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ANTHROPOLOGY OF DISASTER, IMPORTANCE & DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY OF NEPAL
A Group Research Paper Submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences for the Partial Fulfillment of the internal evaluation of the Paper CMS-504 Disaster Management Theory and Practice Master's Degree in Crisis Management Studies
Submitted By: Bhadra Bahadur Singh Thakuri Ankita Shah Madhav K C Parash Niraula Er Pradip Gotame Sarad Poudyal
Tribhuwan University Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Samarpan Academy (Institute of Crisis Management Studies) Kathmandu, Nepal March, 2018
ii
ANTHROPOLOGY OF DISASTER, IMPORTANCE & DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY OF NEPAL
Submitted By: Bhadra Bahadur Singh Thakuri (Group Leader) Ankita Shah Madhav K C Parash Niraula Er. Pradip Gotame Sarad Poudyal
Submitted to Dr. Krishna Devkota Visiting Faculty ICMS
A paper submitted to the Samarpan Academy (Institution of Crisis Management Studies) in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the paper CMS-504 Disaster Management Theory and Practice / Master's Degree in Crisis Management.
The research group is liable of facts, figures, data and details which emanate from the group's collection, analysis, ideas and opinions. The contents in the paper reflect our own personnel views and are not necessarily endorsed by the Institute of Crisis Management Studies.
March, 2018 Kathmandu
iii
LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION This is to certify that the group research paper entitled "Anthropology of Disaster, Importance & Disaster Risk Management: A case Study of Nepal" is conducted under my supervision for internal evaluation of the paper CMS-504 Disaster Management Theory and Practice / Masters Degree in Crisis Management Studies, Samarpan Academy (Institute of Crisis Management Studies).
I recommend this group research for its evaluation and acceptance.
……………………………………………….. Dr. Krishna Devkota Research Guide / Supervisor Samarpan Academy Date: March, 2018
iv
LETTER OF APROVAL
We certify that the group research paper "Anthropology of Disaster, Importance & Disaster Risk Management: A case Study of Nepal" submitted by the students of ICMS First Semester to the Department of Crisis Management Studies, Faculties of Humanities and Social Sciences, Samarpan Academy (Institute of Crisis Management Studies), Dhumbarahi, for the internal evaluation of paper CMS-504 Disaster Management Theory and Practice has been found satisfactory in scope and quality. Therefore, we accept it as part of the degree.
Evaluation Committee …………………………………… Supervisor: Dr Krishna Devkota
Date: March, 2018 ………………………………….. Prof Dr Ram Thapaliya Chairman Samarpan Academy Date: March, 2018
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This group research paper "Anthropology of Disaster, Importance & Disaster Risk Management: A case Study of Nepal" is prepared for the partial fulfillment of the internal evaluation of paper CMS-504 Disaster Management Theory and Practice for the Master's degree in Crisis Management Studies in Institute of Crisis Management Studies (ICMS). The study would not have been initiated without the supervision, guidance, cooperation and assistance of several individuals and institution. First and foremost we would like to acknowledge the contribution of ICMS for providing an opportunity to conduct research on such pertinent issue.
Similarly, we are deeply indebted to Prof Dr. Ram Thapaliya and Lt Gen Balananda Sharma (Retd, Nepali Army) the Chairman and coordinator of ICMS respectively for imparting academic and practical insights in understanding dimensions of crisis/disaster and contemporary security paradigms. Last but not the least we sincerely thank Dr. Krishna Devkota, the visiting faculty ICMS, the research supervisor and disaster management expert for his insights in disaster management field, generosity, and greatness as well as tireless help and guidance while preparing this paper despite his busy schedule. He has been my constant source of inspiration and encouragement throughout the period. He extended us his sincere scholarly counsel and valuable guidance. We would also like to mention that any deficiency in this study remain purely our own responsibility.
Bhadra Bahadur Singh Thakuri Group Leader March, 2018
vi
ABSTRACT
This group research attempts to study the multidisciplinary issue anthropology of disaster. Anthropology and disaster are interrelated and interlinked aspects. Disaster is not the isolated event which happens itself. It is the process and byproduct of many anthropological causes. We have been facing many human induced disasters like conflicts, epidemics and so on. Anthropological components specifically socio-cultural, political and psycho-social conditions are the architects of most of the disasters. Question may arise that apart from human induced disasters, there are natural disasters affecting human beings. In this regard, research group argues that natural disasters are not disaster themselves they are natural processes which were taking place before the origin of human kind. The human behavior, interactions, challenge to nature, vulnerability and lack of resiliency have made them disaster. If we understand the nature well, adopt the environmental friendly behavior and keep safe distance with it we can reduce the risks from such natural processes. Anthropological approach to disaster study is very pertinent and new initiative. It is the holistic way to manage the full spectrum of disaster. It has either way implications that the expose of human lives and life support system to hazard creates disaster and the magnitude of consequences differs likewise the disaster also results to significance change in society and culture. Keeping above aspects in consideration, it has been tried to describe and explore the value of studying disaster from anthropological perspective. Furthermore efforts are taken to contextualize it in developing and disaster prone country like Nepal.
Key words: Adaptation Strategy, Anthropology, Disaster, Disaster Resiliency, Disaster Risk Management, Hazard, Psycho-social condition, Socio-cultural awareness, Vulnerability and Risk.
vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ADRC
Asian Disaster Reduction Center
CBDRR
Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction
CBS
Central Bureau of Statistics
CCA
Climate Change Adaptation
CMS
Crisis Management Studies
DP Net
Disaster Preparedness Network
DRM
Disaster Risk Management
DRR
Disaster Risk Reduction
FGD
Focus Group Discussion
ICMS
Institute of Crisis Management Studies
IK
Indigenous Knowledge
MoHA
Ministry of Home Affairs
NPC
National Planning Commission
NRA
National Reconstruction Authority
PDNA
Post Disaster Need Assessment
RS
Richter Scale
SAR
Search and Rescue
UNISDR
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
viii
TABLE OF CONTENT
Description
Page No.
Letter of Recommendation
iii
Letter of Approval
iv
Acknowledgement
v
Abstract
vi
List of Abbreviation and Acronyms
vii
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1.1
Background of the Study
1-2
1.2
Statement of the Problem
2
1.3
Objectives
2
1.4
Significance of the Study
3
1.5
Operational Definition
3-4
1.6
Limitations of the study
4
1.7
Organization of the Study
5
CHAPTER-2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 2.1
Key Words & Empirical Review
6-8
2.2
Research Gap
8
2.3
Chapter Summary
8
CHAPTER-3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1
Research Design
9
3.2
Research Methods
10
3.3
Data Collection Technique
10
3.4
Data Analysis
10
3.5
Ethical Considerations
10
3.6
Reliability and Validity
11
ix CHAPTER-4 ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH TO DISASTER STUDY 4.1
Anthropology of Disaster
12-13
4.2
Anthropological Approach to Disaster
13-16
4.3
Value of Anthropology of Disaster
16
4.4
Conclusion
16
CHAPTER-5 ANTROPOLOGY OF DISASTER IN CONTEXT OF NEPAL 5.1
Background
17
5.2
Disaster Risks in Nepal
17-18
5.3
Gorkha Earthquake 2015 a Case Study
19
5.4
Causes of Disaster Vulnerability
20
5.5
Importance in Context of Nepal
20
CHAPTER-6 DRM IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 6.1
Defining DRM
21
6.2
DRM in Anthropological Perspectives
22-23
6.3
Conclusion
23
CHAPTER-7 FINDINGS, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1
Findings
24
7.2
Conclusion
25
7.3
Recommendations
25
References
26-27
Appendices "A"
Conceptual Framework
28
"B"
The Setting of Focus Group Discussion
29
"C"
Plan for Key Informant Interview
30
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1
Background of the Study
Anthropological approach to disaster is the emerging concept in global arena. It is the unique and interesting field of study for the students of disaster risk management. To have better understanding and assimilation one must be familiar with the terms anthropology and disaster separately and their synergic meaning together. The anthropology is the discourse which studies about human beings mainly their evolution, attachment with the land where they have been settling, their physical character, interaction with environment
and
their
socio-cultural,
politico-economic
and
psychological characteristics (“Anthropology,” n.d.). On the other hand UNISDR defines disaster as an unexpected situation which seriously disrupts the functioning of the society causing widespread human, material and environmental damage. It overwhelms the existing coping mechanism of the affected society (2009). Whether natural or manmade both types of disaster tend to result negative consequences to human life and life supporting system. To mitigate the disaster risks and manage them properly in case of disaster took place is the essence of disaster risk management (DRM) study. The vulnerability to hazards and the coping capacity depends on the socio-cultural and economic condition of the society. It is mandatory to have the knowledge of human behavior, culture and capacity to create a disaster resilient society. Anthropology of disaster is the holistic approach. It is multidisciplinary and comprehensive. Anthropologists study how humans conceive of and deal with disasters and how disasters affect social worlds and every-day life (Hoffman, 2006). It is argued that any disaster is not an isolated event but it is the process over a long period. The process of disaster is the conjuncture of human population and potentially destructive agent. To cite (Hoffman, 2008) disaster is not only product of hazard but outcome of a social and historical process of locally and globally produced vulnerability. Limiting the vulnerability and strengthening capacity to overcome disasters in the future should be the
2 key focus of anthropologists. Anthropology provides a unique look at how the local situation relates to the global through the holistic approach. Anthropological approach is applicable to manage disaster risks throughout its entire cycle. It plays crucial role from mitigation to preparation, response and recovery. The aspects like physical, religion, culture, language, need etc have to be paid utmost attention. Keeping the importance of issue in to the consideration, it is tried to study more on this pertinent issue. 1.2
Statement of the Problem
Without knowing the anthropology of disaster prone or affected area the root causes of disaster and its risks can't be identified which subsequently affects the disaster risk reduction and management process in whole. The theory of disaster management and practices to implement them are largely determined on the line of politico-economic, socio-cultural and socio-psychological conditions. In this research paper, it is tried to study and answer the following research questions; 1.2.1 What is the anthropological approach to disaster study? 1.2.2 Why anthropology of disaster is important in context of Nepal? 1.2.3 How disaster risks can be managed in anthropological perspective? 1.3
Objectives of the Study
The general objective of the study is to describe the issue anthropology of disaster, its importance and ways to manage disaster risks. The specific objectives are as given below; 1.3.1 To describe the anthropological approach to disaster study. 1.3.2 To study the importance of anthropology of disaster in Nepal's context. 1.3.3 To explore the ways to manage the disaster risks in anthropological perspectives.
3 1.4
Significance of the Study
The anthropology of disaster is drawing attention of disaster managers at present. The disaster risk management plan will be incomplete without paying proper attention to anthropological perspectives of targeted society. The focus of this research is to study, explore and sensitize how the anthropological perspectives of disaster address the multidimensional impacts of a community's social structure and relationship to environment. It will further help to gain insights into how to apply it to strengthen applied efforts in early warning, mitigation, response and recovery. It is expected that the findings of this research will help to sensitize the people about the cause and effect relationship of anthropology and disaster in broader way. It will be useful for the crisis/disaster managers, policy makers, security personnel, students of anthropology and disaster managements as well as for all who are interested with this subject. 1.5
Operational Definition
For better understanding the key terminologies in this research are defined as follows. Most of the terms are defined as per the definition of UNISDR (2009). 1.5.1 Adaptation strategy.
The practiced and proven strategy for adjustment
in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected natural hazards or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. 1.5.2 Anthropology. The study which deals about human, their behavior and interaction within society throughout the history. 1.5.3 Capacity development. The process by which people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop their capacities over time to achieve social and economic goals, including through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions. 1.5.4 Disaster. Serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses, which exceed the ability of the affected people to cope using their own resources. 1.5.5 Disaster
risk
management.
The
systematic
process
of
using
administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities to
4 implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster. 1.5.6 Hazard.
Phenomenon which has the potential to cause disruption or
damage to people, their property, services and environment. 1.5.7 Psycho-social condition. The state of psychological factors and prevailing social environment which affects the physical, mental behaviour and ability to function of any individual and group. 1.5.8 Socio-cultural awareness. Making aware of the pattern, value and improvement areas of particular society and culture in terms of developing the coping capacity and planning for DRM initiatives. 1.5.9 Vulnerability. The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. 1.5.10 Risk. The probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses in terms of deaths, injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environment damaged resulting from interactions between natural or humaninduced hazards and vulnerable conditions. 1.6
Limitations of the Study
The research work is primarily based on the theoretical basis for the anthropological approach to disaster study. Due to resource crunch and time boundary, the researcher group is not able to conduct field based survey however the attempt has been done to collect primary responses via key informant interview and focus group discussion. Research is more based on secondary data adopting the study of published books, articles, internet and materials in library.The limitations of study are; 1.6.1 The scope of research is limited to the anthropological perspective of disaster only since disaster is multi-faceted phenomenon. 1.6.2 The research is largely based on secondary data. 1.6.3 The importance and DRM measures are studied in context of Nepal however it is the country and culture specific issue and may not fit everywhere. 1.6.4 Disasters often tend to overwhelm the preparedness which challenges the holistic way of thinking in anthropological approach.
5 1.7
Organizational Structure of the Study
The research report will be organized in seven chapters as described below; Chapter I is the introductory part which describes the background of study, identifies research problems followed by objectives, sets rationale, defines the keywords operationally and shows scope boundaries and limitations of the research. Relevant literatures are reviewed in Chapter II, to identify the research gap. The relevant literatures are reviewed in two ways the meta-analysis and synthesis. The reviewed literature and research gap has led to selecting appropriate research methodology. Chapter III is research methodology it establishes link among research philosophy, language and methods. The study design, appropriate methods, data collection techniques, data analysis are mentioned in this chapter. In addition, ethical considerations and attempt to ensure reliability and validity of research are also incorporated. Chapter IV focuses on anthropological approach to disaster studies. This chapter deals with anthropology and disaster separately first then establishes relations between them as the disaster is the combination of human interactions and hazard. The later segment of this chapter also highlights the value of such approach. Chapter V describes the importance of anthropology of disaster in context of Nepal since it is a developing country with multi-cultural and multi- linguistic and disaster prone. A summary of case study on Nepal Earthquake 2015 has also been mentioned in this chapter. Chapter VI
explores the measures in anthropological perspectives which are useful in
disaster risk management. Chapter VII Lists out the findings of research and finally concludes the Study and suggests the recommendations to mitigate and manage the disaster risks.
6
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Various books, articles and websites are reviewed before identifying the research problem. The literatures are acknowledged in text citation and reference list. Some worth mentioning literatures reviewed on different headings are listed in succeeding paragraphs. Each literature is reviewed with meta-analysis and synthesizing arguments. 2.1
A 312 pages book under the title of "Catastrophe and Culture: the
Anthropology of Disaster" edited by Hoffman (2006) and published by School of American Research, Santa Fe. 2.1.1 Key words. Catastrophe, Cultural constructed disaster, Nature, Popular media and Sociocultural context. 2.1.2 Empirical review. The book has convincingly describes that why the anthropologists should study disaster and how the power and culture shapes the disaster theory and practices. To clarify the purpose of the study, qualitative approach has been adopted with the tools of historical analysis and case studies. The highlights of the study are the socio-cultural context determines the vulnerability, coping capacity as well as adaptive strategy. The editor further mentions that the understanding of culture can improve disaster management and greatly reduce human sufferings. 2.2
A 327 pages book under the title "The Angry Earth: Disaster in
Anthropological Perspective" by Oliver and Smith (2008), published by Rout ledge Publication, New York. 2.2.1 Key words. Archaeological, Cultural response, Disaster, Environment, Social construction and Vulnerability. 2.2.2 Empirical review. The book sufficiently describes on archaeological perspectives, hazard, culture, historical and geographical scope and complexities of the problem of disaster. It
7 is the vital contribution to comprehensive study of disaster. The inductive reasoning has been adopted in qualitative approach. The book provides insights, knowledge, experience, wisdom and debate regarding the complexity of human response to disaster impact. 2.3
A 490 pages book under the title "Indigenous Knowledge and Disaster Risk
Reduction: from Practice to Policy" edited by Shaw, Sharma and Takeuchi (2009) which is published by Nova Science Publication, New York. 2.3.1 Key words. Decision
making,
Indigenous
knowledge,
Policy implication,
Research
implementation and Transferability. 2.3.2 Empirical review. This is the first and unique attempt of systematic study about indigenous knowledge in DRR. The whole book is divided in two major sectors. The first sector describes certain important elements of IK based on the framework of mountain, river, water, coast, housing, education and decision making. Second sector provides specific examples of the utilization of IK for DRR in Asia-Pacific region. The key message of the book is that the place specific IK for DRR has to be protected and it has to be incorporated with science and technology for sustainable development. 2.4
A website article "Anthropology and Disaster: an Analysis…." written by
Anderskov Christina, special supervisor of Department of Ethnography and Social Anthropology at Aarhus University. 2.4.1 Key words. Disaster, Dynamic Pressure, Risk, Root cause, unsafe condition and Vulnerability. 2.4.2 Empirical review. The article available at anthobase.com is an excellent critical writing. It analyses sufficiently the current trend with the help of anthropological disaster research. It also attempts to construct an approach that facilitates theory building and applied practices. The research expert has been able to examine the anthropological
8 contribution to disaster with the help of case study in decade interval since 1940 to 1990 time period. 2.5
Nepal Disaster Report 2017 Final Draft by DP Net. 2.5.1 Key words. DRM Regulatory Framework, Environmental impact, Key hazards of the years, Mainstreaming DRM/CCA and Priority action areas. 2.5.2 Empirical review. The purpose of the report is to highlight Nepal's periodic experience in DRM, documenting key learning and challenges for managing disaster risks and identifying future priority actions for effective DRM. The two yearly report initiated since 2009 has been adopted both qualitative and quantitative methods using longitudinal statistical data. The report has establishes the fact that 80% of Nepalese population is at risk of natural hazard and the country is among the 20 th most disaster prone countries. In study timeframe 2016/17, 16 types of disasters are noted and 13 of them were recorded.
2.6
Research Gap
After reviewing relevant literatures, research group came to know that the anthropology of disaster is the new and emerging concept. There is still lack of enough study in and there is strong need of sensitization on this regard. There is absence of single and separate literature in context of Nepal in this pertinent subject. Hence it is tried to feel the study gap by presenting the theoretical basis in general and contextualizing the importance and measure of disaster risks management in anthropological perspectives. 2.7
Chapter Summary
The most relevant literatures among available are reviewed thoroughly to establish the theoretical background of the study. The selected literatures are reviewed in both theoretical and empirical perspectives. The research gap has been identified. It has helped to determine the appropriate methodology to conduct propose focused research.
9
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1
Research Design
In order to achieve the objectives of the study qualitative research approach has been adopted collecting relevant textual data from various sources. The research stands on philosophical trinity of epistemology, ontology and axiology. The rhetoric of research has been tried to make as simple as possible and the key terminologies are defined operationally beforehand. The conceptual framework is given in Appendix "A". Below diagram illustrates the study design;
Identification of the Problem Anthropological approach to disaster study
Report Writing & Submission / Presentation
Literature Review
Findings Conclusion & Recommendations
Examine the related studies and identify the research gap
Research Methodology
Data Analysis
Qualitative
Editing and Developing Theme
Explorative and Descriptive
Manual Content Analysis Data Collection Qualitative Case Study, Interview, FGD, Secondary source
Diagram: 3.1 the Study Design
10 3.2
Research Methods
Depending upon the nature of the subject, available time frame and resource explorative and descriptive research methods have been adopted. Qualitatively the explorative method will help to seek the new insights what is happening concerned to the problem and descriptive to give the accurate profile of the subject respectively. 3.3
Data Collection Techniques
Primary data is collected with the help of interview with subject matter expertise and focus group discussion. The setting of FGD and key informant interview plan are shown in Appendix "B" and "C" respectively. Similarly for the secondary data, the library, internet, various books, articles and websites are used and content analysis is done. 3.4
Data Analysis
After editing the raw data collected from primary sources, the theme is developed and secondary data are contextualized as required for the objectives of the study. Since it is the qualitative study, manual content analysis has been done to analyze the data. 3.5
Ethical Considerations
The ethical considerations are taken in to account throughout the conduct of research. Before commencing the study, the research proposal was approved from the authorized supervisor. The problem has been selected without any vested interest. The adequate relevant literatures are reviewed and due credit has been given to the sources. At the beginning of the work, the purpose of the research was disclosed and the informed consent was taken from the study participants. The involvement of participants was voluntary and they were given the rights to withdraw. While collecting the required data, high attention was paid on cultural, religious and gender sensitivity. Building trust with participants, their outstanding contributions was appreciated. The researcher group is committed for the honest report at the end of the research project.
11 3.6
Reliability and Validity
To ensure reliability of the research work, appropriate research procedure, tools and techniques are adopted. The theme derived from case study, expert-interview and FGD will be triangulated. The consistency of the result of the problem in multiple occasions has been checked with multiple observations. Efforts are made to make data collection and interpretation credible and transparent. The bias and errors of both researcher and participants are minimized as far as possible. Similarly for the validity the relations of variables and the generalization of the findings are considered well.
12
CHAPTER 4 ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH TO DISASTER STUDY 4.1
Anthropology of Disaster
Natural and human-made disasters have been prevalent since the existence of the nature and the human kind. Natural disasters are part of nature and cannot be stopped, on the other hand human made disasters are the ones caused by the human activities which can be prevented if the humans change their way of life accordingly .Humans are the primary agents of causing human-made disasters since their existence, mostly unknowingly or because of lack of knowledge. This chapter deals that how human have been causing or are directly or indirectly related to disasters whose primary victims are they themselves. To do this we need to study the human life and behavior and find its relation to disasters or in other words find the Anthropological contribution to disaster. Before finding out the relationship between Anthropology and disaster we need first be very clear about the core concept of Anthropology. The word anthropology is derived from Latin word 'anthropologia' which means study of humanity and human beings. Anthropology has four fields i.e. archaeology, biology, cultural and linguistic (“Anthropology,” n.d.). According to the University of Florida, “Anthropology is the study of humankind. Of all the disciplines that examine aspects of human existence and accomplishments, only Anthropology explores the entire panorama of the human experience from human origins to contemporary forms of culture and social life.” Another definition from the University of North Texas says that, “Anthropology is the study of human diversity around the world. Anthropologists look at cross-cultural differences in social institutions, cultural beliefs, and communication styles. They often seek to promote understanding between groups by "translating" each culture to the other, for instance by spelling out common, taken-for-granted assumptions.” From the above definitions we can clearly say that Anthropology is a holistic and comparative approach that studies the human interactions in a broader context from the
13 prehistoric, historic and contemporary times keeping in mind its interrelationship between social, cultural, political, psycho-social, technological, linguistic and environmental realms. As we know, disaster is an unexpected occurrence that causes serious damage to the human life and property. Disaster in terms of the Anthropological concept combines human lifestyles including its all aspects and dimensions as mentioned above and tries to explain it in relation to disaster, risk and vulnerability. We can generate several relations between anthropology and disaster. First is the Human-made disasters itself caused by the irrational, intentional or unintentional activities by humans and their response to the disasters, for example nuclear, biological, chemical disasters, fire accidents, road accidents, terrorism, epidemic, stampedes etc. All these kinds of disasters directly or indirectly depend on the socio-cultural, environmental, technological, psychosocial, linguistic, political and economic situations of the society. 4.2
Anthropological Approach to Disaster
Daugh, (2005) states that "There is especial concern with how cultural systems (the beliefs, behaviors, and institutions characteristic of a particular society or group) figure at the center of that society’s disaster vulnerability, preparedness, mobilization, and prevention. Understanding these cultural systems then figures the center of understanding both the contributing causes to disasters as well as the collective responses to them.” In an attempt to build relationship between the different aspects of Anthropology of disaster, we will go through some of them to make the concept clear. From a sociocultural perspective we can say that some people are more vulnerable to disaster than others, for example the ethnic minorities, disempowered castes and class, religious groups or uneducated low level income generating population are more vulnerable to disaster because of their low capacity in terms of education and income which will restrain their ability for reconstruction after the disaster. Most of these people might live in disaster prone areas like the landslide prone areas in the mid hilly region of Nepal after the Nepal Earthquake of 2015 (Tandam, 2016). Another major aspect form anthropological perspective is the gender roles and occupation where females are more vulnerable to disaster as compared to men. According to the Ministry of Home Affairs
14 and Nepal police (June, 2015) the death toll of Earthquake 2015 was females 4808 and males 3902. This clearly indicates the vulnerability of women and another main reason behind can be the migration of the males from rural areas for work to international countries especially to the Gulf States. Another very important factor to be emphasized in the Anthropological perspective in disaster is the Environmental and technological aspect. For example, people living near the contaminated river or waste disposal area or industries releasing massive amount of harmful gases might be more prone to disaster such as epidemics with its severity depending on the level of human response and capacity to cope up with the disaster as well as the health services provided to them. Again relating it to the socio-cultural and economic aspect, mostly poor and marginalized populations live in such kind of worst situations and are more vulnerable. “Over 200 people died due to diarrhea because of the in the remote districts of mid and western Nepal out of which most were women and children” (Adhikari, 2009). The reason behind this devastating epidemic was poor sanitation and water scarcity. This can clearly explain the environmental and technological factors if regulated properly and if proper awareness, education and health care services provided, would have easily prevented this disaster from occurring. According to Henry (2005), “Anthropologists have emphasized local models of risk construction, and stressed the importance of understanding the socio-cultural context of judgments and indigenous linguistic categories and behaviors about what is dangerous and what is not." People in a community living together for a long time tend to have similar social construct, perception, language, understanding, communication and behaviors. The same applies in their perceived disaster, risk and vulnerability that differs in different communities according to their culture, beliefs, values etc. Culturally informed and shared values, the language they use while interpreting the risk vulnerability and disaster are also crucial factors while understanding the magnitude of disaster and their response to it. We can take the example of earthquake in Japan and earthquake in Nepal. The risk perception and linguistics used for earthquake in Japan is very different in comparison to Nepal. Japanese have constructed their infrastructure in such a way that they are safe in highest magnitude of earthquake but if the same
15 magnitude earthquake occurs in Nepal, the country will be affected severely. This will automatically affect the way Japanese and Nepalese perceive earthquake, their preparedness and resiliency. Psycho-social is another very important aspect that can be explained in same terms. According to Nepal Police (2016), “Kathmandu was recorded as the place with the highest rate of 4,917 crimes in the fiscal year of 2015/16.” This is because of the dense population concentration, rapid urbanization and economic activity but mostly because the people who commit the crime have the mentality that they there is less possibility of them being recognized and arrested which boosts their confidence to commit crime. This was the result of the surrounding social environment that affected their mentality. Anyhow, people are still migrating to Kathmandu and adopting risky habits and behaviors to confirm to the lifestyle and to be part of the social and cultural confirmations. For example, people are still migrating to Kathmandu even though it is heavily populated and polluted with rate of sickness and diseases increasing day by day just to match up to their own perceived standards and for their understanding of the opportunities there. In this context changing the risk and vulnerability selection and perception depends on the social and economic order which is all because of their psycho-social understanding of perceived risk, vulnerability and disaster. Not only human-made disaster but we can also study the effect of anthropological aspects on natural disaster whereby, some of the human activities might trigger the occurrence of natural disaster. For example, building of roads on steep hills that are not at all appropriate for construction which might cause future landslides. Poor construction of dam that may cause flood if the dam breaks etc. In today’s material world, modernization, economic development, urbanization, deforestation, mining, and hydroelectric dams have caused unimaginable damage to the environment, decrease in food security and increase in the exposure to diseases which is rapidly boosting the vulnerability to natural and infectious hazards. Human-made disaster or natural disasters triggered by human activities are something that can be controlled and prevented if proper measures such as awareness, education,
16 training is provided to the communities that are prone to causing these disasters. It is the duty of every citizen of a nation to protect their people and environment. It is the responsibility of political power, government and other related governmental and nongovernmental organizations to provide these services to build a resilient community. However, bad politics might play a dire role in the process as they might focus on only the preferred areas for their own vested interest which must not be tolerated by the state and taken action and corrective measures upon. 4.3
Value of Anthropology of Disaster
It is very crucial for Crisis Managers to understand the Anthropology of disaster to have a holistic understanding of the causes, risks, vulnerability, response, reconstruction and rehabilitation for Disaster. History shows that 50% population was reduced in 14th century due to Plague. Similarly, floods, famines, earthquakes, tsunamis, worldwide drought in 18th and 19th century etc. have enormously affected various countries at various times (Hoffman, 2006). Humans are one of the primary agents of disaster all around the world and also one of the primary victims of disaster as well. So, as a crisis manager, we need to be well aware of all different aspects of human behavior and interactions so that we can apply proper measures to mitigate the disasters and prevent them from happening for a resilient world for the present and future generations. 4.4
Conclusion
In conclusion, Anthropology of Disaster is one of the most important studies in the field of Crisis/ disaster management and must be thoroughly researched and developed throughout the tie to keep up with the changing human behavior and interaction to mitigate and cope up with the disasters accordingly.
17
CHAPTER 5 ANTROPOLOGY OF DISASTER IN CONTEXT OF NEPAL 5.1
Background
Nepal is a developing country with diverse socio-cultural practices. According to Central Bureau of Statistics, 81% of population lives in rural areas of the country. Likewise 23.38% of population is living below the poverty line. Almost 81.3 % are Hindu in Nepal alongside many other religious minorities (National Census 2011). Most spoken language is Nepali, mother tongue of 44.6% of the population though understood all over Nepal. Despite having such vague diversity the religious tolerance and social harmony has been always maintained throughout the history. The country has recently undergone political transition. Previously it was adopting unitary system of governance but now with all the recent developments it has gone to a federal system that is in its initial phase of implementation. As we all know Nepal’s diverse topography is coupled with fragile geology. All Regions of the country are prone to natural disasters depending on its geographical characteristics. The flood, landslide and the avalanche are frequently occurring natural disasters in plain, hill and mountainous areas respectively. The overall country is highly vulnerable to Earthquake (Bhattarai, 2018). Apart from natural disaster, the country is often worse hit by human induced disaster such as fire and epidemics. As of now the existing capacity is not sufficient enough to cope up with the consequences of such disasters. The sociocultural context of this country is inter connected with the disastrous effects of the hazards as Oliver & Smith (1999) described that "The nature of disaster is rooted in the co-evolutionary relationships between societies and natural system and it is the behavioral phenomena expressed in individual, group or institutional terms". 5.2
Disaster Risks in Nepal
Nepal is exposed to a variety of natural hazards and human induced disasters. Taking the facts and figures from Nepal Disaster Report 2017, more than 80 percent of the total
18 population of Nepal is at risk of natural hazards. The country is among the 20 most disaster-prone countries in the world. In part, this is because Nepal is in a seismically active zone with a high probability for a massive earthquake. Globally, Nepal ranks 4th and 11th in terms of its relative vulnerability to climate change and earthquakes, respectively. Out of 21 cities around the world that lie in similar seismic hazard zones, Kathmandu city is at the highest risk in terms of impact on people. Informal study says that Nepal ranks 30th in terms of landslide and flood risk. Hence Nepal is the hotspot of natural disaster and more prone to human induced disaster too. Below table shows the recorded disaster events and corresponding human casualties as well as property damage within two years time frame (2015 to 2017) in Nepal. No. of Types of Disaster
Events
Human Casualties Death
Missing
Property Damage
Injury
House
Economic Loss
Damage Boat Capsize
Family
(Rs)
Affected
4
7
1
8
0
0
8
35
8,970
195
22,302
1,072,093
706,461,000,000
1,072,093
5
20
0
35
0
0
20
1,856
104
0
278
2,997
2,420,480,490
3,898
Flood
244
101
39
23
2,628
47,296,501
7,141
Landslide
290
276
42
226
2,980
811,084,600
1,936
Heavy Rainfall
118
9
0
24
2,486
18,969,500
683
43
2
0
9
2,547
24,186,000
191
Lightning
299
185
0
369
65
5,271.000
415
Hail Storm
16
0
0
0
-
-
-
Drowning
5
5
3
0
-
-
7
High Altitude
10
13
0
0
0
-
9
Others
15
6
1
4
1
0
19
2,940
9,698
281
23,317
1,085,797
709,788,288,091
1,086,420
Earthquake (4>) Epidemic Fire
Wind Storm
Total
Table: 5.1 Human Casualties and Property Damage by Disaster (2015-2017). Source: MoHA 2017.
19 5.3
Gorkha Earthquake 2015 a Case Study
A 7.6 RS magnitude devastating Earthquake struck Nepal on 25th April 2015 making Barpak village of Gorkha its epicenter which hit 31 nearby districts and 14 out of them were worse affected. The tremor followed by frequent aftershocks caused widespread destructions in terms of human casualties, social suffering as well as environmental, infrastructural and heritage damages. As a result of the earthquake 8,970 people lost their lives and more than 22,302 people were injured (MoHA, 2016). The PDNA showed that at least 498,852 private houses and 2,656 government buildings were destroyed. Another 256,697 private houses and 3,622 government buildings were partially damaged. In addition, 19,000 classrooms were destroyed and 11,000 damaged (NPC, 2015). The earthquake affected multi-sectors like manufacturing, production and trade in agriculture as well as tourism and other areas of the service sector. It weakened the national economy with wider ramifications. It posed challenge to Nepal’s aspiration of upgrading herself to developing country category by 2022, and to national commitment of poverty reduction from 23.8 percent to 18 percent (NPC, 2016). The Earthquake increased the frequency of landslides and caused liquefaction in many places. Studies show that the landslide incidents were tripled after the Nepal Earthquake 2015. Since the disaster overwhelmed the national coping capacity, then GoN made an international appeal. Multinational SAR team with relief aid joined their hand for immediate response. The National Disaster Response Framework was in place to handle the disaster. Although the response was satisfactory, the mitigation, preparedness and recovery measures are below expected standards. A study conducted by NRA to identify vulnerable settlements after the 2015 earthquake recommended that a total of 2,751 families of 112 communities have to be relocated to safer places (NRA, 2017). It has brought the anthropological perspective of disaster in to the surface. The case has proved that the anthropological context related to entire spectrum of disaster risk management. It even determines the intensity of disastrous consequences.
20 5.4
Causes of Disaster Vulnerability
While we are discussing the anthropological perspective of disaster in our context and concluding that the country is highly prone to disaster, we need to turn our clinical eyes towards the causes of vulnerability. The points generated during FGD are mentioned below. Every causes of vulnerability have anthropogenic connection. 5.4.1 Population growth. 5.4.2 Haphazard and unplanned settlement. 5.4.3 Rapid and unplanned urbanization. 5.4.4 Mass migration. 5.4.5 Environmental degradation. 5.4.6 Terrorism and armed conflict. 5.4.7 Risk taking behavior. 5.4.8 Geo-physical structure of the country. 5.4.9 Mismanagement of natural resources. 5.4.10 widespread poverty and limited resources. 5.4.11 Lack of good governance.
5.5
Importance in Context of Nepal
Anthropological approach focuses on how human conceive and deal with disaster and how disaster affects social world and everyday life. As Nepal is the country having diverse socio-cultural context, it is very important to understand the cultural perception and interpretation of disaster, the relations of disaster with gender and class as well as the politics of disaster. The constitution provision on DRM, promulgation of DRR & M Act 2017 assigning DRM as a concurrent responsibility of all tiers of government especially local government and the development of DMIS SAHANA for communication are landmark achievements. Making the local communities responsible and capable will help to create disaster resilient societies.
21
CHAPTER 6 DRM IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES In recent year number of disaster has been increased. if we analyze the statics, Asia has the more than 40% of world population and 38% hazardous events occurs in Asia only (ADRC, 2002). So, Asia poses high risk of vulnerability especially in mountainous countries like Nepal. According to Wisner et al. (2004), the root cause of vulnerability is the lack of resources, perception, awareness, critical information and political will. These factors are boosted by population growth, unplanned urbanization, degradation of environment etc. If we go through the anthropological prospective, we can find some of the missing elements. Indigenous and Traditional knowledge with mix of modern science can play vital role in Disaster Risk Management. Likewise disaster upsets the human civilization and revives the socio-cultural practice. For an example the BBC Live line Communicator Thapa Asha shares experience that unlike past practice the women are joining their hands with male counterparts in masonry work after Nepal Earthquake 2015. 6.1
Defining DRM
According to (UNISDR, 2009) Risk is defined as “the potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which could occur to a system, society or a community in a specific period of time, determined probabilistically as a function of hazard, exposure, and capacity”. So basically it can be defined by the combination of vulnerability, hazard and exposure. Disaster Risk management deals in the policies and strategy level in order to prevent new disaster risk, reduce the existing disaster risk and mange the residual risk contributing to the strengthening of resilience and reduction of losses. DRM action can be categorized into 3 different categories; prospective risk management, corrective risk management and residual risk management. DRM program is dynamic depending upon the situation of community and their vulnerability.
22 6.2
DRM in Anthropological Perspective
Decreasing the people's vulnerability and strengthening their capacity to overcome disasters in the future is the objective of anthropologists. Around the globe numbers of people are hit by catastrophic events. People, communities have their own way to deal with this kind of disasters. Anthropology provides a unique look on how these kinds of situations can be tackled in local level. We need to marry up the anthropogenic characteristics and DRM initiatives for better outcomes. With intensive study, some of the cost effective measures for DRM in anthropological perspectives are mentioned in succeeding part of the chapter. 6.2.1 Hazard assessment. Many disasters are frequently occurring disasters and tend to flow certain pattern. Except earthquake, signals of almost all disasters can be detected. Based upon the past experience and available technology potential risks of hazards can be assessed and the local people can be kept prepared as first responders. 6.2.2 Indigenous and traditional knowledge. These are the culture and context specific, informal and orally transmitted knowledge to cope with the disaster. These kinds of knowledge are economic and time tested. The examples are landslide mitigation measures by using sandbags, bamboo and mud in hilly region of Nepal likewise agro- forestry planting bushes, shrubs and grasses (Amriso and Babiyo to protect the terrace riser) in many parts of the country. The mixed and inter cropping system increases and diversify the crop production. Such indigenous and traditional knowledge must be encouraged and incorporated with modern technology for better result. 6.2.3 Community based disaster risk reduction. Since the local people are the first responder of any disaster, their broader participation must be ensured in disaster risk reduction. Local ownership and responsibility will lead to achieve better capacity among the people.
23 6.2.4 Risk sensitive land use plan The exposure of lives and life support system to known potential disaster can be avoided by implementing the risk sensitive land use plan by the government. 6.2.5 Positive collaboration among stakeholders. The coordination and cooperation among international, governmental, nongovernmental and private and individual actors give synergic result to cope with disaster and build back better. 6.2.6 Sensitization and capacity building. Making the local people aware with the vulnerabilities, risks and mitigation measures from potential disaster gives large dividends in terms of DRR. Likewise local bodies must be made capable and resourceful to combat the disaster risks. 6.2.7 Culture sensitive disaster response. In case the disaster overwhelms the coping capacity of affected community or country, large scale international response is needed. In international crisis and complex emergencies, cultural sensitivity is an important aspect to consider during response. The short miniskirts as relief item from western countries during Pakistan Earthquake 2005 had no meaning (Thapalia, 2018). 6.3
Conclusion
Local people are the key actors in entire gamut of disaster. They are the perpetrators, sufferers and responders in disaster. They have to be sensitized on regards of root causes, process and risk management of disaster. The indigenous skills are to be encouraged to practice, local participation, ownership and responsibility must be ensured in DRM.
24
CHAPTER 7 FINDINGS, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1
Findings
The research group came up with the generalized ideas after the systematic inquiry on the pertinent issue the anthropology of disaster. The key findings derived from the study are listed below; 7.1.1 Disaster discloses the fundamental features of the society and culture. Vulnerability is generated through the chain of root causes embedded in ideological, social and economic systems, the dynamic pressures of the demographic, socio-economic, ecological nature and specific sets of unsafe conditions. 7.1.2 Disaster is not an isolated event but it is the process. Human induced disasters are the byproducts of irrational and unsafe human practices where as the natural processes are not disaster until these don't affect human society. If the human beings know the nature, adopt nature friendly behavior and maintain safe distance the disastrous consequences can be mitigated. 7.1.3 Anthropology creates and alters the magnitude of disaster impacts likewise the disaster also affects the human civilization and revives the political and socio-cultural practices vice versa. 7.1.4 Anthropological approach to study disaster is an emerging holistic methodology which recognizes disaster as socio-cultural architects. A single study can't fit uniformly everywhere. It address the root causes of
demands further area specific study to
disaster and
manage the risks throughout the
DRM cycle. 7.1.5 The mostly practiced DM efforts are reactive in nature. For effective DRM proactive initiatives are necessary promoting local people's participation, ownership and accountability.
25 7.2
Conclusion
We can notice paradigm shift in perceiving the disaster that it is not the act of God but it is a natural process and act of man himself. Earthquake is told class quake ironically since it affects the vulnerable class more severely. The lack of preparedness, risk taking behavior and resource crunch multiplies the negative consequences of any disaster. To effectively manage the disaster risks, the root causes must be addressed which are deeply embedded in society. The real heroes are the local people themselves, who help one another in a time of great need. Disaster management is very dependent on the participation of the community, and their strengths and efforts can determine the effects of the disaster. Therefore it is utmost important to study disaster via anthropological approach. 7.3
Recommendations
After establishing the relationships between anthropology and disaster, the research group recommends the following measure to be adopted for the development of disaster resilient societies; 7.3.1 Update & strict implementation of National Building Codes for disaster resistance infrastructures. 7.3.2 Provision of disaster information management (collection, recording, processing and dissemination). 7.3.3 Executing disaster assessment, monitoring, prediction and early-warning mechanism. 7.3.4 Formulation & implementation of land use management plan. 7.3.5 Launch public awareness program for DRM. 7.3.6 Capacity enhancement for disaster preparedness. 7.3.7 Develop cooperation at local, national, regional and international level for disaster response. 7.3.8 Promote indigenous/ traditional knowledge and CBDRR programs. 7.3.9 Initiating livelihood and poverty alleviation programs. 7.3.10 Improving disaster governance.
26 References Anthropology of Disasters - Ethnologie - LMU München. (n.d.). Retrieved March 15, 2018, from http://www.ethnologie.uni-muenchen.de/disasters/index.html Anthropology of Environmental Disasters - ANU. (n.d.). Retrieved March 17, 2018, from http://programsandcourses.anu.edu.au/course/ANTH6064 Central
Bureau
of
Statistics.
(n.d.).
Retrieved
March
31,
2018,
from
http://www.cbs.gov.np/ Daugh, H. (2005). Anthropological Contribution to the Study of Disaster. In Disasters and Emergency Management: The Convergence and Divergence of Concepts, Issues
and Trends From the Research Literature. Maryland:
Federal Emergency Management Agency. Hoffman, S. M. (2006). Catastrophe & Culture : The Anthropology of Disaster (Vol. 312). Santa fe, USA: School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. Indigenous knowledge for disaster risk reduction: good practices and lessons learned from experiences in the Asia-Pacific region - UNISDR. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2018, from https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/3646 Nepal: Diarrhea outbreak kills hundreds - IFRC. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2018, from http://www.ifrc.org/en/nouvelles/nouvelles/asia-pacific/nepal/nepal-diarrhoeaoutbreak-kills-hundreds/ Nepal Disaster Report. (2017). DP Net, Nepal. Nepal: Official figures for casualties and damage - Humanitarian Data Exchange. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2018, from https://data.humdata.org/dataset/official-figuresfor-casualties-and-damage
27 Oliver-Smith, A. (1996). Anthropological Research on Hazards and Disasters. Annual Review
of
Anthropology,
25(1),
303–328.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.25.1.303 Oliver-Smith, A., & Hoffman, S. (2008). The Angry Earth : Disaster in Anthropological Perspective (Vol. 327). New York: Rutledge. Shaw, R., Sharma, A., & Takeuchi, Y. (2009). Indigenous Knowledge and Disaster Risk Reduction: from Practice to Policy. New York: Nova Science Publication. Tandam. (2016). Mid-hilly region at high risk of landslides this monsoon - The Himalayan
Times.
Retrieved
March
31,
2018,
from
https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/mid-hilly-region-high-risk-landslidesmonsoon/ Terminology
-
UNISDR.
(n.d.).
Retrieved
March
31,
2018,
from
https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology Thapa, A. (2018, March 25). Women are Joining Hands with Counterparts in Masonry Work after Nepal Earthquake 2015. Thapalia, R. (2018, April 15). Culture Sensitivity in Disaster Response.
28 Appendix 'A' Refers to page 9 paragraph 3.1
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Destructive Agent
Population Vulnerability
Disaster Politically, Socially, Culturally Psychologically Constructed
Manmade/Natural
Natural Process Exposure and Vulnerability makes it disaster
Disaster Risk Management Systematic Process Administrative Directives Organizational Skills Operational Capacity Implement Strategy Policy & Coping Capacities
Anthropology of Disaster: A Holistic Approach
Anthropology
Environment
Disaster
29 Appendix "B" Refers to page 10 paragraph 3.3
THE SETTING OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION 1.
Composition of Focus Group. 3 X Groups 6 persons each.
2.
Members Selection. Students of ICMS will be the members who have fair
amount of understanding in disaster risk management. The group members have origin from different part of the country with different socio-cultural background and linguistic dialects. Being the students of crisis/ disaster management the level of interest and understanding is assumed to be same within group. 3.
Time Allotment. 45 minutes to each group discussion (Flexibility will be there).
4.
Moderator. 1X member of research group.
5.
Recorder and Observer. 1/1 members of research group.
6.
Discussion Agendas.
7.
6.1
Anthropology of disaster.
6.2
Socio-cultural background and disaster vulnerability in Nepal.
6.3
IK and CBDRR practiced in Nepalese Community.
6.4
Importance of anthropological approach to disaster study.
6.5
Ways for DRM in anthropological perspectives.
Key Points and Conclusion.
30 Appendix "C" Refers to chapter 10 paragraph 3.3
PLAN FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW 1.
Selection of Key Informant. (Proposed) Dr. Krishna Devkota, DRM expert of Nepal Red Cross Society
2.
Approach to the Key Informants.
Namaste, we are student of ICMS first semester. We are conducting a research on "Anthropology of Disaster" in Nepal's context. Our aim is to explore and describe on this pertinent issue, disseminate the findings and ultimately sensitize the societies for enhancing better disaster resiliency. We would like to request you to contribute your valuable insights voluntarily. Your contribution in this regard will be highly appreciated. 3.
Study Questions. 3.1
How do you define anthropology of disaster?
3.2
Why the anthropological approach to disaster study is important?
3.3
How do you analyze the socio-cultural context of Nepal in terms of
disaster vulnerability and resiliency? 3.4
How can we manage the risks of disaster in anthropological perspectives?
4.
Conduct Interview.
5.
Organize and analyze Interview Data.
6.
Interview Summary
