An examination of the relationship between ...

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An examination of the relationship between enjoyment, physical education, physical activity and health in Irish adolescents a

b

Catherine B. Woods , Deborah Tannehill & Julia Walsh

c

a

School of Health and Human Performance at Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland b

Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland c

Physical Education and Sport Studies, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Version of record first published: 11 Sep 2012.

To cite this article: Catherine B. Woods, Deborah Tannehill & Julia Walsh (2012): An examination of the relationship between enjoyment, physical education, physical activity and health in Irish adolescents, Irish Educational Studies, 31:3, 263-280 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2012.710068

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Irish Educational Studies Vol. 31, No. 3, September 2012, 263280

An examination of the relationship between enjoyment, physical education, physical activity and health in Irish adolescents Catherine B. Woodsa*, Deborah Tannehillb and Julia Walshc

Downloaded by [Dublin City University] at 04:52 16 October 2012

a School of Health and Human Performance at Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland; bPhysical Education and Sport Science, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland; cPhysical Education and Sport Studies, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

(Received 20 December 2011; final version received 1 May 2012) Enjoyment of physical activity (EPA) is positively correlated with activity, yet little is known of its relationship with enjoyment of physical education (EPE). This study’s purpose was to explore EPE and its relationship to EPA. Crosssectional data (N 4122, average age 14.591.7 years, 48% male) were collected as part of the CSPPA study (Children’s Sport Participation and Physical Activity). Adolescents completed a self-report questionnaire on physical activity behaviour and physical education. A sub-sample (n 902) completed a battery of physical health measures. Only 12% met the recommended physical activity guidelines (PAGL) for health. Few (10%) received the recommended minutes of physical education curriculum per week. Girls and older pupils received less physical education than boys and younger peers. Physical education classes were dominated by games, particularly for boys. EPE was positively correlated to EPA, and decreased as minutes of physical education decreased. Adolescents with high EPE and EPA were most likely to meet the PAGL. High EPE was correlated to a better health profile. If the factors that influence EPE are prevalent in physical education, then these youth are more likely to be happier, healthier and active beyond the school gates. Keywords: physical education; physical activity; enjoyment; physical health; adolescents

Introduction Physical inactivity involves little or no movement, and has recently been identified as the 4th leading risk factor for mortality in the world (Global Advocacy for Physical Activity [GAPA], 2011). Physical activity is any bodily movement that is produced by the contraction of the skeletal muscles and that substantially increases energy expenditure (Caspersen, Powell, and Christenson 1985). Regular participation in health enhancing physical activity (HEPA; activity that is sufficiently above baseline activity to produce health gain) has numerous health benefits including a reduction in coronary heart disease and stroke, diabetes, hypertension, colon cancer, breast cancer and depression (Mathers, Stevens, and Mascarenhas 2009; World Health Organisation 2003). Physical activity guidelines (PAGL) have been developed and adopted by health authorities worldwide (World Health Organisation 2010). With regard to adolescents, the most widely endorsed PAGL stipulate that in order to *Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] ISSN 0332-3315 print/ISSN 1747-4965 online # 2012 Educational Studies Association of Ireland http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2012.710068 http://www.tandfonline.com


264 C.B. Woods et al. enhance health, youth should accumulate at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity(MVPA) daily (daily.60 min.MVPA) (Chief Medical Officer 2004; Department of Health and Children 2009; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2008). Adherence to these guidelines reduces the risk for cardiovascular disease and enhances mental and musculoskeletal health (Ogden, Carrol, and Flegal 2008; Strong, Malina, and Blimkie 2008). Unfortunately, a high proportion of adolescents do not meet current PAGL; for example, none of the 32 participating countries in the Health Behaviour of School-aged Children averaged sufficient MVPA to meet the PAGL; World Health Organisation 2002). For adolescents, physical activity has many modes. These include physical education, active school transport, extra-curricular and community-based sport and physical activity. Schools are an important setting for adolescents to take part in, and learn about, physical activity. Through physical education programmes and extracurricular sport, schools can provide time, facilities and guidance for adolescents to safely access physical activity opportunities and develop competence and confidence in an environment that is supported by teachers, parents and friends (Hardman 2007). Schools are also a setting for under-represented population groups to access quality physical activity experiences (Kirk 2005). However, decreasing physical education programmes in schools, pressure from the school to reduce time spent in free play, lack of training and senior management support for teachers and the removal of dedicated green spaces or play areas in schools is a worrying trend (Hardman 2007; World Health Organisation 2003). Children are motivated to participate in, or opt out of, physical activity for diverse reasons including fun and enjoyment, learning and improving skills, being with friends, success and winning, fitness and health (Allender, Cowburn, and Foster 2006; Biddle et al. 2005; Biddle and Armstrong 1992; MacPhail, Gorley, and Kirk 2003; Van der Horst et al. 2007). The Teenspace National Recreation Policy for Young People, which consulted widely with Irish youth, reported enjoyment as a key motivator to participation, while lack of interest was the main reason given for dropping out of sport and recreation (Office for the Minister of Children and Youth Affairs 2007). Enjoyment is recognised as a key factor for motivated behaviour and sustained involvement in youth sport (Scanlan et al. 1993). This study was guided by Scanlon’s Sport Enjoyment Model (Scanlan et al. 1993) which describes enjoyment of sport (physical activity: Enjoyment of physical activity [EPA]) as a positive affective state, one that is similar to intrinsic motivation and is reflected in ‘feelings such as pleasure, liking and fun’ (Scanlan and Simmons 1992, 2023). The model proposes that sport (physical activity) enjoyment is concerned with intrinsic achievement in reference to personal perceptions of mastery and competence, intrinsic non-achievement (physical movement sensations and excitement), extrinsic achievement (competence derived from social approval) and extrinsic non-achievement (non-performance related such as affiliation). Enjoyment of physical education (EPE), as opposed to general physical activity, is a different construct. Physical education is a school-based curriculum subject, therefore its enjoyment is influenced by different factors, for example, learning a new skill or being with other students in the physical education class (Motl et al. 2001). Inconsistencies in the research exploring the relationship between EPA, EPE and physical activity exist. EPA has been shown to be positively correlated with


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participation in physical activity (Allender, Cowburn, and Foster 2006; MacPhail, Gorley, and Kirk 2003; Sallis et al. 1992). EPE has a more complex relationship. Research has shown associations with participation in physical education and physical among young children (812 years) but less so with adolescents (1318 year olds) (Barr-Anderson et al. 2007; Sallis et al. 1999). In contrast, review articles have shown positive EPA, EPE and physical activity relationships among girls of all ages (Biddle et al., 2005; Dishman et al., 2005). EPA and EPE are not interchangeable, yet, both reveal something about the individual’s reward from participation in physical activity, be it fun or having a good time. The purpose of this study is to explore the factors that influence EPE and to examine the relationship between EPE, EPA, physical activity participation and physical health status of adolescents. In this study, we hypothesise that EPE is related to duration of physical education class, and that high levels of EPA and EPE are associated with (1) high levels of physical activity and (2) positive physical health status.

Methods The Childrens’ Sport Participation and Physical Activity (CSPPA) study was a multicentre cross-sectional study undertaken by Dublin City University, University of Limerick and University College Cork, in collaboration with the Irish Sports Council.

Participants The CSPPA study collected data on adolescent (N 4122, aged 1218 years) participation in physical activity and physical education, and physical health status of a subsample (n902) of the cohort. Screening and recruitment occurred at the school and individual participant level. The sampling frame included all postprimary schools in the Republic of Ireland. Schools were stratified by type (secondary school, community college, comprehensive college and vocational school), geographic location (urban and rural), gender (male, female and mixed) and school classification (free education and fee paying). A systematic, one-stage cluster (school) sampling method was used to obtain a nationally representative sample (Field 2005). Over-sampling was applied to allow for refusal to participate. The study protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Committee at Dublin City University. Adolescents ]16 years provided written informed consent, while those B16 years provided written assent accompanied by parental consent. In a small number of schools, policy dictated that the school acted ‘in loco parentis’; in these cases the school, in place of the parents, provided written consent for those under 16 years of age.

Procedures Data collection Standardised testing procedures, refined in an earlier study (Woods et al. 2009), were used across all schools. The head of the physical education department in each school was initially contacted about participation in the study. Following a briefing

266 C.B. Woods et al.


meeting, those who agreed to participate were provided with information sheets, consent forms and a copy of the questionnaire. Questionnaire data were collected from participants during a school visit, with a ratio of 1 researcher to 20 students. The study was briefly explained and instructions were provided on how to complete the questionnaire. Individual demographic data were completed and detached from the questionnaire, an ID number was then assigned, and subsequently this was the only individual identifier. Physical activity was defined as participation in sport, structured exercise and/or general physical activities. Moderate and vigorous intensity levels were explained to the students, and they were given an opportunity to ask questions. Participants were informed that their responses would be treated in strictest confidence, and that their names would not be associated with the data. They were encouraged to take time, reflect on their answers and to be as honest as possible.

Self-report measures Both questionnaire and physical health measures were collected as part of the CSPPA study. The measures chosen were developmentally suitable for adolescents and used categorical, Likert and ordinal scoring responses. The average time taken to complete the questionnaire was 34 min (range: 2842 min). Socio-demographics. Parental occupation was obtained to determine socio-economic status (Health Promotion Agency of Northern Ireland 2000), and divided into three categories; high (professional/managerial SC1-2), medium (non-manual/skilled manual SC3-4) and low (semi- and unskilled manual or unemployed SC5-6, SC8). Those who were classified as SC7 (gainfully occupied and unknown) were removed from the social class analysis due to lack of information on specific profession (N 207). Area of residence was categorised as city (70,000 inhabitants), suburbs (20,000 inhabitants), town (B20,000 but 3000 inhabitants) or village (B3000 inhabitants). These categories were combined into urban (20,000 inhabitants) and rural (B20,000 inhabitants). Physical education. Physical education participation was assessed by asking frequency, duration and type of classes offered per week. The subject content in physical education was determined by participants indicating, from a list of activities, what they had covered in their physical education class during the past 12 months (a full academic year). All six strands of the national physical education curriculum were identified, namely games (invasion, net and fielding), athletics, aquatics, dance, gymnastics, outdoor and adventure activities (Department of Education and Science 2003). Health-related fitness, such as weight training and aerobics, were also included. Physical activity. Achievement of PAGL was assessed using a two-item screening tool (Prochaska, Sallis, and Long 2001). One item asked the number of days, during the past seven, that participants accumulated 60 min of MVPA. The second assessed how many days they would meet this target in a typical week. Both values were combined to provide an average number of days per week (days.60 min.MVPA). This approach has reasonable reliability and validity in this age group (Booth et al. 2001;


267


Prochaska, Sallis, and Long 2001; Wold and Hendry 1998) and has been used to assess population prevalence of PAGL achievement in a cross-national study of 32 countries/regions across Europe and North America (Borraccino et al. 2009; Prochaska, Sallis, and Long 2001). Enjoyment of physical activity. Enjoyment of physical activity was measured using the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES, Motl et al. 2001). PACES is a 16-item, 5point likert scale (1 disagree a lot to 5agree a lot, range 1680) instrument that asks respondents to complete sentences stating ‘When I am active I enjoy it . . ., I find it pleasurable . . . It frustrates me . . .’ etc. Motl and colleagues, administered the questionnaire to adolescent girls in eighth grade girls (N 1797; mean age13.6 years, SD 0.6), demonstrating its factorial and construct validity. The instrument has subsequently been validated on primary school-aged children (268 male, 296 female, mean age8.72, SD0.54) indicating good internal consistency (Cronbach a 0.87) (Moore et al. 2009). Enjoyment of physical education. Enjoyment of physical education was measured using the Factors Influencing Enjoyment of Physical Education Enjoyment (FIPE) scale (Motl et al. 2001). This scale was developed by Motl and colleagues (2001) and consists of 12 items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (dislike a lot) to 5 (enjoy a lot) (range 1260). It has been used and validated for youth physical activity research (Dishman et al. 2005).

Health indicators Following questionnaire completion, trained researchers took measurements of height, weight, waist circumference (WC) and blood pressure (BP). Height and weight were measured using a portable stadiometer (SECA 214, Hamburg, Germany) and scales (SECA 761, Vogel and Hallke, Germany) to the nearest 0.1 cm and 0.1 kg. WC was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using an anatomical tape (Hoechstmass Rollfix, Balzer GmbH, Germany). With participants standing, WC was measured as the narrowest point anteriorly (or halfway between the ribcage and the superior iliac crest) after a gentle expiration. After 5 min rest, BP (mmHg) was measured seated by using an automated instrument and appropriate cuff sizes. Aerobic fitness was estimated using a validated 20-Meter Shuttle Run Test (Ramsbottom, Brewer, and Williams 1988), which correlates highly with laboratory tests of maximal oxygen uptake among adolescents (Liu, Plowman, and Looney 1992). For this test participants ran back and forth between two lines 20 m apart, keeping in time with a series of audio signals. The initial speed was 8.0 km/hr and this increased to 9.0 km/hr after 1 min. Every minute thereafter the running speed increased by 0.5 km/hr. Subjects were verbally encouraged to give their best effort. The test was terminated if a subject withdrew voluntarily or was unable to maintain the set pace. The final level and shuttle completed were used to estimate VO2 max (EstVO2 max; Ramsbottom, Brewer, and Williams 1988). All health variables were coded into dichotomous health categories (0 unhealthy and 1healthy) using internationally accepted age- and gender-specific criteria (Table 1). These classifications are suitable for use by various practitioners, including public health specialists

268 C.B. Woods et al. Table 1. Criteria for establishing health profile.


Reference for criteria

Unhealthy0 and Health 1

Body mass index (BMI) (Cole et al. 2000, 320: 124043) Underweight BMI 55th percentile in each age and gender subgroup. Overweight and obese based on age and gender-specific criteria, e.g. for females, age 16, ]29.56 is obese. Waist (Taylor et al. 2000, 72: 4905) Age and gender-specific criteria, e.g. for males, age 15, ]81.1cm is unhealthy. Cardio-vascular fitness (Lobelo et al. 2009, 6: 1229) Age and gender-specific criteria. e.g. ]42 mL kg 1min 1 is fit for boys aged 12 years. Blood pressure (National High Blood Pressure Both systolic and diastolic Education Program Working BP90th percentile for age, Group on High Blood Pressure gender and percentile of height. in Children and Adolescents 2004, 114: 55576)

and clinicians, and so allow for meaningful interpretation and comparison of effects at local, national and international level.

Data analysis Data met the assumptions for parametric tests (Field 2005). A 7-day test retest on 31 post-primary pupils yielded high reliability for days of MVPA (ICC 0.71), physical education (minutes) (ICC 0.75), EPA (ICC0.71) and EPE (ICC0.7). Cronbach a for enjoyment measures was also high (EPA 0.9, EPE 0.8). Descriptive statistics, means, standard deviations and percentages were used where appropriate. Independent Sample t-tests (t) and One-way ANOVAS (F) with Tukey’s post-hoc tests were used to determine group differences on continuous variables. Categorical data were analysed using Pearson’s Chi Square test (x2). Pearson’s correlation and multiple linear regression analyses (R2) were used to examine multivariate relationships in order to predict physical activity.

Results Sample characteristics A total of 70 schools took part, giving a sample of 4122 adolescents (mean age14.5 years91.7, range 1218 years; 52% female). Over half of the participants (54%) attended mixed gender schools, 40% lived in an urban environment (20,000 inhabitants), 45% were in high, 40% in middle and 15% in low social class. Seven percent (n269, 7% of males and 6% of females) reported that they had a physical or learning disability, or illness that affected their ability to participate in physical activity (Table 2).


269

Table 2. Demographics of sample.


Male (N 1958) % Female (N 2164) % Total (4122) % Age category 1213 years 1415 years 1618 years Social class* SC 12 (High) SC 34 (Medium) SC 56, 8 (Low) Designated disadvantaged school School type Mixed Gender Male only Female only Area of residence Urban (20,000) Rural (B20,000) Area of residence Big city (70,000) Suburbs (B70,000) Town (B20,000) Village (B3,000) Disability

28 36 36

36 33 31

31 35 34

48 39 14 19

43 41 16 14

45 40 15 16

63 37

46 64

54 18 28

34 66

42 58

38 62

4 29 28 38 7

7 36 20 38 6

6 32 24 38 7

Note: *SC 7 ‘gainfully occupied and unknown’ was removed from the analysis as lack of data on occupation meant accurate categorisation was unachievable.

Physical education Ten percent of adolescents received the Department of Education and Science (2003) recommended 120 min of physical education per week. On average, 77 min (928, range 0160 min) of physical education were given per week. Fourth year students received significantly more minutes than all other year groups, and senior students (5th and 6th years) received less minutes in comparison to all other year groups (F (5) 148.6, pB0.001) (Table 3). Females received less minutes of physical education per week than males (74 vs. 81 min, t (4120)8.414, pB0.001), and were more likely to be timetabled for single class periods or to never have physical education (Table 4). This was particularly evident in the senior years (5th and 6th year; F (5) 154.3, p B0.001)). Only 4th year pupils received a triple physical education period. As pupils moved through the postprimary school cycle they were less likely to receive double periods and more likely to never be involved in physical education. Females attending mixed gender schools reported significantly more minutes of physical education per week than those in girls’ only schools (79 vs. 70 min; t (2159) 8.508, pB0.001), and senior students (5th and 6th years) received less minutes of physical education in comparison to all other year groups (F (5)148.6, pB0.001). Participants’ social class, area of residence or presence of a disability showed no significant influence on physical education minutes received per week.

270 C.B. Woods et al. Table 3. Mean9standard deviation minutes of weekly physical education. Male

Female

Total sample

Mean9SD

Mean9SD

Mean9SD

85922 79926 85913 98919 71935 59935 81928

83920 75925 76921 90918 57931 47935 74927

84921 77925 80917 94919 64934 53935 77928


1st year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year 5th Year 6th Year All

Content of physical education classes For males, soccer, basketball, badminton and athletics were the most common activities (Table 5). For females, basketball, rounders, badminton and athletics were the most common activities. These activities are from the games strand of the physical education curriculum. Other strands appear to be largely ignored, 85% of post-primary pupils reported no exposure to swimming, 76% no exposure to outdoor and adventure activities, 76% no exposure to dance, 72% no exposure to gymnastics and 42% no exposure to athletics during their physical education in the previous 12 months.

Enjoyment of physical education EPE was high, average score 43 (98). Males had higher EPE than females (4498 vs. 4298; t (3366) 8.229, p B0.001). Adolescents from rural areas reported higher levels of EPE than their urban peers (4498 vs. 4398; t (3366)3.037, p B0.01). Adolescents categorised in the high social class bracket (4497) reported higher EPE than those in middle (4398) or low social classes (4298; F (2, 3114) 8.403, pB0.01). There was no significant difference in EPE scores between age categories. EPE was positively correlated to duration physical education class, longer classes were associated with higher EPE (pB0.001, r0.07). Adolescents who received the Table 4. Physical education class periods by gender throughout the post-primary school cycle.

Year (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Male

Female

Class periods

Class periods

None

Single

Double

Triple

None

Single

Double

Triple

0 4 0 0 14 24

19 20 11 11 30 4

96 85 100 42 72 72

0 0 0 52 0 0

0 1 0 0 11 31

14 44 28 13 59 61

94 60 81 58 38 8

0 0 0 30 0 0

Note: Some pupils had both single and double class periods of physical education on their timetable, hence the numbers do not add up to 100%.


271

Table 5. Range of activities in post-primary physical education.


Sport/activity Basketball (%) Soccer (%) Baseball/rounders (%) Badminton (%) Athletics (%) Gaelic football (%) Gymnastics (%) Hockey (%) Aerobics/exercise class (%) Dance (%) Adventure activities (%) Tennis (%) Rugby (%) Handball (%) Cross-country running (%) Swimming (%) Hurling (%) Weight training (%) Camogie (%) Martial arts (%) Squash (%) Horse riding (%) Any other sport (%)

Male

Female

All

47 62 35 38 38 32 21 20 17 12 22 17 26 24 13 14 15 14 4 5 6 3 6

63 46 57 53 48 27 34 34 31 35 26 29 20 21 16 15 9 7 12 8 6 5 7

56 54 47 46 43 29 28 27 25 24 24 23 23 22 15 15 12 11 8 6 6 4 7

recommended minimum minutes of physical education per week reported EPE than those who did not receive the minimum minutes (4598 vs. t (3366) 2.749, p B0.01). The average EPE score for those who met the was higher than for those who did not meet the guidelines (4698 vs. t (3324) 5.798, pB0.001).

higher 4398; PAGL 4398,

Physical activity Twelve percent of adolescents met the Department of Health and Children’s PAGL (daily.60 min.MVPA), 25% met PAGL 5 days per week, 65% three days per week and 93% achieved this amount of physical activity at least once a week (Figure 1). Females were less likely than males to meet the PAGL (9% vs. 15%; pB0.001). The likelihood of meeting the PAGL decreased with increasing age (pB0.001). Participants were active on average 4.2 (91.8) days per week (females 3.991.8; males 4.691.7). No significant difference was found in the proportion of adolescents, across all social class categories, who achieved the PAGL (High 11%, Medium 11.5% and Low 12%).

Enjoyment of physical activity Enjoyment of physical activity was high, with the average score of 67 (911.0, range 580). Males had higher EPA scores than females (67911 vs. 64912;



Figure 1. Proportion who met PAGL (]60 min of MVPA per day) on 17 days per week. Note: MVPA, Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; PAGL, Physical activity guideline.

t (3975) 8.156, p B0.001) and EPA decreased with decreasing social class (high SC 70911 vs. Medium 65912 vs. low 64912; F (2, 3667)18.79, pB0.001). No significant difference between age categories or for area of residence were recorded. The average EPA score for those who met the PAGL was higher than for those who did not meet the guidelines (69911 vs. 65911; t (3918) 5.713, pB0.001). Figure 2 shows that EPA increased as number of days PAGL increased (daily.60 min.MVPA), with those who reported 0 days.60 min.MVPA having the lowest EPA score and those who met the PAGL (7 days) having the highest score, significant for both males (F (7, 1777)36.10, p B0.001) and females (F (2, 2033) 52.88, pB0.001). EPA was positively related to EPE (r0.283, p B0.01).

Figure 2. Average enjoyment of physical activity score by days meeting PAGL (]60 min MVPA per day).


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Relationship between physical activity level and enjoyment Enjoyment was positively related to number of days PAGL (EPA, r 0.545, pB0.01 and EPE, r 0.306, pB0.01). A logistic regression analysis was used to determine the relative contribution of EPA and EPA to number of days meeting PAGL (Table 6). Step 1 included the non-modifiable demographic variables of age, gender, area of residence and social class, and resulted in a significant model predicting 11% of the variance in PAGL (F (4, 3076) 98.1, pB0.001). Step 2 added the enjoyment variables (EPA and EPE) and accounted for an additional 10% of variance, with the full adjusted model explaining 21% of the variance in PAGL (F (6, 3074) 133.6, pB0.001). In step 1, age (negative), gender (male) and social class (low social class was negative) were all significant predictors of variance in PAGL. In step 2, age and gender remained significant, social class did not, and both EPA and EPE were significant predictors of PAGL. EPA was a stronger predictor than EPE.

Relationship between physical health and enjoyment Sample Physical health measures were collected from a sub-sample of participants (N 902, 40% female, average age 14.691.7 years (range 1218 years)). Forty percent were from urban areas, 30% were from boys’ schools, 15% from girls’ schools and 55% from mixed schools. Participants were excluded from the aerobic fitness measure if they had an illness or disability that affected their ability to participate in physical activity (n 81, 49% had asthma, 12% had learning disabilities, 5% had heart problems, 13% had other conditions e.g. cystic fibrosis and 21% did not specify their disability). No significant differences were found among the other physical health measures (body mass index [BMI], WC or BP) of these individuals and remainder of the group. Table 6. Regression analysis to predict physical activity.

Step 1 Constant Gender (male) Age Social class Urban/rural Step 2 Constant Gender (male) Age Social class Urban/rural EPA EPE

B

SE B

b

7.31 0.83 0.28 0.15 0.05

0.29 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06

0.24* 0.25* 0.06* 0.01

3.84 0.65 0.26 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.03

0.33 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.003 0.004

0.19* 0.24* 0.03 0.02 0.20* 0.15*

Note: R2 0.11 Step 1, R2 0.21 Step 2 (p B0.001). *pB0.001.



Health outcome Most participants had a healthy BMI (77%), however, one in five was either overweight (17%) or obese (5%), 2% were underweight. Three quarters had a healthy BP (74%) and aerobic fitness (71%) and most had a healthy WC (85%). The four health outcomes (fitness, BMI, BP and WC) were summed to provide a health profile for each participant (range04; 0 least healthy to 4most healthy). The average health profile was 2.991.1. There was a relationship between participation in physical activity and the health profile of participants (Figure 3). The best health profile was found in youth who met the Department of Health and Children PAGL (]60 min.MVPA daily). Individual health profile was positively correlated to enjoyment (EPA, r 0.131, pB0.001; EPE, r130, p B0.001). Individuals categorised as having a healthy aerobic fitness level reported higher EPA (70910 vs. 61912) and EPE (4598 vs. 4098) than those in the unhealthy fitness category. Similarly, individuals in the healthy WC category had higher EPA (66911 vs. 63911) and EPE (4498 vs. 4298) scores than those who had unhealthy levels on this physical health indices. No differences in enjoyment scores were recorded on BMI or BP.

Discussion The purpose of this study was to explore, a relatively new area, EPE and its relationship to EPA, physical activity level and physical health status. In agreement with the study’s first study hypothesis, it was found that EPE was positively correlated to duration of physical education class. Adolescents who received the recommended minutes of physical education (120 min, 10%) (Department of Education and Science 2003) reported significantly higher levels of EPE than those who received less minutes of physical education per week. The time allocated to physical education decreased as pupils moved through the school cycle. Senior pupils were more likely to receive no physical education or single as opposed to double periods per week, revealing evidence of age inequalities in physical education provision in Ireland. Deficiencies in time allocation for physical education is not

Figure 3. Relationship between health profile and PAGL (number of days that participants met ]60 min of MVPA).



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unique to Ireland, it is also prevalent in the USA (NASPE 2010) and it is a ‘continuing area of concern’ worldwide (Hardman 2011). However, timetabling that reduces the length of physical education class time was shown through the CSPPA data to increase the likelihood of negatively impacting on a child’s enjoyment of their physical education experience. Thus, this ‘lack of time’ may be a more challenging issue to the provision of quality physical education in Ireland than inadequate facilities, equipment, qualified teachers or student interest (MacPhail et al. 2010; MacPhail, O’Sullivan, and Halbert 2008). This reduction in class time for physical education reaffirms research highlighting that while the number of subjects students undertake at senior cycle is lower, than at junior cycle, the high stakes nature of the Leaving Certificate has caused a reduction in curricular time as examinable subjects take precedence (MacPhail and Halbert 2005). This is significant and worrying, as at this crucial decision making time in a child’s life, physical education timetabling could be seen to be supporting (through prioritising other areas), rather than reducing levels of non-engagement in physical activity. Children’s sport participation and physical activity found that a limited breadth and balance in the range of activities in physical education. Few reported experiencing the full physical education curriculum, and while facilities make this difficult (e.g. lack of a swimming pool makes aquatics curriculum challenging), other areas that require few facilities (e.g. outdoor and adventure activities) appeared to be under taught. There was an emphasis for males on games, particularly invasion games. Girls indicated that they had participated in a wider range including both individual and team activities. Reasons for this narrow curriculum were not explored, but the study participants indicated that they would appreciate a wider range of opportunities for different experiences to be active in a subsequent study (Tannehill et al. 2011). This broader facilitation is essential in order to increase the likelihood of lifelong participation in physical activity, particularly individual (e.g. swimming, gymnastics and dance) and small team or non-invasive sports (e.g. squash, tennis and badminton) (Fairclough, Stratton, and Baldwin 2002). The proposed new Senior Cycle Physical Education syllabus allows for physical education teachers to discuss: What is a realistic and teachable curriculum with senior cycle? and this research emphasises the need for breath and balance of opportunities to be offered to pupils. Regular participation in MVPA by adolescents is essential for them to maintain and develop their current and future health. Twelve percent of adolescents (15% males and 9% females) in the CSPPA study met the current PAGL (]60 min of MVPA daily). On average, participants engaged in bouts of MVPA for at least 60 min about 4.2 days per week. This figure is higher than the 32 country average of 3.82 days per week recorded by the ‘Health Behaviours of School-Aged Children’ (HBSC) study in 2009; and slightly lower than the HBSC average for Ireland which was 4.4 days per week (Borraccino et al. 2009). This may be due to broader age range of the CSPPA population (1218 years vs. HBSC’s 1115 years). However, results from both surveillance studies indicate that few children or adolescents are currently meeting international PAGL. Females were found to be less active than males, supporting international research (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2010; Nielsen, Pfister, and Bo Andersen 2011; Public Health Agency of Canada 2008). CSPPA found that gender inequality in opportunities provided for participation were evident; females received less minutes of physical education per week were more likely to receive single as


276 C.B. Woods et al. opposed to double periods of physical education and were more likely to be offered activities from historically male pursuits. This finding is not new (Connor 2003; Fahey, Delaney, and Gannon 2005; Kremer, Trew, and Ogle 1997); provision of opportunities to be active should be socially meaningful and relevant to both genders, gender neutral where appropriate and gender specific only if necessary (depending on age). The second hypothesis was that EPA and EPE were related, and that high levels of each would be associated with (1) high levels of physical activity and (2) positive physical health status. CSPPA found that EPA was positively correlated to EPE, revealing that even though these concepts may not be interchangeable due to the differences in their behavioural focus, they are related. If one decreases, it may negatively impact on the other, future experimental research is needed to clarify the relationship. Both EPA and EPE were significant predictors of participation in physical activity. EPA was a stronger predictor than EPE. Males had higher enjoyment scores than females, but age bore no relationship to enjoyment. Whether enjoyment is an antecedent to participation, a mediator of participation or a consequence of physical activity is unclear (Dishman et al. 2005), and beyond the scope of this research, but what can be concluded is that high levels of enjoyment (both of physical activity and physical education) are associated with high levels of physical activity. Children’s sport participation and physical activity revealed that the adolescents who were the most active also had the best physical health profile. In agreement with hypothesis two, enjoyment was positively correlated with health profile. Adolescents with a healthy cardiovascular fitness level and a healthy WC scored significantly higher on the enjoyment scales than those in the unhealthy categories of these physical health indices. In terms of strengths and limitations, physical activity was measured using a selfreported screening tool, moderately correlated with accelerometer data (0.40, pB0.05) among adolescents (Woods et al. 2009). Self-report data have limitations (Sallis and Saelens 2000); however, in this study it was the most appropriate tool based on sample size, field setting and research questions. A large populationlevel survey of adolescents in Europe (Borraccino et al. 2009) recently used the same tool to illustrate a black and white picture of physical activity levels at the dose recommended in PAGL. In addition, duration of physical education was also limited to self-report, although it was validated by a high level of agreement with data obtained from the school principals (Woods et al. 2010). The individual health profile was based on health categories from ecologically valid international data where possible. In the absence of local or international level criteria to define healthy cardiovascular fitness, thresholds were based on US data which may be imprecise for an Irish population but are unlikely to negate the strong relationships found with physical activity. We have hypothesised that involvement in physical activity will impact on health, but this relationship may also operate in reverse, for example, fitness may be an enabling factor that determines the choice to be active among youth (Welk 1999). This study provides initial support for the relationship between EPA, EPE, achievement of PAGL and physical health status. However, this evidence is limited by the cross-sectional nature of this study. Longitudinal or experimental research is needed to comprehensively test this hypothesis.



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In summary, a high number of adolescents in Ireland are insufficiently active to benefit their current and future health. In addition, the duration of physical education classes throughout Ireland are variable. Longer physical education classes were related to higher levels of enjoyment, yet at a crucial time senior cycle when adolescents are at high risk of drop out from physical activity (Currie et al. 2008) physical education time is diminished, particularly among females. Research to understand the impact of this low provision of time on the quality of physical education provided and consequent uptake and adherence to PAGL is needed. EPE was positively correlated to EPA. Both were associated with higher levels of physical activity participation and better physical health profiles in this cohort. This study has begun to address some of the key research challenges in the area of EPA, a factor known to be a significant motivator towards sustained adherence in youth sport. In order to provide children and adolescents with meaningful enjoyable experiences in physical education and in physical activity, with the ultimate aim of reducing inactivity and developing sustained active lifestyles further experimental and longitudinal research is required. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the research assistants Aoileann Quinlan, Sarah Chadwick and Catriona Darling for their help with data collection, and Mr. Peter Smyth from the Irish Sports Council for his help with research design. This study was funded by the Irish Sports Council (www.irishsportscouncil.ie).

Notes on contributors Dr. Catherine B. Woods is Head of the School of Health and Human Performance, and a senior lecturer in physical activity psychology and public health in Dublin City University. Dr. Deborah Tannehill is Course Director for the Graduate Diploma in Education Physical Education, and a senior lecturer in the Department of Physical Education and Sport Science at the University of Limerick. Deborah is also co-director of the PE-PAYS research centre. Dr. Julia Walsh is Adjunct Senior Lecturer of Sports Studies and Physical Education at University College Cork. Her research interests are in the area of coach expertise and development, the volunteer workforce in sport, and programme development in higher education.

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