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AN EXPLORATORY RESEARCH ON LEARNING STYLES OF EXPATRIATES IN MALAYSIA Joanna Claire Miranda Universiti Tun Abdul Razak [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Expatriation assignment is a growing trend in almost all industries around the world and especially in fast developing countries such as Malaysia. This is due to the rise of mini multinationals entering the global markets by venturing into industries that were the exclusivity of foreign markets. This venture style has resulted in high recruitment and staff cost. While the purpose of expatriation assignment is technology and knowledge transfer, many of these mini multinationals are still relying on expatriates, which indicates that these companies have yet to achieve this purpose. It is now crucially important for Global Human Resource Managers to improve the method of placement to ensure that the expatriation assignments result in the desired technology and knowledge transfer. In response to this need there have been numerous studies done on expatriates and on their experience and on the outcome of their assignments. Most of these studies, however, have mainly looked into external factors such as Language, Values and Culture. There are few studies that have looked into the internal factors of persons taking on expatriation assignments such as learning style, which has a direct impact on work deliverance and productivity. Learning style impacts expatriates’ ability to relate with their team, which will then determine the amount of knowledge and technology transfer that can materialise. This study used Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory, which categorises learning styles into 4 different categories, to demonstrate that expatriates have a strong tendency towards one of these categories. The ability to categorise can then be used to place them with appropriate team members so that they can complement each other’s learning and absorbing styles. KEY WORDS: Expatriation Assignment, Cost Factor, Learning Style , Concrete Experience vs. Abstract Conceptualization, Active Experimentation vs. Reflective Observation

INTRODUCTION

Effects of Globalization We live in a world in which barriers to cross border trade and investment are declining. Transportation and telecommunication technologies are constantly making the world feel smaller. Material culture seems similar the world over; and national economies are merging into an interdependent, integrated and global economic system. Globalization is the reason for this incredible shift (Hill 2007). It is a process that describes the integration of the world community into a common social or economical community, (Archytas, 2002). In layman’s terms, globalization means the free flow of goods and services across borders. There are many effects of globalization that are commonly talked about, the effects of cheaper goods, better quality, economies of scale etc, but Charles Hill introduces the idea of the ‘Rise of Mini-Multinationals’ in his book ‘International Business, Competing In The Global Marketplace as an effect of globalization’. Here he talks about the many medium and small sized companies which are going global. This is a scenario we now see spreading throughout developing countries and Malaysia is a good example.

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Using Malaysia as an example, the rise of ‘mini multinationals’ can be explained by tracing the history of the oil and gas industry. Oil was discovered in Miri, Malaysia in the 1900s, by Shell, a big International oil and gas company. It was Shell that built the first refinery in Miri, Malaysia. Subsequently it was also Shell that discovered more oil fields off of Sabah, Malaysia. However, in 1974, with the passing of the Petroleum Act by the Malaysian government, which was followed by the setting up of Petroliam Nasional Malaysia (Petronas), all drilling activities had to change from a concessionary basis to a profit sharing contract system (PSCs) between the operators and Petronas. Petronas has since gone international, an example of Charles Hill’s mini multinationals. In short the rise of mini multinationals refers to companies in developing countries venturing into fields that used to be the exclusivity of companies from developed countries. This has been made possible through the effects of globalization. Globalization has resulted not just in goods and services travelling across borders. It has also resulted in people moving across borders for better employment opportunities and thus better wages. This has positive and negative impacts. On the one hand, people move easily to benefit from their skills and experience. Firms are able to enter new markets. On the other hand, however, as firms enter these new industries or markets, they lack the skills and expertise required for that market/industry and they face not only the challenge of sourcing for the right candidate but also the lack of surety that there would be continuity of service by skilled staff. The right candidate should be able to work in the present environment as well as be able to teach the team members. If this is not managed properly, it may well become a firm’s biggest obstacle. In order for these companies to have the competitive edge in this global marketplace, they need to have the right person at the right posting (Hill, 2007). As mobility is easy, they should also ensure knowledge and technology transfer takes place to ensure continuity. The task of sourcing and staffing candidates is one of the main functions of Human Resource Management. Most people would agree that this is a far harder task than sourcing for equipment or materials. There are various methods that can be employed. It varies depending on the company’s position in the market. As an example, local company staffing for a local assignment requires qualified candidates from the local market, which is different from the kind of sourcing that a local company would be have to do when sourcing for a foreign assignment, which requires candidates with global exposure. The method of sourcing for local candidates requires different methods i.e local headhunting firms, advertisements in the local dailies as opposed to sourcing for foreigners, where the source will be international head hunters, international websites etc. Generally, companies may have three methods of staffing: 1) Ethnocentric Approach - filling positions with parent company nationals 2) Polycentric Approach – host country nationals employed 3) Geocentric Approach – any national with the correct qualifications and experience is hired to fill the position. The ‘mini multinationals’ that are venturing into global markets will only have option three, the Geocentric Approach, as an option. This is because they lack qualified candidates within the parent company and among the host country’s nationals. An example is in Brubaker’s study of expatriates in China where he discovered that the lack of qualified home nationals was the reason China had to hire expatriates for middle level management (Brubaker, 2008). The effects of Globalization and the resulting mini multinationals have resulted in the numbers of expatriates rising in the developing countries. Malaysia is no different. When Aida and Maimunah did their study on ‘Cross Cultural Challenges and Adjustment Among Expatriates in Malaysia in 1999’ (Aida and Maimunah, 2007) the number of expatriates they reported was 21,859, a figure they obtained from the Immigration Statistics. In October 2007, the immigration record showed the total number of expatriates in Malaysia at 35,583. The latest study on expatriates, reported in the Mercers 2008/2009 Benefits Survey for Expatriates and Globally Mobile Employees, showed that in the last three years, the number of employees on


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international assignment has doubled (Andersen, 2008). Although in Malaysia the numbers have not doubled they can be expected to rise as the country progresses.

Expatriation Assignment One of the effects of globalization, the ability to operate at locations around the world, has resulted in an increase in the demand for expatriates. This has resulted in Human Resource managers having to change the staffing mix. This can already be seen in the International operations of U.S companies, which are staffed by a mix of employees, expatriates from host countries and locals (Shin, Morgeson and Campion, n.d.). The same can be seen in the MNCs in Malaysia and in the Malaysian companies operating internationally. This, and the need for technology transfer, has resulted in the need for adequate studies on expatriates in order to make the assignment fulfilling for the expatriates, and cost effective and purposeful for the hiring company. Most of the studies on expatriates have focused on the types of assignment where MNCs assign their key personnel to their JV or subsidiary companies overseas. Their purpose is usually to maintain control, ensuring there is a sharing of corporate knowledge with the subsidiaries, to collect market information and to be a network builder (Dowling & Welch,2004, Streling,2008). However there is another type of expatriate assignment that has not been discussed much which is prevalent in companies that are in the category of mini multinationals. Due to the lack of required skills and global exposure within their organizations and their country of origin, these companies directly hire independent/mobile expatriates from other countries who have the required skills and global exposure. In addressing the shortage of these kinds of expatriate, particularly in the oil and gas industry, Little (2008) points out that it is high cost hiring. He also points out that these talents are becoming scarce, as those qualified are already in the ageing bracket (Brubaker,2008) Cost Factor As already mentioned, expatriation assignments are a high cost to companies. Adding to that cost, would be the cost of failed assignments. Failed assignments have been researched and studied from various angles receiving a lot of attention. One reason for the focus on failure may be due to the already high remuneration and terms and conditions for such assignments, i.e expatriate assignments are usually short term and highly paid. (Little, 2008). The cost further escalates when expatriates are accompanied by their families (Brubaker, 2008). Brubaker (2008) also classified the 3-6 months of an expatriate’s life in China as a honeymoon period which is filled with the excitement of being in a new culture and being treated to expensive dinners by suppliers. This translates into money spent by companies that is unproductive. Despite the perks and excitement of these expatriation assignments, however, many writers believe that the failure rate is high. Overall, expatriation assignment is a costly affair to a company. As such there should be efforts invested into making the assignment cost effective, which means avoiding failures be they in terms of the lack of technology transfer or unfinished assignments. Expatriates and Learning As already established, expatriates are hired to work due to the shortage of talent in a particular country (Brubaker, 2008). The purpose of hiring is to develop a local talent pool through a systematic knowledge and skills transfer. However, studies show that it has not been accomplished (Little,2008). It may be that little or no thought has been given to the idea that, in order to teach, one must know one’s own learning style, as discovered by Healey and Jenkins (2000) through their research on teachers. Their study concluded that teachers need to first recognise their own learning styles as a basis for the development of effective teaching


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and learning strategies (Healey and Jenkin,2000). The same can be applied to expatriates’ transfer of knowledge and skills, which in essence is how they ‘teach’ their ‘to be’ successors. It is surprising that, despite the numerous researches that have cited the ability to learn as a reason for success or failure in expatriation assignments and the importance of learning to adaptation, there is still a lack of studies linking experiential learning to adaptation. (Yamazaki and Kayes, 2004). Learning is said to be shaped by a country’s culture. Yamazaki and Kayes reached this conclusion when they studied the learning style of Japanese managers in the United States (Hofstede,1997) (Yamazaki and Kayes,2004). Their study identified the unique learning style of Japanese managers, which did not complement that of their United States counterparts at the beginning of the study. After identifying the learning styles that Japanese managers possessed and teaming them with team members that were compatible, there was a recorded high in performance. They also observed that after an extended period of stay in the United States, these Japanese managers showed a change in learning style. It is an area that is not considered when expatriates are interviewed or hired as noted by Yamazaki and Kayes (2004), since selections in the past have been based on multilayer foreign assignments or as noted by Leibra-O’Sullivan, (1999) it has been based on technical expertise and skills which are in demand in the industry. Now that studies have reaffirmed that country/culture of origin has an impact on the development of learning style (Hays and Allison, 1988) (Hofstede, 1997), Human Resource managers should use the information to incorporate identifying learning style as part of the hiring process, as this has an impact on knowledge and technology transfer. Learning style studies gained popularity through the introduction of Kolb’s learning style theory. This theory is said to be the platform for all other learning style theories. It was also the tool used for the first study on expatriates which was done by Yamazaki and Kayes (2005). Besides being the platform for other learning style theories, Kolb’s learning style inventory is one that has been used in many different researches and surveys. Hence, the extensive use of this model gives credibility to it. As the model is based on logical thinking and behaviour it makes it easy to comprehend. Based on its popularity and reliability, Kolb’s learning style Inventory was used for this research.

David Kolb’s Learning Style Theory The theory of learning style gained popularity through the work of David Kolb. His research, Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (1984) theorized that people develop preferences for different learning styles in the same way that they develop any other sort of style, such as management, leadership and negotiating to name a few. David Kolb’s research introduced the concept that learning takes place through the use of feelings, reflecting, thinking and doing. (Kolb,1984, Yamazaki, 2007). Kolb believed that learning is a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience (Kolb, 1984). He introduced the 4 stages of learning as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 Stage of learning

Concrete Experience (CE)

Observation and reflection (RO)

Forming abstract concepts (AC)


Testing in new situation (AE)

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The above flow chart shows in a simplified manner the way experience is translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn becomes the foundation for active experimentation and the choice of new experimentation (Healey and Jenkins, 2000). The starting point may be anywhere but the cycle will be followed through. Kolb contends that learning will occur only after a learner goes through all the four processes. It is important to understand what happens at each stage of the cycle · · · ·

CE Learner actively experiences an activity RO Learner consciously reflects on the experience AC Learner attempts to conceptualize a theory or model of what is observed AE Learner tries to plan how to test a model or theory or plans for a forthcoming experience.

All this really means is that a learner learns by reflecting on his /her experiences. It shows the flow of how experiences are translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as a guide for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences (Healey and Jenkins, 2000). The cycle is further divided into two groups or dimensions. One is the activeconcrete dimension and the other the active reflective dimension. The first is how we perceive and grasp new information and the second is how we process and transform the information. (Smith and Kolb, 1986; Healey and Jenkins, 2000). The theory can be explained using a simplified scenario. Imagine a toddler who has no understanding of the effects of heat at boiling temperature. He sees a boiling kettle with fumes coming out of the nozzle. Curious he runs and touches the kettle, and shocked retracts his hand. (Concrete Experience). He looks at the fumes and now connects it to the burn on his palm (Observation and Reflection). He then creates a vision in his mind where fumes=heat (Forming Abstract Concept). The next time he spots fumes from any source, he may want to touch to test if the outcome would be the same (Testing in new situation). As mentioned already this is a simplified scenario to explain the flow. In reality though the toddler would be crying before any of these processes takes place! The theory then goes on to say that there has to be a transformation for any understanding of the experience to take place. People differ in how they transform what they have learnt. The ‘method’ of transformation according to Kolb is by a combination of two of the learning stages, one from each dimension. A style is created through a combination of one stage from the active concrete dimension and another from the reflective dimension. Therefore the possible combinations that make up a learning style of a person are: · · · ·

Assimilators – AC/RO Convergers – AC/AE Accommodators – CE/AE Divergers – CE/RO

Kolb’s study identifies four (4) categories of learning style through a combination of two (2) learning stages. The style indicates the best learning conditions under which the learner will have the maximum learning benefits. The styles are: Assimilators

People who learn better when sound and logical theories are presented

Convergers

People who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and theories

Accommodators

People who learn better through ‘hands on experience’.


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Divergers

People who learn better by observing and collecting a wide range of information

Kolb’s learning style theory explains that learners learn better when the information presented complements their learning style. Kolb first published his theory of learning style in 1984. This theory has been through many revisions and is widely known and accepted as the fundamental concept with regard to our understanding and explaining of human learning behaviour and our helping others to learn (Chapman, 2005). There have been other learning style theories, such as Experiential Learning, bridging theory to practice in multicultural counselling, Guidance and Counselling (Achenback K and Authur N, 2002) and ‘The learning style questionnaire: An alternative to Kolb’s inventory?’ (Allinson C.W and Hayes J, 1988) . However Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory (ELT) has been one that has been pervasive in explaining how managers learn ( Kayes, 2002); (Yuen and Lee, 1994) (Yamazaki and Kayes, 2004). Healey and Jenkins, (2000) maintain that although there are other ELT, these other theories have used Kolb’s framework with some changed names whilst maintaining the same meaning (Healey and Jenkins, 2002). One such theory is the Canfield’s Learning Style Inventory (1988) which was used to test if male and female students had differing learning styles. The research, ‘Male and Female college students’ learning styles differ: an opportunity for instructional diversification’ conducted in a Midwestern university concluded that gender affects learning style. The survey was done with male and female college students from different ethnic backgrounds (Keri,2002). This discovery was said to contribute towards instructional diversification. This just means that teaching methods should consider gender in order to complement the differing learning styles. Significance of this Study This survey attempts to introduce an additional tool to be used by Human Resource practitioners in their selection and placement process. This is a tool that can be administered to all prospective candidates but as this theory is based on the foundation that people’s learning style is influenced by their country of origin, this tool becomes more suitable to be used for the purpose of hiring expatriates. It would be an especially helpful tool for Malaysian companies going global. Human Resource managers of such companies can reduce the adjustment error in the work environment to help its company achieve the purpose of hiring expatriates. They would also accomplish the localisation programme if they make the fit between expatriates and the locals a good one.

Research Objective The overall objective of this study is to improve the selection process of expatriates using the Learning Style Inventory method. 1) To identify the correlation between country of origin and the learning styles of expatriates 2) To identify the correlation between gender and the learning styles of expatriates by country.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Expatriate and Learning The ability to learn has been cited as reasons for the failure or success of expatriation assignment (Yamazaki and Kayes, 2004). Kolb (1984) in his study expressed the belief that learning is important for the effective adaptation to cross cultural learning. Spreitzer et. al.,


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(1997) contends that learning from transition and experience will result in a successful expatriation assignment. These past writers have accurately pointed out the importance of learning in expatriation assignment. However, despite that, Yamazaki and Kayes (2004) rightfully point out that little effort has been made to link the two, which may have contributed to many failed assignments.

Failures In Expatriation Assignments Failed expatriation assignment is a topic that has been widely written about. It may be due to the cost of expatriation failure in terms of individual careers and direct financial cost to the organization (Black et.al., 1999; Mervosh and McClenahen, 1997) . The study has even analysed to some extent the failure rates by nationality. Some of the statistics have claimed that U.S based expatriate failures are estimated at between 25 to 40 percent (Misa & Fabricatore, 1979). The failure rates among Japanese expatriates is said to be negligible at 3% Harzing ( 1995) . These statistics are still widely referred to. However, Harzing(1995) refutes most of the past claims calling them to be more myth than truth. No matter what the disputes may be, it is apparent that the success rate is hardly satisfactory when considering the topic from the point of view of its purpose, i.e knowledge and technology transfer as pointed out by Little (2008). Responding to the call of failures, many researchers have sought to find reasons why expatriation assignments have failed. Jan Selmer identified communication between expatriates and locals as one of the reasons in his article entitled ‘Language Ability and Adjustment’ (Selmer, 2006). His research found that communicating in English with Chinese host nationals created a communication barrier between the two groups. Researching further into the reasons for failure, Selmer in his study ‘Psychological barriers to adjustment of Western business expatriates in China: newcomers vs long stayers’ identified unwillingness to adjust as the cause of expatriates’ problems (Selmer,2007). Culture and the inability to change to the host country’s culture was yet another reason identified for expatriation failure (Ralston et al, 1995). Streling (2008) introduced an interesting point on a selection method called Harris and Brewster’s (1999) ‘Coffee Machine System’ selection method. It may be widely practised but very rarely is it spoken about. Not surprising when we consider its claim that managers on their coffee break hold informal discussions at the ‘coffee-machine’ with other managers about prospective candidates for a particular assignment. After a few name-throwings or suggestions, the manager in need catches one of the names of the candidates that were thrown around during the discussion. The selection, it seems, moves on from there without due consideration being given to credentials, knowledge, training or ability (Streling,2008). Streling claims that this selection method results in incompetent candidates being chosen, which then results in failed assignments (Streling, 2008). This, however, may not be completely applicable to the failure of expatriates in mini multinationals. Other literature on expatriate failure includes Minter’s (2007) research, which identified several factors, such as those listed below, to explain expatriation failures in foreign assignments: · · · · · · · ·

Inadequate selection criteria Inadequate education/training Inadequate training and preparation for the trailing spouse and children Mental difficulties Substance abuse Lack of adequate communication between expatriate and his home office management Gender Repatriation


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Most of the studies have neglected to look into the work interaction demands as already pointed out by Sinangil and Ones (1997) ;Vance and Paik (2002);Ng and Siu (2004) ;Lee and Li (2008). There has not been much emphasis on learning style as an important factor in work interaction. The realisation that learning style will impact on work interaction must first take place. Only then will it become a factor in the selection criteria. Once it is in place, then identifying the learning styles of the whole workforce will follow, as this information is needed to decide on the placement of the expatriate within a group. As humungous a task as it may seem, it is however not an impossible task for the Human Resource manager to undertake. The identification of learning style can be done at any point, during interviews or even at appraisals. After all, appraisals are for the improvement of performance. Other issues related to failures as mentioned by Minter, such as substance abuse and mental difficulties, may not be the reason for the failure. It may be more accurate to say that these things happen due to a failed assignment rather than being the cause of the failure. An expatriate may be unable to fit into his team and thus not be able to perform. This will lead to frustration and, combined with a weak support network with other expatriates, results in many expatriates turning to substance abuse or having mental difficulties. A similar thought was expressed in the research by Takeuchi et. al.,(2002) where failed overseas assignment was said to result in low self esteem, self confidence and prestige among peers. As much as taking on an expatriation assignment may sometimes appear to be glamorous, it is equally humiliating if the expatriate fails in the assignment. The thought of going back after having failed an assignment would be stressful and disturbing and would be compounded by the loss of the benefits enjoyed as an expatriate. Despite the findings and research on failures, it is a bit of a surprise that the link between expatriation assignment and learning has not been pursued strongly until recently, maybe because companies have been looking for ‘proper’ skills to match overseas assignment. The emphasis has been on language and culture in making the assignment successful. As failed expatriation assignment became a sought after topic, it was responded to with studies on how to make an expatriation assignment successful. Research into improving expatriate performance (Varner and Palmer, 2002) is an example of such an attempt. Writers have looked into overcoming these failures from the context of cultural difference (Adler, 2001, Mintzberg and Gosling, 2002), language training (Selmer, 2006) and essential skills (Leibra-O’Sullivan,1999), just to mention a few examples. Based on these studies, the idea of expatriate training came into the lime light. Lee and Li (2008) proposed training for expatriates, with Luthans and Farner (2002) proposing evaluating expatriate training to ensure successful expatriation assignment. Then Lee and Li (2008) pointed out that even though training had been identified to be essential for successful assignment, traditionally these expatriate trainings had been very much general in nature and, as such, inadequate. They neglected the impact of the perspectives of the host country workforce in identifying specific work interaction demands for optimising expatriate management performance. (Sinangil and Ones,1997; Vance and Paik, 2002; Ng and Siu,2004;Lee and Li,2008). It also became clear during these studies that the areas of expatriation training undertaken by companies had been small in scope besides being too general. The concentration was usually on cross cultural training, job related training and on-site training (Solomon1995; Suutari and Burch, 2001;Lee and Li,2008). Studies also revealed that not all companies engaged in expatriation training. According to Yamazaki and Kayes expatriates often learned to manage across cultures without formal training or education in cross-cultural skills. (Yamazaki and Kayes, 2004). Their studies rightly pointed out that companies emphasized more on skills essential for an expatriate’s success which they say originated from the identification of success factors in U.S-foreign service representatives.


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Expatriates and Their Learning Styles Yoshitaka Yamazaki and D Christopher Kayes (2004) started the link between learning and expatriation assignment through their research, ‘Expatriate Learning: Exploring how Japanese managers adapt in the United States’. This study compared Japanese managers and their American counterparts who had not been able to work too well together. They studied the learning styles of the Japanese and the Americans. The result was that the Japanese shared similar learning styles that differed from the Americans. After the identification process, the subjects were re grouped into teams that complemented each other’s learning style. The result was that the Japanese and the American managers were able to break the barriers of communication between them and enjoy a better working relationship. This study has given support to the idea that by identifying the learning style of a national, host company nationals can be ‘teamed’ to facilitate communication and sharing of knowledge and information. Kayes later expanded the study to include those from France, German and Quebac ( Kayes, 2005). Prior to Yamazaki’s and Kayes’s research, Fridland (2002) reported that there was a difference in learning style between the Chinese and the Americans. Although there have been similar studies carried out all over the world there have not been similar studies done in Malaysia. To date, the literature review of studies of expatriates in Malaysia shows that the research topics have been about expatriates’ cultural challenges (Aida Haftah and Maimunah Ismail, 2007) and the preference of local managers towards expatriate bosses (Syed Azizi Wafa and Arumugam, S (n.d)). There has yet to be a study on the identification of the learning styles of expatriates or/and if it has an impact on the transferring of knowledge.

This same study replicated in Malaysia will enable Malaysian companies to place expatriates in complementing teams to ensure productive performance and knowledge transfer.

Impact of Learning Style on Human Resource Management Learning style is said to be non switchable, and that it develops from the environment and country of origin. This means to say that one cannot be an assimilator today and an accommodator tomorrow given that no change in living environment has taken place. Yamazaki and Kayes (2007) further observed that the learning styles of Japanese managers in the MNCs moved from the assimilating to the accommodating learning style after a period of time. This observation is consistent with the theory that says that learning style is determined by the place of origin (meaning living environment) and human behaviour. It is also a known fact that human behaviour changes or alters after a period of time in response to the environment. What this would mean in the Malaysian context is that once expatriates are placed in a complementing work environment, with the change in living environment (from their country to Malaysia and to another country where the business is carried out) adjustments to learning style will take place resulting in a better fitted group. This translates into an overall contribution in the form that the cost of losing and retraining or even failed assignments may be drastically reduced. Cost has been a topic that writers constantly mention. The area of concern is the cost impact of importing expatriates with high remuneration packages and who are usually hired on a fixed term contract (yearly or two years contract) of employment. This being the situation it is prudent to shorten the length of adaptation time to make the assignment cost effective. Furthermore, a better fit will ensure quicker and better knowledge transfer, avoiding the need for prolonged assignments. This again reduces the cost to the company. This is the benefit that Human Resource managers will be able to give their companies. Malaysian companies will be able to reduce their dependence on expatriate skills, reduce their cost and expand faster if they utilise this process. The idea has already gained some ground. Reputable consulting companies such as the Hay Group Consulting Services have ventured into comprehensive training on how to recognize


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and use learning style in the workplace, which has further strengthened the need to recognize the role it can play in the management of Human Resource.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The main steps in the research were: 1) The use of Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory based questionnaire 2) Random distribution of the questionnaire to expatriates in various organizations 3) Tabulating the outcome 4) Concluding a) If there is a correlation between the expatriate of a certain origin and his/her learning style b) If gender affects the above correlation Schematic Diagram Country Of Origin IV

Learning Style DV

Gender MV

The above schematic diagram portrays the relationship that this research is attempting to uncover. Country of Origin (IV) is the independent variable that determines the learning style (DV). As gender may (only) change this relationship, it is coded as a moderating variable (MV). The abbreviations stand for: IV DV GV

: : :

Independent Variable Dependent Variable Moderating Variable

Research Instrument The instrument used to conduct this survey was a learning environment adapted version of the Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory questionnaire. A sample of the questionnaire is attached as Appendix 1. A total of 163 responses were received but only 139 were useable as the others could not be compiled by country group.

Sampling Method The sampling was done through the convenience sampling method. The use of convenience sampling gave the flexibility to reach out to as many universities and organizations as possible. This ensured the representation of expatriates from various industries and organizations in Malaysia. Expatriates in Malaysia are not concentrated in one industry, so the research should ideally try to capture as much of the diversity as possible.


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DATA ANALYSIS

The first part of the analysis was done by country to determine the prevailing learning style of each country. This part of the analysis is first shown in the form of a pie chart and a bar chart. This gives an immediate visual indication of the outcome. The results were then confirmed through frequency analysis. The consistency between each sample was verified using the mean and standard deviation computation. The second part of the analysis was to ascertain if there was a correlation between gender and country of origin. In this part of the analysis, Kendall’s tau and Spearman’s rho correlation test was used.

Analysis by Country An analysis of learning style by country is presented in the bar chart below: Graph 1 Percentage by country

Country of Origin and Learning The above graph gives a quick visual confirmation that Bangladesh, England, (maybe) Germany, Indonesia and Thailand have a distinct learning style preference. This was confirmed through the descriptive statistics where frequency, mean and standard deviation were computed.

Descriptive Test By Country Of Origin The same results were further analysed by country to obtain the mean, standard deviation and frequency using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).


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Table 1 Summary Of Descriptive Test Country Of Origin Bangladesh England Iraq Sudan Thailand Germany India Indonesia Vietnam

Learning Style

Frequency

Mean

Standard Deviation

CE/AE CE/AE CE/AE CE/AE & AC/AE CE/AC CE/AE None CE/AE None

40% 90% 17.9% 30% 90% 40% 25.9 41.7 90%

3.2 3.2 3.61 3.8 3.2 3.8 3.78 3.08 3.12

1.36 0.632 1.571 1.033 0.632 1.207 1.281 1.311 1.727

The overall results above indicate that most people from the same country of origin have a similar learning style. It appears stronger in test subjects from Thailand and England as can be seen by the lower standard deviation. Gender Breakdown The collected samples were then analysed by gender to see if gender impacted on the learning style of people from the same country of origin. . The numbers of female respondents by country is shown below in comparison to total numbers of tested subjects in Graph 2.

Graph 2 Female respondents in comparison to total respondents Female Representation By Country 30

25

Numbers

20

15

10

5

0 Total

Female Country

Bangladesh

England

Germany

India

Indonesia

Iraq

Sudan

Thailand

Vietnam

Correlation Testing The test of correlation between Learning Style and Gender was done by country. The results are shown below in Table 2.


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Table 2 Summary Of Gender and Learning Style Correlation Result Country Thailand Bangladesh England Germany India Indonesia Iraq Sudan Vietnam

Relationship between Gender and Learning Style (-ve or +ve) -ve -ve +ve -ve +ve -ve -ve -ve None

The overall summary shows mixed results between Gender and Learning Style. The outcome of these tests shows that a correlation exists between gender and the learning style of expatriates from countries such as England and India. This is not the case for expatriates from the other countries that were sampled. Vietnam does not show visible effects of gender. This is consistent with the hypothesis that gender is only a moderating variable. This is an area that must be studied in further depth. Gmac Global’s (2008) latest survey shows that 20% of the current expatriate workforce is made up of women. The trend for female top managers can be expected to move upwards with people like the President and CEO of Coca Cola, in an interview with Knowledge@Wharton, indicating that in the interest of diversity and to capture global success, he intends to increase the female executive representation in his company (Galuska,2008). It can be expected that more companies will follow this trend resulting in a bigger influx of qualified female top managers. This would also then mean that female executives would be taking on expatriation assignment. This in turn would translate into more potential female expatriates making their way into developing countries. As such, we should take pro-active measures to place them accurately, which calls for an in depth study into this relationship between gender-country of origin-learning style.

FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Findings This study has several implications. It has shown that the country of origin has impacts on its nationals’ learning style although some are strong and some are weak 3) Although Keri (2002) had concluded that gender had an impact on learning style, in this research there lacked consistency to show gender affected learning style. The Convenience Sampling method was used. Although it is the least reliable of all sampling methods, it was appropriate for this study as it served as a way to obtain preliminary information in a quick and inexpensive way. The use of the Quota Sampling method would better represent the population resulting in more accurate findings. Implications The outcome of this study not only re affirms past theoretical and empirical studies that the expatriates of a nation have an identifiable learning style it also paves the way for future assignments. Recent surveys such as Chong (2008) have indicated that the cost of


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expatriates will be increasing. An article on the Expat Focus Blog (2008) based on the GMAC global survey indicated that women expatriates now make up 20% of the total population, an increase of 9%. As such this research carried out in a formal way through purposive sampling would provide adequate grounds to accept or reject the idea of testing expatriates on the basis of learning style to better fit the local hiring organization.

Future Direction To date, the theory that expatriates of a country have a preferred learning style seems to be proven. Further research in this area will most likely add strength to it. If this is so, then it is an area Malaysian companies who require expatriates should consider in the selection process. Furthermore statistics show that the manufacturing and service industries in Malaysia have the highest imports of expatriate skills. (Malaysian Immigration Department, 2007) This being the situation, identifying a tool that can be used to improve the knowledge transfer in these industries will be a productive move for the companies in these industries.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study are consistent with the past findings of empirical and theoretical studies that people’s learning style is shaped by their country of origin. In assignments with such high costs as expatriation assignment, a method that contributes to improved team work, knowledge and technology transfer should be implemented. This study on learning style will enable companies to achieve this purpose. By improving themselves, local Malaysian companies will gain a competitive edge in their position as mini multinationals.


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Appendix 1

The Research Instrument -Questionnaire Learning Style Inventory Based on David Kolb's Model Name:_______________________

Gender M/F

Country Of Origin____________________ No Of Years in Malaysia 1– 2 years

2-3 years

3-4 years

Above 4 years

Part I: Concrete Experience vs. Abstract Conceptualization 1. I prefer A. hands-on learning experiences. B. learning through thinking and reasoning. 2. I tend to A. rely on feelings when making decisions. B. rely on logical reasoning when making decisions. 3. I learn more effectively from A my peers. B. my teachers. 4. I like learning through A. simulations. B. lectures. 5. I learn well by A. practical experience. B. applying theories to hypothetical situations. 6. I am best at learning A. facts. B. concepts. Total of As _____ Concrete Experience (CE) score Total of Bs _____ Abstract Conceptualization (AC) score


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Part II: Active Experimentation vs. Reflective Observation 1. I learn best through C. active involvement in projects. D. observation. 2. I would rather C. do volunteer work with disadvantaged youth. D. read about disadvantaged youth. 3. I prefer assignments that C. require me to work examples. D. require me to think about situations. 4. I learn well through C. participating in a discussion D. listening to what others have to say. 5. I tend to C. jump right in and do something new. D. think about possible outcomes before trying something new. 6. I learn best C. by doing. D. watching and then reflecting. Total of Cs _____ Active Experimentation (AE) score Total of Ds _____ Reflective Observation (RO) score


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