AN OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE CONCEPT AND POWER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES Dr. Chokri MAHMOUDI
Dr. Aymen FLAH
Pr. Lassaad SBITA
SPEG Research Unit ENIG National School of Engineering, University Of Gabès, TUNISIA Email:
[email protected] Cell: (+216) 50 911 920
SPEG Research Unit ENIG National School of Engineering, University Of Gabès, TUNISIA Email:
[email protected] Cell: (+216) 21 104 838
SPEG Research Unit Director ENIG National School of Engineering, University Of Gabès, TUNISIA Email:
[email protected] Cell: (+216) 98 660 023
Abstract – Power management in electric Vehicle has been revolutionized since the old power structure introduced with first EVs. Today, it can be powered either by a single or a combination of multiple sources and driven by a single or a combination of multiple algorithms. This enhancement contributes in significantly better results. This paper reviews state-of-art on electric vehicle concept giving description for each sub-category, and then details power management strategies and charging techniques highlighting main problems and solutions. Finally, power management structure and future research direction are also discussed [1]. Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Power Management, charging techniques, multiple sources. I-INTRODUCTION In recent years, many existing automobile manufacturers and new dedicated companies have put a remarkable effort in transforming the conventional vehicle into an Electric Vehicle that provides green and reliable solution. In terms of market share, EV demand is raising [2]. It starts replacing conventional vehicle In USA, Europe and Asia. With revolutionized perspective and competitive price (Entry range), EV is a smart choice for any end user, however, an extra effort is required to enhance the range of autonomy and vary applications [3]. Organization of This Paper The remainder of this paper proceeds as follows. Section II formulates the state-of-art on electric vehicle, power management including hardware and software levels explanation, charging techniques and standards and finally introduces to multi power source architecture for EVs. Section III is devoted to discuss power management low architectures and high control algorithms. Finally, Section IV includes a discussion of power management and future research. Resume of various research efforts in BEV/HEV are provided in this paper. II-STATE-OF-ART The Electric Vehicle concept: An electric drive vehicle, or simply electric vehicle (EV), is a vehicle based on one or multiple motors (electric or traction) to ensure propulsion. The degree of electrification varies from one vehicle to another. In fig1, EVs are classified through a scale from zero (0=Conventional vehicle) to one (1=Full Electric Vehicle) ______________________________________________________ 978-1-4799-7300-2/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE
Fig1. Degree of Electrification
Mainly, there are three main types of electric vehicles; BEV - AEV The All Electric Vehicle (AEV) or Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) uses high capacity batteries and electric motor for propulsion (Fig2.a). It derives all the power from its batteries pack and has no internal combustion engine, neither fuel cell, nor fuel tank. The only way to recharge its batteries is by plugging in the vehicle to a charging point [31, 4-8]. This is the case of Chevy Spark and the Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric. HEV / PHEV The second type is the Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) that uses mechanically a combination of Electric Motor (EM) in low speeds dedicated for in-city traffic and a conventional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) to be used outside urban areas (Fig2.b). When ICE mode is activated, the EM stops and batteries start charging using an alternator driven by the same equipped ICE. The HEV get an upgrade to the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), it includes actually a new battery charging system that can be fed externally. The combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted and the driver cannot have a break for charging. Porsche announced the new Panamera Plug-in S E-Hybrid that replaces the old Panamera Hybrid offering more driving responsiveness and vehicle performance [11, 12]. REEV The main third type is the Extended Range Electric Vehicles (EREV or REEV); in this structure (Fig2.c), vehicle propulsion is driven only by an electric motor powered by high capacity batteries. These batteries are maintained charged by a small enginegenerator unit. Its small consumption, less than two liters of fuel at 100km, offers an extended range of autonomy and distance to be reached [5, 11]. The latest REEV introduced to the market this year are the all-new 2014 Cadillac ELR, the AUDI A1 e-Tron and Jaguar’s Limo-Green series. FCEV In addition to these three main types, Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) has been introduced to perform long distances. It uses a fuel cell system to power its on-board electric motor (Fig2.d). Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells generally called Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells used in FCEVs use hydrogen fuel stored onboard and oxygen from the air to produce
electricity. As long as a fuel is supplied FCs continue to generate electricity, similar to conventional ICEs [5,13, 27]. However, fuel cells are much cleaner; they convert fuels directly into electricity via an electrochemical process that does not need combustion. The generated power from a fuel cell stack depends on the number and size of the individual fuel cells that comprise the stack and the surface area of the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane. A fuel cell vehicle that is fueled with hydrogen emits only water and heat. By providing clean, high-efficiency, reliable green transportation facilities, FCs have become important technology in development of electric vehicles [9,10]. In addition, fuel cells are being developed for buses, boats, motorcycles, and many other kinds of vehicles. The latest FCVs to be introduced to the market later next year are the all-new Mercedes-Benz B-Class F-CELL, Honda FCEV-Concept and Hyundai Tucson-ix35 FCEV.
A mild HEV is basically a traditional vehicle with an oversized starter, also allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is braking, coasting, or stopped then restart the moment the accelerator pedal is pressed. To achieve this operation, the motor is often mounted between the engine and the transmission, substituting for the torque converter when needed, and providing additional power when accelerating. In micro HEVs, also known as start & stop vehicles, the engine is turned off during braking or at stop to avoid idling operation, and the starter motor is used to start the engine when the driver presses the accelerator pedal. Both mild and Micro HEVs include minor features of HEVs and therefore usually achieve only limited fuel savings [17,19].
Fig.2: Simplified drivetrain architectures of main Electrical Vehicles: (a): Battery Electric Vehicle (b): Hybrid Electrical Vehicle (c): Range Extended Electric Vehicle (d): Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
SEV Solar electric vehicle (SEV) is an electric vehicle powered importantly or completely by direct solar energy. Through solar arrays installed on top of the vehicle, often photovoltaic (PV) cells, solar energy is converted directly into electric energy. Since converted solar energy is the only source, it powers all or part of SEV's propulsion, electronics, communication, navigation, security and other auxiliary features [2]. Sensors provide assistance to the driver similar to conventional vehicles. Here, gathered informations allows monitoring the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and other parameters. SEVs can be equipped with a battery pack assistance to ensure continuous driving during shaded days or night use giving an extended range of autonomy to the users. Practically, SEV can reliable in some uses when vehicle operates relatively little but spends most of the time parked in the sun, such as golf carts, Single-track vehicles or specific target; Solar Race Challenges: competitions taking place in all over the world are to promote research on solar-powered cars. The German Power Core Suncruiser, Japanese Kaitu II and the Australian eVe are most remarkable solar race cars.
energy management system (EMS) with electric power through a charge controller. SEVs structure has been exploited in Solar Buses. Both all-solar bus such as the TINDO project that is operating as free public transport service in Australia and Hybrid Solar Bus that uses solar energy to power electronics, video monitoring system, air conditioning and auxiliary functions, meanwhile, traction is ensured by a HEV structure [25].
Commercially, Photovoltaic modules are used as auxiliary power units for different EVs specially PHEV application. Depending on the powertrain structure, solar panels usually feed batteries or Fig3. Improved sunroof for SEVs takes advantage CPV technology
Fig4. Simplified drive train architecture of Solar Electrical Vehicle.
Main disadvantage of pure solar electric vehicles is sun relatability. Solar arrays installed on top can’t provide sufficient amount of electric power within a short time. Today’s solar cells technology limits the possibilities we can explore in a SEV. Despite its improvement compared to first generation PV panels, new Concentrating Photovoltaic panels (CPV) have 29% panel efficiency, nearly double that of an average PV panel and have advanced temperature management which keeps cells at top performance in high temperature [34]. An interesting variant of the electric vehicle the PHEV that has solar panels as well to assist: The 2010 Toyota Prius model has introduced mounted solar panels on the roof as auxiliary source. This technique has been improved and enhanced in the 2014 Ford Cmax. An arbor of 23m² equipped with Fresnel lenses to concentrate solar radiation, and increase up to 8 times the electrical power produced by the photovoltaic cells of C-Max. The concept C-Max has become the first plug-in hybrid can recharge its battery without being plugged in, even if it may still be in case of necessity [33].
Tab.01 – Comparing major available VEs: Advantages & Disadvantages TECHNOLOGY ADVANTAGES Hybrid Electric Vehicle Reduced fuel consumption and emissions; Possibility to recover energy from regenerative braking (HEV) Plug-in Hybrid Electric Important grid connection potential; Reduced fuel consumption and emissions; Optimized performance; Vehicle (PHEV) Possibility to recover energy from regenerative braking; 100% zero-emission capability. Battery Electric Vehicle Use of cleaner electric energy; Zero emissions Vehicle; battery recharging (Overnight or equipped Parking); (BEV) Possibility to recover energy from regenerative braking; Lower operational costs; Quiet operation. Zero emissions (Water & Heat only); Very high energy Fuel Cell Electric efficiency compared to conventional ICE; Recovered Vehicle (FCEV) energy from regenerative braking; No dependence on petroleum Solar Electric Vehicle Able to utilize their full power at any speed, do not require any expense for running, quite, requires very low (SEV) maintenance, no harmful emissions.
Power management: Control strategies for hybrid-electric vehicles generally target several simultaneous objectives. The primary one is the minimization of the vehicle fuel consumption, while also attempting to minimize emissions and to maintain or enhance drivability. To date, the power management (PM) system in EVs is basically formed by two layers; High level software-based supervision and low level hardware-based control which can be divided into two control layers low level component and low level control. Both hardware and software control layers works together to optimize PM system in EVs [3,4].
Fig5. C-max SEV charging technique involving Concentrating Photovoltaic panels (CPV) and concentrating parking lenses.
Some marine applications include SEV structure too; The low power density current of solar panels limits the use of solar propelled vessels, however boats that use sails (which do not generate electricity unlike combustion engines) rely on battery power for electrical appliances (such as refrigeration, lighting and communications). Here solar panels have become popular for recharging batteries as they do not create noise, require no fuel and often can be seamlessly added to existing deck space. Solar energy is also used in the air. Solar ships can refer to solar powered airships or hybrid airships. They are considered as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs); solar power would enable these to stay aloft for months, becoming a much cheaper means of doing some tasks done today by satellites. The Swiss solar-powered aircraft Solar Impulse plans to make a circum-navigation of the globe in 2015.
DISADVANTAGES Higher initial cost; Component availability; Build complexity involving two power trains (Transmission Energy loss). Higher initial cost; Build complexity involving two power trains (Transmission Energy loss); Component availability; High cost of batteries and battery replacement; Added weight to be taken in consideration. Short distance range; Battery technology still to be improved; Public recharging infrastructure to be improved. Higher initial cost; Hydrogen generation and onboard storage security problems; Availability and affordability of hydrogen refueling stations (infrastructure to be improved); Standards development in progress; Scalability for mass manufacture; Don’t have speed or power that regular cars have, can operate only in sun (unless batt. assisted), A good solar powered car is expensive.
Major challenge of energy management system (EMS) in an electric vehicle is to assure optimal use and regeneration of the total energy in the vehicle. Regardless of number of sources, the powertrain configuration, at any time and for any vehicle speed, the control strategy has to determine the power distribution between different energies. When two storage systems or two fuel converters are available additional power distribution between the RESSs and between the fuel converters has to be determined. These decisions are constrained by two factors. First of all, the motive power requested by the driver must always be satisfied up
to a maximum power demand already known. Then, charge status must be maintained within, allowing the vehicle to be charge continuously. [15-17]
Fig.6: Power management control layers in EV [1]
A-Hardware Level: Power management control design starts with the hardware level, more precisely with vehicle power train which is a must in every EV [19]. Presented in different approaches and combinations, the only purpose in power train design is to obtain optimal power
management results, increase vehicle performance and robustness, and reduce energy loss in transmission [2,4,6]. Generally, there are 6 transfer architectures in BEV; the first is the conventional drivetrain with clutch (Fig4.a). The vehicle is equipped and Energy Storage System (ESS) that delivers electrical energy to the main EM through a power converter. The mechanical energy provided reaches the front wheels through a quite long way; a clutch, a gearbox and a differential. In second type (Fig4.b), the clutch is deleted and the gearbox is replaced with a fixed gear transmission unit while the entire architecture remains the same. This little enhancement simplifies the driveline configuration and reduces the size and weight of transmission system [20,21]. By following the same logic, a third configuration (Fig4.c) offers a further simplification. It groups the electric motor, the single-gear box and the differential in same level with wheels. The BEV is lighter and mechanical transmission losses become minimal. The need to enhance the cornering performance in BEVs, each wheel gets its own fixed gearing and own electric motor. Thus, it is possible to operating different speeds. In some other configuration, the wheels were exploited. In-wheel application reduces even more weight and complexity. Here, vehicle operates in direct drive without a drive shaft; wheels are equipped with the fixed gearbox and driven directly by Ems. The same architecture is kept in final configuration but with more use of in-wheel application. The EM is built right in the wheel and the drive train is reduced to zero. Each EM receives power from a dedicated power converter feed by the Energy Storage System.
Fig.7 Main drivetrain architectures of BEV: (a): Conventional Drive train (b): Single-gear transmission architecture (c): Integrated single-gear and differential architecture (d): Separated EM and fixed gearing architecture, (e): Fixed EM and gearing architecture, (f): in-wheel drive architecture.
For HEV, mainly 4 architectures are available and aiming different vehicle purposes; Parallel Drive Train configuration (Fig5.a) allows both ICE and EM to access transmission in parallel via couplers [2]. Thus, electric vehicle is equipped by two separated propulsion powers in two different drive lines. The way motor and engine participate will be discussed later in further details. The second architecture is Series Drive Train (Fig5.b). Only the EM accesses the transmission shaft. Meanwhile, the ICE is to generate electrical power but not to support the EM in transmission. The generated electric power is led to power converter before reaching Battery Pack and EM [6].
By combining the previous configurations (Fig5.c), the ParallelSeries Drive Train is figured out; the ICE supports the EM in similar way to parallel mode, however, it keeps providing electric power through linked generator [8]. In final architecture (Fig4.d), by replacing the generator in previous vehicle structure and adding a second power converter to store electrical energy in-car produced in battery, HEV become more controllable and efficient[2]. Both, HEV and BEV architectures use DC/AC converters to control electric motors feeding and DC/DC converters to manage two way energy transfer for battery charging or use [1,9].
Fig.8: Main drivetrain architectures of HEV: (a): Parallel structure HEV (b): Series structure HEV (c): Series-Parallel structure HEV (d): Complex structure HEV
B-Software Level: In high supervisory Power Management Layer (PML), many algorithms have been developed. Depending on powertrain architecture, mainly five techniques proved reliability and delivered intended results Offline Power Management Control (PMC) Algorithms, Online PMC Algorithms, Rule-Based PMC Algorithms and Learning PMS Algorithms and GPS-Enhanced PMC Algorithms [16, 19, 21]. Offline Power Management Control Algorithms Optimization Criteria: Stochastic optimal control of complex dynamic systems is a present fact in engineering. The problem is formulated as sequential decision making under uncertainty, where a controller is faced with the task of selecting actions in several time steps to efficiently achieve the system’s long-term goals [19, 24, 28]. DP: Dynamic programming (DP) has been generalized as the main method to analyze sequential decision-making problems, such as deterministic and stochastic optimization and control problems, mini-max problems, and other varied problems. While the nature of these problems may vary widely, their underlying structure is similar to each other and has two principal features: an underlying discrete time dynamic system whose state evolves according to given transition probabilities that depend on the decision taken at each time and a cost function that is additive over time [19, 30, 34,35].
Although DP can yield a global optimal solution in closed form, for many problems, a complete solution by DP is impossible [19, 34, 36]. Online Power Management Control Algorithms MPC: Model predictive control (MPC) relies on prediction models to obtain a control action by solving an online optimization problem over a finite horizon. It is often used in constrained regulatory related control problems of large scale multivariable systems, where the objective is to operate the system in a certain desired way[19, 24]. Pontryagin’s Minimum Principle and ECMS: One of the principal procedures in solving optimization problems is to derive a set of necessary conditions that must be satisfied by any optimal solution. These conditions become sufficient under certain convexity conditions on the objective and constraint functions. Optimal control problems may be regarded as optimization problems in infinite-dimensional spaces, and thus, they are substantially difficult to solve [12, 19]. Rule-Based Power Management Control Algorithms Rules Based (RB) method relays on expert experience base to determine fine adjustments to be applied in PMC algorithm. The PMC strategy can be based on fuzzy logic, decentralized adaptive logic, or even new set of rule based PMC algorithms [19, 20, 22].
Smart / Learning Power Management Control Algorithms To optimize EV efficiency, PMC algorithms include a learning mechanism that allows improving performance over time, every single reaction of the driver is considered including driving style, sprint, breaking style, and distances driven. All these collected informations build a database specific to the user driving style and there are PM adjustments communicated to driving parameters. This has a major impact on fuel economy and system responsiveness [20]. GPS enhanced Power Management Control Algorithms These algorithms are to enhance PMC algorithms using information received from a Global Positioning System (GPS).The algorithm uses data and loads corresponding topography of the road and operates according to preconfigured driving style to minimize fuel consumption. These enhancement algorithms are using driving pattern recognition to automatically select a control algorithm from a bank of six optimized representative driving modes using artificial neural networks (ANNs)
Fig. 9 Multi power supply architecture for EV
Fig. 6 presents the framework of a multi-power supply system for electric vehicles. A power management unit based on smart algorithms manages the sources and performs combinations or timing between them to obtain optimal vehicle responsiveness and battery health. This power is transferred to a regular motor control unit witch drives the vehicle.
Multi power source architecture: Many factors can affect the EV performance, such as size, purpose of use, environment, driving style (sporty, soft, moderate or combined). All these factors may lead to a deep and quick discharge rate of the battery and its damage. To keep it healthy and guide it to a slow discharge even when a heavy load is on demand, the electric vehicle is powered by a combination of multiple sources [3, 6, 13]. The main element is the batteries. Most of the electric vehicles use Lithium ion battery. Lithium ion batteries are environmentally friendly and have higher energy density, longer life span, and higher power density than conventional battery [3].They have wide application in electric vehicles and other electronics. Since large number of Lithium-ion batteries used in series in electric vehicles so there arises the problems of safety, durability, thermal breakdown and cost, which limits the application of the Lithium ion battery.[6] Some electric vehicles use other kinds of batteries such as Plumb-Acid, Nickel-Cadmium, and lithium-polymer. The selection of a battery is based on many criteria, such as energy, weight, lifetime, price, voltage, size [6, 7]. To obtain a power boost, super capacitor is used. It has the characteristics between a capacitor and a battery. It can release a large charge in a short period. A super capacitor bank is hence adopted to supply instantaneous charge to assist the main battery in heavy consumption. The super capacitor, under management, can be charged by the main batteries [11, 9]. Recently, many manufacturers accorded more attention to solar panels. They will provide the power management system with an auxiliary electric energy to be used later for battery charging or electronics power supplying [4, 5]. In order to recover kinetic energy lost in vehicle breaking electric vehicles can also save energy in stop and go driving through regenerative breaking. In this technique, the Electric motor is used as a generator converting the kinetic of the vehicle's motion back to electric energy, rather than dissipating it as heat in the breaks. The regenerative breaking can recover 50% to 80%of the kinetic energy for later use. This is especially valuable for vehicles that stops and start frequently like buses and in-city BEVs [2]. For BEVs and PHEVs, Grid Power is the main energy source. It allows charging batteries and super capacitors. Many charging modes are available with enhanced charging time.
Charging Techniques and Standards: There are four key standards related to safety, installation and connection of the Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) to the EV; UL 2594, UL 2231, SAE J1772, and NEC Article 6252. EVs typically charge from conventional power outlets or dedicated charging stations, a process that typically takes hours, but can be done overnight and often gives a charge that is sufficient for normal everyday usage. To date, mainly three charging techniques are available. Conductive charging, this is a direct electrical connection (typically through an insulated wire/cord set) between the source and the charging circuitry. The circuitry and its controls may be housed within the vehicle or external to it. All new EVs are compatible with this approved standard. There are three modes of EV charging; In Standard mode, AC Level 1 supplies 120V single phase power at up to 12 Amps. For example, a Nissan Leaf with its battery charge totally depleted would take about twenty hours to completely recharge. Meanwhile, Semi-Quick mode provides up to 3 phases 32A current. It takes much shorter time to charge electric vehicles compared to standard charging. And finally, Quick mode uses a specialized fast charger connected to a high powered electrical source; the high power greatly reduces charging time. Nevertheless, it requires infrastructure investment, spaces and extra costs. It is suitable for emergency charging purpose [6]. The actual charge time will vary based on the charge level and condition of the batteries Inductive charging: No wiring is required; instead the energy is transferred between the charger and the "Paddle" inside the vehicle's inlet via a magnetic field generated by a high AC current. Inductive charging is still expensive and complicated to set up for end user. Batteries swapping: Instead of recharging EVs from electrical socket, batteries could be mechanically replaced in a couple of minutes in some special stations. Here battery size and geometry should be standardized in order to relay on Battery swapping technique.
III- DISCUSSION ON POWER MANAGEMENT The choice of the appropriate topology requires preliminary understanding of vehicle use purposes study of driving cycles, vehicle size and weight, desired performance, and type of application. Once the topology has been set, the second step is the design of an energy management control (EMC) strategy which is an essential key for an efficient electric vehicle [29]. Low level PM control offers a rich range of architectures; Series HEV is convenient for stop-and-run use, such as city driving. It can recover energy from regenerative breaking and feed batteries. Meanwhile, Parallel HEV has a weak battery capacity [18]. The ICE and EM complement each other while driving. Thus, it can be reliable either in city or highway. This kind of structure gets a better efficiency because of the reduced battery pack and small electric motor. The main area, both previous architectures can’t cover is the precise control strategy. Thus tow complex configuration are used; Series-parallel HEV and Complex HEV. PHEV sustains longer in EM mode than ICE mode. It is suitable for both city and highway, and shares the same advantages and disadvantages of a regular HEV [11, 8, 12]. For BEVs, in-wheel drive configuration is most suitable for city use due to light weight and frequent stop-and-run situations. BEVs are designed mainly for short distance autonomy despite of minimal energy loss in transmission. Handling of BEVs will be affected by the new wheel configuration and increase of its weight. In high level, the power management controller would take advantage of different algorithms developed for this purpose, but also takes even more advantages from enhancing algorithms, weather conditions, weather forecast, GPS position and driving experience [21, 34, 35, 36]. Learning PMC algorithm can be improved; EVs would be able to learn from each other through communication; a user experience exchange database, encrypted to respect drivers’ privacy [22, 23]. By providing more accurate and up to date data to power management system, fuel economy can be improved, reducing pollutant emissions, as well as extending battery lifetime and range.
sharing; the vehicle will be able, not only to learn from its own experience, but also from other EVs’ experience with a comprehensive breakthrough communication system and a cloud experience database.
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Practically, it will be difficult to be approved by competitive manufacturers; meanwhile, this concept can be applied within the same manufacturer’s products. This unique new communication network will allow access to new infrastructure in new directions.
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IV- CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK
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In the near future, combining diverse energy sources and powertrains in optimal way, as well as performing an accurate and robust power management control algorithm, will be essential to build a reliable and affordable EV while preserving our environment and intelligently using our limited resources. Many different approaches have been proposed to enhance our understanding of the fundamental vehicle system performance challenges. But among all the control methods, each control technique has its advantages and disadvantages. As a first step in improving PMC algorithms, our future work will focus on enhancing power management supervisory level taking advantage of today’s respectful achievements and aiming to optimize a multi power source management in BEVs and HEVs. This enhancement will take advantage a whole new area: Smart PMC through vehicles’ intercommunication and PM experience
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS NOMENCLATURE EV Electric Vehicle BEV Battery Electric Vehicle AEV All Electric Vehicle HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle FCEV Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle SEV Solar Electric Vehicle CPV Concentrating Photovoltaic panels PM Power Management PEM Polymer Electrolyte Membrane PMC Power Management controller GPS Global Positioning System
