Elsevier Editorial System(tm) for Science & Sports Manuscript Draft Manuscript Number: Title: Anthropometric parameters and leg power performance in fencing. Age, sex and discipline related differences. Article Type: Full Length Article Keywords: fencers; jumping performance; anthropometry. Corresponding Author: Prof. Charilaos Tsolakis, Ph.D Corresponding Author's Institution: School of Physical Education and Sports Science First Author: Anastasia Ntai, post-graduate student (master degree) Order of Authors: Anastasia Ntai, post-graduate student (master degree); Faye Zahou, post graduate student (master degree); Georgios Paradisis, PhD, Assistant Professor; Athanasia Smirniotou, PhD, Associate Professor; Charilaos Tsolakis, Ph.D Abstract: Abstract Objective The aim of this cross sectional study was to compare anthropometric, body composition, and leg power performance in male and female, elite, and national fencers of all age competitive groups and discipline practiced. Subjects and methods A total of 125 fencers (age 20.6 ± 6.7, height 173.2 ± 9.2 cm and body mass 64.7 ± 4.7 kg) participated in this study. Anthropometric measurements were taken before participants performed squat, countermovement, drop, and standing log jump. Results Significant differences were identified between male and female in anthropometry (Wilks Λ = 0.527, F= 15.008, p < 0.001, n2 = 0.473) and in leg jumping performance (Wilks Λ = 0.555, F= 7.691, p < 0.001, n2 = 0.445). Significant differences in jumping performance were observed between the older (>20 years old) and the younger (14-17, 18-20 years old) groups (Wilks Λ = 0.607, F = 2.654, p < 0.001, n2 = 0.217). Elite fencers performed better in squat, countermovement jump, and log jump than national level fencers (F = 6.239-7.926, p < 0.01, n2 = 0.0480.059). Significant differences were observed between disciplines for drop jump contact time (F = 3.910, p < 0.05, n2 = 0.059). Conclusion The observed differences in anthropometric measurements and leg power performance will facilitate the identification of the most suitable athletes and highlighted specific power abilities that could support the technical drills in competitive fencing.
a) Title/Authors/Address
Anthropometric parameters and leg power performance in fencing. Age, sex and discipline related differences.
Paramètres anthropométriques et performance de puissance en escrime. L’âge, le sexe et l'épreuve (la discipline) différences liées.
Leg power in fencing Puissance des jambs en escrime Anastasia Ntai, Fei Zahou, Giorgos Paradisis, Athanasia Smirniotou, Charilaos Tsolakis.
Department of Track & Field, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Science, University of Athens, Ethnikis Antistasis 41, Dafni 17237, Greece, Corresponding author Tsolakis Charilaos PhD, +306932755173, e-mail address
[email protected]
*b) Manuscript/Manuscrit
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Anthropometric parameters and leg power performance in fencing. Age, sex and discipline related
2
differences.
3
Abstract
4
Objective
5
The aim of this cross sectional study was to compare anthropometric, body composition, and leg power
6
performance in male and female, elite, and national fencers of all age competitive groups and discipline
7
practiced.
8
Subjects and methods
9
A total of 125 fencers (age 20.6 ± 6.7, height 173.2 ± 9.2 cm and body mass 64.7 ± 4.7 kg) participated
10
in this study. Anthropometric measurements were taken before participants performed squat,
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countermovement, drop, and standing log jump.
12
Results
13
Significant differences were identified between male and female in anthropometry (Wilks Λ = 0.527, F=
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15.008, p < 0.001, n2 = 0.473) and in leg jumping performance (Wilks Λ = 0.555, F= 7.691, p < 0.001, n2
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= 0.445). Significant differences in jumping performance were observed between the older (>20 years
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old) and the younger (14-17, 18-20 years old) groups (Wilks Λ = 0.607, F = 2.654, p < 0.001, n2 = 0.217).
17
Elite fencers performed better in squat, countermovement jump, and log jump than national level fencers
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(F = 6.239-7.926, p < 0.01, n2 = 0.048-0.059). Significant differences were observed between disciplines
19
for drop jump contact time (F = 3.910, p < 0.05, n2 = 0.059).
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Conclusion
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The observed differences in anthropometric measurements and leg power performance will facilitate the
22
identification of the most suitable athletes and highlighted specific power abilities that could support the
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technical drills in competitive fencing.
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Key words: fencers, jumping performance, anthropometry.
25 26 27
Abstrait Objectifs
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Le but de cette étude transversale était de determiner l’ association entre la composition
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corporelle anthropométrique et la performance de puissance des jambes des escrimeurs
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masculins et féminins de niveau élite et national de tous les groupes d'âge compétitifs et de
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discipline pratiquée.
32 33
Equipement et method
34 35
Un total de 125 escrimeurs (âge 20,6 ± 6,7, hauteur de 173,2 ± 9,2 cm et masse corporelle de
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64,7 ± 4,7 kg) a participé à cette étude. Les mesures anthropométriques ont été prises avant que
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les participants effectuent squat, contremouvement jump et sauts en longueur à bas et des sauts à
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pieds joints et sans élan.
39 40
Resultats
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Des différences statistiquement significatives ont été identifiées entre sujets masculin et feminins
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en anthropométrie (Wilks Λ = 0.527, F = 15.008, p < 0.001, n2 = 0.473) et en performance de
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saut de jambe (Wilks Λ = 0.555, F = 7.691, p < 0.001, n2 = 0.445 ). Des différences
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significatives dans la performance de saut ont été observées entre les groupes les plus âgés (> 20
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ans) et les (14-17, 18-20 ans) plus jeunes (Wilks Λ = 0.607, F = 2.654, p < 0.001, n2 = 0.217).
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Escrimeurs de niveau élite ont eu des meilleurs résultats en squat, en contre mouvement jump, et
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en saut en longueur que les escrimeurs de niveau national (F = 6.239 - 7.926, p < 0.01, n2 =
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0.048 -0.059). Des différences significatives ont été observées entre disciplines pour le temps de
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contact de drop jump (F = 3.910, p < 0.05, n2= 0.059).
51 52
Conclusion
53 54
Les différences observées dans les mesures anthropométriques et les performances de la
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puissance des jambes faciliteront l'identification des athlètes les plus appropriés et mettront en
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évidence les capacités de puissance spécifiques qui pourraient soutenir les exercices techniques
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en escrime compétitif.
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Mots cles: escrimeur, chaut performance, anthropometrie
60 61
1. Introduction
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1.1 Various anthropometric, body composition and strength/physical parameters variables are important
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prerequisites for success in sport. Therefore, researchers have been investigating different sports to
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monitor and evaluate training interventions (1), talent identification (2), or to distinguish performance
65
parameters between athletes from different sport, and disciplines within the same sport and playing
66
position (3).
67
1.2 Anthropometric characteristics related to optimal performance have been studied in different sports
68
such as running (4), swimming (5),
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Moreover, elite athletes from different team sports and/or in relation to different playing positions (volley,
70
basket ball, rugby, soccer, and handball), were reported to have favorable body characteristics (10-13).
71
Body dimensions such as height, arm span, limp length, as well as BMI and body mass which are not
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affected by training, seem to be essential factors for high level performance. (14,15) On the other hand,
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some studies showed no significant differences in a) anthropometrics’ female water polo players (12),
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power lifters (16) cricket players (2) and ice hockey players, (17) and b) body composition in male
75
ultramarathon cycling (18) between athlete’s levels.
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1.3 Gender differences are attributed to the normal growth process between males and females (19) while
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it is generally accepted that anthropometric, morphological and functional performance increase with age
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categories (20). However in open sports, athletes compete in a complex and rapid changing environment
79
and the activity patterns are largely depending on a variety of others factors including skill heterogeneity,
80
motivation, motor coordination, decision make, tactics (21), and therefore the determination of the ideal
81
anthropometric and physiological demands remains unclear.
82
1.4 The interaction of body size and strength is the most significant predictor of functional performance in
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adolescents (22). Body mass and BMI are related to muscle size and power and contribute to the within or
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between sport differences in many sports that require the development of high forces and power, in order
85
to achieve explosive movements during the execution of the specific kinetic patterns (23). Vertical jump
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performance is a critical factor related to the competition outcome in many sports and should be
87
developed from a younger age (24). Although jumping performance contribute to success in many
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individual and team sports, (19) a number of studies showed no significant differences in physiological
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parameters between positions in volleyball (3) gaelic football players (25) and football players (26).
gymnastics (6), rowing (7), triathlon (8), and wrestling (9).
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1.5 Fencing has been described as a high intensity intermittent sport with specific technical skills, tactical
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decisions, and physical performance. During competition, dynamic accurate offensive or defensive
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movements performed against the opponent depend on concentric explosive strength and fast stretch-
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shortening cycles of the lower limps (27). Long term fencing training can influence fencers’ lower limbs
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strength and power, therefore specifically for this reason designed programs implemented from an early
95
stage of training simultaneously with the teaching of the individual basic kinetic patterns (28).
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1.6 Although success in sport competitions has been associated with specific anthropometric
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characteristics, anthropometric data for elite fencers are limited and mainly reported for descriptive
98
purposes (29). It appears that only one study up to now has examined the anthropometric profile of elite
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fencers throughout age groups levels (30). In that study significant differences were observed between
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genders in all age groups >14 years for most anthropometric variables, while there were no significant
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differences between male and female fencers of 10-13 y of age. Moreover arm, leg length, and body
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composition parameters were not different between the four age groups in females. The non significant
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differences between the two older groups for both gender indicating a relative stability of the
104
anthropometric characteristics after puberty. Training adaptations as reflected in leg CSA were evident
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from the early years and were increasing with age.
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1.7 Recently, scientific evidence determined the physiological (31) and neuromuscular differences (32) of
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elite fencers in comparison to novice fencers associated with functional fencing performance. However,
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no study has been found to compare anthropometric or physiological factors from different fencing
109
disciplines (foil, epee or sabre) although, there are evident that fencers, empirically chooses their
110
specialization based on their club offer or coaches’ interest (33).
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1.8 The purpose of this study was to determine anthropometric and motor performance status of fencers
112
based on age group, gender, competition level and discipline. This is the first study that examined to what
113
extend elite and national level fencers of different age groups, gender and discipline may differ in their
114
body size and physiological profile. It was hypothesized that differences in anthropometric, body
115
composition and leg power would exist between a) competitive age groups (14-17, 18-20, >20 years of
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age) b)gender (male –female), c) competitive level (elite – national level) and d) the discipline practiced
117
(foil, epee, sabre) in a large group of fencers.
118
practitioners to monitor and evaluate talent selection, to identify potential abilities of optimal performance
119
and to examine and relative develop training interventions.
The comparative data of this study will help the
120
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2. Methods
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2.1 Experimental approach to the study
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This cross sectional experimental study was designed to examine anthropometrical, leg strength and,
124
power differences in a large group of fencers. The examination of the anthropometric characteristics of
125
fencers throughout age, gender, competition levels, and discipline groups may help fencing trainers to
126
explain fencing performance from the structural perspective and may also provide useful information to
127
the sport scientists for talent identification. Moreover, different jumping performance as an index of
128
fencers’ leg power, would establish a useful fitness profile for the adequate programs design for each
129
training level. We hypothesized that systematic fencing training from the very early stages (28), would
130
lead to specific training adaptations regarding jumping performance. Additionally, the specific discipline
131
characteristics and the necessary talent selection it is expected to lead to anthropometric and physiological
132
differences respectively.
133
2.2 Participants
134
A total of 125 (69 males and 56 females) fencers were measured during an International Fencing camp
135
held in Athens in July 2014. All participnats were members of the Greek, Tunisian, Algerian, Russian,
136
Turkish, English and Australian National fencing teams, having considerable experience of international
137
competitions. One of them was Olympic finalist, 5 were World Champions in junior category, 16 having
138
European and international experience while the remaining 103 had adequate experience in National level
139
competitions. The participants were also divided in three age groups according to the International
140
Fencing Federation competitive rules (14-17, 18-20, and > 20 years old). The physical characteristics of
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the participants are shown in Table 1. The participants were training 5-6 times a week for approximately
142
15-18 hours and participated in total to 3-5 training camps and 16-20 competitions per year. Prior to data
143
collection, informed consent was obtained from each participant, after a thorough description of the risks
144
being involved. The study was approved by the local Institutional Review Board and all procedures were
145
in accordance with the Helsinki declaration of 1975, as revised in 1996. This study conducted during the
146
last two weeks of a transitional training period, in which fencers engaged with specific conditioning
147
aimed to improve aerobic fitness, muscle strength and power and contained alternatively, circuit training,
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sprint, jumping plyometric drills, and recreational team games (volleyball, football, basketball).
149
Moreover, typical moderate to high intensity fencing training was devoted to specific leg exercises and
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specific technical and tactical fencing patterns.
151
2.3 Procedures
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All measurements and tests were taken place in the fencing hall of the Athens Olympic Complex at the
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same time of the day (16:00 -20:00 pm). In the 24-hour period before performing the measurements and
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the tests, the fencers did not engage in any strenuous activity. Each fencer was instructed and verbally
155
encouraged during each test to perform maximally at each trial. All measurements were made twice on
156
the dominant side. In elite fencers leg dominance was defined with regard to the armed hand (34). The
157
fencers were familiar with the jumping tests, since they often performed these exercises as a part of their
158
weekly training as well as for monitoring their relative training adaptations. Each subject underwent all
159
the tests during 1 session.
160
2.4 Anthropometry
161
All subjects were measured for their height, body mass, arm span and sitting height. Leg length was
162
estimated as height minus sitting height. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated from body mass and
163
height (Kg/m2). All measurements were taken twice from the dominant side of each subject. Subjects’
164
height and body mass were measured to the nearest 0.1 cm and 0.1 kg, respectively.
165
2.5 Jumping performance
166
2.5.1 To evaluate overall jumping performance we selected squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump
167
(CMJ), drop jump (DJ) and standing long jump (SLJ) as dependent variables, whereas gender, age
168
competitive categories, competition levels and discipline as independent variables (3).
169
2.5.2 Subjects were tested on their standing reach height with their arms down at the side before they
170
performed a SJ, a CMJ, and a DJ from 40 cm . Vertical jumping performance was determined using a
171
Chronojump device as described by Bosco, Luhtanen, and Komi (35).
172
Reactive strength index (RSI), derived from the height achieved during the DJ divided by the ground cont
173
act time (cm/sec) (36). For the standing long jump subjects were taken position behind the take – off
174
line, with feet together opened slightly apart, and jumped forward as far as possible. The distance is
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measured from the take-off line to the heel closest to the take – off line at landing. All tests were
176
performed twice and the best result was recorded for further statistical processing. A 30s rest between
177
trials was used, while the rest between two consecutive tests was approximately 3 min.
178
The test‐retest reliability for the SJ, CMJ, DJ and long jump tests was estimated to be 0.91, 0.97 0.89, and
179
0.92 respectively (p< .001).
180
2.6 Statistical analysis
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All data were analyzed using SPSS (version 19). Data are presented as means and standard deviation. A
182
multivariety analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to evaluate differences in gender (male – female),
183
age competitive categories (14-17, 18-20, >20 years old), competition levels (international – national) and
184
discipline (epee – foil – sabre) for all anthropometric and body composition parameters (height, body
185
mass, arm span, leg length, BMI) or jumping performance (SJ, CMJ, DJ, SLJ). Significant main effects
186
were followed by Bonferroni adjusted post hoc tests to examine the differences within groups. Effect
187
sizes for main effects and interaction were estimated by calculating partial eta squared (η 2) values.
188
According to Richardson (37), η2is classified as small (0.01 to 0.059), moderate (0.06 to 0.137) and large
189
( ≥0.138). Test–retest reliability for all the dependent variables measured in this investigation was
190
determined in separate experiments by calculating the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) using a 2-
191
way mixed model. For each analysis statistical significance was set at the α 0.05 probability level.
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3 Results
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3.1 Anthropometric measurements
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3.1.1 The MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate effect for gender (Wilks Λ = 0.527, F= 15.008, p
195
< 0.001, n2 = 0.473). Significant between subjects effects for gender were observed (F = 10.122 - 69.470,
196
p < 0.001, n2 = 0.076 - 0.300) for height (177.6 ± 8.9 cm vs 167.9 ± 6.2 cm, p < 0.001), body mass (70.4
197
± 11.9 Kg vs 57.6 ± 7.0 Kg, p < 0.001) arm span (181.8 ± 9.7 cm vs 168.8 ± 7.2 cm, p < 0.001), leg
198
length (88.9 ± 6.4 cm vs 81.7 ± 4.3 cm , p < 0.001) and Body mass index (22.2 ± 3.0 vs 20.5 ± 2.1, p
14 years old for most anthropometric variables.
279
4.5 Similar results were found in the present study confirming the expected anthropometric between
280
gender differences, as well as the anthropometric annual increases between the age competitive groups. It
281
is well known that physical size of elite athletes increased remarkably longitudinally over time (39),
282
however the comparable results of the two cross-sectional fencing studies reflect that the selection
283
procedures in Greece identified similar body types for fencing over the last decade (30). Since
284
anthropometric trends and maturation process seem to be identically similar, other factors such as muscle
285
power and technique training must be under evaluation in order to improve fencing performance
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especially in younger age group of fencers.
287
4.6 Moreover, international fencers of the present study were significantly taller and heavier than the
288
national fencers, confirming others results in different sports in young (10) or adults subjects (1). These
289
results are in contrast with previous of Tsolakis and Vagenas (31) who found that anthropometrics were
290
not different between elite and novice fencers, although in all measurements a non significant superiority
291
was reported in favor of elite fencers. Even though Tsolakis, Bogdanis and Vagenas (30) found that
292
fencing performance was not predicted by none of the non-trainable parameters such as height, arm span
293
and leg length respectively, the finding of the present study suggest that size and body mass are important
294
factors associated to success in fencing and this would be a permanent demand throughout the early years
295
of training.
296
4.7 Interestingly, no study to date has described the anthropometric differences between fencers from
297
different disciplines. Physical characteristics in sports such as stature and body mass can differentiate
298
among position demands and can provide assist to coaches in order to identify athletes for a specific
299
discipline (7,12). However, the findings of the present study reported that fencers from an anthropometric
300
point of view were similar regardless of event specialization. This likely reflects a high consistency in
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body anthropometry between fencing disciplines. Since anthropometrics and physical measures are not
302
always consistent parameters more studies needed in order identify other determinant of excellence
303
beyond the physique of athletes.
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4.8 Explosive power has been extensively studied as a successive factor in many athletic activities (and
305
long and vertical jumps are commonly used to asses lower body explosive power in young as well as in
306
adults population (40). Power measures of jumping performance vary among sports and distinguish elite
307
from novice athletes although other factors such age, gender, level of competition, and discipline in a
308
certain level influence power performance (9). Leg power in fencing has been extensively studied
309
recently. It has been reported that leg power is affected by isometric contractions or long period of
310
stretching protocols (41, 42), is not affected by dynamic or plyometric protocols (41, 42), and can
311
differentiate elite from non – elite fencers (31). Fast stretch-shortening cycles of the leg muscles have
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been associated to the functional fencing performance and are important in maximizing leg functional
313
power characteristics in elite fencers (27). Vertical jumping performance changed significantly over time,
314
however no differences reported between peripubertal academies fencers and a control group consisted of
315
untrained pupils of the same age (30).
316
4.9 Strength gains and gender differences are closely related to the age and the growth and development
317
rates of the participants (39). In the present study as expected, significant between gender differences
318
existed in leg power performance characteristics. Significant differences were also observed between the
319
older (>20 years old) and the younger groups (14-17, 18-20 years old) reflecting a progressive
320
improvement with increasing age (39). The interaction of the gender differences and the developmental
321
data profile concerning leg power could be useful information for coaches and scientists to design
322
appropriate training programs for this age groups of fencers.
323
4.10 Significant differences were observed in power performance tests between athletes of different levels
324
(9). As expected elite fencers of the present study were stronger and produced more leg power than
325
national level fencers. Similar results were also observed recently (31) suggesting that advanced
326
neuromuscular abilities will facilitate e different technical drills and tactical strategies adaptations in the
327
competitive routine of elite fencers (29)
328
4.11 Given the major role of leg power in fencing and the unpredictable activity patterns of the different
329
events taking also into consideration the large number of technical skills and tactical behavior of the
330
players, it is difficult to determine the physiological demands and physical performance prerequisites in
331
fencing. A large number of studies reported significant between positions differences in many team sports
332
or weight categories within an individual sport (13,38) On the other hand other studies found no
333
positional differences in CMJ and DJ of football players and throwing velocity in water polo players
334
respectively (12,25). Up to our knowledge there is a lack of information in power performance of
335
technical sports with different competitive rules (e. g free style and Greco – Roman wrestling, martial arts
11
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336
of the same weight category, fencing etc). In the present study leg power performance was quite similar
337
between the three different fencing events. However, the drop jump contact time of epee players was the
338
only parameter that showed significantly different values in comparison to foil fencers, revealing special
339
physical performance abilities required for successful participation in this event. This event is
340
characterized by longer work time and more changes of direction in comparison to foil, while during the
341
competition fencers repeat submaximal bounces instead of fencing steps that are common in foil (29).
342
Another possible reason is that epee fencers of the present study were taller and heavier and have greater
343
but non-significant scores in almost all power performance tests than foilists.
344
5. Conclusions
345
5.1 In summary, this is the first study that evaluated body size, body composition parameters and leg
346
power performance ability of male and female fencers, with particular emphasis on competitive age
347
groups, competition level, and discipline. We observed significant between gender differences in all the
348
anthropometric and body composition characteristics and confirmed that anthropometric characteristics
349
increased across age categories. Elite fencers demonstrated specific characteristics compared to national
350
fencers, while fencers from different disciplines were quite similar in body size. Vertical and horizontal
351
jumping performance differences between gender, age groups, competition level and partly between
352
disciplines of the present study, revealing specific abilities required to characterize the functional profile
353
requirements for fencing success.
354
5.2 The results of the present cross sectional study showed that anthropometric and leg power measures
355
could play a role in talent identification programmes for fencing as well as for the monitoring of training.
356
More specific, talent identification programmes could focus on selecting tall explosive individuals
357
without excessive body mass, with long limbs and strength -power abilities that could support the
358
technical drills and tactical decisions of the fencers. However, longitudinal research is needed to better
359
understand the influence of growth and maturation into these parameters and to inform sport specialists to
360
design positions based on the findings described in this study. This will facilitate the identification of the
361
most suitable athletes for optimal fencing performance.
362
6. Acknowledgements
363
This study was supported by grants from the IOC Olympic Solidarity. The authors thank Hellenic
364
Olympic Committee and the Hellenic Fencing Federation for their support of the project. Moreover,
365
authors thank all study participants and their respective clubs for their valuable effort and engagement.
366 12
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7. Disclosure of interest
368
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest concerning this article
369
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Τable 1 Anthropometric characteristics between the different age groups 14-17 years old
18-20 years old
>20 years old
Height (cm)
170.5±1.3
173.2±1.3
176±1.3**
Weight (kg)
60±1.6
64.5±2.0
69.4±1.6***
Arm Span (cm)
173.5±1.6
175.2±1.9
179.0±1.5*
Leg Length
85.5±1.0
84.8±1.2
86.5±1.0
Body Mass Index
20.5±0.4
21.5±0.5
22.3±0.4**
480 481
14-17 years old group vs >20 years old group *p
