APPENDIX 2: Experimental Data

APPENDIX 2: Experimental Data 2A

THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 25°C

Inorganic Substances Substance

Molar mass, M (g
mol1)

Enthalpy of formation, Hf° (kJ
mol1)

Gibbs free energy of formation, Gf° (kJ
mol1)

Molar heat capacity, CP,m (J
K1
mol1)

Molar entropy,* Sm° (J
K1
mol1)

0 481.2 1582.35 — 628.8

24.35 — 79.04 — 91.84

28.33 321.7 50.92 — 110.67

45.69 232.78 337.80 401.94

Aluminum Al(s) Al3(aq) Al2O3(s) Al(OH)3(s) AlCl3(s)

26.98 26.98 101.96 78.00 133.33

Antimony Sb(s) SbH3(g) SbCl3(g) SbCl5(g)

121.76 124.78 228.11 299.01

0 145.11 313.8 394.34

0 147.75 301.2 334.29

25.23 41.05 76.69 121.13

Arsenic As(s), gray As2S3(s) AsO43(aq)

74.92 246.05 138.92

0 169.0 888.14

0 168.6 648.41

24.64 116.3 —

Barium Ba(s) Ba2(aq) BaO(s) BaCO3(s) BaCO3(aq)

137.33 137.33 153.33 197.34 197.34

0 537.64 553.5 1216.3 1214.78

0 560.77 525.1 1137.6 1088.59

28.07 — 47.78 85.35 —

62.8 9.6 70.42 112.1 47.3

Boron B(s) B2O3(s) BF3(g)

10.81 69.62 67.81

0 1272.8 1137.0

0 1193.7 1120.3

11.09 62.93 50.46

5.86 53.97 254.12

Bromine Br2(l) Br2(g) Br(g) Br(aq) HBr(g)

159.80 159.80 79.90 79.90 80.91

0 30.91 111.88 121.55 36.40

0 3.11 82.40 103.96 53.45

75.69 36.02 20.79 — 29.14

152.23 245.46 175.02 82.4 198.70

Calcium Ca(s) Ca(g) Ca2(aq)

40.08 40.08 40.08

0 178.2 542.83

0 144.3 553.58

25.31 20.79 —

41.42 154.88 53.1

0 524.7 1675.7 1276 704.2

35.1 163.6 162.8

(continued)

A11

A12

APPENDIX 2

Inorganic Substances (continued) Substance CaO(s) Ca(OH)2(s) Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCO3(s), calcite CaCO3(s), aragonite CaCO3(aq) CaF2(s) CaF2(aq) CaCl2(s) CaCl2(aq) CaBr2(s) CaC2(s) CaSO4(s) CaSO4(aq)

Molar mass, M (g
mol1) 56.08 74.10 74.10 100.09 100.09 100.09 78.08 78.08 110.98 110.98 199.88 64.10 136.14 136.14

Enthalpy of formation, Hf° (kJ
mol1) 635.09 986.09 1002.82 1206.9 1207.1 1219.97 1219.6 1208.09 795.8 877.1 682.8 59.8 1434.11 1452.10

Gibbs free energy of formation, Gf° (kJ
mol1)

Molar heat capacity, CP,m (J
K1
mol1)

Molar entropy,* Sm° (J
K1
mol1)

604.03 898.49 868.07 1128.8 1127.8 1081.39 1167.3 1111.15 748.1 816.0 663.6 64.9 1321.79 1298.10

42.80 87.49 — 81.88 81.25 — 67.03 — 72.59 — 72.59 62.72 99.66 —

39.75 83.39 74.5 92.9 88.7 110.0 68.87 80.8 104.6 59.8 130 69.96 106.7 33.1

Carbon (for organic compounds, see the next table) C(s), graphite 12.01 0 C(s), diamond 12.01 1.895 C(g) 12.01 716.68 CO(g) 28.01 110.53 CO2(g) 44.01 393.51 CO32(aq) 60.01 677.14 CCl4(l) 153.81 135.44 CS2(l) 76.15 89.70 HCN(g) 27.03 135.1 HCN(l) 27.03 108.87 HCN(aq) 27.03 107.1

0 2.900 671.26 137.17 394.36 527.81 65.21 65.27 124.7 124.97 119.7

Cerium Ce(s) Ce3(aq) Ce4(aq)

140.12 140.12 140.12

0 696.2 537.2

0 672.0 503.8

26.94 — —

Chlorine Cl2(g) Cl(g) Cl(aq) HCl(g) HCl(aq)

70.90 35.45 35.45 36.46 36.46

0 121.68 167.16 92.31 167.16

0 105.68 131.23 95.30 131.23

33.91 21.84 — 29.12 —

223.07 165.20 56.5 186.91 56.5

63.55 63.55 63.55 143.10 79.55 159.61 249.69

0 71.67 64.77 168.6 157.3 771.36 2279.7

0 49.98 65.49 146.0 129.7 661.8 1879.7

24.44 — — 63.64 42.30 100.0 280

33.15 40.6 99.6 93.14 42.63 109 300.4

0 249.20 294.60

0 234.54 243.44

29.20 34.27 34.27

144.96 198.34 75.94

Copper Cu(s) Cu(aq) Cu2(aq) Cu2O(s) CuO(s) CuSO4(s) CuSO4
5H2O(s) Deuterium D2(g) D2O(g) D2O(l)

4.028 20.028 20.028

8.53 6.11 20.84 29.14 37.11 — 131.75 75.7 35.86 70.63 —

5.740 2.377 158.10 197.67 213.74 56.9 216.40 151.34 201.78 112.84 124.7

72.0 205 301

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Substance Fluorine F2(g) F(aq) HF(g) HF(aq)

A13

Molar mass, M (g
mol1)

Enthalpy of formation, Hf° (kJ
mol1)

Gibbs free energy of formation, Gf° (kJ
mol1)

Molar heat capacity, CP,m (J
K1
mol1)

Molar entropy,* Sm° (J
K1
mol1)

38.00 19.00 20.01 20.01

0 332.63 271.1 330.08

0 278.79 273.2 296.82

31.30 — 29.13 —

202.78 13.8 173.78 88.7

0 217.97 0 285.83 241.82 187.78 191.17 285.83

0 203.25 0 237.13 228.57 120.35 134.03 237.13

28.82 20.78 0 75.29 33.58 89.1 — 75.29

130.68 114.71 0 69.91 188.83 109.6 143.9 69.91

0 62.44 55.19 26.48

0 19.33 51.57 1.70

54.44 36.90 — 29.16

116.14 260.69 111.3 206.59

0 78.90 4.7 1015.4 742.2 100.4 6.9 166.9

25.10 — — 143.43 103.85 50.54 — 62.17

27.28 137.7 315.9 146.4 87.40 60.29 — 52.93

Hydrogen (see also Deuterium) H2(g) 2.0158 H(g) 1.0079 H(aq) 1.0079 H2O(l) 18.02 H2O(g) 18.02 H2O2(l) 34.02 H2O2(aq) 34.02 H3O(aq) 19.02 Iodine I2(s) I2(g) I(aq) HI(g)

253.80 253.80 126.90 127.91

Iron Fe(s) Fe2(aq) Fe3(aq) Fe3O4(s), magnetite Fe2O3(s), hematite FeS(s, ) FeS(aq) FeS2(s)

55.84 55.84 55.84 231.52 159.68 87.90 87.90 119.96

Lead Pb(s) Pb2(aq) PbO2(s) PbSO4(s) PbBr2(s) PbBr2(aq)

207.2 207.2 239.2 303.3 367.0 367.0

0 1.7 277.4 919.94 278.7 244.8

0 24.43 217.33 813.14 261.92 232.34

26.44 — 64.64 103.21 80.12 —

64.81 10.5 68.6 148.57 161.5 175.3

Magnesium Mg(s) Mg(g) Mg2(aq) MgO(s) MgCO3(s) MgBr2(s)

24.31 24.31 24.31 40.31 84.32 184.11

0 147.70 466.85 601.70 1095.8 524.3

0 113.10 454.8 569.43 1012.1 503.8

24.89 20.79 — 37.15 75.52 —

32.68 148.65 138.1 26.94 65.7 117.2

Mercury Hg(l) Hg(g) HgO(s) Hg2Cl2(s)

200.59 200.59 216.59 472.08

0 61.32 90.83 265.22

0 31.82 58.54 210.75

27.98 20.79 44.06 102

76.02 174.96 70.29 192.5

0 89.1 48.5 1118.4 824.2 100.0 — 178.2

(continued)

A14

APPENDIX 2

Inorganic Substances (continued) Molar mass, M (g
mol1)

Enthalpy of formation, Hf° (kJ
mol1)

Gibbs free energy of formation, Gf° (kJ
mol1)

Molar heat capacity, CP,m (J
K1
mol1)

Molar entropy,* Sm° (J
K1
mol1)

28.02 30.01 44.02 46.01 92.02 63.02 63.02 62.02 17.03 17.03 18.04 33.03 43.04 32.05 80.05 53.49 117.49

0 90.25 82.05 33.18 9.16 174.10 207.36 205.0 46.11 80.29 132.51 114.2 294.1 50.63 365.56 314.43 295.31

0 86.55 104.20 51.31 97.89 80.71 111.25 108.74 16.45 26.50 79.31 — 328.1 149.34 183.87 202.87 88.75

29.12 29.84 38.45 37.20 77.28 109.87 — — 35.06 — — — 98.87 139.3 84.1 — —

191.61 210.76 219.85 240.06 304.29 155.60 146.4 146.4 192.45 111.3 113.4 — 238.97 121.21 151.08 94.6 186.2

32.00 48.00 17.01

0 142.7 229.99

0 163.2 157.24

29.36 39.29 —

205.14 238.93 10.75

Phosphorus P(s), white P4(g) PH3(g) P4O10(s) H3PO3(aq) H3PO4(l) H3PO4(aq) PCl3(l) PCl3(g) PCl5(g) PCl5(s)

30.97 123.88 33.99 283.88 81.99 97.99 97.99 137.32 137.32 208.22 208.22

0 58.91 5.4 2984.0 964.8 1266.9 1288.34 319.7 287.0 374.9 443.5

0 24.44 13.4 2697.0 — — 1142.54 272.3 267.8 305.0 —

23.84 67.15 37.11 — — — — — 71.84 112.8 —

41.09 279.98 210.23 228.86 — — 158.2 217.18 311.78 364.6 —

Potassium K(s) K(g) K(aq) KOH(s) KOH(aq) KF(s) KCl(s) KBr(s) KI(s) KClO3(s) KClO4(s) K2S(s) K2S(aq)

39.10 39.10 39.10 56.11 56.11 58.10 74.55 119.00 166.00 122.55 138.55 110.26 110.26

0 89.24 252.38 424.76 482.37 567.27 436.75 393.80 327.90 397.73 432.75 380.7 471.5

0 60.59 283.27 379.08 440.50 537.75 409.14 380.66 324.89 296.25 303.09 364.0 480.7

29.58 20.79 — 64.9 — 49.04 51.30 52.30 52.93 100.25 112.38 — —

64.18 160.34 102.5 78.9 91.6 66.57 82.59 95.90 106.32 143.1 151.0 105 190.4

Silicon Si(s) SiO2(s, )

28.09 60.09

0 910.94

0 856.64

20.00 44.43

18.83 41.84

Substance Nitrogen N2(g) NO(g) N2O(g) NO2(g) N2O4(g) HNO3(l) HNO3(aq) NO3(aq) NH3(g) NH3(aq) NH4(aq) NH2OH(s) HN3(g) N2H4(l) NH4NO3(s) NH4Cl(s) NH4ClO4(s) Oxygen O2(g) O3(g) OH(aq)

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

A15

Molar mass, M (g
mol1)

Enthalpy of formation, Hf° (kJ
mol1)

Gibbs free energy of formation, Gf° (kJ
mol1)

Molar heat capacity, CP,m (J
K1
mol1)

Molar entropy,* Sm° (J
K1
mol1)

Silver Ag(s) Ag(aq) Ag2O(s) AgBr(s) AgBr(aq) AgCl(s) AgCl(aq) AgI(s) AgI(aq) AgNO3(s)

107.87 107.87 231.74 187.77 187.77 143.32 143.32 234.77 234.77 169.88

0 105.58 31.05 100.37 15.98 127.07 61.58 61.84 50.38 124.39

0 77.11 11.20 96.90 26.86 109.79 54.12 66.19 25.52 33.41

25.35 — 65.86 52.38 — 50.79 — 56.82 — 93.05

42.55 72.68 121.3 107.1 155.2 96.2 129.3 115.5 184.1 140.92

Sodium Na(s) Na(g) Na(aq) NaOH(s) NaOH(aq) NaCl(s) NaBr(s) NaI(s)

22.99 22.99 22.99 40.00 40.00 58.44 102.89 149.89

0 107.32 240.12 425.61 470.11 411.15 361.06 287.78

0 76.76 261.91 379.49 419.15 384.14 348.98 286.06

28.24 20.79 — 59.54 — 50.50 51.38 52.09

51.21 153.71 59.0 64.46 48.1 72.13 86.82 98.53

Sulfur S(s), rhombic S(s), monoclinic S2(aq) SO2(g) SO3(g) H2SO4(l) SO42(aq) HSO4(aq) H2S(g) H2S(aq) SF6(g)

32.06 32.06 32.06 64.06 80.06 98.08 96.06 97.07 34.08 34.08 146.06

0 0.33 33.1 296.83 395.72 813.99 909.27 887.34 20.63 39.7 1209

0 0.1 85.8 300.19 371.06 690.00 744.53 755.91 33.56 27.83 1105.3

22.64 23.6 — 39.87 50.67 138.9 — — 34.23 — 97.28

31.80 32.6 14.6 248.22 256.76 156.90 20.1 131.8 205.79 121 291.82

Tin Sn(s), white Sn(s), gray SnO(s) SnO2(s)

118.71 118.71 134.71 150.71

0 2.09 285.8 580.7

0 0.13 256.9 519.6

26.99 25.77 44.31 52.59

51.55 44.14 56.5 52.3

65.41 65.41 81.41

0 153.89 348.28

0 147.06 318.30

25.40 — 40.25

41.63 112.1 43.64

Substance

Zinc Zn(s) Zn2(aq) ZnO(s)

*The entropies of individual ions in solution are determined by setting the entropy of H in water equal to 0 and then defining the entropies of all other ions relative to this value; hence a negative entropy is one that is lower than the entropy of H in water. All absolute entropies are positive, and no sign need be given; all entropies of ions are relative to that of H and are listed here with a sign (either  or ).

A16

APPENDIX 2

Organic Compounds

Substance

Molar mass, M (g
mol1)

Enthalpy of combustion, Hc° (kJ
mol1)

Enthalpy of formation, Hf° (kJ
mol1)

Gibbs free energy of formation, Gf° (kJ
mol1)

Molar heat capacity, CP,m (J
K1
mol1)

Molar entropy, Sm° (J
K1
mol1)

16.04

890

74.81

50.72

35.31

186.26

26.04

1300

226.73

209.20

43.93

200.94

Hydrocarbons CH4(g), methane C2H2(g), ethyne (acetylene) C2H4(g), ethene (ethylene) C2H6(g), ethane C3H6(g), propene (propylene) C3H6(g), cyclopropane C3H8(g), propane C4H10(g), butane C5H12(g), pentane C6H6(l), benzene C6H6(g) C7H8(l), toluene C7H8(g) C6H12(l), cyclohexane C6H12(g) C8H18(l), octane

28.05 30.07

1411 1560

52.26 84.68

68.15 32.82

43.56 52.63

219.56 229.60

42.08 42.08 44.09 58.12 72.14 78.11 78.11 92.13 92.13 84.15 84.15 114.22

2058 2091 2220 2878 3537 3268 3302 3910 3953 3920 3953 5471

20.42 53.30 103.85 126.15 146.44 49.0 82.9 12.0 50.0 156.4 — 249.9

62.78 104.45 23.49 17.03 8.20 124.3 129.72 113.8 122.0 26.7 — 6.4

63.89 55.94 73.5 97.45 120.2 136.1 81.67 — 103.6 156.5 — —

266.6 237.4 270.2 310.1 349 173.3 269.31 221.0 320.7 204.4 — 358

Alcohols and phenols CH3OH(l), methanol CH3OH(g) C2H5OH(l), ethanol C2H5OH(g) C6H5OH(s), phenol

32.04 32.04 46.07 46.07 94.11

726 764 1368 1409 3054

238.86 200.66 277.69 235.10 164.6

166.27 161.96 174.78 168.49 50.42

81.6 43.89 111.46 65.44 —

126.8 239.81 160.7 282.70 144.0

46.02

255

424.72

361.35

99.04

128.95

60.05 60.05

875 —

484.5 485.76

389.9 396.46

124.3 —

159.8 86.6

90.04

254

827.2

697.9

117

120

122.12

3227

385.1

245.3

146.8

167.6

30.03

571

108.57

102.53

35.40

218.77

44.05 44.05

1166 1192

192.30 166.19

128.12 128.86

— 57.3

160.2 250.3

58.08

1790

248.1

155.4

124.7

Carboxylic acids HCOOH(l), formic acid CH3COOH(l), acetic acid CH3COOH(aq) (COOH)2(s), oxalic acid C6H5COOH(s), benzoic acid Aldehydes and ketones HCHO(g), methanal (formaldehyde) CH3CHO(l), ethanal (acetaldehyde) CH3CHO(g) CH3COCH3(l), propanone (acetone)

200

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Substance Sugars C6H12O6(s), glucose C6H12O6(aq) C6H12O6(s), fructose C12H22O11(s), sucrose Nitrogen compounds CO(NH2)2(s), urea C6H5NH2(l), aniline NH2CH2COOH(s), glycine CH3NH2(g), methylamine

Molar mass, M (g
mol1) 180.15 180.15 180.15 342.29

Enthalpy of combustion, Hc° (kJ
mol1) 2808 — 2810 5645

Enthalpy of formation, Hf° (kJ
mol1)

Gibbs free energy of formation, Gf° (kJ
mol1)

1268 — 1266 2222

910 917 — 1545

Molar heat capacity, CP,m (J
K1
mol1) — — — —

A17

Molar entropy, Sm° (J
K1
mol1) 212 — — 360

60.06 93.13

632 3393

333.51 31.6

197.33 149.1

93.14 —

104.60 191.3

75.07

969

532.9

373.4

99.2

103.51

31.06

1085

53.1

243.41

22.97

32.16

A18

2B

APPENDIX 2

STANDARD POTENTIALS AT 25°C

Potentials in Electrochemical Order Reduction half-reaction

E° (V)

Reduction half-reaction

E° (V)

Strongly oxidizing H4XeO6  2 H  2 e B XeO3  3 H2O F2  2 e B 2 F O3  2 H  2 e B O2  H2O S2O82  2 e B 2 SO42 Ag2  e B Ag Co3  e B Co2 H2O2  2 H  2 e B 2 H2O Au  e B Au Pb4  2 e B Pb2 2 HClO  2 H  2 e B Cl2  2 H2O Ce4  e B Ce3 2 HBrO  2 H  2 e B Br2  2 H2O MnO4  8 H  5 e B Mn2  4 H2O Mn3  e B Mn2 Au3  3 e B Au Cl2  2 e B 2 Cl Cr2O72  14 H  6 e B 2 Cr3  7 H2O O3  H2O  2 e B O2  2 OH O2  4 H  4 e B 2 H2O MnO2  4 H  2 e B Mn2  2 H2O ClO4  2 H  2 e B ClO3  H2O Pt2  2 e B Pt Br2  2 e B 2 Br Pu4  e B Pu3 NO3  4 H  3 e B NO  2 H2O 2 Hg2  2 e B Hg22 ClO  H2O  2 e B Cl  2 OH Hg2  2 e B Hg NO3  2 H  e B NO2  H2O Ag  e B Ag Hg22  2 e B 2 Hg AgF  e B Ag  F Fe3  e B Fe2 BrO  H2O  2 e B Br  2 OH MnO42  2 H2O  2 e B MnO2  4 OH MnO4  e B MnO42 I2  2 e B 2 I I3  2 e B 3 I Cu  e B Cu Ni(OH)3  e B Ni(OH)2  OH O2  2 H2O  4 e B 4 OH ClO4  H2O  2 e B ClO3  2 OH Cu2  2 e B Cu Hg2Cl2  2 e B 2 Hg  2 Cl AgCl  e B Ag  Cl Bi3  3 e B Bi SO42  4 H  2 e B H2SO3  H2O Cu2  e B Cu Sn4  2e B Sn2 AgBr  e B Ag  Br

3.0 2.87 2.07 2.05 1.98 1.81 1.78 1.69 1.67 1.63 1.61 1.60 1.51 1.51 1.40 1.36 1.33 1.24 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.20 1.09 0.97 0.96 0.92 0.89 0.85 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.60 0.56 0.54 0.53 0.52 0.49 0.40 0.36 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.15 0.07

NO3  H2O  2 e B NO2  2 OH Ti4  e B Ti3 2 H  2 e B H2 Fe3  3 e B Fe O2  H2O  2 e B HO2  OH Pb2  2 e B Pb In  e B In Sn2  2 e B Sn AgI  e B Ag  I Ni2  2 e B Ni V3  e B V2 Co2  2 e B Co In3  3 e B In Tl  e B Tl PbSO4  2 e B Pb  SO42 Ti3  e B Ti2 In2  e B In Cd2  2 e B Cd Cr3  e B Cr2 Fe2  2 e B Fe In3  2 e B In S  2 e B S2 In3  e B In2 Ga  e B Ga O2  e B O2 U4  e B U3 Se  2 e B Se2 Cr3  3 e B Cr Zn2  2 e B Zn Cd(OH)2  2 e B Cd  2 OH 2 H2O  2 e B H2  2 OH Te  2 e B Te2 Cr2  2 e B Cr Mn2  2 e B Mn V2  2 e B V Ti2  2 e B Ti Al3  3 e B Al U3  3 e B U Be2  2 e B Be Mg2  2 e B Mg Ce3  3 e B Ce La3  3 e B La Na  e B Na Ca2  2 e B Ca Sr2  2 e B Sr Ba2  2 e B Ba Ra2  2 e B Ra Cs  e B Cs Rb  e B Rb K  e B K Li  e B Li Strongly reducing

0.01 0.00 0, by definition 0.04 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.23 0.26 0.28 0.34 0.34 0.36 0.37 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.44 0.44 0.48 0.49 0.53 0.56 0.61 0.67 0.74 0.76 0.81 0.83 0.84 0.91 1.18 1.19 1.63 1.66 1.79 1.85 2.36 2.48 2.52 2.71 2.87 2.89 2.91 2.92 2.92 2.93 2.93 3.05

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

A19

Potentials in Alphabetical Order Reduction half-reaction

E° (V)

Reduction half-reaction

E° (V)

Ag  e B Ag Ag2  e B Ag AgBr  e B Ag  Br AgCl  e B Ag  Cl AgF  e B Ag  F AgI  e B Ag  I Al3  3 e B Al Au  e B Au Au3  3 e B Au Ba2  2 e B Ba Be2  2 e B Be Bi3  3 e B Bi Br2  2 e B 2 Br BrO  H2O  2 e B Br  2 OH Ca2  2 e B Ca Cd2  2 e B Cd Cd(OH)2  2 e B Cd  2 OH Ce3  3 e B Ce Ce4  e B Ce3 Cl2  2 e B 2 Cl ClO  H2O  2 e B Cl  2 OH ClO4  2 H  2 e B ClO3  H2O ClO4  H2O  2 e B ClO3  2 OH Co2  2 e B Co Co3  e B Co2 Cr2  2 e B Cr Cr2O72  14 H  6 e B 2 Cr3  7 H2O Cr3  3 e B Cr Cr3  e B Cr2 Cs  e B Cs Cu  e B Cu Cu2  2 e B Cu Cu2  e B Cu F2  2 e B 2 F Fe2  2 e B Fe Fe3  3 e B Fe Fe2  e B Fe2 Ga  e B Ga 2 H  2 e B H2 2 HBrO  2 H  2 e B Br2  2 H2O 2 HClO  2 H  2 e B Cl2  2 H2O 2 H2O  2 e B H2  2 OH H2O2  2 H  2 e B 2 H2O H4XeO6  2 H  2 e B XeO3  3 H2O Hg22  2 e B 2 Hg Hg2  2 e B Hg 2 Hg2  2 e B Hg22 Hg2Cl2  2 e B 2 Hg  2 Cl I2  2 e B 2 I I3  2 e B 3 I In  e B In

0.80 1.98 0.07 0.22 0.78 0.15 1.66 1.69 1.40 2.91 1.85 0.20 1.09 0.76 2.87 0.40 0.81 2.48 1.61 1.36 0.89 1.23 0.36 0.28 1.81 0.91 1.33 0.74 0.41 2.92 0.52 0.34 0.15 2.87 0.44 0.04 0.77 0.53 0, by definition 1.60 1.63 0.83 1.78 3.0 0.79 0.85 0.92 0.27 0.54 0.53 0.14

In2  e B In In3  e B In2 In3  2 e B In In3  3 e B In K  e B K La3  3 e B La Li  e B Li Mg2  2 e B Mg Mn2  2 e B Mn Mn3  e B Mn2 MnO2  4 H  2 e B Mn2  2 H2O MnO4  e B MnO42 MnO4  8 H  5 e B Mn2  4 H2O MnO42  2 H2O  2 e B MnO2  4 OH NO3  2 H  e B NO2  H2O NO3  4 H  3 e B NO  2 H2O NO3  H2O  2 e B NO2  2 OH Na  e B Na Ni2  2 e B Ni Ni(OH)3  e B Ni(OH)2  OH O2  e B O2 O2  4 H  4 e B 2 H2O O2  H2O  2 e B HO2  OH O2  2 H2O  4 e B 4 OH O3  2 H  2 e B O2  H2O O3  H2O  2 e B O2  2 OH Pb2  2 e B Pb Pb4  2 e B Pb2 PbSO4  2 e B Pb  SO42 Pt2  2 e B Pt Pu4  e B Pu3 Ra2  2 e B Ra Rb  e B Rb S  2 e B S2 SO42  4 H  2 e B H2SO3  H2O S2O82  2 e B 2 SO42 Se  2 e B Se2 Sn2  2 e B Sn Sn4  2 e B Sn2 Sr2  2 e B Sr Te  2 e B Te2 Ti2  2 e B Ti Ti3  e B Ti2 Ti4  e B Ti3 Tl  e B Tl U3  3 e B U U4  e B U3 V2  2 e B V V3  e B V2 Zn2  2 e B Zn

0.40 0.49 0.44 0.34 2.93 2.52 3.05 2.36 1.18 1.51 1.23 0.56 1.51 0.60 0.80 0.96 0.01 2.71 0.23 0.49 0.56 1.23 0.08 0.40 2.07 1.24 0.13 1.67 0.36 1.20 0.97 2.92 2.93 0.48 0.17 2.05 0.67 0.14 0.15 2.89 0.84 1.63 0.37 0.00 0.34 1.79 0.61 1.19 0.26 0.76

A20

APPENDIX 2

2C

GROUND-STATE ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS*

Z

Symbol

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni

Configuration 1

1s 1s2 [He]2s1 [He]2s2 [He]2s22p1 [He]2s22p2 [He]2s22p3 [He]2s22p4 [He]2s22p5 [He]2s22p6 [Ne]3s1 [Ne]3s2 [Ne]3s23p1 [Ne]3s23p2 [Ne]3s23p3 [Ne]3s23p4 [Ne]3s23p5 [Ne]3s23p6 [Ar]4s1 [Ar]4s2 [Ar]3d14s2 [Ar]3d24s2 [Ar]3d34s2 [Ar]3d54s1 [Ar]3d54s2 [Ar]3d64s2 [Ar]3d74s2 [Ar]3d84s2

Z

Symbol

Configuration

29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba

[Ar]3d104s1 [Ar]3d104s2 [Ar]3d104s24p1 [Ar]3d104s24p2 [Ar]3d104s24p3 [Ar]3d104s24p4 [Ar]3d104s24p5 [Ar]3d104s24p6 [Kr]5s1 [Kr]5s2 [Kr]4d15s2 [Kr]4d25s2 [Kr]4d45s1 [Kr]4d55s1 [Kr]4d55s2 [Kr]4d75s1 [Kr]4d85s1 [Kr]4d10 [Kr]4d105s1 [Kr]4d105s2 [Kr]4d105s25p1 [Kr]4d105s25p2 [Kr]4d105s25p3 [Kr]4d105s25p4 [Kr]4d105s25p5 [Kr]4d105s25p6 [Xe]6s1 [Xe]6s2

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Z 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

Symbol La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po

Configuration 1

2

[Xe]5d 6s [Xe]4f 15d16s2 [Xe]4f 36s2 [Xe]4f 46s2 [Xe]4f 56s2 [Xe]4f 66s2 [Xe]4f 76s2 [Xe]4f 75d16s2 [Xe]4f 96s2 [Xe]4f 106s2 [Xe]4f 116s2 [Xe]4f 126s2 [Xe]4f 136s2 [Xe]4f 146s2 [Xe]4f 145d16s2 [Xe]4f145d26s2 [Xe]4f 145d36s2 [Xe]4f 145d46s2 [Xe]4f 145d56s2 [Xe]4f 145d66s2 [Xe]4f 145d76s2 [Xe]4f 145d96s1 [Xe]4f 145d106s1 [Xe]4f 145d106s2 [Xe]4f 145d106s26p1 [Xe]4f 145d106s26p2 [Xe]4f 145d106s26p3 [Xe]4f 145d106s26p4

Z

Symbol

Configuration

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111

At Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg

[Xe]4f 145d106s26p5 [Xe]4f 145d106s26p6 [Rn]7s1 [Rn]7s2 [Rn]6d17s2 [Rn]6d27s2 [Rn]5f 26d17s2 [Rn]5f 36d17s2 [Rn]5f 46d17s2 [Rn]5f 67s2 [Rn]5f 77s2 [Rn]5f 76d17s2 [Rn]5f 97s2 [Rn]5f 107s2 [Rn]5f 117s2 [Rn]5f 127s2 [Rn]5f 137s2 [Rn]5f 147s2 [Rn]5f 146d17s2 [Rn]5f 146d27s2 (?) [Rn]5f 146d37s2 (?) [Rn]5f 146d47s2 (?) [Rn]5f 146d57s2 (?) [Rn]5f 146d67s2 (?) [Rn]5f 146d77s2 (?) [Rn]5f 146d87s2 (?) [Rn]5f 146d107s1 (?)

*The electron configurations followed by a question mark are speculative.

A21

A22

2D

APPENDIX 2

THE ELEMENTS Element

Symbol

Atomic number

Molar mass* (g
mol1)

Normal state†

Density (g
cm3)

Melting point (°C)

actinium (Greek aktis, ray) aluminum (from alum, salts of the form KAl(SO4)2
12H2O) americium (the Americas) antimony (probably a corruption of an old Arabic word; Latin stibium) argon (Greek argos, inactive)

Ac

89

(227)

s, m

10.07

1230

Al

13

26.98

s, m

2.70

660

Am

95

(243)

s, m

13.67

990

Sb

51

121.76

s, md

6.69

631

Ar

18

39.95

g, nm

1.66‡

arsenic (Greek arsenikos, male) astatine (Greek astatos, unstable) barium (Greek barys, heavy) berkelium (Berkeley, California) beryllium (from the mineral beryl, Be3Al2SiO18)

As

33

74.92

s, md

5.78

613§

At

85

(210)

s, nm

—

300

Ba

56

137.33

s, m

3.59

710

Bk

97

(247)

s, m

14.79

986

Be

4

9.01

s, m

1.85

1285

Bi

83

208.98

s, m

8.90

271

Bh

107

(264)

—

—

—

B

5

10.81

s, md

2.47

2300

Br

35

79.90

l, nm

3.12

7

Cd

48

112.41

s, m

8.65

321

Ca

20

40.08

s, m

1.53

840

Cf

98

(251)

s, m

—

—

C

6

12.01

s, nm

2.27

3700§

Ce

58

140.12

s, m

6.71

800

Cs

55

132.91

s, m

1.87

28

Cl

17

35.45

g, nm

1.66‡

101

Cr

24

52.00

s, m

7.19

1860

Co

27

58.93

s, m

8.80

1494

bismuth (German weisse Masse, white mass) bohrium (Niels Bohr) boron (Arabic buraq, borax, Na2B4O7
10H2O; bor(ax)  (carb)on bromine (Greek bromos, stench) cadmium (Greek Cadmus, founder of Thebes) calcium (Latin calx, lime) californium (California) carbon (Latin carbo, coal or charcoal) cerium (the asteroid Ceres, discovered 2 days earlier) cesium (Latin caesius, sky blue) chlorine (Greek chloros, yellowish green) chromium (Greek chroma, color) cobalt (German Kobold, evil spirit; Greek kobalos, goblin)

189

A23

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Boiling point (°C)

Ionization energies (kJ
mol1)

Electron affinity (kJ
mol1)

Atomic radius (pm)

Ionic radius™ (pm)

3200

499, 1170, 1900

—

1.1

3

188

118(3)

2467

577, 1817, 2744

43

1.6

3

143

54(3)

2600

578

—

1.3

3

173

107(3)

1750

834, 1794, 2443

103

2.1

3, 3, 5

141

89(3)

186

1520

0

—

0

174

—

125

222(3)

Electronegativity

Principal oxidation states

—

947, 1798

78

2.2

3, 3, 5

350

1037, 1600

270

2.0

1

—

227(1)

502, 965

14

0.89

2

217

135(2)

601

—

1.3

3

—

87(4)

2470

900, 1757

0

1.6

2

113

34(2)

1650

703, 1610, 2466

91

2.0

3, 5

155

96(3)

660

—

—

5

128#

83(5)#

799, 2427, 3660

27

2.0

3

83

23(3)

325

3.0

1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7

114

196(1)

1640 —

— 3931

59

1140, 2104

765

868, 1631

0

1.7

2

149

103(2)

590, 1145, 4910

2

1.3

2

197

100(2)

—

608

—

1.3

3

169

117(2)

—

1090, 2352, 4620

122

2.6

4, 1, 2, 4

77

260(4)

3000

527, 1047, 1949

50

1.1

3, 4

183

107(3)

678

376, 2420

146

0.79

1

265

167(1)

234

1255, 2297

349

3.2

99

181(1)

125

84(2)

125

64(3)

1490

2600

653, 1592, 2987

64

1.7

1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 3

2900

760, 1646, 3232

64

1.9

3, 6

(continued)

A24

APPENDIX 2

Element copper (Latin cuprum, from Cyprus) curium (Marie Curie)

Symbol

Atomic number

Molar mass* (g
mol1)

Normal state†

Density (g
cm3)

Melting point (°C)

Cu

29

63.55

s, m

8.93

1083

Cm

96

(247)

s, m

13.30

1340

darmstadtium (town in Germany) dubnium (Dubna) dysprosium (Greek dysprositos, hard to get at) einsteinium (Albert Einstein) erbium (Ytterby, a town in Sweden)

Ds

110

—

—

Db

105

(262)

s, m

Dy

66

162.50

s, m

8.53

1410

Es

99

(252)

s, m

—

—

Er

68

167.26

s, m

9.04

1520

europium (Europe) fermium (Enrico Fermi, an Italian physicist) fluorine (Latin fluere, to flow) francium (France) gadolinium (Johann Gadolin, a Finnish chemist)

Eu

63

151.96

s, m

5.25

820

Fm

100

(257)

s, m

—

—

F

9

19.00

g, nm

1.51‡

220

Fr

87

(223)

s, m

—

27

Gd

64

157.25

s, m

7.87

1310

gallium (Latin Gallia, France; also a pun on the discoverer’s forename, Le Coq) germanium (Latin Germania, Germany) gold (Anglo-Saxon gold; Latin aurum, gold) hafnium (Latin Hafnia, Copenhagen) hassium (Hesse, the German state)

Ga

31

69.72

s, m

5.91

30

Ge

32

72.64

s, md

5.32

937

Au

79

196.97

s, m

19.28

1064

Hf

72

178.49

s, m

13.28

2230

Hs

108

(277)

—

—

—

He

2

4.00

g, nm

0.12‡

—

Ho

67

164.93

s, m

8.80

1470

H

1

1.0079

g, nm

0.070‡

259

In

49

114.82

s, m

7.29

156

I

53

126.90

s, nm

4.95

114

Ir

77

192.22

s, m

22.56

2447

Fe

26

55.84

s, m

7.87

1540

helium (Greek helios, the sun) holmium (Latin Holmia, Stockholm) hydrogen (Greek hydro  genes, water-forming) indium (from the bright indigo line in its spectrum) iodine (Greek ioeide¯ s, violet) iridium (Greek and Latin iris, rainbow) iron (Anglo-Saxon iron; Latin ferrum)

—

29

— —

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Boiling point (°C)

Ionization energies (kJ
mol1)

Electron affinity (kJ
mol1)

Electronegativity

2567

785, 1958, 3554

118

1.9

—

—

Atomic radius (pm)

Ionic radius™ (pm)

1, 2

128

72(2)

1.3

3

174

99(3)

—

—

—

—

—

640

—

—

5

139#

68(5)#

572, 1126, 2200

—

1.2

3

177

91(3)

581

— — 2600

A25

—

Principal oxidation states

—

619

50

1.3

3

203

98(3)

2600

589, 1151, 2194

50

1.2

3

176

89(3)

547, 1085, 2404

50

—

3

204

98(3)

—

1.3

3

—

91(3)

328

4.0

1

71

133(1)

400

44

0.7

1

270

180(1)

3000

592, 1167, 1990

50

1.2

2, 3

180

97(3)

2403

577, 1979, 2963

29

1.6

1, 3

122

62(3)

2830

784, 1557, 3302

116

2.0

2, 4

123

90(2)

2807

890, 1980

223

2.5

1, 3

144

91(3)

5300

642, 1440, 2250

0

1.3

4

156

84(3)

—

3

126#

80(4)#

0

—

0

128

—

177

89(3)

1450 — 188 677

—

627 1680, 3374

750

—

269

2370, 5250

2300

581, 1139

50

1.2

3

253

1310

73

2.2

1, 1

78

154(1)

2080

556, 1821

29

1.8

1, 3

163

80(3)

184

1008, 1846

295

2.7

1, 1, 3, 5, 7

133

220(1)

4550

880

151

2.2

3, 4

136

75(3)

2760

759, 1561, 2957

16

1.8

2, 3

124

82(2)

(continued)

A26

APPENDIX 2

Element krypton (Greek kryptos, hidden) lanthanum (Greek lanthanein, to lie hidden) lawrencium (Ernest Lawrence, an American physicist) lead (Anglo-Saxon lead; Latin plumbum) lithium (Greek lithos, stone) lutetium (Lutetia, ancient name of Paris) magnesium (Magnesia, a district in Thessaly, Greece) manganese (Greek and Latin magnes, magnet) meitnerium (Lise Meitner) mendelevium (D. Mendeleev) mercury (the planet Mercury; Latin hydrargyrum, liquid silver) molybdenum (Greek molybdos, lead) neodymium (Greek neos  didymos, new twin) neon (Greek neos, new) neptunium (the planet Neptune) nickel (German Nickel, Old Nick, Satan) niobium (Niobe, daughter of Tantalus; see tantalum) nitrogen (Greek nitron  genes, soda-forming) nobelium (Alfred Nobel, the founder of the Nobel prizes) osmium (Greek osme, a smell) oxygen (Greek oxys  genes, acid forming) palladium (the asteroid Pallas, discovered at about the same time) phosphorus (Greek phosphoros, light bearing)

Symbol

Atomic number

Molar mass* (g
mol1)

Normal state†

Density (g
cm3)

Melting point (°C)

g, nm

3.00‡

157

Kr

36

83.80

La

57

138.91

s, m

6.17

Lr

103

(262)

s, m

—

Pb

82

207.2

s, m

11.34

328

Li

3

6.94

s, m

0.53

181

Lu

71

174.97

s, m

9.84

1700

Mg

12

24.31

s, m

1.74

650

Mn

25

54.94

s, m

7.47

1250

Mt

109

(268)

—

—

—

Md

101

(258)

—

—

—

Hg

80

200.59

l, m

13.55

39

Mo

42

95.94

s, m

10.22

2620

Nd

60

144.24

s, m

7.00

1024

Ne

10

20.18

g, nm

1.44‡

249

Np

93

(237)

s, m

20.45

640

Ni

28

58.69

s, m

8.91

1455

Nb

41

92.91

s, m

8.57

2425

N

7

14.01

g, nm

1.04‡

210

No

102

(259)

s, m

—

—

Os

76

190.23

s, m

22.58

3030

O

8

16.00

1.14‡

218

Pd

46

106.42

s, m

12.00

1554

P

15

30.97

s, nm

1.82

44

g, nm

920 —

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Boiling point (°C)

Ionization energies (kJ
mol1)

153

1350, 2350

3450 —

Electron affinity (kJ
mol1)

Electronegativity

Principal oxidation states

A27

Atomic radius (pm)

Ionic radius™ (pm)

0

—

2

189

169(1)

538, 1067, 1850

50

1.1

3

188

122(3)

—

—

1.3

3

—

88(3)

1760

716, 1450

35

2.3

2, 4

175

132(2)

1347

519, 7298

60

1.0

1

152

76(1)

3400

524, 1340, 2022

50

1.3

3

173

85(3)

1100

736, 1451

0

1.3

2

160

72(2)

2120

717, 1509

0

1.6

2, 3, 4, 7

137

91(2)

—

840

—

—

2

—

83(2)

—

635

—

1.3

3

—

90(3)

357

1007, 1810

18

2.0

1, 2

160

112(2)

4830

685, 1558, 2621

72

2.2

4, 5, 6

136

92(2)

3100

530, 1035

0

1.1

3

182

104(3)

246

2080, 3952

0

—

0

—

—

—

1.4

5

150

88(5)

—

597

2150

737, 1753

156

1.9

2, 3

125

78(2)

5000

664, 1382

86

1.6

5

143

69(5)

196

1400, 2856

7

3.0

3, 3, 5

75

171(3)

—

642

—

1.3

2

—

113(2)

5000

840

106

2.2

3, 4

135

81(3)

183

1310, 3388

141, 844

3.4

2

73

140(2)

3000

805, 1875

54

2.2

2, 4

138

86(2)

1011, 1903, 2912

72

2.2

3, 3, 5

115

212(3)

280

(continued)

A28

APPENDIX 2

Element platinum (Spanish plata, silver) plutonium (the planetlike Pluto) polonium (Poland) potassium (from potash; Latin kalium and Arabic qali, alkali) praseodymium (Greek prasios  didymos, green twin) promethium (Prometheus, the Greek god) protactinium (Greek protos  aktis, first ray) radium (Latin radius, ray) radon (from radium) rhenium (Latin Rhenus, Rhine) rhodium (Greek rhodon, rose; its aqueous solutions are often rose-colored) roentgenium (W. Roentgen, discoverer of x-rays) rubidium (Latin rubidus, deep red, “flushed”) ruthenium (Latin Ruthenia, Russia) rutherfordium (Ernest Rutherford) samarium (from samarskite, a mineral) scandium (Latin Scandia, Scandinavia) seaborgium (Glenn Seaborg) selenium (Greek se¯le¯ne¯, the moon) silicon (Latin silex, flint) silver (Anglo-Saxon seolfor; Latin argentum) sodium (English soda; Latin natrium) strontium (Strontian, Scotland) sulfur (Sanskrit sulvere) tantalum (Tantalos, Greek mythological figure)

Symbol

Atomic number

Molar mass* (g
mol1)

Normal state†

Density (g
cm3)

Melting point (°C)

Pt

78

195.08

s, m

21.45

1772

Pu

94

(244)

s, m

19.81

640

Po

84

(209)

s, md

9.40

254

K

19

39.10

s, m

0.86

64

Pr

59

140.91

s, m

6.78

935

Pm

61

(145)

s, m

7.22

1168

Pa

91

231.04

s, m

15.37

1200

Ra

88

(226)

s, m

5.00

700

Rn

86

(222)

g, nm

4.40‡

71

Re

75

186.21

s, m

21.02

3180

Rh

45

102.90

s, m

12.42

1963

Rg

111

—

—

—

Rb

37

85.47

s, m

1.53

39

Ru

44

101.07

s, m

12.36

2310

Rf

104

(261)

—

—

—

Sm

62

150.36

s, m

7.54

1060

Sc

21

44.96

s, m

2.99

1540

Sg

106

(266)

—

—

—

Se

34

78.96

s, nm

4.79

220

Si

14

28.09

s, md

2.33

1410

Ag

47

107.87

s, m

10.50

962

Na

11

22.99

s, m

0.97

98

Sr

38

87.62

s, m

2.58

770

S

16

32.06

s, nm

2.09

115

Ta

73

180.95

s, m

16.65

3000

—

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Boiling point (°C)

Ionization energies (kJ
mol1)

Electron affinity (kJ
mol1)

Electronegativity

Principal oxidation states

A29

Atomic radius (pm)

Ionic radius™ (pm)

205

2.3

2, 4

138

85(2)

585

—

1.3

3, 4

151

108(3)

960

812

174

2.0

2, 4

167

65(4)

774

418, 3051

48

0.82

1

227

138(1)

3000

523, 1018

50

1.1

3

183

106(3)

3300

536, 1052

50

—

3

181

106(3)

4000

568

—

1.5

5

161

89(5)

1500

509, 979

—

0.9

2

223

152(2)

62

1036, 1930

0

—

2

—

—

5600

760, 1260

14

1.9

4, 7

137

72(4)

3700

720, 1744

110

2.3

3

134

75(3)

—

—

—

—

—

3720

870, 1791

3200

—

—

688

402, 2632

47

0.82

1

248

152(1)

4100

711, 1617

101

2.2

2, 3, 4

134

77(3)

—

—

4

150#

67(4)#

—

490

1600

543, 1068

50

1.2

3

180

100(3)

2800

631, 1235

18

1.4

3

161

83(3)

—

—

6

132#

86(5)#

—

730

685

941, 2044

195

2.6

2, 4, 6

117

198(2)

2620

786, 1577

134

1.9

4

117

26(4)

2212

731, 2073

126

1.9

1

144

113(1)

883

494, 4562

53

0.93

1

154

102(1)

1380

548, 1064

5

0.95

2

215

118(2)

445

1000, 2251

200, 532

2.6

2, 4, 6

104

184(2)

14

1.5

5

143

72(3)

5400

761

(continued)

A30

APPENDIX 2

Element technetium (Greek techne¯tos, artificial) tellurium (Latin tellus, earth) terbium (Ytterby, a town in Sweden) thallium (Greek thallos, a green shoot) thorium (Thor, Norse god of thunder, weather, and crops) thulium (Thule, early name for Scandinavia) tin (Anglo-Saxon tin; Latin stannum) titanium (Titans, Greek mythological figures, sons of the Earth) tungsten (Swedish tung  sten, heavy stone; from wolframite) uranium (the planet Uranus) vanadium (Vanadis, Scandinavian mythological figure) xenon (Greek xenos, stranger) ytterbium (Ytterby, a town in Sweden) yttrium (Ytterby, a town in Sweden) zinc (Anglo-Saxon zinc) zirconium (Arabic zargun, gold color)

Symbol

Atomic number

Molar mass* (g
mol1)

Tc

43

(98)

Te

52

Tb

Normal state†

Density (g
cm3)

Melting point (°C)

s, m

11.50

2200

127.60

s, md

6.25

450

65

158.93

s, m

8.27

1360

Tl

81

204.38

s, m

11.87

304

Th

90

232.04

s, m

11.73

1700

Tm

69

168.93

s, m

9.33

1550

Sn

50

118.71

s, m

7.29

232

Ti

22

47.87

s, m

4.55

1660

W

74

183.84

s, m

19.30

3387

U

92

238.03

s, m

18.95

1135

V

23

50.94

s, m

6.11

1920

Xe

54

131.29

g, nm

3.56‡

112

Yb

70

173.04

s, m

6.97

824

Y

39

88.91

s, m

4.48

1510

Zn

30

65.41

s, m

7.14

420

Zr

40

91.22

s, m

6.51

1850

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Boiling point (°C)

Ionization energies (kJ
mol1)

Electron affinity (kJ
mol1)

4600

702, 1472

96

1.9

990

870, 1775

190

2500

565, 1112

1457

A31

Atomic radius (pm)

Ionic radius™ (pm)

4, 7

136

72(4)

2.1

2, 4

143

221(2)

50

—

3

178

97(3)

590, 1971

19

2.0

1, 3

170

105(3)

4500

587, 1110

—

1.3

4

180

99(4)

2000

597, 1163

50

1.2

3

175

94(3)

2720

707, 1412

116

2.0

2, 4

141

93(2)

3300

658, 1310

7.6

1.5

4

145

69(4)

5420

770

79

2.4

5, 6

137

62(6)

4000

584, 1420

—

1.4

6

154

80(6)

3400

650, 1414

51

1.6

4, 5

132

61(4)

108

1170, 2046

0

2.6

2, 4, 6

218

190(1)

1500

603, 1176

50

—

3

194

86(3)

3300

616, 1181

30

1.2

3

181

106(3)

907

906, 1733

9

1.6

2

133

83(2)

4400

660, 1267

41

1.3

4

160

87(4)

Electronegativity

Principal oxidation states

*Parentheses around molar mass indicate the most stable isotope of a radioactive element. †

The normal state is the state of the element at normal temperature and pressure (20°C and 1 atm). s denotes solid, l, liquid, and g, gas; m denotes metal, nm, nonmetal, and md, metalloid. ‡ The density quoted is for the liquid. § The solid sublimes. • Charge in parentheses. # Atomic and ionic radii are estimated.

A32

APPENDIX 2

2E THE TOP 23 CHEMICALS BY INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2005 Production data are compiled annually by the American Chemical Society and published in Chemical and Engineering News. This table is based on the information about production in 2005 that was published in the July 10, 2006, issue. Water, sodium chloride, and steel traditionally are not included and would outrank the rest if they were. Hydrogen is heavily used but almost always “on site” as soon as it has been prepared.

Rank

Name

1 2 3 4 5 6

sulfuric acid ethene (ethylene) polyethylene propene (propylene) phosphoric acid dichloroethane (ethylene dichoride) chlorine diammonium hydrogen phosphate ammonia sodium hydroxide polypropylene polyvinyl chloride and copolymers nitric acid ammonium nitrate urea ethylbenzene ammonium dihydrogen phosphate styrene hydrogen chloride cumene (isopropylbenzene) ethylene oxide polystyrene ammonium sulfate

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Annual production (109 kg)

Comment on source

36.5 24.0 16.3 15.3 11.6 11.3

contact process thermal cracking of petroleum polymerization of ethene thermal cracking of petroleum from phosphate rocks chlorination of ethene

10.2 10.0

electrolysis processing of phosphate rocks

9.8 8.4 8.1 6.9

Haber process electrolysis of brine polymerization of propylene polymerization of vinyl chloride

6.3 6.4 5.8 5.3 5.2

Ostwald process ammonia  nitric acid ammonia  carbon dioxide Friedel–Crafts alkylation of benzene processing of phosphate rocks

5.0 4.4 3.5 3.1 2.9 2.6

dehydration of ethylbenzene by-product of hydrocarbon chlorination alkylation of benzene addition of O2 to ethene polymerization of styrene ammonia  sulfuric acid