Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research

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Residents' perceptions of the socio-cultural impact of tourism in Mauritius a

ROBIN NUNKOO & HAYWANTEE RAMKISSOON

b

a

Faculty of Law and Management , University of Mauritius , Reduit, Mauritius E-mail: b

School of Public Sector Policy and Management, University of Technology , Mauritius, La Tour Koenig, Pointe-Aur-Sables, Mauritius E-mail: Published online: 01 Aug 2011.

To cite this article: ROBIN NUNKOO & HAYWANTEE RAMKISSOON (2007) Residents' perceptions of the socio-cultural impact of tourism in Mauritius, Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 18:1, 138-145, DOI: 10.1080/13032917.2007.9687041 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2007.9687041

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Research Notes and Reports

Kingsbury, Kevin (1998), Population Figures Indicate Continued Growth to 2020, The Pocono Record Online, July 27. Kotler, P. (2000). Marketing Management: The Millennium Edition. NJ: Prentice Hall. Matthews, Jessica D. (1999). Pike, Monroe, still 11, 2, in Pennsylvania Population Growth, The Pocono Record Online, March 12. Morgan, M. (1991). Dressing up to Survive Marketing Majorca, Tourism Management, 12(1):15-20. Oglethorpe, M. (1984). Tourism in Malta: A Crisis of Dependence, Leisure Studies, 3 147-162. Paul, P. (2003). Going off to Get Married, Time, 161(19):Bl-B3. Prideaux, B. (2000). The Resort Development Spectrum -A New Approach to Modeling Resort Development, Tourism Management, 21(1):225-240. Squeri, L. (2002). Better in the Poconos: The Story ofPennsylvania’s Vacationland. PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. The hottest spot for honeymoons. Iuurnal Record (20001, October 3, Oklahoma City, OK 1. Tooman, L. A. (1997). Applications of the Life-cycle Model in Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 24(1):214-234. Weaver, D. B. (1993). Grand Cayman Island and the Resort Cycle Concept, journal of Travel Research, 29(2):9-15. Williams, M. (1993). An Expansion of the Tourist Site Cycle Model: The Case of Minorca (Spain), lournal of Tourism Studies, 4(2):24-32. Wilkinson, P. F. (1987). Tourism in Small lsland Nations: A Fragile Dependence, Leisure Studies, 26(2):127-146. Timothy H. Reisenwitz is Associate Professor ofMarketing, Department of Marketing 6 Economics, Harley Langdale, 1 . College ofBusiness Administration, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia. E-mail: [email protected] Submitted:ll August 2006 Resubmitted:02 November 2006 Accepted: 08 November 2006 Refereed anonymously

Residents’ perceptions of the socio-cultural impact of tourism in Mauritius ROBIN NUNKOO University of Mauritius HAYWANTEE RAMKISSOON University of Technology. Mauritius

INTRODUCTION During the past thirty years the Mauritian economy has diversified from a sugar cane based mono-crop economy to one based on sugar, manufacturing, financial services and tourism. Tourism which is the third pillar of the economy after the manufacturing and agricultural sector contributes significantly to economic growth. Given the importance of the tourism industry to the Mauritian economy, it is of utmost importance to ensure its sustainable de-

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velopment. One of the determinants of its sustainability is to keep the sociocultural impacts of tourism on the host population at tolerable level. In fact, a community mandate is necessary for sustaining the tourism industry and managing more critical aspects that appear as a tourist destination reaches maturity (Lawson et al. 1998). Even mature destinations that are self-sustaining, when exposed to unexpected dynamics in their target markets, can be adversely affected by visitation levels. Butler’s (1980) theory of tourism development suggests diminished support for tourism development in tourist destinations as negative impacts of tourism become evident. As the number and types of tourism increases, socio-cultural influences of tourism on host communitiesbecome evident (KOand Steward 2002). Indeed, in Mauritius negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism are beginning to emerge. For instance, thefts against tourists on public beaches are becoming a concern. Although violent crimes against tourists are uncommon, petty crime is becoming a problem. Break-ins in bungalows are now becoming an issue, although they are of a non-violent nature. It has also been reported that visitors are often robbed at gunpoint. There have been incidents of tourists being assaulted and robbed while staying at beachside bungalows runby unregistered proprietors. The rate of crime is higher in Port Louis, the capital city of the island and the coastal zones which accommodate the highest level of tourism development. Prostitution is another emerging problem in Port Louis and it exists in other regions of the country as well. Prostitution is more prevalent in tourist resorts than in other areas, and most prostitution clients are foreigners. In Mauritius, however, the analysis of residents’ attitudes toward tourism has been given very little attention, both in the development and in the research of tourism. This paper attempts to make a little contribution to the sustainable development of tourism by analysing the socio-cultura1 impact of tourism on the Mauritian society with a view to inform tourism policy and planning. LITERATURE OVERVIEW

Since the early 1970’s, the study of socio-cultural impacts of tourism has been the subject of research for many theorists, researchers and academics. Young (1973) prompted the debate on whether tourism can be considered.asa ‘blessing‘ or ’blight’. He argued that tourism is a phenomenon which can bring both positive as well as negative impact. Bryden (1973)analysed the impact of tourism within the Commonwealth Caribbean using a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) approach. His research revealed that tourism led to an uneven distribution of benefits among the host community. The study also revealed that host communitieswere influenced by the behaviour and lifestyles of the tourists. This finding supports the theory of demonstration effect which has been accepted by many authors as being a natural socio-cultural consequence of tourism (Fisher 2004). Subsequent research supported the observations made by Bryden (1973) (e.g. Fisher 2004; Seaton 1997). Volume 18

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Several other empirical studies and theoretical research on the impacts of tourism on host communities have been conducted. Doxey’s (1975) irridex model has often been used as a basis for studying host attitudes towards tourism. Doxey (1975) identified four stages of attitudes that residents will go through as tourism development increases: euphoria, apathy, annoyance and antagonism. However, Doxey’s (1975)model has been criticized in various instances. Some research has found that local people in destinations with more developed tourism facilities have stronger negative feelings toward the presence of tourists and are reluctant to accept any further tourism development (Smith 1989).Other studies have shown that people in destinations that are at an early development stage have shown a more positive attitude toward tourism (Belisle& Hoy 1980)while some other studies have shown that residents’ attitudes toward tourism depend on the type of tourism development (Andereck and Vogt 2000). These results therefore suggest that the relationship between host attitudes and tourism development is not always unidirectional as suggested in Doxey’s model but nevertheless, the model does give some indication of residents’ feeling about tourism. The development of tourism also causes changes in the social stratification of destination communities (Getz 1993). This was confirmed in a study by Tsartas (2003)who noted that the most significant social changes were on the family and its role in the new urbanised social structure. Joseph & Kavoori (2001) noted similar changes in the social stratification of the host community in the town of Pushkar, India. However, the complex interaction of tourism phenomena makes the total impact of tourism development almost impossible to measure (Matheison and Wall 1982).The social, economic and environmental factors are inter-linked and influenced by one another. Green (2005) investigated the issue about environmental and social change resulting from tourism development. The study found that tourism has led to increased prostitution in the area. Similar findings were revealed by other studies (e.g. KO and Stewart 2002). Other research considered crime, pollution, vandalism, sexual harassment and traffic congestion as resulting impacts of tourism development (e.g. Smith and Krannich 1998). Tourism impact is also often described by the factorsthat affect residents’ attitudes towards tourism (Jurowskiand Gursoy 2004).The evaluation of tourism impact is influenced by the distance that the residents live from the central tourist zone of a destination (Jurowskiand Gursoy 2004).While some studies such as that by Beslie and Hoy (1980)found that the further the residents live from the tourist zone, perceptions of impact become less favourable, other studies such as that by Williams and Lawson (2001) noted that those residents living close to tourist attractionshave more negative attitudes towards tourism. Other research have used demographic variables and community characteristics such as age, gender, level of education, marital status and length of stay to measure host attitudes toward tourism. In their study on Australia’s Gold Coast’s residents, Tomljenovic and Faulkner (1999)found that older residents displayed more positive attitudes toward the industry and were more toler-

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ant of international tourists than younger residents. A significant relationship between age and attitude toward tourism has also been noted by Cavus and Tanrisevdi (2002), but contrary to the findings of Tomljenovic and Faulkner (1999), they found that older residents reacted negatively to tourism development. In general, the relationship between socio-demographic variables and attitudes toward tourism is not always straightforward as revealed by the literature. For instance, Kuvan and Akan (2004)found that socio-demographic and community characteristics were important variables in influencing socio-cultural impact of tourism. However the study by Allen et al. (1993) has revealed contradictory findings. Several other studies have found that socio-cultural impact of tourism is substantially influenced by the residents’dependence on tourism (Smith and Krannich 1998)and in this context the Social Exchange Theory has often been used to explain the influence of material and psychological exchanges on residents’ attitudes. This theory is concerned with “understanding the exchange of resources between individual and groups in an interaction of situation” where “actors supply one another with valued resources” (Ap 1992, pp. 668). Some research indicates that there is a direct relationship between socio-cultural impact of tourism and tourism dependency (Snaith and Hailey 1999) while other research has found that the relationship between tourism dependency and socio-cultural impact tend to be less straight forward (Allen et a1.1993). METHODOLOGY The empirical research was based on a survey conducted in April 2005. The survey instrument used in this study was a structured questionnaire which was distributed to residents residing in urban, rural and coastal regions. Questionnaires were distributed door-to-door in different streets which were selected using streets maps. For each street a designated number of questionnaires were distributed ranging from five to seven in each street. The instrument was designed following a review of existing literature dealing with host attitudes toward tourism ( e g Allen et al. 1993; Doxey 1975; Kuvan and Akan 2004). A total of 240 questionnaires were collected and 28 of them were rejected because they were considered as incomplete and were therefore eliminated from the analysis. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The literature review on the socio-cultural impacts of tourism has revealed that the relationship between local inhabitants and tourists influence the perceptions of tourism. The relationship between the tourists and the local residents offers opportunities for both parties to get acquainted with one another’s culture and can contribute to positive changes in the attitudes of the tourists toward the locals and to the development of friendship. Therefore, the nature of the relationship was investigated in the survey. The survey reVolume 18

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vealed that around 75% of the respondents have regular contact with tourists while only 20% of the respondents mentioned that they do not have any contact with tourists. Most of the respondents (67%)perceived a certain difference between themselves and the tourists in terms of the financial situation. The perceived financial situation of the tourists and that of the locals can vary for several reasons. In Mauritius, the majority of tourists come from European countries where the per capita GDP and the average wages and salaries are much higher. Thus, this group of tourists is wealthier than the inhabitants of Mauritius. The differences perceived in the financial situations are also rooted in the different characteristics of the tourist-host roles. The tourist is mobile, flexible and has a lot of leisure time and can also spend money freely. The host is more or less stationary, living his everyday life and has limited spending capacity. Doxey’s (1975) Irridex model identifies four different attitudes commonly held by local residents toward tourists. Based on this model of tourism development, the questionnaire included questions on the feelings of the respondents toward tourism development in their area. Around 34% of respondents in the urban area and 29% of respondents in the coastal area welcome tourists and feel excited about their presence. More than 40% of the respondents in the urban area and around 39% of those living in the coastal area feel irritated about the presence of tourists. This can be explained by the fact that urban and coastal tourism is very common in Mauritius and there is high concentration of tourism in such areas. Around 67% of respondents in the rural area welcome tourists and feel enthusiastic about their presence. This is because in the rural areas of Mauritius tourism is a new activity and as such the level of tourism development in such areas is low. Consequently, the initial thrill and enthusiasm that come along with tourism development in rural area result in the fact that tourism is made welcome. Overall, very few respondents of the survey (around 3%) feel antagonistic about tourists. A statistical relationship was found between socio-cultural impact of tourism and area of residence (t = 38.46) suggesting that the residents’ area of residence and level of tourism development influence perceptions toward tourism. The above findings confirm that of international tourism research. For instance, Glasson et al. (1992) found that the level of tourism development and the distance from the major tourist zone influence the residents’ attitudes toward tourism. The age of the respondent was also found to be a determinant of the residents’ attitudes toward the socio-cultural impact of tourism development (t = 34.52) with the younger residents having more negative perceptions towards tourism than older ones. Similar findings were revealed by other research such as that by Kuvan and Akan (2004)where age was found to be a factor affecting socio-culturalimpact. The findings however contradict those of Pearce (1993), Allen et al. (1993) who found that age was not a determinant of residents’ attitudes toward tourism.

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Respondents were also asked about the overall impact of tourism on the image of their region. Around 40% of the respondents mentioned that tourism has led to an improvement in the image of their region while around 45% mentioned that tourism has led to a worsening in the image of their area and that most of these residents live in the urban and coastal areas. This finding is not in line with the findings of Haralambopoulous and Pizam (1996).They found that the majority of residents of the Greek Island of Samos believe that tourism has a positive impact on the image of the area. Residents were also concerned about the seasonality problem of the tourism industry. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Overall, the results of this study revealed that in general, the Mauritian residents support tourism development and that around 71% of the respondents have a positive opinion about the tourism industry. However, despite their support for tourism development, when asked about the impact of tourism on their regions, 40% of the respondents mentioned that tourism has led to a worsening in the image of their regions while 45%mentioned that tourism has led to an improvement in the image. While the overall findings of the survey are encouraging for the Mauritian tourism industry because of the positive attitudes expressed by the local community toward tourism, attention should be given to the fact that a segment of the Mauritian residents display negative attitides toward tourism development. The overall findings also suggest that residents often support tourism development but are concerned about the impact of tourism on the image of their area. It is therefore important for the Mauritian authorities to direct increased efforts towards social welfare in future tourism strategies. Tourism authorities should try to increase the benefits derived from tourism without actually increasing tourism numbers. This can be done by increasing marketing efforts toward tourists with high spending capacity rather than encouraging mass tourism. It is also important to have greater public involvement of the local population in tourism decision-making.The detailed planning and implementation of the tourism development strategies needs to be highly focused at the local level since this is where the impacts of tourism take place. There is therefore a strong argument that community consultation should be undertaken as part of tourism development strategies in Mauritius. Local involvement in the development process is a prerequisite if the institutional framework is to function in a socially compatible way. To ensure that the local population participates effectively in the planning process and are in a position to be important players in the tourism sector, there needs to be informed guidance and leadership from Municipal Councils and Village Councils in Mauritius. It is also important for the tourism planners to incorporate the views of younger people into the tourism policies and strategies. Volume 18

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The tourism authoritiesshould aim at increasing the involvement of younger people in the tourism industry. At present, there are missed marketing opportunities with regards to the positive views held by the residents. It is therefore important to publicize the views of those residents to generate a positive image of the island and the tourism industry. It is also important to positively influence those residents who have negative views about tourism. Residents should be convinced that the benefits derived from tourism lead to their overall well being. This indicates the need for greater communicationof the intentions, processes, and objectivesof the tourism industry which manifests itself in a highly public way. REFERENCES Allen, L. R , Hafer. H. R., Long, P. T., and Perdue, R. (1993).Rural Residents Attitudes Toward Recreation and Tourism Development, Journal of Travel Research, 31 (4):27-33. Andereck, K. L. and Vogt, C. (2000).The Relationship between Residents’ Attitudes Toward Tourism and Tourism Development Options, Journal of Travel Research, 39: 27-36. Ap, J. (1992).Residents’Perceptions on Tourism Impacts, Annals of Tourism Research, 19(4):665-690. Beslie, F. and Hoy, D. (1980).The Perceived Impact of Tourism by Residents:A case Study in Santa Marta, Columbia, Annals of Tourism Research, 7(1):83-101. Bryden, J. (1973). Tourism and Development: A Case Study of the Commonwealth Caribbean. Cambridge: The University Press. Butler R.W. (1980).The concept of a Tourist Area Life Cycle of Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources, Canadian Geographer, 24(1):5-12. Cavus, S. and Tanrisevdi, A. (2002).Residents’ Attitudes Toward Tourism: A Case Study of Kusadasi, Turkey, Tourism Analysis, 7(3):259-268. Doxey, G. V. (1975). A Causation Theory of Visitor-Residents Irritants, Methodology and Research Inferences’ The Travel Research Association Conference N0.6, TTRA: 195-198. Fisher, D. (2004).The Demonstration Effect Revisited,Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2):428-446. Garland, 8. R. (1984).New Zeland Hosts and Guests: A Study ofthe Social Zmpact of Tourism. Market Research Centre, New Zealand: Massey University, Palmerston North, Getz, D. (1993). Impacts of Tourism on Residents’ Leisure: Concepts and a Longitudinal Case Study of the Spey Valley, Scotland, The lournal of Tourism Studies, 4(2): 33-44. Green, R. (2005).Community Perceptions of Environmental and Social Change of Tourism development on the Island of Koh Samui, Thailand, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25:37-56. Haralambopoulos, N. and Pizam, A. (1996).Perceived Impacts of Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 23(3):503-526. Joseph, C, A. and Kavoori, A, P. (2001). Mediated Resistance: Tourism and the Host Community, Annals of Tourism Research. 28(4): 998-1009. Jurowski, C. and Gursoy, D. (2004).Distance Effects on Residents’Attitude towards Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2):296-312. KO, D. W. and Stewart, W. P. (2002).AStructural Model of Residents’Attitudes for Tourism Development, Tourism Management, 2 3 521-530. Kuvan, Y.and Akan, P. (2004). Residents‘ Attitudes towards General and Forest-Related Impacts of Tourism: The Case of Belek, Antalya, Tourism Management, 26(5): 697-706. Lawson, R. W, Williams, J, Young T and Cossens, J. (1998).A Comparison of Residents Attitudes toward Tourism in 10 New Zealand destinations, Tourism Management, 19(3):247-256.

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Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts. New York John Wiley and Sons. Pearce, D. G. (1993). Comparative Studies in Tourism Research. In D G Pearce - R W Butler eds Tourism Research: Critiques And Challenges, London: Routledge, pp.20-35. Seaton, A. V. (1997). Demonstration Effects or Relative Deprivation? The Counter-Revolutionary . Pressures of Tourism in Cuba, Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3307-320. Smith, M. D. and Krannich, R. S. (1998).Tourism Dependence and Residents Attitudes, Annals of Tourism Research, 25(4):783-802. Smith, V. L. (1989). Host and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. 2nd .Edition. Philadelphia: UNversity of Pennsylvania. Snaith, T. and Haley, A. (1999). Residents' Opinion of Tourism Development in the Historic City of York, England, Tourism Management, 2 0 595-603. Tomljenovic, R and Faulkner, B. (1999). Tourism and Older Residents in a Sunbelt Resort, Annals of Tourism Research, 27(1):93-114. Tsartas, P. (2003). Tourism Development in Greek Insular and Coastal Areas: Socio-Cultural Changes and Crucial policy issues, Iournal of Sustainable Tourism, 11: 116-132. Williams, J. and Lawson, R. (2001).Community Issues and Residents' Opinion of Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 22: 269-290. Young. G. (1973). Tourism: Blessing or Blight? Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Robin Nunkoo, Faculty of Law and Management, University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius. E-mail: [email protected] Haywantee Ramkissoon, School of Public Sector Policy and Management, University of Technology, Mauritius, La Tour Koenig, Pointe-Aur-Sables, Mauritius. E-mail: r.ramkisson~utm.intnet.mu Submitted: 20 December 2006 Resubmitted: 26 February 2007 Accepted: 08 March 2007 Refereed anonymously

Gendered Social Exchange Theory Variations across the Life Span in Casino Settings

DEEPAK CHHABRA Arlzona State University

INTRODUCTION Although a plethora of studies have appeared in tourism literature that explore tourism impact perceptions of local residents based on sex, recent years have indicated a need to delve deeper into gender-based explorations and identify factors, other than biological, that drive different or similar behaviors among men and women. According to Thompson (1999:36), "sex should not Volume 18

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