residues are produced every year, out of which 313.62 MMT are surplus. These residues are either partially utilized or unutilized due to various constraints. Bio-char is a major by-product of pyrolysis process, and has remarkable environmental properties. At present, the use of biochar for improving the soil health is getting attention. Application of bio-char in soil, results in good fertility and significant increase in crop yield due to addition of macro & micro nutrient from carbon rich source in the form of char. Increase in crop yield to the tune of 45–250% has been reported by application of bio-char along with chemical fertilizers. Bio-char as compared to other soil amendments having high surface area and porosity which enable it to adsorb or retain nutrients and water and also provide a habitat for beneficial microorganisms Bio-char production offers a simple, sustainable tool for managing agricultural wastes. Bio-chars can potentially increase the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils especially for highly weathered, nutrient-poor sandy soils. Bio-char produce at high temperature (800 ºC) tend to have a higher pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and extractable NO3- , while low-temperature bio-chars (350 ºC) have greater amounts of extractable P, NH4 + , and phenols. As being an alkaline in nature, biochar is use to reclaim acidic soil for better agricultural produce. Bio-char can be broadcast, or applied by drop spreaders in most applications. The published literature revealed that the maximum sustainable technical potential for carbon abatement from bio-char is 1-1.8 Gt C per year by 2050. Hence, bio-char can be an important component of a global response to carbon abatement. At present, insufficient field data is available to make general recommendation on bio-char application rates and methods according to soil types and crops. Thus, in future research in this direction is needed.

Background „Bio-char‟ is a black carbon formed by the pyrolysis of biomass, i.e. by heating biomass under oxygenfree or inert environment. . In India, about 435.98 MMT of agro-residues are produced every year, out of which 313.62 MMT are surplus. These residues are either partially utilized or un-utilised due to various constraints [1]. Burning of field crop residues is mainly done with intension of clearing of fields, pest and pasture management. Burning is also perceived to boost soil fertility, although burning actually has a differential impact on soil fertility. It increases the short-term availability of some nutrients (e.g. P and K) and reduces soil acidity, but leads to a loss of other nutrients (e.g. N and S) and organic matter [2].When bio-char is added to soil, it found to be beneficial for growing crops; also this bio-char contains stable carbon (C) and after adding bio-char to soil, this carbon remains sequestered for much longer periods than it would in the original biomass that bio-char was made from. Crop yield improvements with bio-char have been demonstrated repeatedly for acidic and highly weathered tropical field soils. The global production of black carbon has been estimated to be between 50 and 270 Tg yr−1, with as much as 80% of this remaining as residues in the soil. Bio-char has been described as a possible means of sustainable biomass management with application of soil amendment as well as carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change. Bio-char application to soil have beneficial effects on crop productivity through increased nutrient use efficiency, increased water holding capacity and decreased bulk density. Brazil is the largest bio-char producer in world producing 9.9 million tons/ year and India rank 5th with bio-char production of 1.7 million tons/year.

24


It is well-known that the quantity, quality, and distribution of soil amendments affect the structure of the soil. Therefore, all three of these aspects should be considered in the use of bio-char as a soil management tool. If bio-char become widely used for soil improvement tool, it will involve globally significant amounts of carbon sequestration helping remediate global warming. In this paper we discuss the concept of bio-char as a soil amendment for improving soil health and ultimately the plant growth and how it is beneficial for carbon sequestration. A schematic sketch of the bio-char production technique is shown in Figure 1.

Table 1: Relative proportion range of the four main components of bio-char as commonly found for a variety of source materials and pyrolysis conditions (adapted from [5]) Component

Sr. No. 1 2 3 4

Fixed carbon Volatile matter( e.g. tar) Moisture Ash (mineral matter)

Proportion 50-90 0-40 1-15 0.5-5

Nutrient ratios N and S compound tends to volatize at a temperature above 200 and 375 ˚C resp. So bio-char produced at higher temperature than this shows depletion of this compound. While K and P volatilize between 700 and 800 ºC (DeLuca et al., 2009). High-temperature bio-chars (800 ºC) tend to have a higher pH, electrical conductivity (EC), while low-temperature bio-chars (350 ºC) have greater amounts of extractable P, and phenols (DeLuca et al., 2009).

Fig 1 Schematic sketch of bio-char production technique

Elemental ratios Characterization of Bio-Char The ratios of H/C and O/C decreases with increasing temperature and the lower ratio found good in terms of aromaticity and stability (Baldock and Smernik, 2002; Smernik et al., 2006).

Bio-char is comprised of stable carbon compounds created when biomass is heated to temperatures between 300 to 1000°C under low (preferably zero) oxygen concentrations. It is important to note that there are many different types and qualities of biochar. The key chemical and physical properties of a bio-char are greatly affected by the type of material being used and the conditions of the pyrolysis process (i.e. temperature and time). The chemical and physical properties of bio-char are key to understanding the way bio-char functions within soil and its potential to act as a route to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide [3]. There is strong need for testing of bio-char material to ensure the quality and effectiveness for positive results.

Influence of pH After bio-char additions, the pH of soils may increase or decrease, depending on the pH and liming value of the bio-char. [4]. Cation exchange capacity Bio-chars can potentially increase the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils especially for highly weathered, nutrient-poor sandy soils; however, this is dependent on bio-char properties and aging of applied bio-char in the soil.

Feedstock and pyrolysis conditions Feedstock and pyrolysis conditions are the most important factors controlling the physical and chemical properties of the resulting bio-char. The process by which a bio-char is produced is an important factor influencing its quality.

25

Biochar- A better use of Biomass for Agronomic and Environmental Management

Table 2: Summary of total elemental composition (C, N, C:N, P, K, available P and mineral N) and pH ranges and means of bio-chars from a variety of feed stocks ( adapted from [5]) pH

Range 905 Mean

From

6.2

to

9.6 8.1

C

N

(g/kg)

(g/kg)

172

1.7

543

C:N

P

Pa

K

CEC

(g/kg)

(g/kg)

(g/kg)

(cmolc /g)

7

0.2

0.015

1.0

O

78.2

500

73.0

11.6

58

40

22.3

61

23.7

-

24.3

-

Biochar's physical and chemical characteristics may significantly alter key soil physical properties and processes and are, therefore, important to consider prior to its application to soil.

especially on sloping terrain or where very intense rainfall events occur.

Bio-Char for Agronomic Management

Factor Cation Exchange Capacity Fertilizer Efficiency Liming Agent

Table 3: Bio-char properties in soil

The application rate for bio-char depends on the specific soil type and crop management. Bio-char applications of between 5 and 20 percent by volume of soil have consistently yielded positive and noticeable results on crop growth. In the published literature, several studies have reported positive effects of bio-char application on crop yields with rates of 5-50 tons of bio-char per hectare, with appropriate nutrient management. Bio-char can also be applied incrementally and incorporated with fertilizer regimens or compost applications. This is a large range, but often when several rates are used, the plots with the higher bio-char application rate show better results. Increase in crop yield to the tune of 45– 250% has been reported by application of bio-char along with chemical fertilizers [6]

Soil Moisture Retention Crop productivity Methane Emission Nitrous Oxide Emissions Reduced Bulk Density Mycorrhizal Fungi Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Bio-char is brittle in nature, having fine particles and is dependent on technology used for pyrolysis. With these small particles, it is important to apply bio-char in ways that minimize losses due to wind or water erosion. A best management practice to reduce wind losses is to moisten bio-char. So it will be helpful to apply bio-char during mild rain conditions where light rain will dampen bio-char dust and hold it on the soil surface. Bio-char can also be mixed with liquid manures and applied as slurry. With this type of application dust problems would be addressed [7]. Bio-char from soil also lost by water flowing along slop, so, best management practice to address this problem is properly incorporate bio-char into soil,

Impact 50% Increase

Source (Glaser,2002)

10-30 % Increase 1 Point pH Increase Up to 18 % Increase 20-120% Increase 100% Decrease 50 % Decrease Soil Dependent 40 % Increase 50-72% Increase

( Gaunt and Cowie, 2009) ( Lehman, 2006) (Tryon, 1948) (Lehman and Rondon, 2006) (Rondon et al, 2005) (Yanai,2007; Renner, 2007) (Laird, 2008) (Warnock, 2007) (Lehman and Rondon, 2006)

Fig 2 Courtesy: Broadcasting and incorporating Bio-char by hand. 26


Bio-char for Environmental management Carbon dioxide has increased by 31% from 280 ppmv in 1850 to 380 ppmv in 2004, and since 1980 is increasing at the rate of 1.5 ppmv year -1 or 0.4% year -1 . The rise in CO2 corresponds with land clearing, land use change, and most importantly, the use of fossil fuels, all of which are the result of human activities. The findings of a recent modelling study [9] reported that bio-char amendments to soil, when carried out sustainably, may annually sequester an amount of C equal to 12% the current anthropogenic CO2 emissions. They estimate that the maximum sustainable technical potential for carbon abatement from bio-char is 1-1.8 Gt C per year by 2050. Hence, bio-char can be an important component of a global response to carbon abatement, through the challenges of achieving such a large-scale utilization of bio-char would be considerable. Bio-char provides a stable and inert form of carbon sequestration which is potentially long-term and substantial, with a low risk of return into the atmosphere [10]. Production of biochar and its incorporation into temperate soils is a relatively novel concept for establishing a long-term sink for atmospheric CO2 storage. Research on the Amazon Basin‟s Terra Preta soils and naturally occurring bio-char from forest and grassland fires implies that bio-char can persist for millennia with very little decay. Laboratory studies estimate that bio-char has a mean residence time in soils on the order of 1300–4000 years (Cheng et al. 2008, Liang et al. 2008).

Fig 3 Bio-char incorporation by tractor Uses of bio-char [8] The cascaded use of bio-char in animal farming: Silage agent, Feed additive / supplement, Litter additive, Slurry treatment, Manure composting, Water treatment in fish farming. Use as a soil conditioner: Carbon fertiliser, Compost, Substitute for peat in potting soil, Plant protection, Compensatory fertiliser for trace elements. Use in the building sector: Insulation, Air decontamination, Decontamination of earth foundations, Humidity regulation, Protection against electromagnetic radiation (“electrosmog”) Decontamination: Soil additive for soil remediation [for use in particular on former mineworks, military bases and landfill sites, Soil substrates [highly adsorbing, plantable soil substrates for use in cleaning waste water; in particular urban waste water contaminated by heavy metals] , A barrier preventing pesticides getting into surface water, Treating pond and lake water [Biochar is good for adsorbing pesticides and fertilizers, as well as for improving water aeration.

There is great potential for bio-char production and application to have positive outcomes through carbon sequestration, biofuel production and improved soil health. However, there are substantial knowledge gaps which require further research to ensure its safe production and use.

Biogas production: Biomass additive, Biogas slurry treatment The treatment of waste water: Active carbon filter, Pre-rinsing additive, Soil substrate for organic plant beds, Composting toilets, The treatment of drinking water: Micro-filters, Macro-filters in developing countries Fig 4 Sustainable Bio-char concept (Source: Ref [9]) 27

Biochar- A better use of Biomass for Agronomic and Environmental Management

Conclusion

[4] Johannes Lehmanna,, Matthias C. Rillig, Janice Thies, Caroline A. Masiello, William C. Hockaday, David Crowley (2011) “Biochar effects on soil biota e A review” Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 43(9) :18121836. [5] F. Verheijen, S. Jeffery, A.C. Bastos, M. van der Velde, I. Diafas, (2010) “Biochar Application to Soils:A Critical Scientific Review of Effects on Soil Properties, Processes and Functions”,JRC Scientific and Technical report.: 1-166. [6] Pramod Jha, A. K. Biswas, B. L. Lakaria and A. Subba Rao (20101), “Bio-char in agriculture – prospects and related implications”, Current Science, 99 (9,10) :1218-1225 [7] Julie Major, (2010) “Guidelines on Practical Aspects of Bio-char Application to Field Soil in Various Soil Management Systems”. [8] Hans-Peter Schmidt (2012), “55 uses of Bio-char”, Ithaka journal, 286-289. [9] Woolf, D., Amonette, J.E., Street-Perrott, F.A., Lehmann, J., Joseph, S., 2010 “Sustainable bio-char to mitigate global climate change”, Nature communication : 1-56. [10] Christopher J. Atkinson , Jean D. Fitzgerald & Neil A. Hipps ( 2010),“Potential mechanisms for achieving agricultural benefits from biochar application to temperate soils: a review”, Plant Soil 337:1–18

Bio-char is emerging as a sustainable option for management of waste biomass, that otherwise burnt or kept for decomposition in field. Quantity, quality, and distribution of bio-char should be considered when it is used as a soil management tool. Bio-char for improving soil health and for carbon sequestration is great. Though, Bio-char has a vast application in soil, due to some constraint, much research and development is required to determine best management practices for incorporation of bio-char in soil with the intension of agricultural and environmental management. References [1] Murali S, Shrivastava R, Saxena M., 2010, “Green house gas emissions from open field burning of agricultural residues in India”, J of Environmental science engineering, Oct; 52(4):277-84 [2] Anonymous, “Management of Crop Residues in the Context of Conservation Agriculture”. [3] Downie A, Crosky A, Munroe P (2009) Physical properties of biochar. Chapter 2. In: Lehmann J, Joseph S, Bio-char for environmental management science and technology. Earthscan, London, pp 13–32

28

Biochar Characteristic of Mustard Stalk Produced at Different Pyrolysis Conditions 1

Anita Singh, 2Anil Kumar Dubey, 3A.K.Biswas and 4Rashmi Singhai 1 Research Scholar, Barkatullah University, Bhopal (India) 2 . Principal Scientist, Agriculture Energy and Power Division, CIAE, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 3 Principal Scientist and HOD, Div. of Soil Chemistry and Fertility, IISS, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 4 Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, RIE, Shamla Hills, Bhopal 1 [email protected] Abstract GHGs viz. methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide Reduction of green house gases in environment is by adopting low carbon technologies. Fuel-use for one of the renewable energy technologies enhancing various agricultural operations and burning of crop carbon sequestration through improved agriculture residues are the other sources of carbon dioxide and energy production. Biochar produced by emissions. Generally, residues from nine crops (rice, pyrolysis plays an important tool in fighting climate wheat, cotton, maize, millet, sugarcane, jute, change, which prevents the release of carbon dioxide rapeseed-mustard and groundnut) are burnt in the emissions back into the climate. Burning of crop field. Burning of crop residues emitted 6606.00 residues give rise to emission of green house gases. thousand tons of CO2 equivalent, of which 226.00 Large quantities of mustard stalk produced in India thousand tons is CH4 and 6.00 thousand tons is N2O each year and their residues are burnt in the field and [1]. For sustainable development of India following thus polluting the environment. Conversion of issues such as developing clean, renewable energy mustard straw to biochar is therefore necessary to and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are preserve the carbon and to make the environment very important. clean. Mustard stalk is a valuable biomass, not only because For this study, mustard stalk with particle size it is an agricultural residue, but also because it is very between 0.7 to 1.4 mm were pyrolysed with a heating abundant. In India, the annual production of mustard rate of 10°C min-1 at different temperatures (ranged from 2006 to 2010 was about 59.58 million tones. from 250°C to 500°C) and three residence times (1,2 For every metric ton of grain harvested, about 6.82 and 3 hours) in a temperature controlled oven. The metric tons of mustard stalks remains in the field [2]. pH and EC of the biochar was determined. Besides Therefore, there is about 2 million metric tons of pyrolysis product yield and carbon content after each mustard stalks generated every year, so it is abundant pyrolysis process was determined. in India. Traditionally, most of the mustard stalk left on farmland was directly burned without proper Biochar yield decreased whereas pH, EC and biochar disposal, causing severe air pollution, damaging carbon content increased with increasing pyrolysis scenery and wasting a source of renewable energy. temperature. Our results showed that pyrolysis Therefore, it is necessary that it be converted into temperature had a greater influence than the valuable products like biochar to clear the mustard residence time on the properties of biochar made field and at the same time preserve the carbon from mustard stalk. The produced biochar could be a content. good source of carbon sink resulting in reduction in carbon intensity emission. Biochar, the carbon-rich product of biomass carbonization under limited oxygen supply, has Keywords: Biochar, pyrolysis temperature, retention attracted attention due to its ability for long-term time, renewable energy improvement of physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. It is distinguished from charcoal by its use as a soil amendment [3]. Specifically, biochar Introduction may improve water infiltration [4], soil water Global warming is a prominent environmental issue retention, ion exchange capacity and nutrient of the twenty-first century. Several of the human retention [5], pH [6], and improve N use efficiency activities are considerably increasing concentration of [7]. The main characteristic of biochar is its stability greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. in soil due to the chemical recalcitrance of its Agriculture has the potential to mitigate emission of structure, mainly formed by aromatic and 29


heterocyclic C [8]. Biochar is used as environmental and agricultural applications and [9, 10] recognized as a high efficient and low-cost sorbent for pollutants [11, 12 and 13]. As a soil amendment, application of biochar to soil is an approach to sequester carbon [14] and to possibly reduce or suppress CO2, CH4 and N2O emissions [15]. Thus, the biochar production has received considerable interest as a potential tool to slow the global warming [16] by adding biochar to soil creates an important opportunity to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. The long residence time of biochar in soil makes it an important C sequestration tool. During the conversion of biomass to biochar, about 50% of the original C is retained in the biochar, and providing a net soil carbon sinks [17]. However, the properties of biochar are varied by the production parameter conditions (e.g., temperature, heating rate, pressure, purge gas and particle size) and choice of feedstock. During pyrolysis, biochar yield [18], physical [19], and chemical properties [20] depend on the condition used as well as the composition of the feedstock biomass. Therefore, the operating conditions of the pyrolysis process can be adjusted to meet the product necessities, however the actual method needs to be carefully designed and perform. The use of biochar for agriculture to identify which biochar increases yield in short and long term as soil health for a given crop and soil. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the characteristic of biochar made from mustard stalk at different pyrolysis conditions and illustrate for its application in to soil.

Results and Discussions Biochar yield The effect of pyrolysis temperature and retention time on the biochar yield is shown in Fig.1. The yield of biochar decreases with an increase of pyrolysis temperature and retention time. The decrease in the biochar yields with increasing temperature could either be due to greater primary decomposition or through secondary decomposition of char residues. The high yield of biochar at low temperatures indicates that the material has been only partially pyrolysed. At a 250 oC, the yields of biochar changed from 65.8% to 60.4%(5.4% change) as the retention time increased from 1 to 3 hours; however, at 500 oC, the biochar yield showed only 3.9% change for the some increase in retention time. Carbon content The carbon content present in biochar produced at different temperature and retention time were analyzed. As the pyrolysis temperature increased from 250 to 500 oC, the carbon content of the biochars increased from 72.62 to 76.56% were achieved for biochar pyrolysis at 500 oC in this study. At 250 oC, the carbon content changed from 52.63 to 56.32%) as the retention time increased from 1 to 3 hours whereas carbon content increased from 61.45 to 66.23% and 65.23 to 69.86% at 350 and 400 oC respectively. The change in carbon content of biochar produced from mustard stalk with increase in temperature and retention time is shown in fig.2.

Materials and Methods Material and Sample Preparation Mustard stalk was collected from the farm field. Prior to use, the mustard stalk was air dried and grounded in hammer mill. The production of biochar from mustard stalk has been sieved to uniform particle size ranging from 0.7-1.4 mm.

pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) The pH and EC values of the biochars made from mustard stalk at different temperatures and retention time were measured. With increase in pyrolytic temperature and retention time, the value of pH and EC increases. The pH of the biochars was between7.4 to 10.05. Similarly, the EC of biochar was found to be increasing from 7.7 to 9.9 mS cm–1 with increase in temperature of biochar from 250oC to 500oC at retention time of 60 minutes. With the increase in retention ti0me from 120 to 180 minutes, EC of biochar were between 8.0 to 10.2 mS cm–1 and 8.3 to 10.9 mS cm–1, respectively at 250, 300, 350, 400, 450 and 500 oC. The increase in values of pH was possibly due to the formation of oxides of metal and release of CO2, NO2 and SO2..

Pyrolysis Experiment Pyrolysis experiments were performed with biomass samples in a temperature-controlled oven at 250, 300, 350, 400,450 and 500 oC. The heating rate was maintained at 10°C min-1. The temperature of the reactor was determined by inserting a thermocouple in the temperature-controlled oven. Once the required temperature reached inside the reactor, it was maintained for at least one, two and three hours until no further release of gas was observed using a slow pyrolysis process. After each experiment the biochar yield was obtained from the final weight of the char. 30

Biochar Characteristic of Mustard Stalk Produced at Different Pyrolysis Conditions

70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20

After 1 hr %Recovery

Yield of Biochar,%

After 2 hr %Recovery After 3 hr %Recovery

250

300

350

400 450 Temperature,oC

500

Fig.1 Effect of pyrolysis temperature and retention time on yield of biochar

Carbon content,%

80

After 1 hr Carbon content

75 70 65 60 55 50 250

300

350

400

450

500

Temperature, o C Fig.2 The effect of carbon content of with increase in temperature and retention time

Acknowledgement We sincerely thank the director of CIAE and Director of IISS Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer Welfare, Government of India. Nabibagh Bhopal for providing facilities to carry out this work.

Conclusion Pyrolysis studies indicated that a good quality biochar could be produced from mustard stalk, which is only used for the purpose of burning. Biochar produced from mustard stalk at 400oC to 450oC considering the pH and EC of biochar can be effectively used for the preparation of activated carbon. Biochars obtained at high pyrolysis temperatures (500 oC) are suitable for direct use in application of fuel due to their high carbon content, higher retention time and high pH and EC values. Biochars can be evaluated as a source of electricity and energy consumption.

References [1]

http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/publicinformation/Report_INCCA.pdf

[2] http://www.karvycomtrade.com/downloads/karvySpecialR eports/karvysSpecialReports_2010041795630.pdf

[3]

[4]

31

J.Lehmann and S. Joseph, Developing a biochar classification and test methods (Eds), Biochar for EnvironmentalManagement, Earthscan, London, 2009, 107-126. Ayodele et al; Numerical analysis of the impact of charcoal production on soil hydrological behavior, runoff response and erosion susceptibility, Rev. Bras. Cienc. Solo., 2009, pp. 137-145.


[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17] [18]

[19]

[20]

Laird et al; Biochar impact on nutrient leaching from a Midwestern agricultural soil, Geoderma, 2010,158, 436-442. L. Van Zwieten, S. Kimber, S. Morris, K.Y. Chan, A. Downie, J. Rust, S. Joseph, A. Cowie; Effects of biochar from slow pyrolysis of paper mill waste on agronomic performance and soil fertility, Plant Soil, 2010,327, 235–246 Van Zwieten, S. Kimber, A. Downie, S. Morris, S. Petty, J. Rust, K.Y. Chan; A glasshouse study on the interaction of low mineral ash biochar with nitrogen in a sandy soil, Aust. J. Soil Res., 2010, 48, 569-576. J. Lehmann, S. Joseph (Eds.), Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, Earth scan, London (2009), pp. 183– 205 Atkinson et al; Potential mechanisms for achieving agricultural benefits from biochar application to temperate soils: a review, Plant Soil, 2010, 337, 118. Beesley et al; A review of biochars’ potential role in the remediation, revegetation and restoration of contaminated soils, Environ. Pollut, 2011, 159, 3269-3282. A. Silber, I. Levkovitch, E.R. Graber; PHdependent mineral release and surface properties of corn straw biochar: agronomic implications, Environ. Sci. Technol., 2010, 44, 9318–9323. 12. K.Sun, K.Ro, M.Guo, J.Novak, H.Mashayekhi, B.Xing; Sorption of bisphenol A, 17α-ethinyl estradiol and phenanthrene on thermally and hydrothermally produced biochars, Bioresour. Technol., 2011, 102, 5757–5763 J. Wang, K. Morishita, T. Takarada; Hightemperature interactions between coal char and mixtures of calcium oxide, quartz, and kaolinite, Energy Fuels,2001, 15, 1145–1152. J. Lehmann, S. Joseph; Biochar for environmental management: an introduction (Ch. 1), J. Lehmann, S. Joseph (Eds.), Biochar For Environmental Management, UK, Earth scan, Gateshead, 2009,1– 9. K.A. Spokas; Review of the stability of biochar in soils: predictability of O: C molar ratios, Carbon Manage., 2010, 1, 289–303. Kwapinski, W., C.M.P. Byrne, E. Kryachko, P.Wolfram, C. Adley, J.J. Leahy, E.H. Novotny,and M.H.B. Hayes, 2010. Biochar from biomass and waste. Waste Biomass Valor 1, pp: 177-189. 17. J. Lehmann., A handful of carbon. Nature, 447 (2007), pp. 143–144. 18.P.T. Williams, S. Besler;The influence of temperature and heating rate on the pyrolysis of biomass, Renew Energy,1996, 7, 233–250. 19. J. Wildman, F. Derbyshire; Origins and functions of macroporosity in activated carbons from coal and wood precursors, Fuel, 1991, 70, 655–661. 20. F. Shafidazeh; Introduction to pyrolysis of biomass, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 1982, 3, 283– 305. 32

Classification of SQL Injection Attacks Using SVM Classifier 1

Priti Sonare, 2Sumit Dhariwal and 3Megha Kamble CSE, Sagar Institute of Research and Technology Excellence , Bhopal 1 [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 1,2,3

uid=‟ „ OR 1=1;‟ (Suspicious Query) more system and approaches has been already outlined for shielding the system from SQL-Injection attack like IDS [18] using DOM-tree comparison of SQL queries, tools for police investigation SQL-Injection attack like Saddler [19] .

Abstract The rapidity of the processes and therefore the quantity of knowledge, while not abundant automation can not be controlled by humans to be utilized in the cyberspace defense and all, it effectively shield against network attacks for dynamic (at the extent of decision-making logic hardwired) to develop software package with ancient set of algorithms, is difficult. SQL Injection attacks on net applications that is square measure susceptible to varied input functions. SQL injection suspect code or knowledge in an exceedingly net application, is injected items revelation of personal data, the believability of the collection of information, theft and assault class, belongs to the fishing grounds. The algorithms available knowledge to mistreatment is the first knowledge information, and is impossible to examine the code or style aspects of the dataset and the proper coaching of the disabled methods and techniques is tried this paper where the authors have tried to predict classification and SQL injection attacks, SVM (support vector machine) can be used. Our projected algorithmic program, SQL injection attack detection accuracy, is incredibly smart, and therefore, the highest among existing SQL injection detection technique which is in use. Keywords: SQL Injection, Database Authentication, SQL SVM, IDS, SQLIA.

Operating principal of net application is as follows Web application is requested through an online browser by a user. The HTTP types of protocol accept an invitation of user and sent to the targeted net server. Server executes the request received many program generates an output and sent back to the user via HTTP. Current states of User, net server and their execution report area unit maintained by a special unit known as cookies and Support Vector Machine the term SVM[13] is typically used to describe classification with support vector methods and support vector regression, is used to describe regression with support vector methods. SVM is a useful technique, for data classification, the classification problem can be restricted to consideration of the two-class problem, without loss of generality. In this problem the goal is to separate the two classes by a function which is induced from available examples. The goal is to produce a classifier that will work well on unseen examples, i.e. it generalizes well. Considering the example in fig. 1. Here there are many possible linear classifiers that can separate the data, but there is only one that maximizes the margin (maximizes the distance between it and the nearest data point of each class). This linear classifier is termed the optimal separating hyper plane. Intuitively, we would expect this boundary to generalize well as opposed to the other possible boundaries.

Security,

Introduction So many types of information means database area unit out there for net application functionalities like Oracle, My SQL, MS-Access, SQL-Serve. All knowledge base have their own structure and functions for storing data. Execution of information application happens by Structured question Language Example:- choose * from SCOLLEGE wherever uid=‟1‟; (Original Query) User input is equipped through net application interface, then more dead one’s through out there modules or codes of databases. If correct input validation, syntax validation, secure committal to writing work, secure guideline for net coming up, which is not followed, malicious code may well be injected in information. Example:- choose * from SCOLLEGE wherever

Fig.1. Optimal Separating Hyper Plane 33


A classification task usually involves with training and testing data which consist of some data instances. Each instance in the training set contains one “target value" (class labels) and several “attributes" (features). The goal of SVM is to produce a model which predicts target value of data instances in the testing set which are given only the attributes.

Set randomisation [1][3] outlined a framework that enables developers to form SQL queries exploitation randomised keywords rather than the conventional SQL keywords. Marocpval et. al. [11], projected a Swaddler that, analyzes the inner state of an online application and learns the relationships between the applications vital execution points and therefore the applications internal state. NTAGW ABIRA Lambert and KANG Song Lin[12] proposes a string tokenizer that, creates tokens of original question and sqlinjected question, and creates array of tokens of each the initial and injected question ,if length of arrays of each question is found equal ,that means no sqlinjection., Otherwise there is injection. The mechanism to stay track of the positive taints and negative taints is projected by Willson G.J. Halfond, Alessandro Orso, Panagiotis Manolios [10], Defensive Programming [11][12] has given a approach for Programmers by that they will implement their own input filters or use existing safe API s that stop malicious input or that convert malicious input in to safer input. Vulnerability pattern approach is employed by Livshahnt and Lam [8], they propose static analysis approach for locating the SQL injection attack. The most problems with this technique, is that it cannot observe the SQL injection attacks patterns that do not seem to beforehand. Vulnerability patterns are represented here during this approach. AMNESIA mechanism to forestall SQL injection at run time is projected by William G.J. Halfond and Alessandro Orso [9]. It uses a model primarily based approach to observe unlawful queries before it sends for execution to information. The mechanism that filters the SQL Injection in a very static manner is projected by Buehrer et. al. [7]. The SQL statements by examination the break down tree of a SQL statement before and when input and solely permitting to SQL statements to execute if the break down trees match. Static analysis framework (called SAFELI) has been projected by Xiang Fu et. al. [5], for distinctive SIA (SQL Injection attacks) vulnerabilities at execution time.

To attain this goal, there are four different kernel functions. 1. 2.

Linear: K(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) = 𝑥𝑖𝑇 𝑥𝑗 Polynomial: The polynomial kernel of degree d is of the form. K (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) = ( 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 )

3. RBF: The Gaussian kernel, known also as the radial basis function, is of the form K (𝑋𝑖 , 𝑋𝑗 ) =exp (-

(𝑥 𝑖 , 𝑥 𝑗 ) 2𝜎 2

)

4. Sigmoid: The sigmoid kernel is of the form K (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) =tanh(k ( 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 ) + r) The RBF kernel nonlinearly maps samples into a higher dimensional space, so it, unlike the linear kernel, can handle the case when the relation between class labels and attributes is nonlinear. Furthermore, the linear kernel is a special case of RBF show that the linear kernel with a penalty parameter C has the same performance as the RBF kernel with some parameters (C, r). In addition, the sigmoid kernel behaves like RBF for certain parameters. The authors in their research, have used a unique concept of determining the SQL-injection attack using SVM (Support Vector Machine). Classification of Suspicious query is done by analyzing the datasets of Original query and suspicious query. Classifies learns the dataset and according to learning procedure, it classifies the queries. Appropriate classification occurs in our system because of best learning approaches and by designing concerns. Related Work The supported of Novel-specification primarily based methodology projected by Konstantinos et. al. [6], they given a mechanism to observe SQL work for this approach utilizes specifications that outline the meant syntactical structure of SQL queries that are made and dead by the web-application. Instruction–

The ASCII text file information are often analyzed by SAFELI and can be made ready to establish terribly delicate vulnerabilities that can not be discovered by black-box vulnerability scanners scott and Sharp Proxy filter [1] [2], this system are often effective 34

Classification of SQL Injection Attacks Using SVM Classifier

against SQLIA; they used a proxy to filter knowledge input file computer file} and output data streams for an online application, although properly specify filtering rules for every application is needed by the developers to input. Proposed Technique ➢ Make and choose a reasonable amount as the training set. ➢ Input the SQL-Query string. ➢ To generate a model Feed the training set into the SVM-Train process

Fig. 2 FPR Different size of dataset is trained and their detection time is calculated, result is shown below in fig. 3

➢ Now we are ready to make prediction made according to Classifier created in training process ➢ Using SVM classifier now we can classify the Model ➢ Through Labeled output its give the accuracy of our algorithm. ➢ Repeat input the SQL query string to labeled output till the correct classification precision is achieved. Result For the new proposed technique has been tested on a SQL-query string dataset. For testing dummy of the data set has been created. The dataset has been populated with the records of Original SQL-query string („O‟) and Suspicious SQL-query string („S‟) and was tested, whose results are shown in fig. 2

Fig. 3 - FNR Accuracy and detection time is calculated when different sized dataset is used, result is shown below fig. 4

Detection time (in seconds) is calculated by taking average of 300 queries of Original SQL-query string and 300 queries of suspicious SQL-injection query string. Original query time is 0.01428 and the suspicious query time is taken is 0.01435 is a very efficient to this approaches. Dataset of different size has been taken and accuracy is measured result is shown below in fig. 2

35


Fig. 4 TPR Fig. 7 Accuracy TPR, TNR, FPR, and FNR is calculated at different data size, result is shown below

As from the result shown above ,the it is found that, when data size increase detection time also increases but accuracy is increased. TPR, TNR, FPR and FNR also shows the accuracy is and efficiency of our system accuracy of proposed system is 97.89 % As shown in fig. 10 and which is the highest among the existing sql-Injection detection techniques. Conclusion The authors’ concept provided a secure application, based classification of original and suspicious query strings using SVM. Here dataset of different size is used for training and classification .different parameters like Accuracy, detection time, training time, TPR, TNR, FPR, FNR and the graphical description shows the performance of our system. The system has shown the best performance result in accuracy which is much better than the best among the existing systems.

Fig. 5 TNR

References [1]. A Classification of SQL Inject ion At tacks and Countermeasures: William G.J. Hal Fond and Alessandro Orso, College of Computing, Georgia Institute of Technology.Gatech.edu. [2]. D. Scott and R. Sharp, “Abstracting Application-level Web Security”, In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on the World Wide Web (WWW 2002), Pages 396–407, 2002.Y. Huang, F. Yu, C. Hang, C. H. Tsai, D. T. Lee, and S. Y. Kuo. [3]. “Securing Web Application Code by Static Analysis and Runtime Protection”, In Proceedings of the 12th International World Wide Web Conference (WWW 04), May 2004.

Fig. 6 Accuracy 36

Classification of SQL Injection Attacks Using SVM Classifier

[4]. SQL Injection Attack Examples based on the Taxonomy of Orso et al. [5]. Xiang Fu, Xin Lu, Boris Peltsverger , Shijun Chen, "A Static Analysis Framework For Detecting SQL Injection Vulnerabilities", IEEE Transaction of computer software and application conference, 2007. [6]. Konstantinos Kemalis and Theodoros Tzouramanis, "Specification based approach on SQL Injection detection", ACM, 2008. [7]. G.T. Buehrer, B.W.Weide and P.A..G.Sivilotti, "Using Parse tree validation to prevent SQL Injection attacks", In proc. Of the 5th International Workshop on Software Engineering and Middleware(SEM '056), Pages 106-113, Sep. 2005. [8]. V.B. Livshits and M.S. Lam, "Finding Security vulnerability in java applications with static analysis", In proceedings of the 14th Usenix Security Symposium, Aug 2005. [9]. William G.J. Halfond, Alessandro Orso, Panagiotis Manolios, "WASP: Protecting Web Applications Using Positive Tainting and Syntax-Aware Evaluation", IEEE Transaction of Software Engineering Vol34Nol, January/February 2008. [10]. W.G. J. Halfond and A. Orso, "Combining Static Analysis and Run time monitoring to counter SQL Injection attacks", 3rd International workshop on Dynamic Analysis, St. Louis, Missouri, 2005, pp.1. [11]. Marco Cova, Davide Balzarotti , Viktoria Felmetsger, and Giovanni vigna, " Swaddler: An approach for the anamoly based character distribution models in the detection of SQL Injection attacks", Recent Advances in Intrusion Detection System, Pages 63-86, Springerlink, 2007. [12]. NTAGW ABIRA Lambert and KANG Song Lin ,” Use of Query Tokenization to detect and prevent SQL Injection Attacks”, IEEE,2010. [13]. Vipin Das 1, Vijaya Pathak2, Sattvik Sharma3,Sreevathsan4,MVVNS.Srikanth5,Gireesh Kumar T,” NETWORK INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM BASED ON MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS”, International Journal of Computer Science & Information Technology (IJCSIT), Vol. 2, No. 6, December 2010. [14]. Y. Huang, F. Yu, C. Hang, C. H. Tsai, D. T. Lee, and S. Y. Kuo,”Securing Web Application Code by Static Analysis and RuntimeProtection”. In Proceedings of the 12th International World Wide WebConference (WWW 04), May 2004. [15]. V. B. Livshits and M. S. Lam,” Finding Security Errors in JavaPrograms with Static Analysis”. In Proceedings of the 14th Usenix Security Symposium, Aug. 2005 [16]. V. Haldar, D. Chandra, and M. Franz,”Dynamic Taint Propagationfor Java. In Proceedings 21st Annual Computer Security Applications Conference, Dec. 2005 [17]. M. Martin, B. Livshits, and M. S. Lam,” Finding Application Errorsand Security Flaws Using PQL: A Program Query Language”. In Proceedings of the 20th Annual ACM SIGPLAN conference on Object

oriented programming systems languages and applications(OOPSLA 2005). [18]. A. Nguyen-Tuong, S. Guarnieri, D. Greene, 1. Shirley, and D. Evans, ”Automatically Hardening Web Applications Using Precise Tainting Information”. In Twentieth IFIP International Information Security Conference (SEC 2005), May 2005. [19]. W. R. Cook and S. Rai. Safe Query Objects,” Statically Typed Objects as Remotely Executable Queries”. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE 2005),2005

37

Design and Performance Evaluation of a Biomass Briquette based Throatless Downdraft Gasifier 1

Rajiv Varshney, 2Anil Kumar Dubey, 3J. L. Bhagoria and 4C. R. Mehta 1 Associate Professor, Dept of ME, RITS, Bhopal, 2 Principal Scientist, Agricultural Energy and Power Division, CIAE, Bhopal 3 Professor, Dept of ME, MANIT, Bhopal, 4 Project Coordinator, AICRP on Farm Implements and Machinery, CIAE, Bhopal, 1 [email protected], [email protected] and [email protected] Abstract have been discovered, tested, perfected and are under popularization. The vegetative wastes like Lantana and Besharam have a great potential not only for power production, but also their use will also help in controlling the nuisance of growth of unwanted vegetative material in waste lands. Biomass can be converted into various usable fuels through various processes like gasification, pyrolysis, digestion, fermentation or it can be directly used as solid fuel for combustion. Since there is plenty of agricultural waste, which many times is burnt can be used to produce producer gas by converting loose biomass into briquettes. This may be an attractive alternative option in view of scarcity and high price of petroleum fuel. The modern biomass-based transportation fuels include fuels from bioethanol, fatty acid (m)ethylester, biomethanol biohydrogen and Fischer– Tropsch process. Gasification is a process that converts carbonaceous materials, such as coal, petroleum, biomass into carbon monoxide and hydrogen during reaction of the raw material with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam at high temperatures. The resulting gas mixture is called producer gas (CO + H2 + CH4) and is a useful fuel. Four distinct processes in the gasifier are drying, pyrolysis, combustion and reduction. During the process of gasification of solid carbonaceous material like wood, coal or biomass, the principle chemical reactions are [2,3]

This article focuses on using biomass briquettes for the production of producer gas using a throatless downdraft gasifier. The need for this research is evident due to high pressure on the use of coal and petroleum based fuels which tend to exhaust in the near future. The surplus amount of biomass in India can be utilized for generation of power and heat energy through thermochemical and biological routes. Producer gas which can be obtained through biomass is one of the feasible options that can be used for power generation. There are various problems in using biomass residues directly in a gasifier for gasification like restricted flowability and clinker formation. Therefore, cylindrical briquettes of lantana 60 mm diameter were prepared which are used as fuel for gasifier. A 20 kW downdraft gasifier was designed and fabricated for evaluating the gasifier performance using these briquettes. The optimum efficiency of gasifier was found to be 64.70% at a specific gasification rate and specific gas production rate of 220 kgh-1m-2 and 508 m3kg-1m-2, respectively.

Keywords: Producer gas, gasifier, gasification, biomass Introduction

Combustion reactions: C + 1/2O2 = CO, ∆H = -111 MJ/kmol CO + 1/2O2 = CO2, ∆H = -283 MJ/kmol H2 + 1/2O2 = H2O, ∆H = -242 MJ/kmol

Due to continuous increase in the prices of petroleum based fuels and in international market and their ill effects on the use of some alternative fuel for the power climate necessitate generation. In the year 2009 the total energy supply in the world was 508720 GJ in which contribution of combustible renewable and waste sources was 10% as shown in figures 1.1 and 1.2 [1]. This was much less as compared to oil whose share was about 33%. There is still a scope for the increase in the share of combustible renewable and waste sources as these sources have not been exploited to their full potential. Several feasible technologies in the area of solar, wind and biomass

The Boudouard reaction: C + CO2 ↔ 2CO, ∆H = +172 MJ/kmol The water gas reaction: C + H2O ↔ CO + H2, ∆H = +131 MJ/kmol The methanation reaction: C + 2H2 ↔ CH4, ∆H = -75 MJ/kmol

38

(1) (2) (3)


Reactions from (1)–(3) are the most important reactions in the char-gasification step and both are endothermic reactions. These reactions are reduced to the following two homogeneous gas reactions.

3) High temperature near air tuyers due to influence of high velocity air from tuyres on the char leads to ash softening and clinker formation which in turn reduces the effective area for flow through the reactor, deteriorating the performance of gasifier 4) Thin walled residues when exposed to high temperature can undergo fast pyrolysis due to high surface area available for reaction. This leads to generation of higher amount of tarry components which can condense and cause deposits in pipe lines and downstream elements.

Water–gas shift reaction: CO + H2O ↔ CO2 + H2; ∆H = -41 MJ/kmol The steam methane reforming reaction: CH4 + H2O ↔ CO2 + 3H2; ∆H = +206 MJ/kmol Many researchers have worked on gasification using many other fuels apart from wood. For example, Ahmed and Gupta examined the evolutionary behavior of syngas characteristics evolved during the gasification of cardboard using a batch reactor with steam as a gasifying agent. Evolutionary behavior of syngas chemical composition, mole fractions of hydrogen, CO and CH4, as well as H2/CO ratio, LHV (kJm-3), hydrogen flow rate, and percentage of combustible fuel in the syngas evolved has been examined at different steam to flow rates with fixed mass of waste cardboard [3].

The above findings emphasize the need of densification of loose biomass for enhancing the efficiency of the gasifiers. For using the biomass briquettes as a fuel in gasifier, a special gasifier is designed as tested. Lantana is a perennial shrub whose height reaches from 1 to 4m [7]. These shrubs were crushed in the crusher and its briquettes were prepared for the gasification in the present work.

Bhoi et al. evaluated the performance of a 50 kW open-core down draft gasifier on multi fuels namely sized babool wood pieces, briquettes of groundnut shells, mixture of babool wood pieces and groundnut shells in the ratio of 1:1, loose groundnut shells, and cashew nut shells and recorded respective gasification efficiency of 72, 66, 64, 70 and 70 % and gas yields of 2.75, 2.39, 2.43, 2.76 and 2.76 m3 per kg of fuel. They reported fuel flow problems in reactor during gasification of loose groundnut shells. They overcome the flow problem by using 1:1 weight ratio mixture of groundnut shell and babool wood pieces [4].

Design of Gasifier Jain and Goss designed and tested, four open core throatless batch fed rice husk gasifier reactors having internal diameters of 15.2, 20.3, 24.4 and 34.3 cm were designed and fabricated. They found that for each reactor the gasifier performance was the best at a specific gasification rate of around 192.5 kgh-1m-2. Under the best operating conditions, the equivalence ratio was 0.40 and the gasification efficiency was around 65%. These parameters may be used for designing rice husk operated throatless gasifiers in the capacity range of 3-15 kW. The lower heating value of producer gas under the optimum conditions was about 4 MJ/Nm3 [8].

Singh et al. studied the gasification of cashew nut shells in an open-core down draft gasifier. They reported gasification efficiency of 70 % at a gas flow rate of 130 m3h-1 and specific gasification rate of 167 kgh-1m-2. The product gas comprised of 12.67 % H2, 16.51 % CO, 1.70 % CH4, 50.71 % N2 and 18.41 % CO2 and O2 [5].

While evaluating the downdraft gasifier with rice husk Jain found out optimum values of lower heating value, specific gas production rate and efficiency as 4.5 MJNm-3, 392.04 m3h-1m-2 and 63.6% respectively. The efficiency was found to be maximum for an inner cylinder diameter of 30.3 cm and containment tube diameter of 35.8 cm [9].

Sridhar et al. have described the reasons of not using the biomass residues directly in a gasifier for gasification due to following reasons [6]:

Since, no specific data are available for designing gasifier for the pigeon pea, soybean and lantana stalks, the data generated by different researchers were used to design the diameter and height of the gasifier. For a gasifier of power output of 20 kW the diameter of the grate works out to be 29 cm (say 30 cm).

1) The material movement by gravity is hampered by low bulk density and wall friction 2) Tunneling of air may occur by the creation of a hole in the bed which can affect the gas quality 39

Design and Performance Evaluation of a Biomass Briquette based Throatless Downdraft Gasifier

feed rate. The gasifier was fed with briquettes and placed on a weighing machine. Initial weight (without water trough) was taken (W1g). After completion of the test, the weight of the gasifier (without water trough) was also taken (W2g). The time taken for the test run of gasifier was recorded. The gasification feed rate was calculated as follows:

Experimental Set Up An experimental set-up was developed to study the gasification characteristics of briquettes. The test setup comprised of a developed closed top down draft reactor, a gas cleaning and cooling unit, an orifice meter and a motorized 0.746 kW suction blower and a burner, all connected in series as shown in fig.1. The test set-up had provision for measurement of fuel bed temperature at different locations, gas flow rate and pressure, gas sampling for determination of raw gas contaminants and calorific value of clean producer gas.

𝑭𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 =

𝑾𝟏𝒈 − 𝑾𝟐𝒈 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

2. Gas flow rate Gas flow rate of average gas production was measured during the test run period. The observed gas flow rate was converted at normal temperature and pressure conditions. The pressure drop across the orifice was recorded after every twenty minutes with the help of a U- tube manometer. Pressure drop across the orifice was measured for a specific run, and used for calculation of gas production rate. 3. Junker’s calorimeter was used in line, just after the valve for measuring the calorific value of producer gas 4. Specific gasification rate [Mass of biomass used (kgh-1)/ cross section area of the grate (m2)] 5. Specific gas production rate [Rate of gas production (m3h-1)/ cross section area of grate (m2)] 6. Gasification efficiency [Amount of gas produced × calorific value of gas/ (quantity of biomass used × calorific value of biomass)]

A closed top downdraft reactor was designed, fabricated and used in the experimental set-up. The gasifier was provided with a grate placed on a watersealing trough which can be manually rotated frequently with the help of a specially designed handle. Air tuyers were provided on the periphery of the gasifier cylinder at a height of 45 cm from the grate. Three filters were used for cleaning and cooling. The Tawde Pollutech India Pvt. Ltd make centrifugal blower was used in the suction mode. The capacity of blower was 1000 m3 h-1. The blower was used in the suction mode to suck the air through air tuyer for proper gasification. The suction capacity was regulated with the help of a valve during the operation. The rated power of blower was 746 W with a rated speed of 2880 rpm. A producer gas burner of 25 cm diameter and 20 cm height was developed for getting flame. The holes of 4 mm diameter were made in the inner part of the burner for the flow of the producer gas.

Results and Discussions (i) Dimensions Since the dies were made of exact size of 60 mm, the average diameter of the briquettes was same as that of dies. However, the briquettes were broken to obtain proper size for good flow ability the length of the briquettes varied from 95 to 103 mm. (ii) Bulk density

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental setup for gasification

Bulk density is a very important parameter as it determines the storing area for the feedstock as well as the size of the hopper of the gasifier. Bulk density of stalks was more than the bulk density of ground material due to less pore space in the ground material. The density and bulk density of 60 mm diameter lantana briquette were 1145.42 kg/m3 and 457.24 kg/m3, respectively.

Performance Evaluation Following parameters were measured during the operation of the gasifier: 1. The average consumption of briquettes during the test run period was measured as gasifier 40


(iii) Calorific value of raw biomass and briquettes

References

Calorific value is very important parameter to decide the heating value of raw fuel and the resultant producer gas available from the gasifiers. The calorific value of the stalks of lantana was found to be 16.061 MJKg-1. The calorific value of briquettes was more than the raw biomass as the moisture content and volatile matter per unit mass reduced and quantity of fixed carbon per unit mass increased during briquetting process of the compressive extrusion. The calorific value of briquettes was 17.828 MJKg-1.

[1] [2] [3]

[4]

[5]

(iv) Efficiency of gasifier [6]

The optimum efficiency of gasifier was found to be 64.70% at a specific gasification rate and specific gas production rate of 220 kgh-1m-2 and 508 m3kg-1m-2, respectively as shown in figure 2. The efficiency of the gasifier increases with the increase in specific gasification rate, reaches an optimum value and then decreases. This trend is in line with the literature.

[7]

[8] 70

[9]

65

Efficeincy, %

60

55

50

45

40 205

210

215

220

225

230

235

240

Specific gasification rate, kgh-1m-2

Fig 2. Effect of specific gasification rate on efficiency of gasifier Conclusion 1.

2.

3.

4.

The best length for 60 mm diameter lantana briquettes for the gasifer was found to be 100 mm due to better flowability and gasifier efficiency. The density and bulk density of 60 mm diameter lantana briquettes were 1145.42 kg/m3 and 457.24 kg/m3, respectively. The caloric value of the briquettes and producer gas were 17.828 MJkg-1 and 5.02 MJm-3, respectively. The efficiency of gasifier was found to be 64.70% at a specific gasification rate and specific gas production rate of 220 kgh-1m-2 and 508 m3kg-1m-2, respectively 41

Key World Energy Statistics, The International Energy Agency, 2011. Higman C, van der Burgt M. Gasification. Elsevier Science; 2003. Ahmed I., Gupta A.K., Evolution of syngas from cardboard gasification, Applied Energy 86 (2009) 1732–1740. Bhoi R.P., Singh R.N., Sharma A.M., and Patel S.R., Performance evaluation of open core gasifier on multi fuels, Biomass and Bio-energy, 30(2006) 575 579. Singh R.N., Jena U., Patel J.B. and Sharma A.M. Feasibility study of cashewnut shells as an open core gasifier feed stock, Renewable Energy 31(2006)481487. Sridhar H.V., Sridhar G., Dasappa S., Rajan N.K.S. and Paul P.J., Experience of using various biomass briquettes in IBG (IISc Bioresidue Gasifier), Proceedings of 14th European Biomass Conference & Exhibition Biomass for Energy, Industry and Climate Protection (2005) 749-752. Holloway, Joel Ellis; Amanda Neill, A Dictionary of Common Wildflowers of Texas & the Southern Great Plains. TCU Press. (2005) 88 Jain A.K., Goss J.R., Determination of reactor scaling factors for throatless rice husk gasifier, Biomass and Bioenergy 18 (2000) 249-256. Jain A.K., Design parameters for a rice husk throatless gasifier reactor, Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal, Manuscript EE 05 012. Vol VIII, (May 2006)

Development of Combustion Chamber for Briquetting Fuel 1

1

Gajanan Wasu, 2Mahadev Kardiwar, 3Anil Kumar Dubey Senior Research Fellow, 3Principal Scientist (AEP), Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal, MP-462038 2 M.Tech Student, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukha Krushi Vidyapieath, Akola, MH-444005 [3]. The majority of solid fuel researches have been channeled towards reducing the negative effects of solid fuel thermal conversion. One such initiative is the promotion of co-firing options with biomass waste material [7, 8, 9].

Abstract Development of combustion chamber is done in Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering for utilizing waste crop residue and forest waste biomass residue by making its briquettes and used it as an alternative to wood in combustion chamber. The main goal of improved combustion chamber is to reduce the pressure placed on local forests by reducing the amount of wood the stoves consume. Performance of combustion chamber on briquettes is very good in term of smokeless combustion after start up. The flame reached up to temperature of 1038 °C. The air flow rate is directly proportional to flame temperature and biomass consumption.

In order to make a biomass material available for a variety of applications, the challenges with the use in their original form must be resolved. Because of high moisture content, irregular shapes and sizes, and low density, biomass waste is very difficult to handle, transport, store and utilize. One solution is to densify the biomass material into pellets or briquettes [6]. Briquettes can be produced with a density of 1.2 g/cm³ from loose biomass of bulk density 0.1 to 0.2 g/cm³. These can be burnt clean and therefore are eco-friendly and also those advantages that are associated with the use of biomass are present in the briquettes. Briquettes can either be burnt in woodstoves or in specially designed stoves. In terms of briquette combustion, the effect of density on the burn rate of briquettes has been investigated by ChinChin et al. [10].

Keywords: briquettes, producer gas, combustion chamber Introduction

These findings have led researchers to continue to develop the guidelines for manufacturing processes for fuel briquettes made from biomass material. Currently, full scale utilization of biomass briquettes is in biomass stoves for domestic applications and in industrial grade boilers for power plants [4, 5].

Fossil fuel price increase day by day with respect to global issues of sustainable energy and reduction in greenhouse gases, biomass energy as one of the key sources of renewable energy is getting attention. Energy is key factor for the progress of a nation and it has to be conserved in a most efficient manner. Energy should be produced in most environment friendly manner from all varieties of fuel as well as should be conserved efficiently. The use of Renewable energy technology has been steadily increasing as to meet demand [1]. Inefficient and excessive usage of firewood results in emission of toxic gases like carbon monoxide and damages the indoor air quality adversely which affects the health of the workmen, especially the women and children. Sample studies conducted by Inspire Network for Environment, indicated a dangerously high level of carbon monoxide concentration in the ambient near the cooking area.

Methodology System Description Biomass combustion chamber was fabricated at the department of agriculture energy and power (AEP) division, workshop at CIAE, Bhopal to meet the determined characteristics of biomass briquette. The schematic diagram of biomass combustion chamber is shown in Fig 1. The biomass combustion chamber consists of well insulated cylindrical reactor, cast iron grate and five air nozzles at diameter 15 mm each. Air supplied to five air nozzle. Each air channel supplies air to provide a circular pipe connected to air nozzle around the combustion chamber, from each circular distributor pipes, equal distributed supply air, by blower to the combustion chamber. Air nozzle is placed at 10 cm above the grate. The diameter of the grate was 50 cm. The grate was positioned at a distance of 10 cm above the bottom end of the

Biomass is the most interesting and emerging option to supply future energy demands. Although not all biomass can be used to generate electricity, only small fraction of it can be utilized to produce substantial amount of energy [2]. In India, biomass fuels dominate the rural energy consumption patterns, accounting for over 80% of total energy consumed 42


combustion chamber. The reactor is a mild steel (IS2062) cylinder having outer diameter about 55 cm, height about 50 cm and inner diameter of 50 cm. Heat is transferred by conduction through the walls of the combustion chamber. Consequently, by improving the insulation of the combustion chamber, a higher combustion chamber temperature can be achieved. In order to minimize heat losses critical insulation at inner side of combustion chamber with 2.5 mm thickness of insulate 11 insulating refectory cast able (from Ace Calderys Ltd.) was held by mild steel anchors welded to the inner shell of the combustion chamber.

duration of ignition required about 6 to 9 minutes required for flame formation. Soybean and Lantana biomass briquettes were the main fuels used in the studies. The briquettes were available in cylindrical shape of 60 mm diameter and 25 – 30 cm length. These were used in whole length or cut into small pieces of thickness in range of 25 – 30 cm as required. The measured properties of briquettes are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Properties of Soybean and Lantana Briquettes

Grate The grate in the combustion chamber supports the fuel bed. Grate of the combustion chamber was made from a 12 mm thick MS rod. Was fitted on a circular frame/ring, spacing between two rod 15 mm and was supported on three legs. The grate was a fixed one, which could not be taken out for cleaning. The diameter of the grate was 50 cm. The grate was positioned at a distance of 10 cm above the bottom end of the combustion chamber is shown in Fig 1.

Parameter Moisture content (%) Bulk density (kg/m3) Volatile matter (%) Fixed carbon (%) Ash content (%) Calorific value (kcal/kg)

Study on Combustion Characteristics of Briquette The densification of biomass changes the combustion characteristics, in view of that the combustion characteristics of different types of briquette was studied in a specially designed biomass combustion chamber at different air fuel ratio. In this study, the burning characteristics of crop residues briquettes were studied using a vertical cylindrical combustion chamber. The combustion chamber is an attempt to simulate the actual combustion situation which determines different characteristics of biomass. The combustion characteristics such as flame temp, Biomass fuel consumption, Specific rate of combustion, Flame temperature and air flow rate are determined. The briquettes about 60 mm are used for this study of combustion characteristics. The combustion chamber was tested with two different types of crop residues briquettes i.e. soybean and Lantana briquettes.

Soybean briquette

Lantana briquette

8.75

8.02

595.0

605.4

68.21

71.48

16.46 6.58

10.61 6.72

4520

4248

Fig 1: Schematic diagram of biomass combustion chamber Performance of combustion chamber on soybean briquettes

Result Briquette based combustion chamber

Performance of combustion chamber with soybean briquettes at different airflow rate is given in Table 2. The result indicates that as the air flow rate increases the combustion rate increases and also flame temperature increases. Maximum specific rate of combustion achieved was 83.6 kg/h-m2 with airflow rate of 50 m3/h.

The detail of design of combustion chamber is given in Fig.1. Air for combustion is supplied through blower. Five air nozzles are fitted at equally distributed on combustion chamber above the grate. These air nozzles were connected with circular pipe of uniform flow of air. The velocity of air is measured by a thermal anemometer. The flow rate of air is controlled by a valve, provided at inlet of air supply. Blower was started at the time of ignition. Igniting at the bottom of the chamber with ignition torch, 43

Development of Combustion Chamber for Briquetting Fuel

Table 2: Effect of air flow rate on Combustion chamber for soybean Briquettes Particular Flame Temp. (ºC) Biomass Consumption (Kg/h) Specific Rate of Biomass Consumption (kg/h-m2) Air Fuel Ratio

Conclusion It was found that briquettes were easy to burn and give better combustion than wood in the specially designed combustion chamber in term of smokeless combustion after the start up. The flame reached up to temperature of 1038 ºC. Combustion was very clean due to the perfect burning of volatiles produced from briquettes. Since the density of those briquettes is higher than wood, the amount of air required is correspondingly greater for the same volume of briquettes. The study showed that crop residue briquettes were more suitable for combustion chamber. Air flow rate of combustion chamber is directly proportional to biomass consumption and flame temperature.

Air flow rate (m3/h) 30 40 50 953 1008 1032 14.2

15.3

15.9

74.6

79.2

83.6

2.38

3.19

3.78

References [1] Francois Giravd&Zyiad M Salameh (2011) Steadystate performance of a grid- connected rooftop hybrid wind-photovoltaic power system with battery storage. IEEE Transactions of energy conversion Vol. 16 pp 1 –6 [2] Caputo A. C, Palumbo M, Pelagagge P.M. Scacchia F (2005) Economics of biomass energy utilization in combustion & gasification plants: effect of logistic variable. Biomass & Bioenergy 28 (1) pp 35-51. [3] Ravindranath NH, Hall DO (1995). Biomass, energy and environment: a developing country perspective from India. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1995. [4] Husain Z, Zainac Z, Abdullah Z.(2002).Briquetting of palm fibre and shell from the processing of palm nuts to palm oil, Biomass and Bioenergy 22, pp 505 – 509, [5] Nasrin A. B., Ma A. N., Choo Y. M., Mohamad S., Rohaya M. H.,. Azali A and. Zainal Z, (2008). Oil palm biomass as potential substitution raw materials for commercial biomass briquettes production. Science publication, 5, pp 179-183, [6] Kaliyan N., Morey R. V., (2008) Factors affecting strength and durability of densified biomass products, biomass and bioenergy 33, pp 337-359, [7] Saidur R., Abdelaziz E. A., Demirbas A., Hossain M. S., Mekhilef S., (2008) A review on biomass as a fuel for boilers. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews 15, pp 2262-2289,. [8] Koh M. P., Hoi W. K., (2003) Sustainable biomass production for energy in Malaysia, biomass and bioenergy, 25 pp 517-529, [9] Sasaki N., Knorr W., Foster D. R., Etoh H., Ninomiya H., Chy S., Kim S., Sun S., [10] Ooi Chin Chin, Kamal M. Siddiqui(2000) Characteristics of some biomass briquettes prepared under modest die pressures. Biomass and Bioenergy, Vol 18, Issue 3, PP 223–228

Fig 2: Complete set up of combustion chamber & View of flame formation Performance of combustion chamber on Lantana briquettes Performance of combustion chamber with Lantana briquettes at different airflow rate is given in Table 3. The result indicates that as the air flow rate increases the combustion rate increases and also flame temperature increases. Maximum specific rate of combustion is achieved at 84.5 kg/h-m2 with airflow rate 50 m3/h. Table 3: Effect of air flow rate on Combustion chamber for Lantana Briquettes

Particular Flame Temp. (ºC) Biomass Consumption (Kg/h) Specific Rate of Biomass Consumption (kg/hm2) Air Fuel Ratio

Air flow rate (m3/h) 30 40 50 956 1012 1038 14.3

15.4

16.1

75.2

80.3

84.5

2.39

3.21

3.81

44

Dual Fuel Mode Operation in Diesel Engine Using Producer Gas and Jatropha Biodiesel 1

D. Padhee*, 2H. Raheman 1 Faculty of Agricultural Engineering Indira Gandhi KrishiVishwavidyala, Raipur (Chhattisgarh) *Corresponding Author (email:[email protected]) Among the renewable sources of energy, using only biomass (by using the surplus agricultural residues) more than 16,000 MW of grid quality power can be generated in India with presently available technologies 1. Installation of biomass based power plants for generation off-grid electric power started in the mid1990s. In these power plants, the internal combustion engines were run by high speed diesel (HSD) and producer gas produced from gasifier using biomass as feedstock in dual-fuel mode. However, it has been reported that these systems were producing more of CO 2- 4. It has also been reported by various researchers that reduction in CO emission from diesel engine was possible without affecting the engine performance when it was operated with biodiesel and its blends 5-14. Hence, use of biodiesel or its blends with HSD instead of HSD may overcome the emission problem associated with the power generating systems mentioned above. With this view in mind, a study was undertaken at Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.

Abstract A green power generating system comprising a down draft gasifier and 5.6 kW diesel engine coupled to a 5 KVA AC generator was developed. It was evaluated with high speed diesel (HSD), biodiesel blend (B10) as well as producer gas and B10 in dual fuel mode (B10PG). The producer gas was produced from wood chips. Biodiesel was produced from jatropha oil using a two-step biodiesel production process i.e. acid esterification followed by base transesterification process. The fuel properties of jatropha biodiesel so obtained were well within the American and European standards for biodiesel. The performance and emission parameters of the system such as brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake thermal efficiency (BTE), overall system efficiency (OSE), CO and CO2 were measured at variable loads (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% of load corresponding to load at maximum power) maintaining the rated engine speed (1500 rpm). Minimum BSFC and maximum BTE were observed at 100% engine loading and were 269.95 g/kWh, 31.86%; 346.57 g/kWh, 24% and 279.29 g/kWh, 31% for B10, B10PG and HSD, respectively. Reduction in calorific value of B10PG could be the reason for higher BSFC and lower BTE. The maximum OSE was found to be 25.49%, 19.18% and 24.43% for B10, B10PG and HSD, respectively. As compared to HSD, CO and CO2 emissions for B10PG were found to be 18% higher and 6% lower, respectively whereas for B10, both these emissions were reduced by 9% and 2%, respectively. The increased CO emission with B10PG was due to less oxygen availability, which led to incomplete combustion. The developed system was operating satisfactorily with dual fuel mode and on an average 70% of HSD replacement was possible. Hence, this hybrid system could be proposed for decentralized rural electrification. Keywords: Hybrid power, Jatropha Producer gas, Performance, Emissions

Materials and Methods Power Generating Setup The power generation set-up comprised a 5.6 kW diesel engine coupled to a 5 KVA AC generator and a downdraft gasifier with 12.5 m3/h gas flow rate. The schematic diagram of the existing power generating system is shown in Fig. 1. Wood chips with average length 20 mm and diameter 10 mm were used as feedstock for running the gasifier. The gas outlet was connected to the inlet of engine via water chamber, cyclone separator, primary and secondary filters and a mixing chamber. A mixing chamber having volume equal to the displacement volume of the engine was fixed at air intake to ensure proper mixing of air and producer gas. Ventury sections fitted with U tube manometer were used to measure volumetric flow of gas and air. Control valves were provided to control air and gas flow rates. Load was applied to the generator with the help of load bank i.e. electric heaters. The specifications for engine and generator are given in Table 1.

biodiesel,

Introduction Decentralized and renewable energy sources are required to improve the energy scenario in rural areas. 45


mode and fuel consumption for B10 was recorded. The fuel consumption rate (FCS) was determined noting the corresponding time. Then the engine was operated in dual fuel mode (B10PG) and the B10 consumption (FCD) was determined. The pilot fuel (B10) replacement rate (% PFR) was calculated using Eq. 1.

PFR

FC S FC D FC S

100

(1)

Where, FCS = B10 consumption in single fuel mode, cm3 h-1 FCD = B10 consumption in dual fuel mode, cm3 h-1

Fig 1 Schematic diagram of hybrid power generating unit Table 1. Technical specification of diesel engine and

The fuel properties of jatropha biodiesel and its blends with diesel (B10) used in this study was determined and is summarized in Table 2 along with high speed diesel (HSD). It can be seen from this table that the jatropha biodiesel and its blends (B10) had comparable fuel properties with those of HSD and confirming to the latest American, European standards for biodiesel. The moisture content, heating value and ash content of wood chips used in this study were found to be 9% on dry basis, 12.89 MJ/kg and 3%, respectively.

generator

Table 2. Fuel properties of jatropha oil, jatropha biodiesel, HSD and its blends Result and Discussion Performance Evaluation of Power Generating System

The performance parameters such as brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and exhaust gas temperature (EGT); emission parameters such as CO, and CO2; overall system efficiency (OSE) were determined for HSD in the first phase of 96 h of engine run at five different predetermined loads (no load, 25%, 50%, 75% and full load), applied for specific time and were compared with those of B10 in single fuel mode as well as in dual fuel mode with producer gas (B10PG) in the second and third phase of engine run of 96 h each, respectively. EGT was measured with the help of a temperature sensor while emission parameters such as CO and CO2 were assessed with the help of an Exhaust gas analyzer. The consumption of wood chips was measured using an electronic weighing balance. Initially gasifier was loaded full with wood chips. After every 4 h of operation, the gasifier was loaded up to the top (full) with a weighted quantity of wood. Fuel consumption rate (kg of wood h-1) was estimated from the mass of wood consumption and duration of operation. A graduated auxiliary cylinder connected to the diesel tank through which the diesel was supplied to the engine was used to measure the pilot fuel consumption. Initially the engine was operated with B10 in single fuel

The performance of the power generating system with both single fuel mode (HSD, B10) and dual fuel mode (B10PG) was evaluated in terms of BSFC, BTE, EGT, pilot fuel replacement and SE at different loading conditions of the system.

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) Fuel consumption was measured during all the three phases (96 h each) of operation when the engine was operated with HSD, B10 and B10PG, separately. The variations in BSFC with system load for B10, B10PG and HSD fuels are presented in Fig. 2. For all the three fuels tested, BSFC decreased with increase in system 46

Dual Fuel Mode Operation in Diesel Engine Using Producer Gas and Jatropha Biodiesel

than HSD. This was mainly due to more heat loss and higher fuel consumption. In case of B10PG, percent variation of BTE was decreased with increase in load. This was due to increased volumetric efficiency of engine with increase in engine load.

load. The reason for this reduction could be due to higher percentage of increase in brake power with increase in system load as compared to fuel consumption and lesser percentage of heat loss. B10 had an average of 4.21% higher BSFC at lower loads. The increase in BSFC for B10 fuel was understandable, since B10 had lower heating value than HSD. At full load BSFC of B10 fueled engine was reduced to 3.58% as compared to HSD fueled engine. This could be due to better combustion of B10 because of availability of excess oxygen in biodiesel and less heat loss as compared to HSD for same power output at higher load. Percentage variation in BSFC in case of B10PG was decreased with increase in load; this might be because of reduction of heat losses at higher engine load. The BSFC for B10PG was on an average 35.5% higher than HSD. This might be due to lower heating value of producer gas and higher losses.

BTE of engine, %

40 30 20 HSD

10 0 0

25

50 75 100 System load , %

Fig 3 Variation of BTE with engine load for B10, B10PG and HSD

Overall efficiency, %

Overall System Efficiency (OSE)

Fig 2 Variation of BSFC with engine load for B10, B10PG and HSD

Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE)

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

B10

0

BTE assumes greater importance because it is ultimately related to the power that is available as the useful energy, which is of concern to the most. The variation of BTE with system load at a constant speed of 1500±3% rpm for different fuels is presented in Fig. 3. In all cases, it was increased with the increase in system load. This might be due to reduction in heat losses and increase in brake power with increase in system load. The maximum BTE was found to be 30.53%, 31.86% and 23.93% for HSD, B10 and B10PG, respectively. At 25%, 50% and 75% system load, BTE of B10 was lower than HSD. This could be due to more heat loss as well as higher fuel consumption. Except at full load, BTE of B10 for all other system loads was on an average 2% lower than HSD. But at full load BTE of B10 was found to be 4% higher than HSD. This might be due to complete combustion of fuel at full load and low heat losses. In case of B10PG, BTE was on an average 18% lower

25

50

75

100

System load, % Overall efficiency of power generating system includes all efficiencies such as generator efficiency, gasification efficiency and brake thermal efficiency. The variation of SE with system load for different fuels is presented in Fig. 4. It increased with increase in system load for all the fuels tested. This was due to reduction in heat loss and increase in brake power with increase in percent load. The maximum OSE was found to be 24.43%, 25.49% and 19.18% for HSD, B10 and B10PG, respectively. For B10PG, OSE was reduced on an average by 31% as compared to HSD. This could be due to lower heating value of the producer gas air mixture, drop in the pressure of the gas entering the air inlet and lower flame velocity. In case B10, OSE was almost similar to HSD.Fig 4 Variation of OSE with engine load for B10, B10PG and HSD 47


Exhaust gas temperature

EGT, °C

The minimum and maximum exhaust gas temperature recorded for B10 and B10PG were 138°C, 403°C and 162°C, 447°C, respectively as compared to 129°C and 413°C for HSD. The variation of exhaust gas temperature with system load for B10, HSD and B10PG is presented in Fig. 5. For all the fuels tested, EGT was increased with increase in system load due to greater quantity of fuel supplied in order to maintain the speed of the engine, hence more heat rejection to the exhaust gases. In case of B10, the average percentage variation in EGT relative to HSD was 3.2%. At full load, EGT in case B10 was 2.42% less than HSD, this might be due to complete combustion of fuel at higher load and lesser heat losses. While in case of B10PG, percentage variation relative to HSD was 21.06%. Higher percentage variation in case of B10PG was due to incomplete combustion of fuel charge in the engine. 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100

Fig 6 Variation of pilot fuel (B10) replacement with engine load Emission characteristics The emission studies were carried out during the operation the power generating system with HSD, B10 and B10PG. Constituents of exhaust emission such as CO and CO2 were measured with the help of exhaust gas analyzer. CO emissions The percentage of CO produced by running the power generating unit with B10, HSD and B10PG with respect to system load is presented in Fig. 7. In case of all three fuels, percentage of CO emitted was increased with increase in system load. The rate of increase of CO emissions at lower load was slow due to lower cylinder temperature at no load condition, which increased with loading due to more fuel injected inside the cylinder, leading to the formation of more smoke, which might have prevented oxidation of CO into CO2. In case of B10, CO emission was found to be less than HSD. This was because biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel, which led to complete combustion. The similar trend was reported by [3,6,14,16]. However, a reverse trend was observed in case of B10PG i.e. increased CO emissions in case of B10PG and was due to less oxygen supply which led to incomplete combustion.

HS D 0

25

50 75 System load, %

100

Fig. 5 Variation of EGT with engine load for B10, B10PG and HSD

Pilot Fuel Replacement (PFR) The use of producer gas for operating a 5.6 kW diesel engine in dual fuel mode reduced the consumption of pilot fuel (B10).The fuel savings in dual fuel mode operation is shown in Fig. 6. Pilot fuel replacement was on an average varied between 66.3 to 75.5 %. Maximum fuel substitution was recorded at 50% load. At lower and higher system loadings, the fuel replacement was reduced remarkably. This might be because of higher energy requirement at higher load and due to the lower calorific value of producer gas it was not able to produce that much power. Hence, to develop maximum power more pilot fuel might have required. While at lower system load, lesser fuel replacement could be due to more heat losses. Similar findings were also reported while producing electricity using producer gas and HSD in dual fuel mode [3, 15].

Fig 7 Variation of CO emissions with engine load for B10, B10PG and HSD

48

Dual Fuel Mode Operation in Diesel Engine Using Producer Gas and Jatropha Biodiesel

CO2 emissions

iv.

The variation of CO2 produced from the power generating unit using B10, B10PG and HSD is presented in Fig. 8. For all the fuels, CO2 emitted was increased with increase in system load. In case of B10 and B10PG CO2 emitted was less than HSD for all loads tested. CO2 emission was found to be almost comparable for B10 and HSD. While in case of B10PG, CO2 reduction was found to be within 5-7%; this could be because of excess CO formation which restricts formation of CO2 due to less oxygen availability. The maximum CO2 produced was 6.7%, for HSD, 6.58% for B10 and 6.41% for B10PG at 100% load, which were almost comparable.

v.

Hence, B10 and producer gas is the suitable substitute for diesel in operating a hybrid power generating system for off-grid electricity generation.

7

References

CO2, %

6

[1] Anonymous, 2008. Annual Report 2007-2008, Ministry of New and Renewable Sources, http://mnes.nic.in/annualreport/2007, accessed on July 09, 2008. [2] P P Parikh, A G Bhave, D V Kapse and S Shashikantha, ‘Study of thermal and emission performance of small gasifier-dual fuel engine system’. Biomass, vol. 19, 1989, p 75-97. [3] R Uma, T C Kandpal and V V N Kishore, ‘Emission characteristics of an electricity generation system in diesel alone and dual fuel modes’. Biomass and Bioenergy, vol 27, 2004, p 195-203. [4] N R Banapurmath, P G Tewari, V S Yaliwal, S Kambalimath and Y H Basavarajappa. ‘Combustion characteristics of a 4 stroke CI engine operated on Honge oil, Neem and Rice bran oils when directly injected and dual fuelled with producer gas induction’. Renewable Energy, vol 34, 2009, p 1877-1884. [5] Y Ali, K M Eskridge and M A Hanna. ‘Alternate diesel fuels from vegetable oils’. Bioresource Technology, vol 50, 1995, p 153-163. [6] L G Schumacher, S C Borgelt, D Fosseen, W Goetz and W G Hires. ‘Heavy-duty engine exhaust emission tests using methyl ester soybean oil/diesel fuel blends’. Bioresource Technology, vol 57, 1996, p 31-36. [7] N N Clarke and D W Lyons. ‘Class 8 truck emissions testing: the effects of test cycles and data on biodiesel operation’. Transactions of the ASAE, vol 42, 1999, p 1211-1219. [8] A Monyem, J V Gerpen and M Canakci. ‘The effect of timing and oxidation on emissions from biodiesel fueled engines’. Transactions of ASAE, vol 44, 2001, p 3542. [9] L G Schumacher, N N Clark, D W Lyons and W Marshall. ‘Diesel engine exhaust emissions evaluation of biodiesel blends using a cummins L10E engine’. Transactions of the ASAE, vol 44, 2001, p 1461–1464. [10] M Canakci and J V Gerpen. ‘Comparison of engine performance and emissions for petroleum diesel fuel, yellow grease biodiesel and soybean oil biodiesel’. Transactions of the ASAE, vol 46, 2003, p 937–944. [11] H Raheman and A G Phadatare. ‘Diesel engine emissions and performance from blends of karanja

5 HSD

4

B10 B10PG

3

2 0

25

50 Engine load, %

75

100

Fig 8 Variation of CO2 emissions with engine load for B10, B10PG and HSD Conclusions Based on the results of this study, the following specific conclusions were drawn: i.

ii.

iii.

The exhaust gas temperature was on an average 21% higher in case of B10PG as compared to HSD at all loads. Whereas, it was comparable with HSD in case of B10. The percentage of CO produced for all the three fuels tested was increased with system load. The amount of CO emitted in case of B10PG as compared to HSD at different loads was increased on an average by 18% while it was reduced on an average by 9% in case of B10. The percentage of CO2 emitted for B10 and B10PG was comparable (within 6%) with that of HSD.

The developed power generating system could successfully generate 4 kW of electricity using producer gas from wood chips and biodiesel blend B10 with average pilot fuel substitution in the range of 66% to 75%. The brake specific fuel consumption decreased while brake thermal efficiency increased with increase in engine load for all the fuels tested. At higher system load highest BTE (31.86%) and lowest BSFC (269.95 g/kWh) were observed for B10 as compared to HSD and B10PG. At lower system loads, HSD showed slightly better performance than B10. At full load, B10PG had highest BSFC (346.57 g/kWh) and lowest BTE (23.97%) as compared to B10 and HSD. The maximum overall efficiency of the power generating system was found to be 24.43%, 25.49% and 19.18% for HSD, B10 and B10PG, respectively. 49


methyl ester and diesel’. Biomass and Bioenergy, vol 27, 2004, p 393 – 397. [12] N Usta. ‘An experimental study on performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine fuelled with tobacco seed oil methyl ester’. Energy Conversion and Management, vol 46, 2005, p 2373-2386. [13] C D Rakopoulos, K A Antonopoulos, D C Rakopoulos, D T Hountalas and E G Giakoumis. ‘Comparative performance and emissions study of a direct injection diesel engine using blends of diesel fuel with vegetable oils or bio-diesels of various origins’. Energy conversion and management, vol 47, 2006, p 3272-3287.

[14] H Raheman and S V Ghadge. ‘Performance of compression ignition engine with mahua (madhucaindica) biodiesel’. Fuel, vol 86, 2007, p 25682573. [15] M B Durgaprasad, ATalib, J R Goss, V J Flanigan, P D Grover and H B Mathur. ‘Development and Field Testing of small Biomass Gasifier-Engine Systems in India: A Joint Project by an American and Indian Team’. Biomass, vol 19, 1989, p 99-122. [16] A Tiwari, A Kumar and H Raheman. ‘Biodiesel production from jatropha oil (Jatrophacurcas) with high free fatty acids: An optimized process’. Biomass and Bioenergy, vol 31, 2007, p 569-575.

50

Effect of Producer Gas on SI Engine 1

1,2

Samodini S. Nevase*, 2Chittaranjan N. Gangde, 3Sandip Gangil and 4Anil Kumar Dubey Dept. of Unconventional Energy Sources and EE, Dr. P Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, Maharashtra 3,4 Agricultural Energy and Power Division, CIAE, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh [email protected], [email protected] or a spark ignition (SI) engine in gas alone mode. Harnessing of energy from biomass via gasification route is not only proving to be economical but also environmentally benign. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) Government of India has been promoting multifaceted Biomass Gasifier programmes with a view to utilize locally available surplus biomass resources in rural areas, where biomass such as rice husk, corn cab & stalks, pigeon pea stalks, cotton stalks, small wood chips other agro-residues are available. A programme is being formulated by the MNRE to set up 200 MW biomass gasifier projects of 2 MW capacities at the tail-end of the grid by 2012. In this view of the above presentation, the present investigation was undertaken with the major objective to evaluate the performance of SI engine on producer gas from Prosopis juliflora.

Abstract The effect of producer gas from Prosopis juliflora on air fuel ratio, specific fuel consumption, specific energy consumption, overall efficiency and electrical power out put, of SI engine at different load variations was calculated. Exhaust gas temperature and exhaust emission of CO2, and NOx at different load variations was recorded. Air to fuel ratio and Specific fuel consumption of PG fuelled engine, decreased from 1.98 to 1.30 and 8.37 to 7.83, m3/kW h respectively as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW. Specific energy consumption and Overall efficiency of PG fuelled engine, varied from 34.89 to 37.99, MJ/kW h and 10.32 to 09.48, per cent respectively as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW. Electrical power output of PG, fuelled engine varied from 04.6 to 12.2, kW as the engine load increased from 5 to 20 kW. Exhaust gas temperature of PG fuelled engine varied from 400oC to 450oC as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW. Emission of Carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide from PG, fuelled engine varied from 09.3 to 12.0, per cent and 21 to 105 ppm respectively as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW.

Materials and Methods Material for biomass gasification

Keywords: Producer gas, gasifier, gasification, engine

The current research work was followed by Prosopis juliflora which was procured, from local market of Bhopal (M.P.). Size of wood pieces maintained not more than 30 mm X 50 mm and the moisture content of wood maintained less than 15 per cent.

Introduction

Experimental setup

Biomass is the most widely available renewable energy resource. It is carbon dioxide neutral. Estimates have indicated that 15 per cent – 50 per cent of the world’s primary energy use could come from biomass by the year 2050. Currently, about 11 per cent of the world’s primary energy is estimated to be met with biomass (Anonymous, 2010). Bio-energy or biomass power can be obtained by converting the biomass using various technologies viz., combustion, gasification, anaerobic digestion, fermentation etc. Biomass gasification is the process where thermochemical conversion of biomass through the process of oxidation and reduction under sub-stoichiometric conditions. The resultant gas known as ‘Producer gas’ can be used for fuelling a compression ignition (CI) engine in dual-fuel mode

Biomass based 20 kW power plant consists of down draft gasifier having rotating grate, venturi scrubber, three filters (one coarse and two fine) connected in series, one security filter and gas engine generating set. Engine was loaded with a resistive loading device consist of each 500 W bulb in 45 numbers. A control panel fitted with MCB was also integrated to ON or OFF the bulb loading device. Producer gas flow rate was measured online by orifice meter connected between safety filter and genset. Also, air flow rate was measured online by orifice meter connected separately in the air-box. Electrical Power output was measured by CW 240 Power meter manufactured by Yokogawa Meters and Instrument corporation, India. PA-2400 flue gas analyzer was used for measurement of exhaust gas emission.

51


constituents of the gas, also observed effect of 0 to full load of engine on air fuel ratio and shown air fuel ratio was reasonably constant beyond a specified mixture flow rate with relatively rich mixture at low mixture flow rate.

System process description The biomass is fed through the feed door and is stored in the hopper. Limited and controlled amount of air for partial combustion enters through air nozzles. The throat (or hearth) ensures relatively clean and good quality gas production. The reactor holds charcoal for reduction of partial combustion products while allowing ash to drop off in the ash pond. The gas passes through the annulus area of reactor from the upper portion of the perforated sheet. The gas outlet is connected with the various downstream systems viz. venturi scrubber, drain box, coarse filter, flare with valve, engine gas control valve, fine filters, safety filter and engine shut-off valve. Gas produced in the gasifier scrubbed and cooled in venturi scrubber with recirculating cooling water in cooling pond with help of AC scrubber pump. Gas is separated from water in drain box and introduced in coarse filter, fine filters and safety filters. Cool, clean gas and air is then sucked into the engine through a mixer butterfly consisting of piping and valves arrangement. The gasifier is started with battery (12 V), which initially provides auxiliaries power to AC scrubber pump, to start the gasifier system. A battery-operated electric starts the engine; the producer gas then starts the engine on gas mode.

Fig 1. Effect of engine load on air fuel ratio Specific fuel consumption Specific fuel consumption of producer gas engine is calculated and effect of engine load on it is graphically presented in Fig.2. 15 kW loaded engine reported significantly lower specific fuel consumption than rest of engine load. Furthermore as the engine load increased from 15 to 20 kW fuel display rise in specific fuel consumption as a result of losses due to engine knocking (Yusuf et al. 2011).

Result and Discussion Performance evaluation of producer gas based power plant was done by recording/calculating different parameters like air fuel ratio, Specific fuel consumption, Specific energy consumption, overall efficiency, electrical power output, exhaust gas emission, carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide emission. Air fuel ratio Effect of engine load on air fuel ratio is calculated and graphically presented in Fig.1. Increase in engine load resulted significantly decreased air fuel ratio. Unloaded engine established significantly higher air fuel ratio than rest of engine load. Decreased trend of air fuel ratio with increased load was observed because as the load increased the fuel was rich in nature to supply more energy in combustion chamber. It seems that as the load increased the fuel was rich in nature. The higher air fuel ratio of engine improves the overall efficiency of engine. Aung (2008) reviewed air fuel ratio for producer gas engine was 1.012. Sridhar et al. (2005a) reported stoichiometric air fuel ratio for producer gas was about 1.2 to 1.4 (on volume basis) based on the

Fig 2. Effect of engine load on specific fuel consumption Specific energy consumption Specific energy consumption is calculated on the basis of specific fuel consumption and LCV of gas, and graphically presented in Fig.3 which shows the effect of load on specific energy consumption. Increased specific energy consumption indicates reduction in efficiency of engine could be due to 52

Effect of Producer Gas on SI Engine

reduction in air flow rate that leads to incomplete combustion. Hassan et al. (2011) reported decreased specific energy consumption with engine power at duel fuel operation with producer gas and diesel. Ramdhas et al. (2006) reported decreased specific energy consumption at higher engine load in duel fuel operation with producer gas and diesel.

Effect of engine load on electrical power output at different load variations is graphically presented in Fig.5. Result shows that increased in engine load result increased electrical power output. Fully loaded engine established significantly highest electrical power output than rest of the engine load. This was mainly attributed by low calorific value of producer gas, low engine rpm and variation in producer gas composition according to combustion in reactor. Aung (2008) observed 40 per cent power loss for producer gas fuelled engine. Shah et al. (2010) reported for power rating four, although syngas flow rate was the highest, the generator’s electrical power output was not the highest. Exhaust gas temperature Effect of engine load on exhaust gas temperature is graphically presented in Fig. 6. The exhaust gas temperature increased with engine load. Exhaust gas temperature reflects directly the combustion temperature and influences the emission characteristics. Increased engine load result increased exhaust gas temperature. This was mainly attributed by increased combustion temperature as the load increased.

Fig 3. Effect of engine load on specific energy consumption Overall efficiency Overall efficiency is calculated for producer gas engine system on the basis of specific energy consumption of engine and graphically presented in Fig.4. Result shows that the overall efficiency was found to be increased significantly up to 15kW but lowered at 20 kW. This may be due to lower calorific value of producer gas than LPG. Also for producer gas operation the overall efficiency was lowered for 20 kW power despite feeding highest flow rate of producer gas to the generator. This could be attributed to the inability of the generator to utilize all the producer gas fed to it. Shah et al. (2010) found increased overall efficiency with increased brake power for 100 per cent syngas based engine operation.

Carbon dioxide emission Effect of engine load on emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) is graphically presented in Fig. 7. Increased engine load result increased emission of carbon dioxide. Deshmukh et al. (2008) observed increased CO2 with engine load at duel fuel operation of diesel and producer gas. Hassan et al. (2011a) observed increased trend in CO2 with increased engine load producer gas dual fuel engine. Shah et al. (2010) observed increased CO2 concentration 33 to 167 per cent for syngas operation compared to the gasoline operation. Uma et al. (2004) found increased CO 2 with engine load when operated with diesel and producer gas in dual fuel mode. Nitrogen oxide emission Effect of engine load on emission of Nitrogen oxide (NOx) is graphically presented in Fig. 8. Increase in engine load resulted significantly increase in emission of NOx. Unloaded engine established significantly lowest emission of NOx than other engine load. This shows the dependence of NOx formation on the temperature generated within engine cylinder as it was expected that the temperature will be higher during higher electrical power output. Uma et al. (2004) shown increased NOx emission at all

Fig 4. Effect of engine load on overall efficiency 3.5 Electrical power output 53


engine load condition when operated in duel fuel mode with producer gas and diesel. Shah et al. (2010) found increased NOx emission with increased engine load when operated on 100 per cent producer gas.

Fig 8. Effect of engine load on nitrogen oxide emission Fig 5. Effect of engine load on electrical power output

Fig 6. Effect of engine load on exhaust gas temperature

Conclusion i. Air to fuel ratio of PG, decreased from 1.98 to 1.30 as the engine load increase from 0 to 20 kW. ii. Specific fuel consumption of PG decreased from 8.37 to 7.83m3/kWh as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW. iii. Specific energy consumption of PG varied from 34.89 to 37.99 MJ/kW-h as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW. iv. Overall efficiency of PG fuelled engine was found varying from 10.32 to 09.48 per cent as the engine load increased from 5 to 20 kW. v. Electrical power output of PG fuelled engine varied from 04.6 to 12.2 kW as the engine load increased from 5 to 20 kW. vi. Exhaust gas temperature of PG fuelled engine was varied from 400 to 450 oC as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW. vii. Emission of Carbon dioxide from PG fuelled engine was varied from 09.3 to 12.0 per cent as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW. viii. Emission of nitrogen oxide from PG fuelled engine was varied from 21 to 105 ppm as the engine load increased from 0 to 20 kW. References [1]

Anonymous, 2010a. Biomass. New Delhi, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. pp. 7. [2] Aung, N.Z. 2008. Modification of diesel engine to producer gas engine. J.Ilm.Tek.Energi, 1(6):29-41. [3] Hassan S., Z.A. Zainal and Miskam M.A. 2011. Effects of advanced injection timing on performance and emission of a supercharged dual-fuel diesel engine fueled by producer gas from downdraft gasifier. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 70:220224

Fig 7. Effect of engine load on carbon dioxide emission

54

Effect of Producer Gas on SI Engine

[4] Kim, C.U. and C.S. Bae, 2000. Speciated hydrocarbon emission from a gas-fuelled spark ignition engine with various operating parameters. Proceedings of the Institutional of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering. Vol 214: 795-805. [5] Ramadhas, A.S., S. Jayarajand, C. Muraleedharan, 2006. Power generation using coir-pith and wood derived producer gas in diesel engines. Fuel Processing Technology, 87(10): 849-853. [6] Saraf, R.R., S.S.Thipse, and P.K. Saxena. 2009. Comparative emission analysis of gasoline/LPG automotive biofuel engine. International Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, 1(4): 198201. [7] Shah, A., R. Srinivasan, S.D. Filip, E.P. Columbus. 2010. Performance and emissions of a spark-ignited engine driven generator on biomass based syngas. Bioresource Technology, 101(12): 4656–4661.

[8] Sridhar, G., H.V. Sridhar, S. Dasappa, P.J. Paul, N.K.S. Rajan and H.S. Mukunda. 2005. Development of producer gas engine. Proc. of mechanical Engineering, Part D, J. Automobile Engineering, 219: 423-438. [9] Uma, R., T.C. Kandpal and V.V.N. Kishore, 2004. Emission characteristics of an electricity generation system in diesel alone and dual fuel modes. Biomass and Bioenergy, 27(2):195-203. [10] Yousufuddin, S., and S.N. Mehdi, 2008. Performance and emission characteristics of LPG-Fuelled variable compression ratio SI engine. Turkish J. Eng. Env. Sci. 32:7-12. [11] Yusuf, T., K.H. Saleh, and M.A. Said, 2011. Engine performance and emission analysis of LPG-SI engine with the aid of artificial neural network. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy.

55

Evaluation of Family Sized Fixed Dome Janta Biogas Plant based on Solid State Fermentation 1

A. K. Kamble, 2S. R. Kalbande and 3G. S. Ade Assistant Scientist, 2Research Engineer and 3M. Tech. Student 1,2 AICRP on RES, Dr. P Deshmukh Agricultural University, Akola-MS 3 Post Graduate Institute, Dept of Unconventional Energy Sources & Electrical Engineering, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Agricultural University, Akola-MS 1

Abstract

Biogas Development. These plants used cattle dung mixed with an equal quantity of water to get total solids concentration (TSC) of 8-10% of the slurry before feeding into the plant. The watery slurry discharged from these plants content 4-6 % total solids. It is spread on to the ground or collected into the open pits for drying over a period up to 45 days to facilitate its transportation to fields to use as manure. Because of non-availability of water round the year biogas technology is not propagating in drought prone and water scare regions of the country. Besides, the biogas plants installed in the country are the first casualty of water scarcity during summer months.

The popular fixed dome type family size biogas plant has been successfully modified to allow use of fresh undiluted cattle dung as substrate. Simple modifications have been carried out on the common fixed dome type family-size Janta biogas plant for digestion of fresh undiluted cattle dung. Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Agricultural University, Akola has installed ten units of modified biogas plants at farmers’ sites based on solid state fermentation technology under operational research demonstration project for its popularization. The performance of all the modified Janta biogas plants installed at user’s sites was evaluated. Average biogas production of 203 liters per kg DM with methane content of 60 per cent was found in family sized (2 m3 capacity) modified Janta biogas plant. The energy generated from the biogas plant was used for meeting cooking needs of the family. The average percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content in digested slurry was found to be 1.40, 1.09 and 0.46 per cent in solid state fermentation of cattle dung respectively. The modified plant generates 30% more biogas than traditional biogas plant. There was a saving in time for cattle dung feeding to biogas plant and it was also easier for removal of digested slurry from biogas plant outlet. The cost of the plant was almost the same as that of the traditional Janta biogas plant. All the plants were working satisfactorily without any problems. This user-friendly modified Janta biogas plant based on solid state fermentation technology needs minimum or no water for its operation, therefore it was recommended for water scarcity region.

Anaerobic digestion of fresh cattle dung based on solid state fermentation at initial TSC varying between 16-25 % was developed by the Haryan Agricultural University (HAU) Centre and was demonstrated in laboratory scale and field scale digester by many Institutions. This process is known as solid state anaerobic digestion of biomass. It requires much smaller quantity of water which makes handling of the digested slurry easier, utilizes a variety of agro-residue as substrate and conserves nutrients in the digested slurry which is excellent manure for crop cultivation. The site may look much cleaner than common biogas plants and may help overcome farmer’s reluctance to locate the plant near their houses. The Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Agricultural University had installed ten Janta biogas plants of 2 m3 capacity at farmer’s sites for digestion of cattle dung in solid state [1] [2] and [3]. There was a need to demonstrate this type of biogas plant, which can meet fuel and good quality manure supply. Hence it was decided to install and commission a modified Janta biogas plant at farmer’s sites. The aim of the study was to demonstrate technical soundness and economical viability of modified biogas technology with objectives:

Keywords: Janta biogas plant, Cattle dung, digested slurry and solid state fermentation Introduction More than 3.5 million family size biogas plants were installed in the country under National Programme on 56


1. To install and commission of 2 m3 modified Janta biogas plant for solid state fermentation. 2. To monitor the performance of biogas plant and make cost economics.

spherical shape, the dung is fit for feeding into the plant.) If the TSC of the cattle dung available is more than 18%, it is brought down to around 16% by mixing with a measured quantity of water. The cattle dung slowly slides into the digester under gravity and the digested slurry flows out through the outlet chamber into the outlet channel. Widening of the outlet channel from 20 cm to 45 cm facilitated flow of the digested slurry through the outlet channel under gravity. The digested slurry, which has a TSC of 10–12%, can be transported to the fields every 2–6 days interval as required [5][6].

Material and Methods Ten potential farmers in the different villages of Akola, Buldhana, Washim, Yavatmal district were identified to carry out the ORD trials to demonstrate the technical soundness of modified Janta biogas plant at user’s site. Ten units of this modified plant of 2 m3 capacity were constructed at Boargaon (3 Nos.), Boargaon khurd (2 Nos.) and each plat at Deoli, Bramhanwada, Digras, Uttarwadhona and Gorwha villages. The main modifications incorporated into the 2 m3 capacity Janta biogas plant design for solidstate digestion of cattle dung include are discussed below.

Inlet pipe

Fixed dome

The inlet feed chamber of the Janta plant was replaced with a commercially available 30 cm diameter RCC pipe as against 20 cm pipe in the traditional biogas plant. The outlet slurry chamber was enlarged to accommodate the total volume of slurry displaced from the digester. The step type construction of the outlet chamber of the Janta plant was changed to an inclined smooth surface for streamlined flow of the digested slurry. The outlet channel was widened from 20 cm to 45 cm for self discharge of the digested slurry on to the ground. The interior side of the gas dome was provided with an additional layer of 1:1 cements and mortar plaster of about 8 mm thickness to withstand higher gas pressure [4]. The schematic diagrams of the modified Janta biogas plant for digestion of non-diluted cattle dung is shown in Fig.1 Thereafter, the plant was fed every day with a mixture of 50 kg of cattle dung and 50 litres of water for a period of about two months. The operation of the plant gets stabilized during this period. The stabilised operation was indicated by a relatively uniform gas yield of 1500 to 2000 litre/day and a normal flow of well digested slurry through the plant and the outlet chamber / channel. After the plant operation becomes stabilized, the substrate was changed to fresh undiluted cattle dung. Every day, 50 kg of fresh cattle dung was poured into the inlet pipe of the modified Janta biogas plant. The dung should be free from foreign matter such as straw, grass, dust, etc and have TSC of less than 18%. (To determine whether the TSC is less than 18%, make a round ball of fresh cattle dung diameter around 12.5 cm and put it on a flat surface. If the ball does not retain its

Outlet

Digester

Fig.1 Schematic view of modified Janta biogas plant Results and Discussion Quantity of biogas generation The weekly and cumulative gas production in modified Janta biogas plant is given in Table 1. The cumulative gas production of 58805.2 liters (14.52 m3/m3 of DV) was recorded for the period of seven weeks. The average gas production per day for the period from second week to seventh week worked out to be 1400.12 liters. The average monthly biogas production and methane content produced in modified Janta biogas plant is given in Table 2.

57

Evaluation of Family Sized Fixed Dome Janta Biogas Plant based on Solid State Fermentation

Table 1. Weekly and cumulative gas production in modified Janta biogas plant

Wee ks

Gas Production Weekly Lit/We m3/m3 ek of DV/wee k

2

4867.8

1.22

3

8546.6

2.14

4

10923.5

2.73

5

11678.2

2.92

6

11482.4

2.87

7

11306.7

2.83

Analysis of Digested slurry The quality of digested slurry was analyzed and is given in Table 3.

Cumulative Lite m3/ m3 rs of DV

4867 .8 1341 4.4 2433 7.9 3601 6.1 4749 8.5 5880 5.2

Table 3. Monthly average biochemical analysis of digested slurry Months

1.22 3.36

Jun 11 Jul 11 Aug 11 Sep 11 Oct 11 Average

6.09 8.82 11.69

Jun 11 Jul 11 Aug 11 Sep 11 Oct 11

Temperat ure, 0C Ma Mi x n

Quantity of gas Liters/ kg DM

m/m of DV

39.8

204.7

12.00

215.50

12.30

214.00

12.25

193.80

12.20

189.00

11.70

31.6 28.8 31.2 31.9

27. 9 24. 0 22. 3 23. 0 18. 8

3

Biochemical content N (%) P (%) K (%) 1.38 1.45 1.42 1.40 1.35 1.40

1.08 1.12 1.10 1.02 1.13 1.09

0.48 0.45 0.50 0.43 0.42 0.46

14.52 It is seen from the table 3 that the N: P: K content of the digested slurry was higher than that of fresh cattle dung. Hence the solid-state fermentation of cattle dung results in rich nutrient fertilizer (Table 3).

Table 2. Average monthly biogas productions and methane content from modified Janta biogas plant Mon ths

Gas Liters/kg DM 204.60 215.50 214.00 193.80 189.00 203.38

3

Cost of the plant

Methane content % Lite rs/k g 58.2 119. 0 07 59.3 127. 5 90 60.2 128. 5 93 60.3 116. 5 96 61.5 116. 0 24

The cost of the modified plant has been estimated to be approximately the same as that of the common Janta biogas plant of 2 m3 capacity. User’s feed back All the biogas plant installed based on solid state fermentation technology were running satisfactorily. The biogas produced meets their fuel requirements for cooking and had replaced fuel, which they were using earlier. The beneficiaries expressed several advantages, such as; saving in fuel, soot free utensils, smokeless atmosphere in kitchen and availability of fuel all the time. They also expressed that:

The fluctuation in the monthly gas production may be due to the fluctuations in the environmental conditions, like temperature, Rh and the stage of digestion. On an average 203 liters of biogas per kg DM was produced in modified Janta biogas plant with an average methane content of 60 per cent.

There is saving in time in feeding of biogas plant There was no obstruction in the flow of inlet while feeding wet dung as such The removal of digested slurry from outlet was easy due to less moisture content; therefore, drying of digested slurry becomes easy.

58


Beneficiaries were fully satisfied with the operation of the modified biogas plant.

Conclusion The modified biogas plant generates approximately 30% more biogas and makes the handling of both input slurry as well as the digested slurry far easier than the common biogas plant. The cost of the plant was almost the same as that of the common Janta plant. This user-friendly modified Janta biogas plant based on solid state fermentation technology needs minimum or no water for its operation, therefore it was recommended for water scarcity region. References [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

Kamble A.K., Kalbande S. R. and Gangde C. N. (2013). Animal waste utilization for energy generation through modified biogas technology, International Organization of Scientific Research: J. of Mechanical and Civil Engineering Vol. 1. Gadge S. R. and Kamble A. K. (2006) Operational research demonstration of modified Janta biogas plant for cattle dung in solid state fermentation. Research Review Committee Report, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Agricultural University, Akola-MS: 2430. Gadge S. R. and Kamble A. K. (2007). Modification and evaluation of Janta Fixed Dome Biogas Plant in Solid-State Fermentation. Journal of Gondwana Geological, Special Vol. 22 (2):52-54. Shyam M. (2000). Solid-state anaerobic digestion of agro-residues: perspective and prospects. SESI Journal 10(1): 11–25 Shyam M.and P.K. Sharma (1994). Solid-state anaerobic digestion of cattle dung and agro-residues in small capacity field digesters. Bioresource Technology, 48(3): 203–207. Singh R. and Anand R. C. (1994). Comparative performance of Indian small solid-state and conventional anaerobic digesters. Bioresource Technology, 47(3): 235–238.

59

Feasibility and Viability of Mobile Phone Healthcare Services Provided to the Rural Population of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh An Interventional Study 1

Surya Bali, 2Afrah Misbah, and 3Anuja Lahiri Department of Community and Family Medicine (CFM), AIIMS, Bhopal

1

Abstract Increasing use of mobile phones, their use in providing healthcare in the Indian context is quite inevitable. Now a days mobile phone is now being used in many fields to avail the services like banking, railways etc. The objective of the study was to study the feasibility and viability of use of mobile phone for seeking healthcare in rural population. A toll free number was distributed among the rural area (AIIMS Bhopal, Call centre number 104) and resident of the area were motivated and encouraged to avail the healthcare services if any they faced on the 104 toll free number. Close observation was made on the whole communication process between the population and the call centre. Two months after the intervention number of calls were analyzed. A total of 60 calls were received for seeking the healthcare over phone. The mean call duration was 2.7 min. About 66.6% of the calls were made by males, where as 33.3% of the calls were made by people belonging to the age group of 26-35 years. All the calls were made during office hours (10 AM to 5 PM). The Calls were primarily made for health issues viz. fever, backache, headache, weakness, skin problems, psychiatry consultation as well as OPD enquiry. The satisfaction level of the callers was assessed and the callers seemed quite satisfied with the service provided. Majority of the calls made were for issues which could easily be dealt with by telephonic counseling. The concept of using mobile phones for medical consultation seemed to be reasonably feasible and acceptable to people in rural Bhopal.

unable to provide healthcare facilities to the rural population (constituting about 70% of India's population). Further, most of the specialists are located in the urban areas and are reluctant to serve in the rural areas due to lack of basic amenities. Mobile phone is becoming a useful device in assisting in medical care. It is gaining popularity in all sections of society. It is a popular way of communication and has reached up to remote parts of the community. Almost every family has at least one mobile set. People communicate through mobile phones and also use it for other day to day work. It can be used as a watch, radio, recorder, torch, camera, calculator, calendar, reminder, stop watch etc. People are using mobile hand set to book their railway tickets, flight tickets, order food, pay bills and premium so it raises the possibility of its use to attain medical care. The latest generation of smartphones is increasingly viewed as handheld computers rather than as phones, due to their powerful on-board computing capability, capacious memories, large screens and open operating systems that encourage application development2. The people in India, particularly in rural and remote areas are found struggling to access timely medical treatment. The rural population of the country is characterized by densely populated communities spread over vast distances3. Telemedicine has come originally to serve rural populations, or any people who are geographically dispersed, where time and the cost of travel make access to the best medical care difficult.

Keywords: Telemedicine, mobile phone, information and communication technology, telecommunication, rural Introduction

According to the 2011 census, Bhopal District has a population of 2,368,145 in which urban population is 19,14,339(80.84%) and rural population is 4,53,806 (19.16%)4. Such a huge population with inequitable distribution of resources calls for a need for improvement in health care services.

India, with its huge population of more than 1 billion and diverse geography that includes inaccessible hilly regions, tribal areas, deserts, coasts and islands, has long been struggling to provide minimum required health care to the people. The existing healthcare infrastructure is largely urban based. About 75% of health infrastructure, medical man power and other health resources are concentrated in urban areas where 27% of the populations live1. Government supported three tier healthcare delivery system with limited medical experts and resources, is

Recent works in communication technologies have inspired the development of telemedicine to a large extent. Providing mobile phone health service will serve various advantages such as saving of time, most of which is lost in following hospital formalities. It will help save the money spent in travel expenditure, considering the 60


fact that most of the rural population reside in regions which are not much in vicinity with affordable health service5. In urban areas people have lots of healthcare facilities which they can avail easily but rural population cannot access these healthcare facilities due to various reasons like transportation problem, cost issues, escort issues, issues of affordability and availability of healthcare services etc. We wanted to study the perception and utilization of healthcare services by the rural population through telecommunication. Keeping all these points in mind it has been planned to study the mobile phone utility and its viability in seeking healthcare in a rural area of Bhopal District.

Study Tools: A structured questionnaire was used to collect basic demographic, socio economic and other health parameters related status of the family having mobile phone. Evaluation: After two months, the investigator called all the families and found out the status of calls and assessed the satisfaction of the callers from Telemedicine call centre advices/treatment. Evaluation was only based on mobile phone feedbacks and its appropriate authentication vis-à-vis reliability. Analysis: Data was collected pre and post intervention and was entered in the SPSS-21 software and was analyzed.

Aims and Objectives a) To spread the call centre number (toll free 104) to the specified rural population b) To motivate families to use the telemedicine call centre health care facilities c) To motivate rural population to access medical advice and treatment from the AIIMS, at Bhopal Call Centre d) To assess the willingness of using mobile phone for medical assistance e) To assess the level of satisfaction of callers by the treatment provided, by the physicians at the call centre, at AIIMS, Bhopal. f) To provide recommendations to improve the mobile telephonic health care consultation services based on the result obtained after the study. g) Materials and Methods

Fig 1: Flow diagram of the intervention process Ethical clearance was obtained from Institutional Human Ethic Committee , AIIMS Bhopal and consent were obtained from the families to participate in the study. Study was funded by the ICMR New Delhi under Short Term Studentship (STS) Project.

Type of study: This was an intervention study in which subjects from the study area were given health care consultation from the call centre by a designated physician. Study population was motivated to avail the health care services facilities provided by the centre, at AIIMS Bhopal. Fig.1 shows the flow diagram of the intervention process. Study Area: Pipalia Pende Khan village, in District Bhopal, was selected for the intervention. The whole village was included in the study. Sarpanch and other key persons like teachers, Maulavi, Pujari and others with awareness etc. were contacted and telemedicine call centre number was spread through word of mouth as well as through printed material. Study subject: All families having mobile phone connectivity in the selected rural area. Exclusion criteria: Families not having mobile phone, or not willing to participate in the study. Time Period: Two months was the observation period in which investigator went house to house and distributed the call centre number and motivated the rural population to call on the toll free number for their ailment and seek advices, treatment and counseling etc.

Results During the study period calls were received from Pipalia Pende Khan Village. A total of 60 calls were received from the village and the mean call duration was 2.7 min. And about 66.6% calls were made by males. All the calls were made during office hours (10 AM to 5 PM).Most of the callers were from the age group of 26-35 years. Calls were made normally for self, for a relative or a friend. Calls were made for health issues viz. fever, backache, headache, weakness, skin problems, psychiatry consultation as well as OPD enquiry. Table 1 indicates the distribution of calls where as Fig. 2 and 3 shows the distribution of calls (in the bar charts), proportion of calls (in the pie chart) from males (67%) and females (33%) and Fig. 4 the purpose of calls (in the bar chart) respectively. Satisfaction level of the callers was assessed 61

Feasibility and Viability of Mobile Phone Healthcare Services Provided to the Rural Population of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh An Interventional Study

and they seemed to be quite satisfied with the services provided.

received more calls from the urban areas than the selected intervention (rural) area in the same period. A major reason for this observation must have been the proximity of the village to the AIIMS hospital, Bhopal (Refer Figure Plate-2). Another reason may be people’s hesitation to call doctors for health problem. There are also some constraints in proper follow-up and enforcement for calling at the given call centre number. Time given for the intervention seems to be less because it takes more time to adopt newer technology and behaviour change. It needs more and more advertisement (Toll Free 104) among the village awareness campaign was the felt need people and tell the benefit of mobile seeking healthcare.

Fig 2: Sex and age group wise percentage distribution of total calls received (N=60)

of this number population. An to sensitise the phone use for

Since the people were staying, in reality close to the hospital, they might have preferred consulting the doctor there itself instead of using the telemedicine facility. Staying just a walking distance away from the OPD at AIIMS Bhopal, they would not have to spend huge amount of money on travel expenditure, or spend time in reaching the OPD.

Fig 3: Sex wise distribution of percentage of calls (N=60)

(a)

Fig 4: Distribution of total calls received by the call centre (N=60) The concept of using mobile phones, for medical consultation, seemed to be of lesser significance to the population of Pipalia Pende Khan village as the number of calls received was less than expected. The authors

(b) 62


emphatically that people were quite receptive to this new idea and keen to use as far as possible and feasible within their budgetary limits for purchase of a handset vis-à-vis SIM usage charges . Moreover, few calls were received from outside the study area where the number was not communicated. This indicates that the local respondents themselves had publicized the availability of this facility to their distant relatives. Access of people living in rural areas to appropriate health care, is constrained by structural, social, economic, psychological and demographic barriers. Mobile phones can certainly help in enhancing the outreach of health services to these remote areas. Use of mobile phones for health care consultation reduces the travel time as well as waiting time in hospital. Moreover, it can also help in reducing unnecessary hospital visits for easily curable ailments. In India the usual pattern is that for hospital visits, patients are accompanied by one or more persons as escorts even for minor illnesses. This is particularly true for conventionally dependent members of the family like children, women and elderly persons. Use of mobile phones for such cases, especially when the illness is mild, prevents unnecessary visits to the hospital. This is a boon since this eliminates the need of any escort to bring them to hospital. Thus, such facility will save manpower, money as well as fuel.

(c) Plate 1(a,b,c): Dr Surya Bali(one of the author) assessing the quality of services provided at the telemedicine call centre

In a study conducted by Bali et al., a mobile phone number was distributed to the general population. People were asked to contact the that given number at any time for medical consultation. All the telephone calls from people seeking medical advice or treatment were received and answered by the principal investigator who was responsible for providing medical advice and necessary guidance. For this purpose, detailed and structured medical history was taken from the patient and accordingly appropriate advice or treatment was given. Further advice on follow up and contact with the designated doctor again was also given. Details of the phone calls received were duly recorded. It was concluded, that this service can prove quite beneficial in areas where commuting is a major problem especially in rural, hilly and tribal areas and sometimes even in geographically difficult terrains5,6,7.

Plate 2: Satellite view depicting the walking distance of 1 km between Pipalia Pende Khan village and AIIMS, hospital (Bhopal) This might have been the prime reason for their less number of calls received at AIIMS Bhopal. However, in comparison with the number of calls received prior to the investigation, there had been an increase in the number of calls received. This showed that there is still a good scope for increased usage of telemedicine facility by the people of the selected village. Further efforts are in fact, required to create awareness and educate patients on the advantages of mobile phone health communication, and to remove all mental and physical barriers to its adoption. Discussion

A study was conducted by DeSouza SI, Rodrigues R et al., where the objective was to explore the acceptability of delivering healthcare interventions through the mobile phones among users in a village in rural Bangalore. It was concluded that the mobile phones, as a tool for receiving health information and supporting healthcare through mHealth (mobile health) interventions was acceptable in the rural Indian context9.

In recent years, the world has seen an explosion in the growth of information and communication technologies (ICT), and particularly mobile communications. Indeed, the mobile phones have moves beyond being a mere technological object to becoming a key "social object" pervading every spheres of our daily lives. With an exponential rise in mobile phone ownership, India is set to become third largest mobile phone users in the world very soon. The experience with the use of mobile phone for providing health care consultation in the study shows

Mobile phones aided health services, have been introduced in many South Asian Countries as well. India 63

Feasibility and Viability of Mobile Phone Healthcare Services Provided to the Rural Population of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh An Interventional Study

has “Mobile phone based Primary Healthcare System (PHS) for Rural India” program. UK-based Loughborough University's engineers have entered upon a partnership with experts of India to develop an unique dedicated Mobile Phone Health Monitoring System. The system, which was first unveiled in 2005, used a mobile phone to transmit a person's vital signs, including the complex electrocardiogram (ECG) heart signal, to a hospital or clinic anywhere in the world8. World Health Organization (WHO) also emphasized on the use of ICT to render health services globally. Zipperer developed a WHO report titled, “Knowledge and information sharing for health equity”. This report argued that in a world with increased globalization, the realization that a good health meant a healthy workforce and therefore good and sustainable economy. In this context it may be agreed that ICT could be a powerful tool in social and economic development of a country.

It would reduce the barriers in seeking health care like transportation problems, monitory problems, escort issues, loss of daily wages and other accessibility and related logistics issues. Acknowledgment Authors acknowledge the funding support received for this short-term Studentship project from ICMR, New Delhi. References [1] Patil AV, Somasundaram KV, Goyal RC , (2002) Current health scenario in rural India, 10(2):129-35 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12047509 (Accessed on 08th August 2017) [2] Boulos MNK, Wheeler S, Tavares C, Jones R. How smartphones are changing the face of mobile and participatory healthcare: an overview, with example from eCAALYX. BioMedical Engineering OnLine. 2011;10:24. doi:10.1186/1475-925X-10-24.

Conclusion A few years back for health and medical advices on tele medicine or distant medicine were almost carried out through letters, news papers, radio and fixed telephones. At present the doctors are equipped with modern diagnostic gadgetry and molecular laboratories which in turn use the application of ICT. The limitation in the outreach approach of health care delivery and health parameters can be minimized by way of making use of ICT in an optimal manner. Telemedicine has of late been greatly used for exchange of knowledge vis- a- vis quick access, tele-teaching/learning (webinars),tele-consultation and diagnostic tele treatment and e-prescriptions. Thus, the rural and urban divide may be narrowed down by the fastest and cheapest mode of intervention of tele medicine to rural target groups. The latest giant leap experienced in ICT, the remotest part of the country can be mapped with ease in the application of telemedicine which would bring specialized health care services within the ambit.

[3] Chaudhari P P, Agrawal DG, Kulkarni MM. An Application of Embedded System in Telemedicine Using Arm-7. International Journal of Innovations in Engineering and Technology (IJIET) Vol. 2 Issue 1 February 2013 402407( ISSN: 2319 – 1058) [4] Urban and Rural Population Bhopal http://www.census11.com/districts/urban_rural_population/b hopal ( accessed on 10 August 2017) [5] Bali S, Singh AJ. Enhancing the outreach of community medicine field team through mobile phones: A pilot study. Indian J Community Medicine 2006; 31(2):80. [6] Sudhamony S, Nandakumar K, Binu PJ, Issac Niwas S. Telemedicine and tele-health services for cancer-care delivery in India (2008). Communications IET. 2(2):231236. [7] Bali Surya, Singh AJ.Mobile phone consultation for community health care in rural north India (2007). Journal of Telemedicine andTelecare. 13(8):421-424. [8] Santosh Krishna, Suzanne Austin Boren, and E. Andrew Balas. Telemedicine and e-Health. April 2009, 15(3): 231240. doi:10.1089/tmj.2008.0099. [9] DeSouza SI, Rashmi MR, Vasanthi AP, Joseph SM, Rodrigues R (2014) Mobile Phones: The Next Step towards Healthcare Delivery in Rural India? PLoS (Public Library of Science) ONE 9(8): e104895. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0104895.

With this intervention project, the authors expected the people of the Pipaliya Pende Khan to avail the healthcare facilities provided by the Telemedicine Centre at AIIMS, Bhopal. This would increase the awareness of the telemedicine program and also help people to seek medical assistance without expending money and time. This would also remove the hesitation of the rural people to use information technology to avail health care. This would also help the telemedicine centre at AIIMS Bhopal, to plan advancement in the telemedicine program with a focus to enhance a delivery mechanism as well as in fees increase the efficiency of this unique attempt of the telemedicine program.

64

Performance Analysis of Multicast Routing Protocol in MANET 1

Anjali Singh and 2Poonam Lilhare IES, IPS Academy Indore, Madhya Pradesh 1 [email protected], [email protected] 1,2

infrastructure less networks. These networks do no formed centralized structure [8]. Ad-Hoc networks have the capacity to handle any malfunctioning in the nodes or any changes that its experience due to topology changes. Whenever a node in the network, leaves the network that causes the broken link between other nodes. The affected nodes in the network simply request for new routes and new links are established Ad-Hoc network can be categorized in to static Ad-Hoc network (SANET) and Mobile Ad-Hoc network (MANET).

Abstract ADHOC networking is a portable device that establishes the independent decentralized structure. It is quite easy to communicate between the users when the device is stationary. But, this case is far more complicated when the device is changing its position in a random way constantly with respect to a reference point or origin. Research work in this area has continued with a prominent study on routing protocol such as AOMDV. This work evaluates the dynamic network of MANETS with 25 and 9 nodes, which are dynamic nodes with 5m/sec, 15m/sec, 20m/sec and 25m/sec node mobility. The network comparison metrics are Packet Delivery ratio, Throughput, Average Jitter and Residual Energy.

Static Adhoc Network In static Ad-Hoc networks the geographic location of the nodes or the stations are stable. There is no movement in the nodes of the networks, that’s why they are known as static Ad-Hoc networks.

Keywords: MANET, Adhoc Network, AOMDV, IETF, DSR, DSDV

Dynamic Adhoc Network Introduction Mobile Ad-Hoc network is shown in Fig.1; it is an autonomous system, where communicating nodes are connected with each other through wireless links. There is no restriction on the nodes to join or leave the network, therefore the communicating nodes can join or leave the path freely. Mobile Ad-Hoc network topology is dynamic that can change rapidly. This property of the nodes makes the mobile Ad-Hoc networks unpredictable from the point of view of scalability and topology.

MANET stands for Mobile Ad hoc Network. It is a vigorous infrastructure less wireless network connected with wireless link. A MANET can be formed either by mobile nodes or via static nodes. Nodes are forming uninformed topologies. They operate as both routers and hosts. The means of mobile routers to self-configure makes this technology suitable for provisioning communication to, for incident, disaster-hit areas where there is no communication infrastructure, conferences or in emergency search and rescue operations where a network connection is urgently mandatory. The requirement for mobility in wireless networks necessary for the formation of the MANET [1] working group contained by The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is for developing trustworthy IP routing protocols for both static and dynamic topologies.

Routing Protocol The Ad Hoc routing protocol is further classified shown in with different protocols. Proactive Routing Protocols Proactive routing protocols are in addition called as table driven routing protocols. In this every node uphold routing table which contains information about the network topology even without requiring it. This feature although useful for datagram traffic, incurs considerable signalling traffic and power consumption. The routing tables are restructured periodically whenever the network topology changes. Proactive protocols are not appropriate for large networks as they require maintaining node entries for each and every node in the routing table of every

Ad-Hoc Networks Ad-Hoc networks have no infrastructure where the nodes are free to join and leave the network. The nodes are connected with each other through a wireless medium. A node can serve as a router to forward the information to the neighbors’ nodes. Therefore this kind of network is also known as 65


node [11]. These protocols maintain different number of routing tables altering from protocol to protocol. Some of the proactive routing protocols are DSDV, OLSR and WRP.

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), the protocol is based on the link state algorithm in which source initiates route discovery on demand basis. The sender determines the route from source to destination and it includes the address of intermediate nodes to the route record in the packet. DSR was designed for multi hop networks for small Diameters. The Fig.2 show route establishment of DSR. It is a beaconless protocol in which no HELLO messages are exchanged between nodes to notify them of their neighbors in the network.

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) DSDV is developed on the basis of Bellman–Ford routing algorithm with some modifications. In this routing protocol, each mobile node in the network keeps a routing table. The Fig.1 shows route established in DSDV [10]. Each of the routing table contains the list of all available destinations and the number of hops to each. Each table entry is tagged with a sequence number (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) which is originated by the destination node (6). Periodic transmissions of updates of the routing tables help maintaining the topology information of the network. If there is any new significant change for the routing information (between 1-to-6), the updates are transmitted immediately. DSDV protocol requires each mobile node in the network to advertise its own routing table to its current neighbours. The advertisement is done either by broadcasting or by multicasting. By the advertisements, the neighbouring nodes can know about any change that has occurred in the network due to the movements of nodes. The routing updates could be sent in two ways: one is called a “full dump” and another is “incremental”. In case of full dump, the entire routing table is sent to the neighbours, where as in case of incremental update, only the entries that require changes are sent.

Fig.2 Route established in DSR Ad hoc on demand multicasting distance vector (AOMDV) AOMDV is a multicast extension for AODV protocol. AOMDV adds multicast capability to the AODV protocol; multicast, unicast and broadcast features are rationalized into AOMDV. AOMDV protocol can be route information obtained when searching for multicast; it can also increase unicast routing knowledge and vice-versa. AOMDV protocol evaluates multiple loop free and disjoint paths. When a node desires to join a multicast configuration node or it has data to send to the nodes but does not has a route to that collection, it originates a Route Request (RREQ) message. Only the members of the collection of nodes are responding to the join RREQ. If an intermediate node receives a join RREQ for a multicast cluster of which it is not a member or it receives a route RREQ and it does not have a route to that group, it rebroadcast the RREQ to its neighbors. But if the RREQ is not a join request any node of the multicast group may respond. The node members are the active that are able to join and leave at any time. A multicast node maintains the sequence number. Multicast members must also agree to be routers in the multicast structure. The RREQ is answered with a Route Reply (RREP) by a node. The RREP contains the distance of replying node of the members and the current sequence number more than the RREQ packet reply. This schematic details are shown at fig.3

Fig. 1 Route established in DSDV Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) Dynamic Source Routing [8, 19] is a reactive protocol based on the source route approach. In 66

Performance Analysis of Multicast Routing Protocol in MANET

Fig. 4 Packet Delivery Ratio for 25 nodes Fig.3 Route Establishment of AOMDV Simulation Results In this section, the authors have compared the performance of AOMDV protocol under different scenario. To compare, the different methods are used by simulating them and examining their behavior. Here dynamic scenarios used to analyze and to show communication in the network, due to mobility of nodes. The communication from a source node to a destination node can use intermediate nodes and alternative routes are not possible due to the separation among nodes. This thesis has shown the creation of MANET Scenario for NS-2 and then to analyze AOMDV Protocol, with the use of various performance matrices like Packet Delivery Ratio, Residual Energy, Throughput and average Jitter. In this work the authors created scenario file for AOMDV which had to be used along with the TCL Script. In this report Dynamic nodes are considered with a range of node density 25 and 90 with different speed 5,15,20,25 (m/s) with TCP variant which is NEW RENO for Two Ray Ground model. In this section, scenarios were considered as different number of nodes with different speeds, was compared with three different Routing Protocols i.e. DSR, DSDV and AOMDV Routing protocols. The mobility model is considered to be two ray ground models. Simulation time was 150sec and the node mobility was Random way point model.

Fig. 5 Packet Delivery Ratio for 90 nodes Jitter: It shows the distortion in the frequency. Jitter was a variation in time of packets arrival from source to destination. It was caused due to change in topology and congestion in the network. It shows low performance in Ad hoc network Average Jitter: Fig.6 and 7 shows the Jitter for 25 nodes and 90 nodes respectively.

Evaluation of Results Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) Fig. 6 Average jitter for 25 nodes

This was the fraction of the data packets generated by the CBR sources to those delivered to the destination. This evaluated the ability of the protocol to discover routes. Fig.4 and 5 shows the PDR for 25 nodes and 90 nodes respectively.

67


subtraction from the dropped and lost packet from received packet. Fig.10 and 11 shows the Throughput for 25 nodes and 90 nodes respectively.

Fig. 7 Average jitter for 90 nodes Residual Energy Total amount of energy used by the Nodes during the Communication or simulation for example node having 100 percent energy and after complete simulation 40 percent energy remaining so we could say that the Residual energy of the node was 60 percent.

Fig. 10 Throughput for 25 nodes

Residual Energy Fig.8 and 9 shows the residual energy for 25 nodes and 90 nodes respectively.

Fig. 11 Throughput for 90 nodes Conclusion The AOMDV protocol perform superior than DSDV and DSR in the Throughput and Packet Delivery Ratio performance metrics used in this research. It outperforms in the packet delivery ratio when deployed in low mobility and high load networks. AOMDV protocol has the worst performance in the Jitter. It is therefore well suited for high capacity networks in Residual Energy.

Fig. 8 Residual energy for 25 nodes

References 1.

2.

Fig. 9 Residual energy for 90 nodes Throughput

3.

The throughput is defined as the maximum number of packets received per time unit. It calculates the

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D. Kim, J. Garcia and K. Obraczka, “Routing Mechanisms for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks based on the Energy Drain Rate”, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing. Vol 2, no 2, pp.161-173, 2003. Mohammad Naserian, Kemal E. Tepe and Mohammed Tarique, “Routing Overhead Analysis for Reactive Routing Protocols in Wireless Ad Hoc networks,” IEEE Conference on Wireless And Mobile Computing, Networking And Communications , pp. 87– 92, 2005 C.E. Perkins & P. Bhagwat, “Highly Dynamic Destination Sequence-Vector Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computers”, Computer Communication Review, Vol. 24, no.4, pp. 234-244, 1994.

Performance Analysis of Multicast Routing Protocol in MANET

4.

Luo Junhai ; Chengdu ; Ye Danxia ; Xue Liu ; Fan Mingyu “ A Survey of Multicast Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks Communications” Surveys & Tutorials, IEEE Volume 11-No.1,page 78 – 91,2009. 5. Rajgopal .GManikandan .KSivakumar .N “QoS Routing using Energy Parameter in Mobile Ad Hoc Network” International Journal of Computer Applications ,Volume 22– No.4, May 2011. 6. A. Zahary, A. Ayesh, “Analytical Study to detect Threshold number of Efficient Routes in Multipath AODV Extensions”, proceedings of International Conference of Computer Engineering & Systems, ICCES, pp. 95 – 100,2007. 7. Lijuan Cao, K. Sharif, Yu Wang, T. Dahlberg, “Adaptive Multiple Metrics Routing Protocols for Heterogeneous Multi-Hop Wireless Networks”, proceedings for 5th Consumer Communications and Networking Conference, IEEE, pp. 13 – 17,2008. 8. David B. Johnson and David A. Maltz. “Dynamic Source Routing in Ad Hoc wireless networks”, Mobile Computing, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp.153–181, 1996. 9. M. S. Corson, J. P. Maker and G. H. Cirincione “Internet-Based Mobile Ad Hoc Networking”, IEEE Internet Computing, Vol. 3, no. 4, July-August, pp. 63-70, 1999. 10. T.Y. Wu, C.Y. Huang, and H.C. Chao, “A Survey of Mobile IP in Cellular and Mobile AdHoc Network Environments”, IEEE Vol. 3, pp. 351-370, 2005. 11. Chen Jie,Chen Jiapin,Li Zhenbo, “Energy-efficient AODV for Low Mobility Ad Hoc Networks”, Wireless Communications Networking and Mobile Computing, IEEE International Conference, Page 1512 -1515, 2007.

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Preparedness of Online Learning in the Medical Colleges of Madhya Pradesh (M.P.): A Case Study 1

Anuja Lahiri and 2Vishal Diwan Health and Hospital Management, IIHMR, Jaipur, 2 Associate Prof., Community and Family Medicine, R.D. Gardi Medical College, Ujjain 1 [email protected] 1

needful work. Capacity development of the researchers can be enhanced with the help of online courses along with their traditional classroom learning, available on internet by esteemed universities present around the globe.

Abstract Online learning or e-learning or electronic learning encompasses all possible forms of learning that use the technological interventions or the internet as medium for teaching. The learners are allowed to learn and understand anywhere at any point of time through customized tech devices. In fact e-learning is synonymous to distance education, virtual learning or web based training. In e-learning the basic levels encompass knowledge database and an online support. E-learning can be categorized as academic, corporate and informal. In e-learning, the student is allowed to learn at his/her convenient and desired speed or pace at suitable locations where net connectivity is available. In fact, e-learning is very cost effective and can be handled with ease by persons having computer back ground. E-learning has also certain limitations as when the recipient who prefers a physical learning environment and direct communication with demonstrators, as also it can not have a structured class environment.

The present paper focuses on gauging the current level of knowledge, perception, views and acceptance by the faculty members/PG students regarding the online learning. Also what are the various challenges and benefits of online learning, as per the study of participants. In this regard the case study was conducted in eight medical colleges of five districts in M.P. (Bhopal, Ujjain, Jabalpur, Sagar and Indore). As this is the generation of internet, online learning will surely be a boom in the coming future. The important space which needs special focus in this regard is to know the main loopholes in the present system which is hindering the usage of e-learning among the study of participants and thinking of the ways to overcome them. Also ensuring that the medical colleges are well equipped with the necessary infrastructure required for the e-learning.

The case study focuses on the e-learning and awareness vis-a-vis status in the various medical colleges in Madhya Pradesh. The findings brought interesting features. The article, in brief highlights these. Keywords: Perception.

EAG,

MDG,

Health

Literature Review Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) comes under Empowered Action Group [EAG] states as per Govt of India. The health indicators of MP are very poor and achieving the MDG target by 2015 is paradoxical. In this context there is an urgent need to think out of box and develop strategies by which the health indicators can be improved. One of the important aspects which needs special focus in this regard is research, as to improve health and reduce health inequalities, public policymakers need to find the best solutions to the most burdensome health problems. The best ways to fit these solutions into complex and often overstretched and under resourced health systems, and the best ways to bring about the desired changes in health systems, is the objective before the policy makers. Systematic reviews can inform public policymaking by way of providing research-based answers to these questions.[1]

Indicators,

Introduction Madhya Pradesh (M.P.), located in the heart of India is a member of Empowered Action Group (EAG) states. It is not cynical to conclude that achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) is a goal farfetched for M.P. The need of the hour is to develop innovative strategies which can help to improve the health status of this state. One of the key domains, which require special attention in this regard, is developing the capacity of the researchers (including faculty members/PG students) of the medical colleges, so that they can do quality research work thus providing relevant information to the policymakers for carrying out the 70


Health research capacity has high value to society. It can provide important information about disease trends and risk factors, outcomes of treatment or public health interventions, functional abilities, patterns of care, and health care costs and use. The different approaches to research provide complementary insights. [2]

documenting scholarship. Innovations in e-learning technologies point toward a revolution in education, allowing learning to be individualized (adaptive learning), enhancing learners' interactions with others (collaborative learning), and transforming the role of the teacher. The integration of e-learning into medical education can catalyze the shift toward applying adult learning theory, where educators will no longer serve mainly as the distributors of content, but will become more involved as facilitators of learning and assessors of competency.[5]

In India, as on date there are a total of 381 medical colleges and most of the research has been carried out by a meager 2.5% of colleges, as they contribute 96.0% of total research publications in the year 2007 .Though, this inequality of research has not been studied scientifically, can be hypothesized that it is due to involvement of not well informed medical professionals. To bridge the information gap, would certainly require bringing together medical colleges in the field of research. On analysis of research publications, it was found that most of research work was carried over in non-priority health areas of the country, where the health indicators were sound. So, this unguided research leads to growth of ineffective knowledge. This, demanded the capacity building of researchers to identify the priority health research areas and to impart the knowledge and skills for research methods to design a sound research protocol [3]

Rationale Previous studies as mentioned above clearly depicts that online learning is important and requires readiness of the medical institutions in terms of infrastructure and human resource but till date and to the best of our knowledge no study is conducted which highlights the preparedness of medical colleges of M.P. for online learning courses. The current study focuses predominantly on this gap. Research Question What is the level of preparedness of online learning in the medical colleges of M.P.? Objectives

M.P. has many medical colleges but there is dearth of research in the required arena and in relevant topics in health sector, due to lack of capacity and knowledge of the researchers because of resource crunch and busy schedule of doctors. This problem could be addressed with the use of e-learning. Delivering online courses to researchers, requires preparedness of medical colleges. The current case study focuses on the same.

i. ii. iii.

To study usage of online learning courses by the study participants To explore perception and acceptance of elearning among the participants. To study availability of infrastructure for online learning in the medical colleges of M.P.

Methodology:

e-learning in medical education is a means to an end, rather than the end in itself. Utilizing e-learning can result in greater educational opportunities for students while simultaneously enhancing faculty effectiveness and efficiency. However, this potential of e-learning assumes a certain level of institutional readiness in human and infrastructural resources that is not always present. Institutional readiness for elearning adoption ensures the alignment of new tools to the educational and economic context.[4]

Study Area This study is done in medical colleges of M.P. in five cities (Bhopal, Ujjain, Jabalpur, Sagar and Indore). To maintain the confidentiality the names of the eight colleges has been coded from A to H Study Participants Study participants are the faculty members/PG students of the Community Medicine Department of the medical colleges

A developing infrastructure to support e-learning within medical education includes repositories, or digital libraries, to manage access to e-learning materials, consensus on technical standardization, and methods for peer review of these resources. elearning presents numerous research opportunities for faculty, along with continuing challenges for

Study Duration Study is conducted in duration of three months (Feb 2, 2015 to May 12, 2015) 71

Preparedness of Online Learning in the Medical Colleges of Madhya Pradesh (M.P.): A Case Study

Sample Size Based on viability and feasibility consideration Sample size- 8 medical colleges of M.P.

iv.

framework” into an electronic list with proper codes. Finally the thematic matrix is filled.

For Objective iii. - 31 Researchers (faculty members/PG students) Data was collected and was analyzed with the help of column graph. A summary is also prepared on the IT infrastructure using the checklist.

- 8 IT operators/administration personnel Sampling Technique

Results:

Non-probability sampling is done. In it purposive sampling method is used

A) For objective i. and ii.

Study Design

Four themes emerged out after the analysis

A) For objective i. and objective ii.

a) Knowledge about Online Learning-

i. ii.

To study usage of online learning courses by the study participants To explore perception and acceptance of elearning among the participants.

- no knowledge about it - facts known

Method- Qualitative study

- using internet for reading articles/journals/watching videos, etc.

Tool- open ended questionnaire

- online courses done

Analysis- Framework approach to analyze data

b) Challenges of Online Learning

B) For Objective iii.

- Internet Connectivity/Speed

iii.

To study availability of infrastructure for online learning in the medical colleges of M.P.

- availability of computers/laptops - time allocation

Method – Quantitative study

- awareness related to online learning

Tool- checklist

- lack of concentration/engagement/virtual/quality

Analysis- Data tabulation (columns, grids)

- lack of incentive/certificate

Data Analysis

- duration of the course

For objective i. and ii.

- not user friendly with internet/online learning

The data was collected by using open ended questionnaires and was analyzed with the help of Thematic Framework Analysis. The steps are:

c) Benefits of Online Learning

i.

ii. iii.

- saves time - no need of physical presence to attend class

Firstly the transcripts were read (from the filled questionnaires) and heard (audiotapes) thoroughly and then the recurring concepts and the ideas were identified inductively from the respondents’ responses. This was followed by the identification of main “themes” and “sub-themes”. Further the “themes” and “sub-themes” identified were typed to form a “thematic

- variety/globalization/quality matter - increase knowledge/skills - convenient/can pause/repeat - economical

72


d) Views on using Online Learning for Future

a) Connectivity/Speed of Internet

- will use it in future

Participants faced a lot of problem with internet connectivity and speed. Some participants even discontinued the course they have started because of problem of internet connection.

- will not use it in future Theme 1 Knowledge about Online Learning

“problem of internet speed”

Sub-theme

“sometimes connectivity is slow so its annoying”

a) No knowledge about Online Learning

b) Availability of Laptops/Computer

Some participants were totally unaware about online learning and during the study of this research they came to know about it. Quotation supporting this is-

Few participants mentioned the lack of availability of laptop/desktops as one of the reasons for not doing the online course.

“no, never heard of online courses”

“we have computers but the number is not sufficient”

b) Facts known about Online Learning

c) Awareness related to Online Learning

Most of the participants had elementary knowledge that online learning is using internet for the purpose of learning.

Many participants were either unaware about online learning concept or were unaware about the various courses available online.

“it is using internet for the purpose of learning”

“do not know much about them”

c) Have Online

Articles/Journals/Videos

d) Lack of Concentration/Engagement/Human Touch

This question was particularly asked to know that whether the participants use internet for learning purpose. Almost all the participants use internet for reading articles/journals or watching videos online related to their fields.

Lack of concentration while doing the online courses was one of the prime reasons for discontinuing the online courses. Some participants felt that were less engaged while pursuing the online course.

Heard/read

“it is virtual, lack of attention and engagement”

“yes, for reading journals, searching data for thesis work, making ppt ,skype”

e) Lack of Incentive/Certificate Participants mainly enroll for online learning for the purpose of learning and having the certificates of the courses done by them. In few cases it was observed that even after successful completion of the course they were not awarded with a certificate which acted as a demoralizing factor for them to enroll for further courses in future.

d) Have done any Online Course This question was framed to know that whether the participants have done any online course and if yes then what experience they had. Out of 31 researchers interviewed from various medical colleges of M.P., only 9 did some online course.

“we did not received any certificate though we have done the assignments”

“yes, I have done and also conducted classes referring those materials. I have taken classes through webcam”

f) Not user Friendly with Internet/Online Course Many participants were not very user friendly with internet and preferred traditional/conventional classroom learning over the online learning.

“no , I dont know much about them” Theme 2 Challenges of Online Learning

”not comfortable with computers”

Sub-theme

“medical people computers” 73

are

not

user

friendly

with


“they can be done at convenient time and location, can repeat the sessions”

g) Duration of Course “it was too long, it was 6 weeks and keeping trace with a six weel course is very difficult”

f) Economical Some participants mentioned the fact that online learning is economical, even the medical books which are very expensive otherwise can be referred online for free or with minimum investment.

h) Time Allocation “very much occupied in daily activities so taking out time separately is an issue”

“yes, infact, as it saves time, energy, many books expensive so difficult to buy for students. In library, if available online then it would be very good”

Theme 3 Benefits of Online Learning

Theme 4

Sub-theme

Views on using Online Learning for Future

a) Time Saving

a) Will use Online Learning in Future

As the participants do not need to go to attend the classes separately so they listed it as one of the most important benefits as it saved their time “provides knowledge in a limited period of time”

Some participants were very sanguine and were of the opinion of using online learning as a mode for further research/studies. “yes definitely-access to knowledge, can be managed easily at one's own requirements”

b) No Obligation for Physical Presence in the Class

b) Will not use Online Learning Mode in Future

Another main benefit which they felt is the freedom to attend the online courses from home, office, etc without physically going to the classrooms. “can know what is happening sitting at home” “available at our doorstep”

On the contrary to the above mentioned views, some participants were not contented with online learning and clearly mentioned that they will not use online learning in future “I do not think as I am more involved when I have a chance to interact face to face”

c) Variety of Matter/Specialists’ Views/Sound Quality of Study Material From all over the World Participants listed the advantage of getting expertise views, comments and suggestions from the eminent teaching staff present around the globe.

Table 1 gives the Themes and Sub-Themes Table 1

“we can communicate with the top most teachers” “well the reach,can access article published by an author of any part of the world” d) Enhancing Knowledge and Skills The increase in level of knowledge and skills was also listed as a vital feature of the online courses “knowledge which is increased after doing such courses”

Theme 1

Sub-themes

Knowledge about online learning

- no knowledge about it - facts known - using internet for reading articles/journals/watching videos, etc.

e) Can Pause/Repeat the Lectures

- online courses done

An interesting feature was highlighted by the study participants that in online learning the lectures can be paused and can be repeated many times.

74


Theme-2

Sub-Themes

Challenges of online learning

- internet connectivity/speed No. of Laptops for students/faculty

- availability of computers/laptops 40 0 35 0 30 0 25 0 20 0 15 0 10 0 5 0 0

- time allocation - awareness related to online learning - lack of concentration/engagement/ virtual/quality -lack of incentive/certificate - not user friendly with internet/online course - duration of course

Theme-3

Sub-Themes

Benefits of online learning

-saves time

D

E

F

G

H

• 7 have bandwidth of 1 Gbps ; 1 has bandwidth of 10 Mbps (college F).

-economical -saves time

• All the medical colleges have the latest version of Windows installed (Windows 7).

-no need of physical presence to attend class

-will use in future

C

Out of the 8 medical colleges-

-convenient/can pause/repeat

Views on using online learning in future

B

Fig. 1 (A-H are the medical colleges)

-increase knowledge/skills

Sub-themes

students/faculty

A

-no need of physical presence to attend class -variety/globalization/quality matter

Theme-4

No. of laptops for

• Only medical college E has a separate Video conferencing room. • Separate IT department is present in four colleges namely A,B,D and G and is not available in four colleges namely C,E,F and H. • Lease line is available in six colleges i.e. there is a monthly contract between the internet provider and customer. The lease line is always active and ensures good internet connectivity.

-will not use in future

• Digital library is present in four of the eight colleges which ensures internet availability in the library also.

B) For objective iii. The medical college 8 in numbers are shown is fig. 1 and summary as per the checklist is given in Table 2.

• Electricity backup is available in all the medical colleges.

75


• All the colleges were stringent when it was the case of maintaining the security and internet breach. Firewall was installed in all the computers

Summary as per the checklist (out of 8 medical colleges) as given in Table 2. Table 2 Facility available (number)

Unavailable (number)

Separate IT dept

4(A,B,D,G)

4(C,E,F,H)

Lease line

6 (A,B,C,E,F,H)

2 (D,G)

LAN

8

0

Separate net café/digital lib

4 (A,E,F,H)

4 (B,C,D,G)

Electricity backup/inver ter

8

0

Antivirus

8

0

Login ID/password /firewall

8

0

Parameter

• The lacunae which was seen in most of the colleges was the absence of a digital library or an internet café Conclusion From the above discussion it is clear that the young researchers though do not deny the fact that online learning is important but are not in completely favor of it. As they are more used to pursuing course through conventional and traditional classroom lectures. They feel the lack of human touch and engagement in online learning which is very well present in conventional classroom lectures. Though many participants listed benefit of the enhancement of knowledge at a click of a button, just at the doorstep but still are a little unsatisfied with the virtual aspect of online learning. They feel that online learning is beneficial only as short and add on courses. The availability of internet connection is yet another hurdle. Sound internet connection is available at the medical colleges but their the participants are so engaged in their day to day routine activities that they are not in a position to devote time for online learning. Furthermore the internet connection is not that sound when it comes to their personal connection. Surely the number of computers/laptops are less and separate IT wings needs to be installed in each and every medical college.

• To ensure the security of the computers/laptops, antivirus is present in all the computers in all the medical colleges. Also firewall and separate login id/password is present in all medical colleges.

Online courses can have their impact only if they are well accepted by the students which is possible when students don’t face any problem while pursuing course online and when the courses are made more interactive by including online forum discussions, live chats, quick feedback, etc. Further research can be done on the quality of the online courses and how these courses can be made more interactive like the traditional courses so that the participants do not lack the element of “human touch” in the e-courses

• IT infrastructure needs a drastic improvement to match the need of the researchers. Except one medical college the other colleges had no provision for videoconferencing. • Other infrastructure was also not sufficient in quantity like the speakers, webcams, headphones. • The number of laptops/computers were not adequate except in college E.

Ethical Considerations

• Separate person for handling the IT issues should be present in all the colleges.

Informed consent is taken before starting the interview. Participation in survey was voluntary. If anyone disagreed to become part of the data collection process they were not forced by any means.

• Broadband width was satisfactory for all the colleges though only four out of the eight medical colleges had a separate IT department to address the issue and problems related to IT.

Name of the colleges have been coded (A to H) to maintain the confidentiality. 76


vi) Is the connection WAN (wide area network) or LAN (local area network)?

Instruments/Questionnaires used Two separate prepared:

structured

questionnaires

were vii) What other backups do you need for access to internet connection? What are the status for the same in this medical college?

a.) To gauge the knowledge, views, perceptions and usage of online learning among the faculty members/students regarding online learning. Do you know about online learning?

Probe: electricity

What do you know about it?

viii) How internet security is maintained and internet breach is prevented?

Have you done any online course? Please share your experience about it?

Probe: user login id, network management, intrusion detection, etc present or not

Do you use internet articles/journals/videos, etc?

Acknowledgement

for

reading

The authors are thankful to the Directors of IIHMR, Jaipur and R.D. Gardi Medical College, Ujjain. Thanks are also due to all the Deans, concerned faculty members and staff of the participating medical colleges, who also helped in this study to a great extent.

What according to you are the challenges of online learning? What according to you are the benefits of online learning? Will you use online learning as a mode of further research/study? Why or why not?

References [1] Lavis JN, Posada FB, Haines A, Osei E. Use of research to inform public policymaking, Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15519634 (Accessed: 13th Feb 2015) [2] The Importance of Health Research, Available at:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9571/ (Accessed: 13th Feb 2015). [3] Ashok Kumar Bhardwaj, Ashoo Grover, Sunil Kumar Raina, Dinesh Kumar, Vishav Chander, Shailja Sharma Sood, Sushant Sharma, Research Equity: A Capacity Building Workshop of Research Methodology for Medical Health Professionals, Available at: http://www.hindawi.com/journals/jbe/2013/261643/ (Accessed: 14th Feb 2015) [4] Seble Frehywot, Yianna Vovides, Zohray Talib, Nadia Mikhail, Heather Ross, Hannah Wohltjen, Selam Bedada, Kristine Korhumel, Abdel Karim Koumare and James Scott, E learning in medical education in resource constrained low- and middle-income countries, Available at: http://www.human-resourceshealth.com/content/11/1/4(Accessed: 14th Feb 2015) [5] Ruiz JG, Mintzer MJ, Leipzig RM, The impact of Elearning in medical education, Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16501260 (Accessed: 14th Feb 2015)

b.) To gauge the IT infrastructure available for online learning in the medical colleges. i) Does the campus have a separate physical space for faculty, staff and students that provides access to internet? Probe: computer labs, internet cafe, digital library, IT department, etc. ii) Please enumerate the number of computers/laptops available in the IT labs, exclusively for students/faculty for their learning purpose. iii) Does the college have appointed any separate person for handling the IT department? Probe: his qualification, job responsibilities. If not hired then the reasons behind it. iv) What is the Bandwidth used for the network? Probe: Kbps, Mbps, Gbps which one used v) What version of windows is installed in the desktops, computers, etc present in the computer lab/IT department? Probe: when was windows last updated, the current version used and antivirus installation? 77

Review of Lifetime Optimization Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks 1

Anjali Bhatt and 2Naresh Purohit M Tech Student, Department of EC, Patel College of Science and Technology, Indore 2 Assistant Professor, Department of EC, Patel College of Science and Technology, Indore 1

composition of hundreds of devices offers radical new technological possibilities.

Abstract In the recent years, the technology of wireless sensor networks has gained a lot of importance. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are a special case of ad-hoc wireless networks. A wireless sensor network is a collection of sensor nodes that communicate through wireless links to work together to carry out functions. The sensor nodes’ basic function is to monitor the physical and environmental changes in terms of pressure, humidity, temperature etc. (referred as sensing). Sensor nodes have processing, communication and sensing capabilities. WSNs are used in number of diverse scenarios including area monitoring, health care monitoring, air pollution monitoring, natural disaster prevention, industrial health monitoring, calamity prevention etc. Sensor nodes have small batteries with limited power. Large number of sensor nodes in WSN makes it impractical to replace sensor node batteries. Thus, the life time of sensor nodes is an important attribute of a wireless sensor network. The life time of a sensor network is the time spent from the deployment to the instant when the network is considered non-functional. This paper presents a survey of different techniques to optimize the lifetime of the sensors in WSN. We have tried to find out problems that exist with lifetime optimization and have tried to present solutions for the same. Keywords: Wireless sensor networks, optimization, energy efficient protocols.

WSN have been receiving significant attention due to their potential applications in environmental monitoring and surveillance domains. In WSNs, unbalanced energy consumption is an intrinsic problem and this can considerably decrease network lifetime [2]. The power of wireless sensor networks lies in the ability to deploy large numbers of tiny nodes that assemble and configure themselves. Usage scenarios for these devices range from real-time tracking, to monitoring of environmental conditions, to ubiquitous computing environments, to in situ monitoring of the health of structures or equipment [3]. While often referred to as wireless sensor networks, they can also control actuators that extend control from cyberspace into the physical world. A wireless sensor network consists of the following – a sensing unit (senses changes in the environment), a processing unit (works on data – embedded in microcontroller), a transmission unit and a power supply [4]. The topology of WSNs can vary from either star to multi-hop wireless mesh networks. A node can be in three phases- active (receiving or sending data), idle and sleep (nodes shut down to save energy).The challenges faced by WSNs are – limited energy capacity, necessity to know locations of sensor nodes of WSNs, data aggregation, different application requirements which differ from network to network, scalability, fault tolerance, diverse node density requirements and necessity for self – configuration, avoidance of manual dependence, reliability and security threats. In wireless sensor networks, owing to the limitation of energy, memory, and computation, it is necessary to construct the networks under the constraints [5]. The on-off sensor that is either awake or asleep (on or off) is also effective to save the observation energy. The collaboration of censoring and sleeping plays a great role in saving more energy. Extending network lifetime and energy efficiency are important objectives and challenges in wireless sensor networks. In wireless sensor networks, node energy resources are so limited that how to reduce energy consumption and prolong network lifetime become

lifetime

Introduction The emerging field of wireless sensor networks combines sensing, computation, and communication into a single tiny device. Through advanced mesh networking protocols, these devices form a sea of connectivity that extends the reach of cyberspace out into the physical world. As water flows to fill every room of a submerged ship, the mesh networking connectivity will seek out and exploit any possible communication path by hopping data from node to node in search of its destination [1]. While the capabilities of any single device are minimal, the

78


the primary factor that should be taken into account for the design of wireless sensor network routing protocols. The coverage problem is also one of basic problem in wireless sensor networks; it can be dealt with the nodes' deployment. In WSN, the coverage means how well a sensor network will monitor the total area of the region [6]. Node deployment is one of the important issues that need to be solved. The number of sensor nodes has direct impact on the cost of the Wireless Sensor Networks. So, keeping this in mind, the proper deployment of nodes can reduce the complexity of problems, energy consumption can be reduced and thus extends the lifetime of the Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensor networks specifications are highly dependent on the application defined for the network. WSNs use lithium batteries in general for the power supply. The utilization in power for different types of sensors like gas, pressure, temperature etc. is different [7].

the network. This is because many useless transmissions (or transmissions only) messages are generated and transmitted in the network, which in turn makes the nodes to quickly dissipate their precious energy. Therefore, we have to design energy efficient algorithms that can prevent or at least reduce the amount of redundant transmissions [8]. Clustering Clustering is a well-studied topic in the community of sensor networks, where the goal is to divide the entire network in a number of groups (not necessarily disjoint) and select a node in the cluster head (CH) of each group. Each maybe CH is assumed to be active and do all the work of coordination, e.g. detection, data collection and data transmission on behalf of the group to the base station, while the other cluster nodes can enter sleep mode. Based on grouping the problems, is to minimize the number of CHs, provided of any node in the network or a CH group or at least directly connected to CH. That would leave more detectors in low energy reserve. This problem is also known as the minimum set of key problem. However, like all CHS (even minimal CHS) is busy all the time for detection, processing and transmission of such data, power running quickly, while other nodes (CHS) are not left with a lot of energy. This causes a significant power supply nodes and reduces disequilibrium web of life. One way to solve this situation is to find a family of disjoint sets of CHs and make iterative assets so that the energy consumption balanced between the nodes of the network.

It is seen that most of the previous approaches choose for alternate path directly when any node shut down that dropped performance and have relative higher complexity. As the mobile nodes operate on the limited power of battery therefore it becomes very necessary to develop techniques which can successfully maintaining lesser complexity. Recently researcher tried to develop a new approach which can successfully maintain the researched article with lesser battery power, in order to have long survival of Sensor network. Energy Issue in Wireless Sensor Network Recently researcher mainly focuses on the distributed (and local) designing algorithms for these problems, where individual nodes perform their own algorithms for computing solutions to global problems. A distributed algorithm is one in which the nodes individually execute the same algorithm and make decisions accordingly without knowing the general network topology. However, in some distributed algorithms, it is permissible that the nodes can learn some overall information (for example, the number of sensors in the Network and / or the maximum level of the underlying curve). A stronger version of distributed algorithm is known as the local algorithm. Unofficially, a local algorithm, allows a node to communicate only with their neighbors, which are plus a constant jump away to make decisions during the execution of the algorithm.

Surveillance Target Monitoring (also called coverage) is an important and widely studied issue in sensor networks. In general, the main objective of the research in this area is the design of scheduling algorithms, such as the individual sensors in the network slots to indicate that during the time interval that is active during those days are slots allocated to sleep. Given a WSN that monitors certain objectives, it is sometimes possible to find a subset of sensors and encourage them to do the same activity monitoring. So instead of all active nodes for this purpose (which is obviously redundant) we possibly can choose a small subset that can guarantee the same supervision. This observation led researchers to design efficient algorithms so that at any time a small number of nodes are only active for controlling all the objectives in question [9].

Broadcasting Issues Diffusion is a process by which a message generated by a node of the network, is sent to all other nodes in 79

Review of lifetime optimization techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks

network lifetime of a WSN. Most researchers have aimed to design energy-aware routings to conserve the usage of the battery energy to prolong network lifetimes. A reloadable sink is another approach for prolonging network lifetime by avoiding staying at a certain location for too long which may harm the lifetime of nearby sensor nodes. This approach [9] can not only relieve the burden of the hot-spot, but can also integrate the energy-aware routing to enhance the performance of the prolonging network lifetime. In this paper, they have [9] proposed an Energy-Aware Sink Relocation method (EASR), which adopts the energy-aware routing MCP as the underlying routing method for message relaying. Theoretical analysis is given in this paper to demonstrate that EASR can prolong the network lifetime of a WSN. Sensor nodes are often deployed in remote area. It is inevitable to update their codes for introducing new functionality or fixing bugs after the deployment. Network reprogramming provides an ultimate solution to this problem through efficient dissemination that relies upon wireless broadcast. Yet, existing code dissemination protocols for reprogramming Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) becomes inefficient, in terms of power dissipation or delay, in unreliable broadcast environments. In this paper, we designed an Adaptive Code Dissemination Protocol (ACDP) for reprogramming wireless sensor network. The proposed ACDP reduces communication cost without introducing intensive computation or complicated transmission control. More importantly, its load balancing feature is capable of extending the lifetime of the entire sensor network, as well as that of individual sensor. They [10] have proposed a network reprogramming protocol ACDP by using random linear coding for code dissemination. The memory overhead in ACDP cans fit the hardware resource of most modern sensor nodes. Moreover, the impact of different coding windows on the protocol reliability and traffic is analyzed. The optimum coding windows of different network sizes are studied and provided. ACDP can achieve better load balance and faster reprogramming. It guarantees reliability. It can reduce the number of transmitted packets, which directly affects network lifetime. In terms of overhead, it needs a slightly more memory and computational cost to get power saving for the whole network. Unbalanced energy consumption is an inherent problem in WSNs and this can significantly reduce network lifetime [11]. Judicious node deployment is one of the primary solutions for unbalanced energy consumption in WSNs. The objective of designing such a node deployment function is to achieve energy balance and enhancing network lifetime while maintaining coverage and connectivity. We have analyzed two node

Self Protect Sensor Networks We studied an interesting problem which deals with the provision of the sensors with a level of protection by other sensors. Sensors for monitoring the target, it is often necessary to give a level of protection (additional sensors) so that the sensors can take certain actions when attacks are directed at them. A natural idea is to monitor sensors by neighbors as neighbors can inform the base station when other sensors are in danger (or not working due to a malfunction). An elaboration of this is as follows. Sometimes one may need to know if all the sensors in the network is healthy to do their homework [10]. From a faulty sensor, i.e. a defective or compromised sensor cannot report to the base station of one’s condition, targets controlled by the faulty sensor become unprotected and the system has no way to read about it vulnerability. In this case, we have to find a subset of sensors whose function is to control other sensors, so when all sensors (including themselves) failure or malfunction sensors reported the situation to the base station. The base station then take appropriate action, such as the deployment of additional nodes to replace those that do not operate continuously to provide protection to these objectives. Related works Hui Lin [8] developed a parallel algorithm for the solution of an integrated topology control and routing problem in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). After presenting a mixed-integer linear optimization formulation for the problem, for its solution, they develop an effective parallel algorithm in a Master– Worker model that incorporates three parallelization strategies, namely low-level parallelism, domain decomposition, and multiple searches (both cooperative and independent) in a single Master– Worker framework. For improved algorithmic efficiency, they introduce three reduced sub problems and devise partial objective value cuts from these reduced models. They utilize both the reduced models, for which they suggest efficient approaches for their solution, and the associated cuts in their parallel algorithm. They observed [8] that the reduced models provide valuable information on the optimal design variables for the original model and they exploit this fact in their parallel algorithm. Their overall parallelization scheme utilizes exact optimization models and solutions as its components and allows cooperation among multiple worker processors via communication of partial solution and cut information. The depleting speeds of battery energy of sensor nodes will significantly affect the 80


deployment strategies viz. Gaussian distribution based node deployment strategy [12] and Nonuniform node deployment strategy [13]. From the analysis it is observed that both the deployment strategies do not ensure enhancement of network lifetime to its fullest extent as these are not energy balanced. To mitigate the problem, we have identified Archimedes’ spiral, a geometric model using which we have proposed a node deployment scheme.

[8]

[9]

Conclusion In this paper we made a survey of the routing protocols and the energy conservation methods to try and conserve the battery energy of the sink node from depleting. The sensor nodes deplete their energy and consequently their lifetimes, mainly those near the sink as they consume more battery because they have to deliver their own and other nodes' data. With a mobile sink, the nodes around the sink always changes, thus balancing the energy consumption in the network and improving the network lifetime. Mobile sinks reduce end to end delay, increase success rate and decrease energy dissipation in wireless sensor networks. Here in the sink relocation mechanism, we have used the EASR protocol for mobile sinks. It adapts the Maximum Capacity Path (MCP) as the underlying routing method. Here residual energy of nodes is taken into account to adjust the transmission range of nodes and relocating methods for the sink.

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

References [1]

[2]

[3]

[4] [5] [6] [7]

Nikhil Marriwala, Priyanka Rathee, An Approach to Increase the Wireless Sensor Network Lifetime, World Congress on Information and Communication Technologies, 2012. Ashish Christian, Dr.Himanshu Soni, Lifetime prolonging in LEACH Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks, International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Signal Processing (ISSP), 2013. Kashani, M.A.A.; Ziafat, H., “A Method for Reduction Of Energy Consumption In Wireless Sensor Network With Using Neural Networks”, 2011 A. Sis et al, “Integrated Comparison of Energy Efficient Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Network: A Survey”, 2011. Xueqing Wang, Shuxue Zhang, “Comparison of Several Sensor Deployments In Wireless Sensor Networks” 2010. Negahdar, M et al, “A Method for Coverage Control in Wireless Sensor Networks With Two Degrees of Freedom”, 2008. Narayanan Sadagopan, Bhaskar Krishnamachari, Ahmed Helmy, Active query forwarding in 81

sensor networks, Received 1 March 2003; received in revised form 20 June 2003; accepted 15 August 2003, Ad Hoc Networks 3 (2005) 91– 113 Hui Lin, Halit Uster “A parallel algorithm with enhancements via partial objective value cuts for cluster-based wireless sensor network design” in Elsevier transaction of J. Parallel Distributing. Computation. 74 ,pp 2615–2625, 2014 Chu-Fu Wang, Jau-Der Shih, Bo-Han Pan, and Tin-Yu Wu “A Network Lifetime Enhancement Method for Sink Relocation and its Analysis in Wireless Sensor Networks” in IEEE Sensors Journal, Volume:14 Issue:6 , pp 1932 - 1943, 14 February 2014 Chuchu Dong , Fengqi Yu “An efficient network reprogramming protocol for wireless sensor networks” in Elsevier transaction of Computer Communications 55 , pp 41–50, 2015 Subir Halder “Design of an Archimedes’ spiral based node deployment scheme targeting enhancement of network lifetime in wireless sensor networks” in Elsevier transaction of Journal of Network and Computer Applications 47 ,pp 147–167,2015 Wang T, Vuran MC, Goddard S. “Cross-layer analysis of the end-to-end delay distribution in wireless sensor networks” IEEE Transection Networking;20, pp 305–18,2012. Wu X, Chen G, Das SK “Avoiding energy holes in wireless sensor networks with non-uniform node distribution” IEEE Trans Parallel Distrib Syst 19, pp 710–20, 2008.

Rural and Urban Area based Distribution Routing using Proactive and Reactive Routing Protocol in VANET 1

Parul Patel and 2Ravindra Sharma 1 Research Scholar, 2Asst. Prof. SVITS, Indore 1 [email protected], [email protected]

range (100 to 300 meter while for example the length of a road on average or size of a city is higher) implies that not all the nodes are being directly connected. Depending on their density they are either single entities or forming non-connected clusters or all nodes are being connected to each other. The way of communication of nodes is either direct or multihop connection. VANET is a special type of Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET). Nodes of such networks are capable of setting up and maintaining a communication network by themselves. They are sharing radio capacity to communicate within their transmission range and relay messages of other communicating parties (multihop communication). Important to mention that in contrast to MANET’s vehicles of VANETs are traveling on the existing road network and not moving randomly as in case of MANET’s. Vehicles mobility is constrained by the road network/topology, traffic signs and traffic conditions.

Abstract Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network or VANET is a technology that uses moving cars as nodes in a network to create a mobile network. VANET moves each performing car into a wireless router or node, mainly the involvement of interest to MANETs is of interest in VANETs, but the information diverges. Rather than moving at random, vehicles tend to move in an institutionalized fashion. In this paper rural and urban area scenario created for AODV and DSDV in VANET environment with varying speed i.e. 30m/sec, 60m.sec and 90m/sec, and the performance has been evaluated on the basis of packet delivery ratio and end to end delay Keywords: VANET, AODV, DSDV Rural area network, Urban area network, and ns2. Introduction Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANET) is the part of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs). VANET is one of the influencing areas for the improvement of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) in order to provide safety and comfort to the road users. Vehicular Ad hoc Networks abetments vehicle drivers to communicate and to coordinate among themselves in order to avoid any critical situation through Vehicle to Vehicle communication e.g. road side accidents, acceleration control, traffic jams, obstacles and free passage of emergency vehicles etc. Besides safety applications VANET also provide comfort applications to the road users.

VANET utilize various communication technologies in order to meet the VANET application’s requirements (e.g. service area, data speed, maximum radio capacity and delay in time). These requirements are not independent from each other and being fundamentally and regulatory limited. Vehicular Applications

Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network (VANET) is going to be briefly introduced in order to position the topic of this work. We have tried to show the need for an analytical promulgation model as well as the need to study promulgation strategy’s tradeoff for vehicular networks.

Currently used traffic information systems are centralized vehicular applications using technology like Traffic Message Channel (TMC), which provides information about road traffic conditions. However, it is (i) lacking of short delay times (due to the centralized approach) and (ii) averaging information for large geographical areas (due to costsensitiveness of detailed sensor networks and limited radio resource) (iii) without the opportunity of providing services for locally interesting and timecritical applications.

MANET Vs VANET

VANET Dissemination Strategies

VANET comprises vehicles and road side units which are forming a communication network. High level of mobility and a relative short transmission

Most VANET-based systems assume prior knowledge about the underlying road network which is usually interpreted as a weighted graph [1]. 82


Common approach is to divide the roads to sections with different weights, but not certainly with the same length. The weights are given according to a certain property which can be physical like message’s traversal delay [1] or stochastic probability based on the distance of vehicles [3].

Flooding is not scalable though it consumes high amount of energy, bandwidth and memory space while being inefficient. Therefore, techniques to reduce network load are required. The main goal is to provide less information with higher distance to keep the system scalable as shown in. Atomic information (e.g. velocity, degree) [11] is being aggregated with information from another nodes [1] or about road sections [2] to have aggregated messages. The message has to be aggregated with new information of the current node before another broadcast takes place.

Vehicles are assumed to be equipped with sensors which are providing data about the status of the vehicle e.g. speed, geographical position, temperature [4] or even sensors to detect bumps, acceleration [5] or honking. This status represents local information about a geographical area at a certain time moment. Distribution of local information needs to be detailed within closer vicinity, and coarser with the increase of distance as proposed in [7]. For example a driver would be interested in the average speed of vehicles way ahead, but the exact speed of a vehicle 100 meters ahead has to be able to avoid a collision. Based on the type of communication three main categories can be introduced. First, vehicles sending their messages via a cellular system and/or Road-Side Unit (RSU) to a central server or to another peer as described in [8]. The disadvantage of such systems is the high cost of construction and maintenance of the infrastructure. Second group can be the group of systems which are not using cellular systems, but another dedicated like Urban Multi-hop Broadcast protocol suggested in or more general communication technologies for VANET (e.g. Wi-Fi) based. Lastly, a hybrid solution, combination of both systems, seems to be the most powerful, but becomes the most complex approach. Such a system is introduced in, to enhance radio coverage of the fixed infrastructure (e.g. RSU) by cooperation with vehicles to forward the messages from and to the infrastructure. Another approach is to employ staticnodes at intersections to improve the performance of vehicle-based (ad-hoc) information dissemination as indicated in [10]. These hybrid systems are taking advantages of ad-hoc- and infrastructure-based communication approaches in order to optimize information spreading.

Routing in VANET Deciding route in Ad-hoc networks which are selforganizing, self-configuring and multi-hop vehicular network with dynamically changing topology and network configuration, is the biggest task as there are various factors associated with problems in these networks, such as varying distances between the nodes, lower bandwidth utilization, improperly managed and prone to be partitioned network and all because of the mobility of the nodes. All nodes have an access, rather a random access, to the communication link provided by the network, which is again weak enough to enhance the shortcomings of it. The three main type of routing protocols which are used in this work, are as follows:

Ad hoc on demand distance vector (AODV)



Destination-Sequence based Vector Routing (DSDV)

Distance-

Ad-Hoc on Demand Distance Vector (AODV) In AODV, the network is silent until a connection needed. At that point the network node that needs a connection flooded a request for connection. Other AODV nodes forward this message, and record the node that they heard it from, creating an explosion of short-lived routes back to the needy node. When a node receives such a message and already has a route to the covet node, it sends a message backward through a temporary route to the requesting node. The destitute node started using the route that has the least number of hops through other nodes. Unused node in the route tables is recycled after a time. When a link fails, a routing error is passed back to a transmitting node, and the action repeats. Much of the complexity of the protocol is to lower the number of messages to safeguard the capacity of the network. For example, each request for a route has an array. Nodes use this sequence number so that they do not

Fundamental idea of information dissemination for VANET is to have periodic broadcast messages, as presented in [1], and have event driven messages for causes of emergency situations. Vehicles are most of the times sending messages about their current status (velocity, heading) and/or knowledge about the network performance (e.g. delay of certain links, density of cars at a road section). Data from multiple inputs are being processed and a new message calculated and transmitted if the outing protocol requests it. Aforementioned information should be aggregated to fulfill scalability requirements. 83

Rural and Urban area based distribution Routing Using Proactive and Reactive Routing Protocol in VANET

repeat route requests that they have earlier passed on. Another such feature is that the route requests have a "time to live" number that diminish how many times it can be retransmitted. Another such feature is that if a route request fails, another route request may not be sent until twice as much time has passed as the timeout of the earlier route request [13]. The advantage of AODV is that it creates no extra traffic for communication along existing links. Also, distance vector routing is simple, and doesn't require much memory or calculation. However, AODV requires more time to establish a connection, and the initial communication to establish a route behavior than some other approaches. Destination-Sequence Routing (DSDV)

Based

of two routing protocols. In this case these are AODV and DSR rather than a particular VANET scenario, consisting of Rural and Urban area network, with static and dynamic nodes with 100sec simulation time. Performance Matrices For this work to be done successfully authors have used VANET scenario with varying speed and time of 30m/sec, 60m/sec and 90m/sec respectively with 100 seconds simulation time under dynamic scenario, using two routing protocols. We have reached to the results with the help of various performance matrices for now, we have used following..

Distance-Vector

1. 2.

Destination-Sequence based Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) is a table-driven routing scheme for ad hoc mobile networks based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm. It was developed by C. Perkins et.al. in 1994. The main improvement of the algorithm was to solve the routing loop problem [12].

Packet Delivery Ratio End to End Delay

Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) This is the ratio of the data packets generated by the TCP sources to those delivered to the destination. This enhances the ability of the protocol to create routes. Fig. 1 and 2 shows the PDR.

Packets are transmitted between the stations of the network by using routing tables which are gathered at each station of the network. Each routing table, at each of the stations, lists all available terminals, and the number of hops to each. Every route table entry is tagged with a sequence number which is originated by the destination terminal. To maintain the consistency of routing tables in a dynamically varying topology, each station periodically transmits updates, and transmits these updates immediately whenever significant new information is available. Since we do not assume that the mobile hosts are maintaining any sort of time synchronization, we also make no assumption about the phase communication of the update duration between the mobile hosts. These packets indicate which stations are accessible from each station and the number of hops necessary to reach these accessible stations, as is often done in distance-vector routing algorithms [13].

Fig. 1: Packet Delivery Ratio for rural area network

Simulation & Results In this paper Creation of Rural area network and Urban area network with various speed i.e. 30m/sec, 60m/sec and 90m/sec in VANET Scenario for NS-2 and then to create Different routing protocols with the use of Various performance matrices Like Packet Delivery Ratio, End- to- End delay, Residual Energy, Normalized Routing overhead and Overall Throughput had been studied. In this case firstly the authors have created scenario file for IEEE 802.11p standard which has to be used along with the TCL Script then we have created a TCL Script consisting

Fig. 2: Packet Delivery Ratio for urban area network 84


[3] Y. Zhuang, J. Pan, and L. Cai, “A probabilistic model for message propagation in twodimensional vehicular ad-hoc networks,” in ACM international workshop on Vehicular Internetworking, 2010, pp. 31–40. [4] A. Thiagarajan, L. Ravindranath, K. LaCurts, S. Madden, H. Balakrishnan, S. Toledo, and J. Eriksson, “VTrack: accurate, energy-aware road traffic delay estimation using mobile phones,” in ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems, 2009, pp. 85–98. [5] P. Mohan, V. Padmanabhan, and R. Ramjee, “Nericell: rich monitoring of road and traffic conditions using mobile smartphones,” in ACM conference on Embedded network sensor systems, 2008, pp. 323–336. [6] R. Sen, B. Raman, and P. Sharma, “Horn-okplease,” in ACM international conference on Mobile systems, applications, and services, 2010, pp. 137–150. [7] C. Lochert, B. Scheuermann, C. Wewetzer, A. Luebke, and M. Mauve, “Data aggregation and roadside unit placement for a vanet traffic information system,” in ACM international workshop on Vehicular Internetworking, 2008, pp. 58–65. [8] C. Maihöfer, T. Leinmüller, and E. Schoch, “Abiding geocast: time–stable geocast for ad hoc networks,” in ACM international workshop on Vehicular Ad hoc Networks(VANET), 2005, pp. 20–29. [9] J. Rybicki, B. Scheuermann, M. Koegel, and M. Mauve, “PeerTIS: a peer-topeer traffic information system,” in ACM international workshop on Vehicular Internetworking, 2009, pp. 23–32. [10] Y. Ding, C. Wang, and L. Xiao, “A static-node assisted adaptive routing protocol in vehicular networks,” in ACM international workshop on Vehicular Ad hoc Networks(VANET), 2007, pp. 59–68. [11] S. Dietzel, B. Bako, E. Schoch, and F. Kargl, “A fuzzy logic based approach for structure-free aggregation in vehicular ad-hoc networks,” in ACM international workshop on Vehicular Internetworking. ACM, 2009, pp. 79–88. [12] Charles E. Perkins and Pravin Bhagwat “Highly Dynamic Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computers” SIGCOMM 94 -8/94 London England UK @ 1994 ACM 0-89791 -682-4/94/0008. [13] Hemanth Narra, Yufei Cheng, Egemen K. Cetinkaya, Justin P. Rohrer and James P.G. Sterbenz “Detination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) Routing Protocol Implementation in NS3” WNS-3 2011, March 21, Barcelona, Spain 2011,March 21.

End to End Delay This is the average delay between the sending of the data packet by the TCP and its receipt at the corresponding SINK. Fig. 3 and 4 shows End to End Delay.

Fig. 3: End to End Delay for rural area network

Fig. 4: End to End Delay for urban area network Conclusion From all the above analysis done so far the authors concluded that for different performance matrices different cases has been observed AODV routing protocol is having very good PDR as compared with DSDV, vis-a-vis conclude relatively as PDR is inversely proportional to End to End Delay. Thus, from this analysis it has been proved. References [1] L. Wischoff, A. Ebner, H. Rohling, M. Lott, and R. Halfmann, “Sotis, a selforganizing traffic information system,” in IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC), 2003, pp. 2442 – 2446. [2] S. Dashtinezhad, T. Nadeem, B. Dorohonceanu, C. Borcea, P. Kang, and L. Iftode, “TrafficView: a driver assistant device for traffic monitoring based on car-to-car communication,” in IEEE, Vehicular Technology Conference(VTC), 2004. 85

Study of Ascertaining the Extent of Crop Residues Burning in Selected District of Madhya Pradesh 1

Rameshwar Prasad Ahirwar, 2Anil Kumar Dubey, 3Himanshu Tripathi, and 4Sandip Gangil 1, 3, Senior Research Fellow, Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal-462038 2,4 Principal Scientist, AEP, Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal-462038 *Corresponding Author: [email protected] field primarily to clear the field from straw and stubble after the harvest of the preceding crop. The problem is severe in irrigated agriculture, particularly in the mechanized rice-wheat system. The main reasons for burning crop residues in field is intensifying in recent years due to include unavailability of labour, high cost in removing the residues and use of combines in rice-wheat cropping system especially in the selected District of Madhya Pradesh. Primary crop types whose residues are typically burned include rice, wheat, soybean, cotton, maize, millet, sugarcane, jute, rapeseed-mustard and groundnut. Farmers in Madhya Pradesh dispose a large part of wheat and rice straw by burning in situ. Burning of crop residues leads to release of shoot particles and smoke causing human health problems emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide causing global warming loss of plant nutrients such as N, P, K and S adverse impacts on soil properties and wastage of valuable C and energy rich residues. There are many options, which can be practiced such as composting, mulching, generation of energy, production of Briskets and recycling in soil to manage the residues in a productive manner. Conservation agriculture offers a good promise in using these residues for improving soil health, increasing productivity, reducing pollution and enhancing sustainability and resilience of agriculture. The resource conserving technologies involving no- or minimum-tillage, direct seeding, bed planting and crop diversification with innovations in residue management are possible alternatives to the conventional energy and input intensive agriculture. The brainstorming session would discuss various aspects of scientific management of crop residues in the context of conservation agriculture. The discussion would focus on the quantity of crop residues available in the country, extent of burning of residues in field and their environmental impacts, identification of possible options for safe and sustainable management of crop residues, assessing their adoption potential and finally developing a policy paper on sustainable management of crop residues.

Abstract Major crops are selected of cereals; pulses & oilseed crop are based on irrigated & unirrigated area. Twenty to twenty Five farmers are selected from every district based on categories marginal, small & big farmers. We are prepared survey questionnaire and discussed face to face with farmers and visit to farm of the farmers and we are seen situation of the field and adopted agricultural technology of the farmer and interviewed on the basis of pre defined questionnaire and collect data. And desired information’s were recorded and analysed. Wheat is a major crop of Sehore district it is covers 65.91% area. Area under wheat cultivation of individual farmer is ranging from 2-39 acre and 38.20% area is direct field burnt. Mustard is a major crop of Morena district it 63.01% area are covered. Area under mustard cultivation of individual farmer is ranging from 2-16 acre and burnt crop residue field 4.77%. Keywords: Biomass availability crop residue, field burning, and nutrient reduction Introduction Agricultural burning is “the burning of vegetative debris from agricultural operations necessary for disease or pest control, crop propagation, or crop rotation, or where identified as a best management practice” (Peterson 2003)1. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE 2009) 2, Govt. of India estimated that about 500 Mt of crop residue is generated every year. Therefore India produces about 500 million tons (Mt) of crop residues annually. Processing of agricultural produce through milling and packaging also produces substantial amount of residues. Crop residues are natural resources with tremendous value to farmers. These residues are used as animal feed, composting, thatching for rural homes and fuel for domestic and industrial use. About 25% of nitrogen, 25% phosphorus, 50% of sulphur and 75% of potassium uptake by cereal crops are retained in residues, making them valuable sources of nutrients. However, a large portion of the residues, about 92.81 Mt (Pathak et al. 2010) 3, is burned in 86


fuel, bio methanation and biochar production, brackets production and mushroom cultivation besides several other uses like thatching, mat-making and toy making and fencing purpose. The utilization of crop residues varies across different district of the Madhya Pradesh. Traditionally crop residues have numerous competing uses such as animal feed, fodder, fuel, roof thatching, packaging and composting. The residues of cereal crops are mainly used as animal feed. Rice straw and husk are used as domestic fuel or in boilers for parboiling rice. Farmers use crop residues either themselves or sell it to landless households or intermediaries, who further sell them to industries. The remaining residues are left unused or field burnt. In district like Morena, where crop residues of mustard are not used as cattle feed, a large amount is burnt on-farm. Residues of mustard are burnt as fuel in brick kilns and lime kilns. The residues of pulses and oilseed crops are mainly used as fuel for household needs. The shells of rapeseed and mustard, pigeon pea are used as domestic fuel.

Methods and Materials Base line survey of Sehore and Morena district. Sehore and Morena district are selected based on agro climatic zone of Madhya Pradesh and major crop of the district. Each three major crop are selected of cereals, pulses & oilseed crop are based on irrigated & unirrigated area. Three taluka are selected from every district & two villages are selected from par taluka. Five farmers are selected from every village based on categories marginal, small & big farmers. Twenty to twenty Five farmers are selected from every district. We are prepared survey questionnaire and go to survey of selected district. We discussed face to face with farmers and visit to farm of the farmers and we are seen situation of the field and adopted agricultural technology of the farmer and interviewed on the basis of pre defined questionnaire and collect data. And desired information’s were recorded and analysed. Table : 1 Selected Districts for Surveying of Madhya Pradesh Selected District Sehore Morena

Rabi/ Kharif Cereals Oilseed

Major Crop

Area

Wheat

Irrigated

% Of Irrigati on 90

Irrigated

66

Mustard

Adverse consequences of field burning of crop residues Burning of crop residues leads to release of shoot particles and smoke causing human and animal health problems. It also leads to emission of greenhouse gases namely carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, causing global warming and loss of plant nutrients like N, P, K and S. The burning of crop residues is wastage of valuable resources, which could be a source of carbon, bioactive compounds, feed and energy for rural households and small industries. Heat generated from the burning of crop residues elevates soil temperature causing death of active beneficial microbial population, though the effect is temporary, as the microbes regenerate after a few days. Repeated burnings in a field, however, diminishes the microbial population permanently. The burning of crop residues immediately increases the exchangeable NH4+-N and bicarbonateextractable P content, but there is no build up of nutrients in the profile. Long-term burning reduces total N and C, and potentially mineralizable N in the upper soil layer.

Determination of chemical properties of biomass Biomass availability in the field after harvesting of wheat crop by combiner. Randomly collect biomass sample g/m2 from field in the zigzag pattern by quadrate methods and 12 sample are collect from per hectare field and average biomass calculate in tonne/ha. Approximately 10 g of sub samples of crop residue were preserved separately in zip bags for chemical analysis. Nitrogen content in wheat grain and straw was determined by the standard Kjeldahl method (Total nitrogen estimation method, AOAC, 1980)4. TOC analyzer determined total C. Total P, S, and K, were analyzed by ICP spectrometry after digestion of a 0.2-g sample with HNO3 and H2O2 at 120° C for 3 hours (Zarcinas et al., 1987)5.

Reasons behind field burning of crop residues

Utilization and field burning of crop residues in Madhya Pradesh

Farmers and policy makers are well aware of the adverse consequences of field burning of crop residues. However, because of increased mechanization, particularly the use of combine

The crop residues can be gainfully utilized for livestock feed, composting, power generation, bio 87

Study of Ascertaining the Extent of Crop Residues Burning in Selected District of Madhya Pradesh

harvesters, declining numbers of livestock’s, long period required for composting and unavailability of alternative economically viable solutions, farmers are compelled to burn the crop residues. The number of combine harvesters in the selected district of Madhya Pradesh. The Sehore and Raisen District about 70% of the cropped area under combine harvesting. Combine harvesters are used extensively in the Madhya Pradesh. Major reasons for rapid increase in the use of combines are labour shortage, high wages during harvesting season, easy of harvesting and thrashing and uncertainty of weather. On using combine harvesting; about 80% of the residues are left in the field as loose straw that finally ends up being direct field burnt. There are some other reasons also behind intentional burning of crop residues. These include clearing of fields, soil fertility enhancement, and pest and pasture management. On farm burning traditionally provides a fast way to clear the fields off the residual biomass, thus, facilitating land preparation and sowing/planting. It also provides a fast way of controlling weeds, insects and diseases, both by eliminating them directly or by altering their natural habitat. The time gap between rice harvesting and wheat sowing in Madhya Pradesh, for example, is only 15-20 days. In this short duration, farmers prefer to burn the soybean and rice straw on-farm instead of harvesting it for fodder or any other use. The latter options also involve a huge transportation cost. On-farm burning is also perceived to boost soil fertility, although burning actually has a differential impact on soil fertility. It increases the short-term availability of some nutrients (for example P and K) and reduces soil acidity, but ultimately leads to a loss of other nutrients (for example N and S) and organic matter.

highest in Sehore (2.7 tonne)) and Morena District (2.0 tanne). Table: 2 Biomass Availability in Sehore and Morena district

Places

Major crop

Available biomass( g/m2)

Available biomass (tonne/ha)

Sehore

Wheat

270

2.7

Morena

Mustard

200

2.0

Burning of crop residues With the advent of mechanized harvesting, farmers have been burning large quantities of crop residues, particularly in areas with high yield potential. As the crop residues may interfere with tillage and seeding operations for the next crop, many farmers prefer to burn the residues left in the field. The burning of these residues (which is not at all a sustainable practice) leads to the following. Air pollution (particularly due to the release of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, ammonia, and particulate matter in the atmosphere), which farms environment and contributes to global climate change. Substantial waste of precious nutrient resources and organic matter in the soil, especially nitrogen. It is reported that 40 to 80% of the nitrogen in wheat crop residue is lost as ammonia when it is burned in the field. The ash left on the soil surface after burning crop residues causes an increase in urea’s activity and may cause N losses from soil. Deterioration of soil physical properties (crop residue, being an organic material, leads to an improvement in soil structure and fertility, whereas burning residues leads to a corresponding loss in soil fertility). Residue burning can have a beneficial short-term effect on the N supply to subsequent crops, but has negative long-term effects on overall N supply and soil carbon levels.

Results and Discussions Results obtained during the present investigation on “Base line survey of field burning crop residues in selected district of Madhya Pradesh” have been presented in this chapter. The means pertaining to various surveys have been presented in the form of abridged tables along with necessary illustrations incorporated at appropriate places.

Table: 3 Nutrient Content Present in Different Biomass

Generation of crop residues in selected district of Madhya Pradesh There is a large variability in crop residues generation and their use depending on the cropping intensity, productivity and crops grown in different District of Madhya Pradesh. Residue generation is 88

Nutrient content N%

Wheat straw 0.20-0.73%

Soybean straw 0.50-0.90

Paddy straw 0.50-0.80

P%

0.20-0.25%

0.10-0.30

0.16-0.27

K%

1.20-1.50%

0.40-0.70

1.40-2.00

S%

0.10-0.13%

0.10-0.20

0.05-0.10


Table: 5 Area Holding in Percentage (%) of Farmers of Selected District of Madhya Pradesh.

Effects on Soil Burning of wheat straw in the field will cause loss of some of the nutrients with the volatilization, vapour and smoke. Research indicates that losses of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are respectively Carbon 90 to 100%, Nitrogen 90 to 100%, Phosphorus 20 to 40% and Potassium 20 to 40%. Long and short-term studies have been completed in the States to determine the effects that burning has on soil quality. The results of these studies, in relation to long-term soil health, are essentially the same, with the conclusion that long-term burning of crop residues and grasslands has a negative effect on soil quality, which directly relates to reduced production. Ojima (1987)6 found that microbial biomass C and N were reduced by long-term annual burning, but were affected very little by short-term burning (1 to 2 years). The study also showed that short-term burning created increased active N and N mineralization rates (increase in available N for the plant). However, long-term burning resulted in a decrease of soil organic matter and N mineralization rate.

Area Holding

Sehore

Morena

Cultivated area

92.50%

99.26%

Uncultivated area

8.98%

0.73%

Irrigated area

80.89%

99.26%

Unirrigated area

9.73%

0.73%

Burnt CR Field

38.20%

4.77%

Table: 4 Cropped Area in Percentages of selected District of Madhya Pradesh Intercultural Mustard (Oil seed crop) Wheat (Cereal crop) Gram (Pulses crop)

Sehore

Morena

0.37%

63.01%

65.91%

32.52%

20.22%

2.23%

Others (Crop)

1.87%

0.74%

Barren (Fallow)

8.98%

0.74%

Fig 2 Area Holding in Percentage of Farmers of Sehore and Morena

Fig 3 Soybean Crop Residue

Fig 1 Cropped Area in Percentages of Sehore and Morena District 89

Study of Ascertaining the Extent of Crop Residues Burning in Selected District of Madhya Pradesh

Details of Survey analysis of Sehore district Wheat is a major crop of Sehore district it is covers 65.91% area. Area under wheat cultivation of individual farmer is ranging from 2-39 acre. 38.20% area is direct field burnt. Combiner does wheat harvesting and small farmers harvested are manually. Agro residues transportation is manual and generally done by using tractor. Threshing of crop is generally done at the in farm itself. After harvesting is available biomass, which is used as cattle, feed and dumping to make manure from it and most of the quantity is burnt in open field. Farmer is ready to own consumption surplus crop residues. Wheat crop residues are also available but most are used as fodder.

Fig 4 Wheat Crop Residue

Details of Survey Analysis of Morena district Mustard is a major crop of Morena district it is covered 63.01% mustard grown area high followed by 32.52% wheat and 2.23% gram. Area under mustard cultivation of individual farmer is ranging from 2-16 acre. Mustard harvesting is done manually. Using tractor generally does Agro residues transportation. Threshing of crop is generally done at the field itself. After harvesting is available CR which is used as dumping to make manure. Farmer is ready to sell surplus crop residues. The farmer sell crop residue to the brickyard owner. Conclusion Fig 5 Field Burning of Crop Residue after Harvesting

Wheat is a major crop of Sehore district it is covers 65.91% area. Area under wheat cultivation of individual farmer is ranging from 2-39 acre and 38.20% area is direct field burnt. Mustard is a major crop of Morena district it 63.01% area are covered. Area under mustard cultivation of individual farmer is ranging from 2-16 acre. Burnt CR field 4.77% Research has shown that occasional burning of crop residues with an economical and effective management tool. Long-term burning of crop residues can have a more permanent negative effect on soil quality and overall soil health. Repeated burning can cause long term reduction in yields. In Madhya Pradesh wheat straw is the great economic value as major feed for livestock, fuel and industrial raw material. The residues can be put to various uses and is possible if residue is collected and managed properly. The surplus residues must be used for conservation agriculture, for which it is a prerequisite sustainability and resilience of Indian agriculture. Burning of residues not only causes losses of nutrients and organic matter, but also

Fig 6 Randomly selected /m2 Field burning Crop residue after harvesting

90


contributes to the air pollution, global warming and climate change. References [1] Peterson, K. (2003) Focus on agricultural burning. Washington state department of ecology, air quality program [2] Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Resources (2009) www.mnre.gov.in/relatedlinks/biomassrsources [3] Pathak H, Bhatia A and Jain N (2010) Inventory of greenhouse gas emission from agriculture. Report submitted to Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India. [4] Derpsch R and Friedrich T (2010) Global overview of conservation agriculture adoption. In Conservation Agriculture: Innovations for Improving Efficiency, Equity and Environment, (PK Joshi et al. eds), National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi India, p 727-744. [5] Liu H, Jiang GM, Zhuang HY, Wang KJ (2008) Distribution, utilization structure and potential of biomass resources in rural China: With special references of crop residues. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12:1402-1418. [6] Crop Residues Management with Conservation Agriculture: Potential, Constraints and Policy Needs © 2012 Copyright: Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India

91

Study & Analysis of Various Web Pre-Fetching Techniques 1

Rehan Khan and 2Jitendra Dangra CSE, Laxmi Narayan College of Technology, Indore, (M.P.) 1 [email protected]

1,2

the time that user should watch for the requested documents will be reduced by activity the request latencies. Pre-fetching is that the technique for reducing Latencies. User invariably expects faster and interactive response, higher satisfaction and quality of output. There are numerous approaches and algorithms are projected for rising the online performance.

Abstract Increasing popularity of the net over the past few years has obligatory a serious traffic burden upon the net the internet is additionally thought of to be an oversized distributed information systems providing access to shared information. A mass analysis has done to reinforce the latency of internet primarily based system as a result of the data is distributed over a geographical location. Web caching and prefetching are two necessary approaches accustomed scale back the noticeable latency perceived by users. During this paper we tried to study and analysed the varied previous researches and techniques supported web Pre-Fetching. Keywords: Web Caching, Pre-Fetching, Application, Web Usage Mining.

Web Application A web application is any application that uses a browser as a client for application. The appliance will be straightforward as a message board or a guest sign-in book on a web site, or as complicated as an application or a computer program.

Web A web application relieves the developer of the responsibility of building a client for a selected sort of pc or a selected software. Since the client runs in a web browser, the user may be using a mackintosh or a IBM-compatible or they will be running Windows XP or Windows vista. They will even be using internet explorer or Firefox, though some applications need a selected application program.

Introduction Web could be a key resource so as to share the data on the globe. It is sizable amount of advertisements, stories and world connectivity between individuals and plenty of data is available for the individual research scholars. This vast use of internet around globe makes it a lot of vital within the world of analysis. Research worker always has the challenge to build online applications in such a manner that they remain economical. Several researchers work on that and provides new plan so as to allow the higher results from the previous one.

Web applications commonly use a combination of server-side script (ASP, PHP, etc) and client-side script (HTML, Javascript, etc.) to develop the application. The client-side script deals with the presentation of the information while the server side script deals with all the hard stuff like storing and retrieving the information.

There is a large need to improve the latency of server for internet applications. Currently internet features a huge repository because of increase its use suddenly. It becomes essential to concentrate on each and every amount and standard of internet contents. Even, once the speed of web has improved with the reduced costs, traffic is obtaining heavier. The large data makes it tough to seek out the relevant data quickly. This led to the trouble the effort and the speed, by way of reducing the latency, which creates the internet a lot of relevant and meaningfully connected. The Cache pre-fetching plays a very important role so as to boost the latent period and build the application well-organized. The online pre-fetching could be a technique so as to preprocess the user requests, before they are really demanded. Therefore

Fig.1: Client Server Architecture A Client Server design (Fig. 1) during which every personal computer (PC) or method on the network is 92


either a client or server. Servers are very powerful computers or processes dedicated to managing disk drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network servers). Clients are PCs or workstations with users run applications. Clients think about servers for resources, like files, devices, and even process power.

Literature Review In 2000 Annie P Foong, u-Hen Hu and Dennis M Heise [1] identified the existence of multidimensional locality in web accesses. They also proposed that design of cache strategies must account for all of these localities to be fully effective. The localities and predictors presented in this paper are by no means exhaustive. What they have achieved here is show the applicability of a simple Linear Regression (LR) model in characterizing these localities. The availability of eventful data in web reaccesses is especially suited towards such statistical methods as the LR model. They suggest that web caching algorithms must be adaptive. We have investigated but a small area in web caching and made decisions based only on what a single cache sees.

Web Pre-Fetching Web Pre-Fetching is another terribly effective technique that is employed to enhance the online caching mechanism. The web Pre-Fetching predicts the online object expected to be requested within the close to future, however, these objects do not seem to be requested by users. Then, the anticipated objects are fetched from the origin server and keep during a cache. Thus, the web Pre-Fetching helps in increasing the cache hits and reducing the user-perceived latency.

In 2000 Weifeng Zhang, Baowen Xu, William Song, Hongji Yang and Kecheng Liu [2] presents a simple World Wide Web (WWW) data model and then introduces some technologies with which the data in the cache of the browser can be mined, the knowledge is saved into the interest association repository and the users’ impending activities can be predicted. Integrated with the data mining technique, the agent technology and the web technology, better quality of web service for the users is provided. The design ideas of the agent based web pre-fetching reflect the development tendency of intelligent web browsers.

“Web Pre-Fetching could be a technique that created efforts to resolve the matter of those access latencies”. Specially, world caching ways that straddle across users work quite well. However, the increasing trend of generating dynamic pages in response to communications protocol requests from users has rendered them quite ineffective. PreFetching is employed as a shot to put information near the processor before it is needed, eliminating as several cache misses as possible. Caching offers the subsequent benefits: Latency reduction, less bandwidth consumption, Lessens internet Server load. Pre-Fetching is the means to anticipate probable future requests and to fetch the foremost probable documents, before they are really requested. It is the speculative forty retrieval of a resource into a cache within the anticipation that it is served from the cache within the close to future, thereby decreases the load time of the thing.

In 2001 Mas and SUZUKI, Hiroyuki YOKOYAMA and Takeshi MIZUIKE [3] have discussed caching and mirroring techniques suitable for the educational Internet. They considered equipment issues, teaching methods and problems regarding the present situation of Internet usage in the educational workplace. They described network models and traffic characteristics of the educational Internet taking these factors into account. With regard to caching and mirroring, their discussion focused on storage costs and communications costs per unit amount of data for hard disks and access circuits. For caching, they showed that limitations on storage capacities have been practically eliminated by the high capacities and lower costs of hard disks. For mirroring, they proposed that mirroring should be practiced intensively for sites that are expected to be accessed even to a small extent. Further, they touched on the possibility of incorporating pre-fetch methods with caching or mirroring. Finally, they introduced the concept of the virtual network that can exclude indiscriminate access to harmful information, SPAM mail, and nuisance mail, and expressed our

Types of Web Pre-Fetching The Pre-Fetching techniques implemented enforced on server, proxy or client side. The client-based PreFetching concentrates on the navigation patterns of one user across several internet servers. On the other hand, the sever-based Pre-Fetching concentrates on the navigation patterns of all users accessing one web site. The proxy-based Pre-Fetching concentrates on the navigation patterns of a bunch of users across several internet servers. Thus, this approach reflect mirror a standard interest for user’s community. In alternative words, the Pre-Fetching contents will be shared by several users. 93

Study & Analysis of Various Web Pre-Fetching Techniques

conviction that such a network is useful for learning the basic techniques of the Internet.

worthy of investigation is the development of predictive flow models for object access. Such models can be used to good advantage similar to predictive internet traffic models used in optimizing bandwidth provisioning. According to authors predictive flow models can help reduce the frequency of updating the flow graph and reduce the associated computational overhead.

In 2003 Xin Jin and Huanqing Xu [4] proposed the pre-fetching model based on HMM. Their scheme is based on the idea that utilizing HMM to mine the latent information requirement concepts that the user access path implies, the pre-fetching model makes semantic-based pre-fetching decisions. According to authors web pre-fetching has common feature with other web applications using prediction of user access pattern. Authors suggests that after being modified a little, this approach can he easily extended to some domains such as information filtering, information recommender system, personality web site, etc.

In 2006 Ganesh Ananthanarayanan, Sean Blagsvedt and Kentaro Toyama [7] have proposed and implemented a system OWeB to improve the Internet browsing experience over slow and intermittent networks. OWeB made the browsing experience significantly independent of the network availability. The OWeB framework was made robust and resilient by employing standard techniques like queuing and re-trials. Authors observed a co-relation between the core content section of homepages and the items in the Rich Site Summary (RSS) feeds and devised an algorithm to automatically extract the template of a web page and stitch the incoming RSS feeds into the template locally, thereby achieving significant savings in the data downloaded. There system implementation results validated the correctness of their observation and also illustrated the accuracy of their template identifier and stitching algorithm in addition to appreciable data savings. Algorithm presented in this paper works only when every content section is defined by a single RSS feed. They plan to extend their algorithm to work in scenarios where a single content section is defined by multiple RSS feeds and when a single RSS feed defines multiple sections of the page.

In 2004 Amit Thawani, Srividya Gopalan and Sridhar V [5] have proposed a system that facilitates reduction in call resolution time in a contact center through context-aware information retrieval. This is achieved by defining the context of a query to include the explicit information and implicit information and the context is constructed using customer, agent and business entities; implicit information is derived by analyzing and aggregating the past context history; and information derived by the analysis of past contexts is used in context aware information retrieval. This retrieved information aides the agent to propose quicker and better resolutions as well as to make appropriate promotional offers. According to the authors the contextual information aids the agent in such a way as to reduce the agent’s need for training. In 2005 Hussein Fareed and Mostafa Bassiouni [6] have presented and evaluated a flow based algorithm for web caching and pre-fetching. The algorithm captures the access relationships between objects and represents them as a weighted directed graph. The weights on the edges of the graph represent the degree of access coupling between pairs of objects. According to authors the Bow-based framework can be easily integrated into existing caching algorithms with little overhead. They have applied the flowbased framework to the Least Recently Used (LRU) algorithm and evaluated its performance using NS2 simulation with real-life traces. In all test cases, the flow algorithm gave improvement over LRU. It is expected that the proposed flow framework will perform much better in sites that use business scenarios such as reservation systems, electronic stores, online malls, and e-shopping. The scheme presented in this paper can be extended in two ways: extending the tests to more real-life applications and investigating ways to capture longer flow sequences without incurring intolerable overhead. Another area

In 2007 Achuthsankar S. Nair and Jayasudha J.S [8] proposed a dynamic pre-fetching technique in which web caching and pre-fetching techniques are integrated. Web pre-fetching techniques are used for reducing latency, but it increases web traffic. In dynamic web pre-fetching technique, subsequent links are pre-fetched only if bandwidth usage of existing network is less than a predefined threshold. For each web page request, the retrieved page is parsed to identify the subsequent links and Uniform Resource Locator (URL) corresponding to these links is searched in the hash table to get its weight information. Intelligent agents monitor the bandwidth usage, user’s preferences and hash table weights to identify the number of URLs to be pre-fetched. Simulation result of this technique presented in this paper shows that dynamic pre-fetching browser maintains almost constant web traffic even if prefetching is done. Since dynamic pre-fetching technique increases cache hit ratio, reduces latency

94


and maintains almost constant traffic, it is preferred to all the existing pre-fetching techniques.

approach in this survey. Finally, authors presented some studies that discussed integration of web caching and web pre-fetching together. Web caching and pre-fetching are two effective solutions to lessen Web service bottleneck, reduce traffic over the Internet and improve scalability of the Web system. The Web caching and pre-fetching can complement each other since the web caching exploits the temporal locality for predicting revisiting requested objects, while the web pre-fetching utilizes the spatial locality for predicting next related web objects of the requested Web objects. Thus, combination of the web caching and the web pre-fetching doubles the performance compared to single caching.

In 2010 Theint Theint Shwe, Thida Myint, Theint Theint Aye, Su Su Htay, Swe Swe Nyein and Mie Mie Su Thwin [9] have proposed a framework for Web Usage Analyzer is intended to apply in many ways such as for Web Site Maintainers, Web Analyzers, Pre-fetched Systems, Web Personalized Systems and Recommender Systems because they are mining based on user’s purposes, date, and site of web log data then presents the results upon different dimensions. It can also be used in statistical analysis of the information about most often used web sites to inform the particular clients and can be used in Prefetched system.

In 2011 Kavita Sharma, Gulshan Shrivastava and Vikas Kumar [13] provide a survey about the research in the area of Web mining’s today structure and tomorrow view. They point some confusion between data mining and web mining. Web data is growing at a significant rate. Web Mining is fertile area of research. Many Successful applications exist. They also suggest the subtask of web mining & future of web mining. They also work for the process mining and try to combine usage mining with structure mining. Authors also go for the mining from cloud. Whenever they work on mining over cloud computing that time they hesitate for the cost but that come very less by cloud mining. So, they can say that cloud mining can seen as future of web mining.

In 2010 Toufiq Hossain Kazi, Wenying Feng and Gongzhu Hu [10] have review and categorize different Web prefetching models and a new prefetching algorithm is proposed that is based on a modified ART1 neural network clustering. They have confidence in the new algorithm anticipating reasonably good performance in certain metrics such as user perceived delays, prefetching accuracy and overhead cost on network traffic. In 2010 Brijendra Singh, Hemant and Kumar Singh [11] provided an evaluation and update of available web mining research. Extensive literature has been reviewed based on three types of web mining, namely web content mining, web usage mining, and web structure mining. They present year wise Summary of improvements in each type of mining. Web data mining is a fast rising research area today. As the web data and its usage will rise in future. It will prolong to generate more content, structure and usage data. So the importance of web data continues increasing. Web data is mainly semi-structured to unstructured. Due to the heterogeneity and the lack of structure of Web data, automated discovery of targeted or unexpected knowledge information still present many challenging research Problems. Data Mining is perhaps still in its infancy and much research is being carried out in the area.

In 2012 A Vadivel, Shaila S. G, R. Devi Mahalakshmi and J. Karthika [14] have designed and developed a crawler that communicates with various components in the form of Extensible Markup Language (XML) messages. The message processing methodology has exploited the power of web services and increased the crawling & indexing capacity of the crawler. From their experimental results, they observed that the number documents retrieved and indexed is on the higher side. By their work, the directions for the future are given to make the research more optimal in its activation with the user. Because of the large storage space that is required by the Inverted Index, a suitable technique is required to compact the indexed documents to reduce the storage space. Also, Development of an intelligent spell checker will enhance the effectiveness of web crawler to identify the wrong word in the user query.

In 2011 Waleed Ali, Siti Mariyam Shamsuddin and Abdul Samad Ismail [12] reviews the principles and some existing web caching & pre-fetching approaches. Firstly, they have reviewed principles and existing works of web caching. This includes the conventional and intelligent web caching. Secondly, types and categories of pre-fetching have presented and discussed briefly. Moreover, the history-based pre-fetching approaches have been concentrated and discussed with review of the related works for each

In 2012 Sarina Sulaiman, Siti Mariyam Shamsuddin, Nor Bahiah Ahmad and Ajith Abraham [15] provides guidance to the administrator in WC regarding to selection of the best parameters to be cached and used in mobile Web pre-caching. Based on their analysis, the administrator may reorganize the 95


parameter of log data set in proxy cache accordingly. Likewise, an empirical research has been conducted to search for the optimal classification. In addition to their work, RESTful (RS) classifier was implemented to optimize the performance of decision Web object to either cache or not cache in a proxy cache. The RS framework for log dataset was illustrated mutually with an analysis of reduced and derived rules, with entrenchment of their implicit properties for better classification outcomes. The actual prediction accuracy proves that the RS is capable to be used as a classifier in order to predict significant data from the main Backup (BU) and Entry Level (EL) datasets and will be used to produce a pull global Web prefetching on mobile applications.

introduction about the different Web pre-fetching techniques namely Prediction by partial match, Predictive web pre-fetching Model based predictive pre-fetching, Semantic web pre-fetching, Link prefetching, Domain top approach, Data pre-fetching, Content pre-fetching, Context based pre-fetching, Proxy cache pre-fetching, Dynamic web pre-fetching and Greedy-Dual-Size pre-fetching are analyzed and discussed. The web pre-fetching scheme focus on the property spatial locality of web objects. These techniques are applied to reduce the network traffic and improve the user satisfaction. Web pre-fetching and caching can also be integrated to get better performance. In 2013 Yogish H K and G. T. Raju [20] proposes a novel approach that makes use of ART1NN Clustering and Pre-fetching technique (CPF), to fetch the pages for the user community before request them. Most of the research works in pre-fetching concentrates on individual user’s requests according to their previous access patterns. Authors presented CPF approach that showed its usefulness in reasonable utilization of network resources through pre-fetching of Web pages for a community of users instead of a single user with an average prediction accuracy of 93.16%. Though the CPF approach results in substantial increase of network traffic, it effectively reduces the user perceived latency.

In 2012 Abhay Singh and Anil Kumar Singh [16] presented an approach for pre-fetching the web pages for a user, on the basis of his history of browsing by using sequential data mining technique. The overall performance of Cache using the proposed approach for both Page Replacement namely LRU and Least Frequently Used (LFU) using pre-fetching has improved by 12% and 8 % respectively as compared to the normal caching policy of LRU, as determined by the Hit Rate and Byte Hit Rate for each sample of log files. In 2012 Poornalatha G and Prakash S Raghavendra [17] have proposed a prediction model that yields good accuracy. Also, an integrated distance method is proposed to find the similarities between any two user sessions based on the sequence alignment. The results obtained from their work are compared with few other results available in the previous research to demonstrate the goodness of the prediction model. Since accuracy is good, the work could be useful for pre-fetching applications that reduce the user latency.

In 2013 N Nandini, H K Yogish and G T Raju [21] have been presented Various Pre-fetching techniques along with the parameters and applications. They show the comparison of various pre-fetching techniques. Most of the research works in prefetching concentrates on individual user’s requests according to their previous access patterns. Although these methods are efficient for pre-fetching, they may considerably overload the network with unnecessary traffic when pre-fetching for a large number of users. Authors suggest Future research directions in this regard concern with the development of a novel prefetching approach that pre-fetch requests for a large community of users instead of individual user’s request based on frequent sequential patterns and cluster patterns and development of adaptive predictive systems that use hybrid approach such as use of statistical, neural, and Bayesian learning algorithms.

In 2012 Gou-feng Zhao, Bing Li and Tong Hong [18] propose a novel user aware model to provide personalized pre-fetching for VIP users while guaranteeing the common pre-fetching for ordinary users based on dynamic Markov chain. Markov chain has been applied in webpage pre-fetching for a long history: traditional Markov, multi-markov, and hybrid-markov. However, these methods cannot be applied to Microsoft Network (MSN) pre-fetching for some weaknesses. This model may have a large application space: it can not only be applied in mobile social network ecosystem, but also may be applied in some Mobile Internet websites, in which distribution of user clicks and traffic flow polarized.

In 2014 Partha Ghosh and Soumya Sen [22] have proposes a new methodology to compute the pagerank based on the existing parameters as well as newly identified parameters based on location and time. Location is identified in terms of local and global. Time is identified in terms of current and long

In 2012 K. Ramu, Dr. R. Sugumar and B. Shanmugasundaram [19] have given brief 96


history. All of these values are considered and summarized to obtain the pagerank. In this method a number of threshold values are considered. These threshold values could be specific to some applications or these could be set to a constant value. Authors suggest that this work could be extended to compute the threshold values of different variables based on experimental result or statistical analysis. Thus this research work could be exploited in mathematical or statistical domain for further enhancement.

the threshold, they are prefetched and stored in the cache, else discarded. Results of the proposed approach is compared with the previous ones using Matlab 5.0 and found that proposed work provides more accurate results. Conclusion In this paper, we discussed various techniques that are implemented for Web Pre-Fetching. We had also analyzed data model techniques, Caching & Mirroring techniques, Information Retrieval techniques, Web Caching techniques, Web Usage Analyzer, Web Mining, Crawler, Sequential Data Mining Technique, Prediction Model, Markov Models, Clustering, Apriori & FP-Growth Method, SPRINT (a decision tree induction classification technique). A short survey of various Web PreFetching techniques has been given. The previous approaches that rely solely on caching offer limited performance improvement because it is difficult for caching to handle the large number of increasingly diverse files, also the benefit of caching is limited.

In 2014 Gowtham S, Mausumi Goswami, Balachandran K and Bipul Syam Purkayastha [23] puts forth the concepts of document pre-processing, which is achieved by extraction of keywords from the documents fetched from the web processing and generating a term-document matrix, TF-IDF (Term Frequency and Inverse Document Frequency) and the different approaches of this for each respective document. The techniques mentioned by those are necessary for every web or text mining techniques, as it affects the efficiency and effectiveness of any text related areas like document clustering, web mining and data mining. It is mandatory to perform any of these techniques to improvise the quality of mining process. The proposed algorithm is simple to implement and also most effective in terms of performance. As a result, use of these method and algorithms can increase the overall performance in the field of search engines, document classification, document clustering and most text oriented fields.

Reference [1] Annie P Foong, u-Hen Hu and Dennis M Heise, “Web Caching: Locality of References Revisited”, at 07695-0777-8/0$01 0.00 0 2000 EEE. [2] Weifeng Zhang, Baowen Xu, William Song, Hongji Yang and Kecheng Liu, “Data Mining Algorithms for Web Pre-Fetching”, at 0-7695-0577-5/00 $10.00 0 2000 IEEE. [3] Mas & SUZUKI, Hiroyuki YOKOYAMA and Takeshi MIZUIKE, “Study on Caching, Mirroring, and Pre-fetch Methods for Educational Internet”, 07695-0945-2/01$10.000 2001 IEEE. [4] Xin Jin and Huanqing Xu, “An Approach to Intelligent Web Pre-fetching Based on Hidden Markov Model”, Proceedings of the 42nd IEEE, Conference on Decision and Control, Mani, Hawaii USA, December 2003. [5] Amit Thawani, Srividya Gopalan, and Sridhar V, “Web-based Context Aware Information Retrieval in Contact Centers”, Proceedings of the IEEE/WIC/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence (WI’04), 0-7695-2100-2/04 $ 20.00 IEEE. [6] Hussein Fareed and Mostafa Bassiouni, “Adaptive Object Cache Pre-fetching Scheme based on Object Flow”. 0-7803-8991 -3/05/$20.00 0 2005 IEEE. [7] Ganesh Ananthanarayanan, Sean Blagsvedt, Kentaro Toyama, "OWeB: A Framework for Offline Web Browsing", Proceedings of the Fourth Latin American Web Congress (LA-WEB'06), 0-7695-2693-4/06 $20.00 © 2006 IEEE. [8] Achuthsankar S. Nair and Jayasudha J. S., “Dynamic Web Pre-fetching Technique for Latency Reduction", 0-7695-3050-8/07 $25.00 © 2007 IEEE, DOI 10.1109/ICCIMA.2007.303.

In 2014 Avadh Kishor Singh, Ajeet Kumar and Ashish K. Maurya [24] have find results that FPGrowth algorithm is used for finding the most frequently access pattern generated from the web log data. By using the concept of web usage mining they can easily find out the user's interest and they can modify their web site more valuable and more easily accessible for the behavior users. The main focus of the empirical analysis and comparison is to identify factors. In their comprehensive study and defined different factors, they find results that the Apriori and FP-growth method is efficient and scalable for mining both long and short frequent patterns. In future the both algorithm can be extended to web content mining, web structure mining. In 2014 Neha Sharma and Dr. Sanjay Kumar Dubey [25] have used SPRINT- a decision tree induction classification technique, instead of naive bayes. Initially anchor text is found and using lexical analyser, tokens are counted. Then after, SPRINT is applied. On the results of SPRINT, patterns are compared with the threshold. If they are greater than 97


[9] Theint Theint Shwe, Thida Myint, Theint Theint Aye, Su Su Htay, Swe Swe Nyein and Mie Mie Su Thwin, “FRAMEWORK FOR MULTI-PURPOSE WEB LOG ACCESS ANALYZER”, 978-1-4244-63497/10/$26.00 _c 2010 IEEE. [10] Toufiq Hossain Kazi, Wenying Feng and Gongzhu Hu, “Web Object Prefetching: Approaches and a New Algorithm” 2010 11th ACIS International Conference on Software Engineering, Artificial Intelligence, Networking and Parallel/Distributed Computing, 9780-7695-4088-7/10 $26.00 © 2010 IEEE, DOI 10.1109/SNPD.2010.28. [11] Brijendra Singh and Hemant Kumar Singh, “WEB DATA MINING RESEARCH: A SURVEY”, 978-14244-5967-4/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE. [12] Waleed Ali, Siti Mariyam Shamsuddin and Abdul Samad Ismail, “A Survey of Web Caching and Prefetching”, Int. J. Advance. Soft Computing Appl., Vol. 3, No. 1, March 2011, ISSN 2074-8523; Copyright © ICSRS Publication, 2011. [13] Kavita Sharma, Gulshan Shrivastava and Vikas Kumar, “Web Mining: Today and Tomorrow”, 978-14244-8679-3/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE. [14] A Vadivel, Shaila S. G, R. Devi Mahalakshmi and J. Karthika, “Component based Effective Web Crawler and Indexer using Web Services”, IEEE-International Conference On Advances In Engineering, Science And Management (ICAESM -2012) March 30, 31, 2012, ISBN: 978-81-909042-2-3 ©2012 IEEE. [15] Sarina Sulaiman, Siti Mariyam Shamsuddin, Nor Bahiah Ahmad and Ajith Abraham, “Meaningless to Meaningful Web Log Data for Generation of Web Pre-caching Decision Rules Using Rough Set”, 2012 4th Conference on Data Mining and Optimization (DMO), 02-04 September 2012, Langkawi, Malaysia, 978-1-4673-2718-3/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE. [16] Abhay Singh and Anil Kumar Singh, “Web Prefetching at Proxy Server Using Sequential Data Mining”, 2012 Third International Conference on Computer and Communication Technology, 978-07695-4872-2/12 $26.00 © 2012 Crown Copyright, DOI 10.1109/ICCCT.2012.14. [17] Poornalatha G and Prakash S Raghavendra, “Web Page Prediction by Clustering and Integrated Distance Measure”, 2012 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining, 978-0-7695-4799-2/12 $26.00 © 2012 IEEE, DOI 10.1109/ASONAM.2012.231.

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International Conference on Mobile Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks, 978-0-7695-4961-3/13 $26.00 © 2013 IEEE, DOI 10.1109/MSN.2012.30. K.Ramu, Dr. R. Sugumar and B. Shanmugasundaram, “A STUDY ON WEB PREFETCHING TECHNIQUES”, Journal of Advances in Computational Research: An International Journal, Vol. 1 No. 1-2 (January-December, 2012). Yogish H K and G. T. Raju, “A Novel ART1NN Clustering and Pre-fetching Technique for Reducing Web Latency”, 2013 5th International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Communication Networks, 978-0-7695-5069-5/13 $26.00 © 2013 IEEE, DOI 10.1109/CICN.2013.74. N Nandini, H K Yogish and G T Raju, “Pre-fetching Techniques for Effective Web Latency Reduction - A Survey”, 978-1-4673-5943-6/13/$31.00 ©2013 IEEE. Partha Ghosh and Soumya Sen, “Time and Location Based Summarized PageRank Calculation of Web Pages”, 978 2014 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT), Feb. 26 - Mar. 1, 2014, Busan, Korea, 978-1-4799-3939-8/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE. Gowtham S, Mausumi Goswami, Balachandran K and Bipul Syam Purkayastha, “An approach for document Pre-Processing and K Means Algorithm Implementation”, 2014 Fourth International Conference on Advances in Computing and Communications, 978-1-4799-4363-0/14 $31.00 © 2014 IEEE, DOI 10.1109/ICACC.2014.46. Avadh Kishor Singh, Ajeet Kumar and Ashish K. Maurya, “An Empirical Analysis and Comparison of Apriori and FP- Growth Algorithm for Frequent Pattern Mining”, 2014 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Communication Control and Computing Technologies (lCACCCT), ISBN No. 97S-1-47993914-5/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE. Neha Sharma and Dr. Sanjay Kumar Dubey, “Semantic Based Web Prefetching Using Decision Tree Induction”, 978-1-4799-4236-7/14/$31.00_c 2014 IEEE.

Waste Water Analysis of 20kW Downdraft Gasifier and its Treatment 1

Lata Tripathi, 2Anil Kumar Dubey, 3P L Singh and 4Sandip Gangil Research Associate1, Principal Scientist2, Senior Scientist3 Agricultural Energy and Power Division, Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh Berasia Road, Bhopal ([email protected], [email protected]) Gasifier ( 1mg/Nm3 ) [2]. Tars can be problematic for downstream processing equipment and such tars represent a decrease in (gas phase) fuel yield as all carbon or hydrogen in the tar has been diverted from the desired gas phase products. Additionally, many processes such as fuel cells or gas turbines can tolerate very low levels of organic impurities, therefore tars must be removed prior to use of the fuel in such systems. Ash or char is also produced in a gasifier. This phase typically consists of carbon, minerals, and metals that are present in the raw substrates which are not converted into the gas phase. For example, biomass can contain metals such as iron, copper, manganese, or magnesium as well as minerals such as calcium, potassium, or phosphorus which will not enter the gas phase at typical gasification temperatures (500-900°C). Depending on the carbon content of the residual it will be classified as char (high carbon content) or ash (primarily minerals and metals with minimal carbon). Char is generally burned to produce heat and ash. Ash from traditional combustion applications is often used in concrete, but ash from biomass gasification cannot be directly applied in such applications without pretreatment.

Abstract While gasification gains popularity in domestic as well as renewable energy technology, it is necessary to ensure that environmental issues do not become hurdles to its unconditional acceptance in the market. Therefore, an attempt was made in this study to characterize the effluent generated from biomass gasifier system and check the suitability of different option for effective removal of tar which is major problem in gasifier system. Experiment shows that in downdraft gasifier where amount of tar is not high gasifier water can be used for agriculture purpose after charcoal treatment. Activated charcoal is capable to adsorb tar and phenolic compound and decrease the COD level of water upto 92 % to develop a completely ecofriendly model of the gasifier system. Keywords: Activated charcoal, Biomass gasifier, COD, Phenolic compound Introduction Gasification is a promising technology to yield a usable gaseous product known as producer gas from biomass with high efficiency. During gasification, an energy source is heated in the presence of limited supply of oxygen to yield a gas-phase product consisting primarily of CO, CO2, H2, CH4 and N2 with smaller concentrations of low-order hydrocarbons. The reactive gas is typically air (in sub-stoichiometric quantities), nitrogen, steam, or CO2. The primary objective of gasification is to yield a gas from a solid which can then be used to synthesize fuels or chemicals, combusted to yield heat or electricity, or for combustion enhancement in pre-existing combustion processes. As in many reactive systems, not all of the reactants are converted to the desired (gas phase) products. Therefore, tars (heavier hydrocarbons), are formed during gasification, and are of particular concern when operating at temperatures below 700°C which are too low to thermally crack the tar [1]. Therefore in updraft gasifier where gas exit from lower end, where temperature is not high percentage of tar is high near about 100 mg/Nm3 compare to downdraft

The waste (ash + char + tar) generated from power plant are varied from 5 to 20 % of fuel used. The highest amount of waste was found in rice husk gasifier and minimum in case of wood based gasifier [3,4]. The gas cleaning of biomass gasification plant (BGP) is performed indifferent systems, including water scrubbers and filters [5].Tar removal through wet scrubbing result in the formation of wastewater. With the constant recycling, contamination of the water increases and contaminated water need to be treated for reuse or safe disposal. Studies on tar contaminated water from cooling and cleaning system of gasifier was done to find out the severity of contamination with respect to operation of gasification system and to ascertain the stage of water treatment and disposal in a natural stream The water flow required for cleaning of gas varies from 4001800 l/h. This, in turn, leads to the generation of tar, ash and contaminated water. The present study was undertaken to study the pollution level and saturation level of water, where it requires treatment. 99


Material and Methods

With increasing time, removal capacity of water decreases and experiment shows that after 36 hours it becomes constant which is clear from Fig 2.

Water used for cooling and cleaning of producer gas was taken at different time interval 6th, 12th, 18th, 24th, 30th, 36th from 5000 litre capacity water tank coupled with downdraft gasifier. Different parameters of water such as pH, Alkalinity, total solid, total dissolve solid and chemical oxygen demand were analyzed to determine the impurity level of water. After analysis water was treated with activated manufactured charcoal. Result and Discussion The water samples were taken from biomass gasification plant at different time intervals for their chemical analysis. The variation in temperature, pH, Hardness, T.S.S, T.S, C.O.D, etc. are observed in contaminated water. The color of the samples is always black to dark black in the outlet samples. This is due to the presence of tar content dissolved in water and causes pollution in the water samples. The odor of the biomass gasification effluents is found to be smoky due to the emission of gases from the gasifier. The floating materials are also present in the outlet samples.

Fig 2. Reduction in removal capacity of water with time

Table 1: Comparison of waste water of gasifier with irrigation water

The pH of the wastewater vary from 7-8.12, which indicate its alkaline behavior. Alkalinity of waste water reaches upto 1700 ppm .The hardness is caused by divalent metallic ions. The permissible limit for total hardness in drinking water is 300 mg/l as per BIS standard for drinking water. The study of the wastewater revealed that the total hardness ranges from 265 to 2250 mg/l. Therefore, the water attained more and more hardness due to recirculation of water in cooling and cleaning system. The total soluble solid was found to vary from 158 to 1200 mg/l. Chemical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen required by the organic substances in water or required by a string of chemical oxidant. In present study C.O.D. values of wastewater ranges from 236 to 1456 mg/l. The permissible limit of C.O.D. is 250 mg/l by BIS.

Parameters pH Total Solid Turbidity COD

Tap water 7.7 500 6.2 32 ppm

Gasifier water after 36 h 7.56 2800 29.6

Irrigation Water Quality 6.5-8.5 2000 ppm 30 NTU

1456 ppm

250 ppm

Above table shows that except COD and TS all parameters are under limit of standard of Irrigation water quality. If anyhow we reduce COD level of wastewater we can safely use water for irrigation purpose. Experiment shows that activated charcoal efficiently decreases COD and TS level after treatment. Activated charcoal has the capacity to adsorb phenolic compound, dust and carbon particulates. This adsorption capacity of charcoal decrease the COD level and Total solid of waste water and increase the recycling period of water.Fig.3 shows that after activated charcoal treatment 92% of COD decreases and 42.5% TS decreases with 300-400 l/h flow rate.

Fig 1. Waste water analysis at different time interval

100

Waste Water Analysis of 20kW Downdraft Gasifier and its Treatment

Fig 3. Effect of activated charcoal on COD and TS of waste water of gasifier Conclusion The tar contaminated water from cooling and cleaning system of downdraft gasifier was not disposed off without treatment .After physicochemical analysis of wastewater the overall conclusion was drawn that tar contaminated water needs techniques for safe disposal. Study found that water contamination reached to saturation level within 36 to 42h of operation of gasifier and during this period the water must be cleaned or changed. Activated charcoal is capable to remove impurities of water and after treatment can be recycled or used for irrigation purpose. References [1] Baker, E.G.; Brown, M.D.; Moore, R.H.; Mudge, L.K.; Elliot, D.C. Engineering analysis of biomass gasifier product gas cleaning technology; PNL-5534; Pacific Northwest Laboratory: Richland, WA, USA, 1986. [2] Han, J.; Kim, H. The reduction and control technology of tar during biomass gasification/pyrolysis: an overview. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 2008, 12, 397–416. [3] Bergman, P.C.A.; van Passen, S.V.B. The novel “OLGA” technology for complete tar removal from biomass producer gas. In Pyrolysis and gasification of biomass and waste. Expert meeting, Strasbourg, France, September–October, 2002. [4] Fcok M. W., “Toxicity of wastewater generated from gasification of woodchips,” Technology Brief, Dept. Water &Env. Eng., Lund Inst. Tech., Denmark, 2002. [5] Hasler P.and Nussbaumer Th., “Gas cleaning for IC engine applications from fixed bed biomass gasification,” Biomass and Bioenergy, 1999, vol. no. 16,Issue no. 6, Page no. 385-395, 2002, vol 23, page no. 64-78.

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Acknowledgement This is to acknowledge with thanks the support received from Mrs. Bhavna Dave, Asst. Librarian, REC, Bhopal and her team members for formatting and checking the proof of the manuscript. Thanks are also due to Mr. Nilesh Patidar, Fr. Faculty, RIRT, Bhopal and others for their help in the completion of this journal.