Application of the crystal based collimation system and beam ...

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NEW APPROACH FOR INTEGRATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE A.O. Karasevich Abstract. We first created Four-Dimensional (Space-Time) Model of Psyche. This model integrates all existing psychological paradigms. On the basis of the Model is possible to solve a wide range theoretical and application problems. This article represents the foundations of our new concept.

Key words: Four-Dimensional Psychophysical Model of Reality, Dinamic Model of Psyche, modelling of psyche Four-Dimensional Psychophysical Model of Reality is a promising new approach for the integration and systematization of worldwide psychological knowledge that can be successfully used in general, social, medical fields of psychology. Using the Model we can integrate the basic psychological paradigms to unite their practical potential, and to find new areas of perspective research. Psychology has accumulated huge amount of scientific knowledge and skills. The problem is this knowledge is not systematized. We can do that with the use of Four-Dimensional Psychophysical Model of Reality. Visualization makes knowledge understandable and easily accessible. The computer program, which is now developed on the basis of the Model, can be used to model all diversity of psychic processes. The Model enables joint description of psyche, human organism and environment (Figure 1).

Fig. 1. Components of the Model

“Desire-goal" matrix is the basis of Dynamic Model of Psyche. It includes the time period of mental activity between activator of mental activity ("desire") and "brake" of mental activity ("goal"). "Desire" and "goal" in The Model are identical with many different notions of psychological paradigms. Under our Model there are external (organismal) and internal (psychical) activities. Organismal activity includes the organism movement and work of organs. Psychical activity includes the processes of sensation, perception, internal speech, thought, imagination, memory and emotion. It corresponds to the dynamic block of psyche. Stationary block of psyche covers all inborn and accumulated psychical material of the human. At the instant only small part of the psyche is in the psychical processes (actualized part). Other biggest not actualized part of the psyche is a stationary block of psyche. Stationary block has many components: knowledge, needs, goals, motives, temperament, character, self-esteem, ways to respond, and many others.

The Model consists of three elements: dynamical and stationary blocks of the psyche, organism (organismal activity)  (Figure 2). The one is three-dimensional and dynamic. It is graphically made with 3ds Max. The Model can demonstrate all psychological paradigms and social processes.

Fig. 2 Structure of the Model: 1 – external layer (denotes behavior and organismal activity), 2 – "desire-goal" matrix, 3 – dynamic block of psyche, 4 – stationary block of psyche, 5 – growth direction of the Model, 6 - environment

Four-Dimensional Psychophysical Model can be applied for modeling of:  human psyche, brain and behavior (Figure 3);  psychological theories. For example, Polikarpov's theory (Theory of Temporal Feedback) that explains the possibility of the future prediction (Figure 4) [1];  physical theories. For example, Fontana's theory (The Four Space-times Model of Reality) and Shulman's theory (Spherical Expanding Universe Theory) that explain structure of the Universe (Figure 5) [2, 3]. We briefly have modeled only three point of time in the context of human activity, but for a detailed modeling we need to analyze the huge number of such moments. Necessary to create a computer program to demonstrate the dynamics of the whole of human activity. This program will take into account the full range of determinants of mental activity. This program will be able to describe in detail the structure of the psyche, human physiology, his behavior and the environment in general. The creation of this program is a priority direction in the development of the Model, because the simulation of single sections is time-consuming and complicated work. The integration paradigms must be accurate, compact, laconic, otherwise the integration will not give anything except a methodological confusion. Our Model is simple, but it includes everything needed for modeling a general psychological scientific knowledge. The Model especially designed maximum open. For example, the number of components of a stationary block of psyche and their contents are not strictly defined. This enables to find a lot of areas of intersection of scientific knowledge. A detailed version of the Model (with a demonstration of the dynamics of the nervous system) integrates psychological knowledge and neurobiology. Also, in the integration of scientific knowledge, we can describe diversity of its philosophical foundation. It reinforces the general methodological foundation of Model. Let us describe the Four-Dimensional Psychophysical Model of Reality using the figure (Figure 3). Let us take modeling of single point in time in the context of the overall activity of human. This is an example of a possible structure of the Model. In the figure indicated: a – location of human in the space at the moment ‫ݐ‬௔ (this figure may include an human's environment), b – sphere model (shows content of the human psyche at the moment ‫ݐ‬௔ ), c – model of human brain (we can describe

physiological processes), d – general model of psyche, e – dinamical model of psyche, side-view, with the map of consciousness (shown only a process of thinking).

Fig. 3. Structure of Four-Dimensional Psychophysical Model of Reality: 1 - stationary block of psyche, 2 - external layer of model (denotes behavior and organismal activity), 3 - dynamic block of psyche, 4 - growth direction of model, 5 - transition of the external world into the psyche, 6 - process of thinking, 7 - other psychological processes involved in map of consciousness, 8 - influence of stationary block of psyche on psychical activity, 9 - conscious part of the dynamic block of psyche, 10 - unconscious part of the dynamic block of psyche

Perspectives of the Model application:  Creating a computer program based on the Model;  Integration and systematization of global psychological knowledge;  Interdisciplinary dialogue with the use of the Model. Versions of computer program based on the Model:  "Home Psychologist" version. Will be used for personal use. Everyone will be able to understand the own inner world and the causes of the all own actions, to get psychological counseling via Internet, and to create the own psychological map;  Version for business. Will include testing of employees and monitor their mental state for optimization of working capacity;

 Version for science. Will be intended for professional psychologists. This version will be a big psychological guide. Conditions for research, discussion and interpretation of results will be created.

Fig. 4. Polikarpov's Theory of Temporal Feedback: 1 - index of an event, 2 - external layer of the model (denotes behavior and organismal activity), 3 - stationary block of psyche, 4 - dynamic block of psyche, 5 – an object related to the future event, 6 - an object into the human psyche, 7 - growth direction of the model, 8 - the first "desire-goal" matrix (sleep), 9 - temporal feedback, 10 - attractor, 11 - the second "desiregoal" matrix (thinking of sleep after waking up), 12 - the third "desire-goal" matrix (an event related to the object), 13 - transition of an object to the human psyche, 14 - organismal activity associated with the object, 15 - "space" of an event

Fig. 5. Fontana's theory and Shulman's theory: 1 - four space-times, 2 - motion our universe along -axis, 3 - continuum of -frames, 4 - frame is the present, 5 - -frames are the future, 6 - growth direction of the model, 7 - -frame is the past, 8 - -frame is the present, 9 - -frame is the future, 10 - -frames are the past, 11 - -frame is the present, 12 - dynamic block of psyche, 13 - external layer of the model (denotes behavior and organismal activity), 14 - stationary block of psyche, 15 - inflow of matter, energy and information from white hole towards black hole, 16 - black holes, 17 - influx of energy to the internal supermassive black holes, 18 - our universe is a three-dimensional membrane (three-dimensional black hole) between outer a four-dimensional super-universe and a giant black hole, 19 - space of a giant black hole, 20 - super-universe (white hole), 21 direction of sphere increasing

Four-Dimensional Psychophysical Model of Reality may cooperate with physics, biology (in particular neurobiology), sociology, philosophy, and other sciences. The Model can demonstrate extensive scientific knowledge and explain human behavior. The Model can create new practical theory. References: 1.

2. 3.

Polikarpov V.A. Theory of Temporal Feedback (in Russ.) / Library of Electronic Publications, Institute for Time Nature Explorations, Lomonosov Moscow State University. http://www.chronos.msu.ru/RREPORTS/Polikarpov_teoriatemporalnoi.pdf Fontana G. The Four Space-times Model of Reality // AIP Conference Proceedings. 2005. Vol. 746 (1). P.1403. Shulman M.H. Cosmology and metabolism (in Russ.) / Library of Electronic Publications, Institute for Time Nature Explorations, Lomonosov Moscow State University. http://www.chronos.msu.ru/RREPORTS/shulman_metabolizm.pdf

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DIAGNOSTICS OF BIOMEDICAL AGENTS BY PHOTONIC - PLASMONIC MICRORESONATOR SENSORS A.V. SAETCHNIKOV Belarusian State University, Minsk, Belarus [email protected] Fluid pumping cell for plasmonic – photonic microcavity sensor for label-free bio-molecule detection and identification has been developed and tested on drugs, drugs with gold nanoparticle solutions and additional gold layer. Experimental data on optical resonance spectra of whispering gallery modes of dielectric microspheres in antibiotic solutions, gold nanoparticle solutions under varied in wide range of concentration are represented. Several antibiotics of different generations: Amoxicillin, Azithromycin, Cephazolin, Chloramphenicol, Levofloxacin, Lincomicin Benzylpenicillin, Riphampicon both in de-ionized water and physiological solution had been used for measurements. Drag identification had been performed by developed multilayer perceptron network. For a network training the method of the back propagation error in various modifications had been used. Input vectors corresponded to 6 classes of biological substances under investigation. The result of classification was considered as positive when each region, representing a certain substance in a space: relative spectral shift of an optical resonance maxima - relative efficiency of excitation of WGM, had a single border.

Key words: Drug identification, WGM optical resonance, antibiotics, multilayer perceptron network 1. INTRODUCTION Label-free biomolecule detection in sensing systems based on evanescent wave optical sensors is recently under very intensive development [1. 2]. Recently a number of evanescent wave optical sensors have been developed and used for label-free biomolecule detection in sensing systems with extremely high sensitivity [3–8]. A novel emerging method for the label-free analysis of nanoparticles and biomolecules in liquid fluids using optical micro cavity resonance of whispering-gallerytype modes is being developed [9–12]. Several schemes of experimental realization of the method have been tested [14–17]. The sensitivity of the developed scheme has been tested by monitoring the whispering gallery mode spectral shift. Water solutions of ethanol, HCl, glucose, vitamin C and biotin have been used [14–17]. Particular efforts were made for an optimal geometry for micro resonance observation under extremely low power of tunable laser exciting resonance. It was demonstrated that optical resonance under optimal geometry could be detected under the laser power of less than 1 microwatt. Material of microsphere the most appropriate for microbial application was also under investigation. Resonance shifts of C reactive protein water solutions as well as albumin solutions in pure water and with HCI modeling blood have been investigated in developed experimental geometry [14–17]. Introducing controlled amount of nanoparticles (50 nm in diameter glass gel solution) into microsphere surrounding was accompanied also by correlative resonance shift. The most attention was concentrated on development of a technique for recognition and identification of nanoparticles and biomolecules in liquid fluids [8–13]. We demonstrated that the only spectral shift is not sufficient for identification of biological agents by developed approach. So classifier based on probabilistic neural network and perceptron neural network for biological agents and micro/nano particles classification has been developed [8–13]. It was tested on solutions of different biological agents. The aim is to create a new ultra-sensitive platform for automated monitoring and diagnosis of biological objects using a photonic-plasmonic resonators. To reach this aim requires:  To create compact experimental setup  Standardization and automation of experiment  Fast and optimal processing of resolved information.  To increase sensitivity of microresonator

2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP Several schemes of sensor cell for reliable detection have been developed and tested. The optimized technique is the following. Standard biocompatible polymer or glass microspheres are used as sensitive elements. They are fixed in the solution flow by thin adhesive layer on the surface being in the field of evanescence wave. Compact spin-coater system (Spincoater P670) with digital dosage was used to put and dry previously a thin film of adhesive on the surface of substrate or directly on the coupling element (Menzel - Glaeser 200 Deckglaeser 20x20) (Fig.1). After that, microspheres were superimposed on the surface of adhesive layer and final drying procedure by free solvent evaporation during 12 hours followed. Under optimized experimentally parameters of the process microspheres were reliably fixed as it was tested (Fig.2). Nevertheless, we test each covering glass with microspheres by use microscope to find some broken microspheres and to check film quality. The most part of their surface appeared in contact with tested solution and so can react to solution. To combine optical with plasmon resonance gold nanoparticles injected directly into solution or thin film gold layers deposited on the substrate before adhesive have been used. The spheres used in these experiments were 50 ÷ 120 micron in diameter. The light from a tunable diode laser (New Focus 6308, 680 nm) is coupled into the microsphere through a prism (Fig.3). Laser beam was sharply focused on the single microsphere to increase the contrast and intensity of the resonance scattering signal and decrease a power. Due to these only few microwatt of CW laser power was enough to register resonance spectra. Rectangular or equilateral prisms with refractive index 1.51 and 1.72 have been used as coupling element. Micromechanical system for adjustment of laser excitation to meet requirements of both optical whispering gallery mode (WGM) and plasmon resonances has been developed. This micromechanical system have been used to search for the microsphere on which the laser beam is focused. It is easy to find needed microsphere, when laseroutput synchronization-mode were used. The microsphere is submerged into a fluidic cell and brought into contact with the prism.

Fig.1. Compact spin-coating system

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Fig.2.Adhesive layer with fixed microspheres (a) and the same - 1 with optical coupling element - 2 (b)

The cell contains initially de-ionized (DI) water or physiological solution. To vary the refractive index, a solution of ethanol and water is incrementally added to the fluidic cell with a digital syringe. Solutions of antibiotics of several generation or gold NP gels have been incrementally added to the fluidic cell also with a digital syringe. Following each injection, the WGM modes are monitored until equilibrium is reached, and then, the subsequent injection is made.

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Fig. 3. Scheme of experimental geometry of a sensitive sell with a detector (a) and a complete set-up (b). 1 – microsphere, 2 – adhesive layer, 3 – coupling element (prism), 4 – CMOS camera, 5 – fluid pumping chamber, 6 – sensitive sell/detector unit, 7- tuneable laser, 8 – laser power supply, 9 – digital dosage system, 10 – computer

To observe the WGM, the laser repeatedly scans across a spectral range of approximately 3 nm at a frequency of about 0.1 nm/s (this parameters could be changed). Light scattered by the micro-

sphere is collected through a microscope lens by a CMOS camera (VRmagic VRmC-3+ PRO) and monitored with a data acquisition card and computer (Fig.3). When the wavelength of the tuneable laser corresponds to a resonance of the sphere, the power of the light scattered by the micro sphere increases, and a spectral maximum indicating the WGM spectral position is recorded. The width of such a resonance after filtering is used to estimate the resonance quality. The sensitivity of the scheme was tested to determine refractive index variation by monitoring the magnitude of the whispering gallery modes (WGM) spectral shift as in [16–19]. General overview of the experimental set up is represented on the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. General overview of the experimental set up

3. EXPERIMENT AUTOMATION Software package was designed to automate the experimental process, as well as for the processing of the obtained results. Software environment Matlab was selected, as the basis of the development environment and the implementation of the package, Library Image Acquisition Toolboox which were connected to the library VRmUsbCamSDK to capture video from the camera. The GUIDE package MATLAB 8.0.0.783 (R2012b) for Microsoft Windows ® is used to build a graphical interface. A significant advantage of MATLAB is optimization of core, implemented in the programming language C + +, for mathematical calculations with matrices, which rapidly increases the speed of data analysis. The software package includes the following functional elements to perform an experiment:  Connection to the laser controller (via selected Com-port at a specific port configuration);  Control parameters of the laser beam (change of power of the laser, tuning range of the laser, speed of adjustment, setting the current wavelength mode, on / off external synchronization, start / stop the scan mode.);  Connect to the camera and capture data (searches for cameras on all available usb-ports);  Control the camera settings (exposure, gain, clock);  Display real time video;  saving obtained results (saved in a video file format *. avi, and information about lost frames). The software package allows to perform complete experiment by one click (synchronously starts the capture of data from the camera and the adjustment of the laser beam). The software package includes the following functional elements for processing obtained results:

 Loading data (load *. avi-file as with no information about the lost frames, and with the in-

formation about the lost frames);  Calculation of the intensity over the selected area(s) with a microcavity(s) with subsequent normalization (selects the resonance area, for which is calculated energy. Normalization performs after processing the entire video.);  Construction of the resonance spectrum and the allocation of free spectral range (FSR) for each video sequence;  calculation of parameters (relative spectral shift, relative efficiency);  neural network classification (perceptron);

Fig. 5. The main window of the software package (in the window is the current video stream)

Most part of the parameters of the analysis are entered by the user via a standard windowing operating systems Windows ® (Fig. 5.). Output of intermediate and final results performed in the form of graphs and external objects (databases to allow analysis of the results, summary tables). It is possible to save the results of the analysis of the data as image files. Intermediate and final results of the analysis can be saved in a special format. It is possible to open and explore final data. 4. CLASSIFIER BASED ON NEURAL NETWORKS Here is represented an improved version of classifier based on multilayer perceptron and results of data processing for antibiotics of different generation in various solutions. A constructing a qualifier on the basis of a neural network has been passed following stages:  data preprocessing  network designing and training  diagnostics of a network performance We will explain below in more details listed stages, with reference to the decision of our problem. Data preprocessing: The data were obtained in the form of the video file form camera in a format *.avi. All sequence was broken into frames where the area of a resonance was allocated in each frame. Example of one frame is given on Fig. 6 a), on the images left side resonance area was allocated. The image was filtered for noise reduction and integrated on two coordinates for evaluation of integrated energy of a measured signal (Fig. 6 b)).

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Fig. 6. Example of frame for analysis. a) – original frame; b) – frame with selected resonance area; c) – calculated energy of signal

The technique to determine parameters of solutions of the biological agents, based on WGM optical resonance is described in detail in [13, 14]. As the entrance data following signal parameters were used: relative (to a free spectral range) spectral shift (  R ) of frequency of WGM optical resonance in microsphere and relative efficiency of WGM excitation ( I R ) obtained within a free spectral range which depended on both type concentration of investigated agents. The data before submitting on a network input ware pre-processed (normalized and standardized). They were calculated as:

 R  ( max - 0 max ) /  FSR , (1) IR 



I ( ) / I max d , (2)

FSR

where I ( ) – intensity of the radiation disseminated by microsphere on the frequency  ,  FSR – free spectral range, I max – the maximum intensity of the radiation disseminated by microsphere within a free spectral interval,  max – frequency with maximum intensity of the radiation,  0max – frequency with maximum intensity of the radiation in pure water or physiological solution. Then we broke the data set into two subsets – training and tested (randomly). Spectrum structure were fairly complicated due to relatively high Q factor (~ 105), but identification of resonance maxima and their spectral shifts have been surely evaluated. Multiple store of spectrum with statistical preprocessing have been used. All the experiments were performed using the same microsphere as a sensitive sell. Network designing and training: The network topology was designed: a number of the hidden layers of multi-layered perceptron, a number of neurons in each of layers, a method of training of a neural network, activation functions of layers, type and size of a deviation of the received values from required values. For a network training the method of the back propagation error in various

modifications has been used. Input vectors correspond to number of biological substances under investigation. Diagnostics of a network performance: The result of classification was considered as positive when each of the region, representing a certain substance in a space: relative spectral shift of an optical resonance maxima - relative efficiency of excitation of WGM, was singly connected. To obtain three-dimensional classification diagram with maximum accuracy all experimental data were used. It is possible to increase the accuracy of an assessment by increasing experimental sampling with a smaller step of a concentration variation. 5. RESULTS 5.1 WGM resonance spectra of biological agents The sensitivity to refractive index changes of the microsphere sensor system is determined by monitoring the magnitude of the WGM spectral shift when a known quantity of ethanol is added to the solution (Fig. 7). The change of the refractive index for each injection of ethanol is calculated from reference data. The mixing process is completed as soon as the frequency shift is stabilized (steady-state value). The steady-state spectral shift of WGM’s correlates very well linearly with variation in concentration. The expected WGM spectral shift can be calculated theoretically from the asymptotic relation between wavelength and refractive index. Estimated sensitivity is approximately 30 nm/RIU. The detection limit of our system can be calculated from this sensitivity. Due to extremely narrow (300 kHz) laser line width, it is expected that we can resolve 1/20th to 1/50th of the WGM line width. For a high Q-factor (25000 - 30000), this results in a refractive index detection limit of the order of 10-7 RIU, which is comparable to or even better than surface plasmon resonances or waveguide-based sensors. The change in refractive index per 1% (w/w) variation of ethanol is 0.0002 RIUs. It should be pointed out that due to the relatively low Q – factor in the geometry under consideration and the possibility to affect the coupling between the prism and the sphere by moving the sphere over the surface of the prism it was possible to record resonance spectra with only a few modes (even single).

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Fig. 7. Resonance spectra (a) for 0, 6.5 and 12.3 % of ethanol in water; spectral shift (b) and RE (c) of WGM resonances for water/ethanol solutions

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Figure 8. Resonance spectra (a) for 0, 0.8, 1.4, 2.2 and 2.5 % of glucose solution; spectral shift (b) and RE (c) of WGM resonances for water/ glucose solutions

Resonance spectra of WGM, spectral shift and RE for water solution of glucose are represented in Fig. 8. Obtained experimental data demonstrate excellent capability of a microsphere resonator to measure the refractive index of liquids. Spectral shift depends linearly on glucose concentration and RE increases monotonically on glucose concentration.The microsphere can achieve similar or even better results than typical waveguide-based sensors while requiring only a sample volume of pico-

liters. The high sensitivity and low sample consumption are excellent characteristics for lab-on-achip systems. 5.2 Antibiotic solutions and mixtures The next step was the investigation of antibiotic solutions. In this part of paper results for penicillin solution (concentration 0.6 g pro 10 ml) and cefatoxin solution (concentration 0.5 mg pro 10 ul water) are represented. Other types of antibiotic solutions are also analyzed. Resonance spectra, spectral shift and RE for water solution of penicillin are represented in the Fig. 9. Resonance spectra, spectral shift and RE for water solution of cefatoxin are represented in the Fig. 10. Some features can be observed. It can be seen, that variation of penicillin concentration on the level of around 5,4 g/l and cefatoxin concentration on the level of around 2,27 g/l can be surely detected. The power of the excitation beam can be extremely low (a few microwatt). This is good for biological agents in situ. On the other hand, the resonance spectra are relatively complicated due to the high Q-factor and the sharp focusing. Spectral shift depends linearly on the penicillin solution concentration, and relative efficiency does not depend significantly on the concentration of glucose. Spectral shift depends exponentially on the cefatoxin concentration but RE decreases while cefatoxin concentration increases. This means that it is impossible to determine the difference between the concentrations of cefatoxin while working with high concentrations of cefatoxin. One can see maxima of several modes, which depends on the type of microresonator. Such a resonance spectrum is rather complicated for data evaluation, but most of the maxima could be recognised and the shift of the peaks caused by variation of antibiotic concentration can be determined.

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Figure 9. Resonance spectra (a) for 0, 9, 16 and 28 % of penicillin solution in water; spectral shift (b) and RE (c) of WGM resonances for water/penicillin solutions

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Figure 10. Resonance spectra (a) for 0, 0.4, 1.1, 1.8, 2.5 and 3 % of cefatoxim solution in water; spectral shift (b) and RE (c) of WGM resonances for water/cefatoxim solutions

5.3 Results for neural network data processing Spectral data have been processed by procedures explained above and the results of classification by neural network have been represented as three dimensional diagram of a certain drug concentration, identified by neural network and depend on two WGM optical resonance parameters. Estimated sensitivity of the method was about 6 mkg/l. Optimized parameters for classification of agents under investigation were the following: the maximum number of training cycles – 50000; training criterion of 0.00001, activation function for all layers – nonlinear sigmoidal logistic type (logsig). For training of a network the method of gradient descent with adaptation of speed of training parameter (GDA), number of the hidden layers – 3 with 17 neurons in each was used. In the input and output layers the number of neurons corresponded to dimension of input and output signals (2 for input and 1 for output). 11212 epochs of training were required for a training of a network. Results of classification Benzylpenicillin, Cefazolin, Amoxicillin, Azithromycin, Chloramphenicol, Levofloxacin in de-ionized water and physiological solution are represented on the Figures 11, 12.

Fig. 11. Results of classification for water solution of Amoxicillin (1), Azithromycin (2), Cefazolin (3), Chloramphenicol (4), Levofloxacin (5), Lincomicin (6), Benzylpenicillin (7), Riphampicon (8)

Fig. 12. Results of classification for physiological solution of Amoxicillin (1), Azithromycin (2), Cefazolin (3), Chloramphenicol (4), Levofloxacin (5), Benzylpenicillin (6)

Using specially developed procedure of data classification two input parameters were coupled to concentration of solutions. Similar procedures described above can be applied to get a general instrumentation for antibiotic classification in both solvents. As a result the neural network constructed by developed algorithm, classified antibiotics of different generations with accuracy till 99 %. 5.4 Influence of plasmonic nanoparticles and layers on WGM resonance spectra of biological agents New opportunity to improve a sensitivity of a label - free biomolecule detection in sensing systems based on microcavity evanescent wave optical sensors has been recently found and is being under intensive development. Novel technique based on combination of optical resonance on microring structures with plasmon resonance. Developed technique used standard glass polymer microspheres as sensitive elements. They are fixed in the solution flow by adhesive layer on the surface being in the field of evanescence wave. To improve a sensitivity of microring structures microspheres fixed by adhesive had been treated previously by gold nanoparticle solution. Another technique used thin film gold layers deposited on the substrate below adhesive. Both biomolecules and NP injection was obtained caused WGM spectra modification. But after NP treatment spectral shift and intensity of WGM resonances in biomolecule solutions increased. WGM resonances in microspheres fixed on substrate with gold layer with optimized layer thickness

in biomolecule solutions also had higher intensity and spectra modification then without gold layer. So combining advantages of plasmon enhancing optical microcavity resonance with identification tools can give a new platform for ultra sensitive label-free biomedical sensor. CONCLUSION Thus, a techniques of detection and identification of drugs on the basis of spectroscopy of an optical resonance of WGM has been developed. Reasonability of the use of multilayered perceptron for processing and interpretation of the data obtained by a biosensor based on WGM optical resonance has been confirmed. In the last decade surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors have made great strides both in terms of technology and its applications. SPR biosensors have become a central tool for study of molecular interactions and have been widely used for detection of chemical and biological analytes. Food analysis belongs to major areas of potential applications of SPR biosensors. Therefore, numerous SPR biosensors for detection of analyses implicated in food safety (e.g. pathogens, toxins, drug residues, vitamins, hormones, chemical contaminants, and allergens) have been developed. Influences of biomolecules and NP injection on WGM shift looked competitive, but further studies are needed to make a final conclusion. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

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14.

15. 16. 17.

F. Vollmer and S. Arnold, "Whispering-gallery-mode biosensing: label-free detection down to single molecules," Nat. Meth., vol. 5, pp. 591–596, 2008. X. D. Fan, I. M. White, S. I. Shopoua, H. Y. Zhu, J. D. Suter, and Y. Z. Sun, “Sensitive optical biosensors for unlabeled targets: A review,” Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 620, pp. 8–26, 2008. A. B. Matsko and V. S. Ilchenko, “Optical resonators with whispering-gallery modes—Part I: Basics,” IIEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron., vol. 12, no 1, pp. 3–14, 2006. V. S. Ilchenko and A. B. Matsko, “Optical resonators with whispering-gallery modes—Part II: Applications,”IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron., vol. 12, no 1, pp. 15–32, 2006. M. A. Santiago-Cordoba, M. Cetinkaya, S. V. Boriskina, F. Vollmer, M. C. Demirel, “Ultrasensitive detection of a protein by optical trapping in a photonic-plasmonic microcavity,” J. Biophotonics, vol. 5, no 8–9, pp. 629–638, 2012. S. Arnold, V. R. Dantham, C. Barbre, B. A. Garetz, X. Fan, “Periodic plasmonic enhancing epitopes on a whispering gallery mode biosensor” Optics express, vol. 20, no 24, pp. 26147-26160. 2012. V. R. Dantham, S. Holler, V. Kolchenko, Z. Wan and S. Arnold, “Taking whispering gallery-mode single virus detection and sizing to the limit,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 101, pp. 043704-1–043704-4, 2012. M. Baaske and F. Vollmer, “Optical Resonator Biosensors: Molecular Diagnostic and Nanoparticle Detection on an Integrated Platform,” Chem. Phys. Chem., vol. 13, pp. 427 – 436, 2012. V.A. Saetchnikov, E.A. Tcherniavskaia, G. Schweiger and A. Ostendorf,” Classification of the micro and nanoparticles and biological agents by neural network analysis of the parameters of optical resonance of whispering gallery mode in dielectric microspheres,”, Proceeding of the SPIE, vol. 8090, - pp. 80900R1- 80900R11, 2011. E.A. Tcherniavskaia, V.A. Saetchnikov, ”Application of neural networks for classification of biological compounds from the characteristics of whispering-gallery-mode optical resonance,” Journal of Applied Spectroscopy, vol. 78, no 3, pp. 457-460, 2011. V.A. Saetchnikov, E.A. Tcherniavskaia, G. Schweiger, A. Ostendorf and A.V. Saetchnikov, “Neural Network analysis of the resonance whispering gallery mode characteristics of biological agents,” Nonlinear Phenomena in Complex Systems, vol. 14, no 3, pp. 253–263, 2011. V. A. Saetchnikov, E. A. Tcherniavskaia, G. Schweiger and A. Ostendorf, „Classification of antibiotics by neural network analysis of optical resonance data of whispering gallery modes in dielectric microsphere”, Nanophotonics IV, Proceeding of the SPIE, vol. 8424, pp. 345-356, 2012. Vladimir A. Saetchnikov ; Elina A. Tcherniavskaia ; Anton V. Saetchnikov ; Gustav Schweiger and Andreas Ostendorf " Drag detection and identification by whispering gallery mode optical resonance based sensor ", Proc. SPIE 8801, Novel Biophotonic Techniques and Applications II, 880108 (June 18, 2013); E.A. Tcherniavskaia, V.A. Saetchnikov, “Detection and identification of microparticles/nanoparticles and blood components using optical resonance of whispering-gallery modes in microspheres,” Journal of Applied Spectroscopy, vol. 77, no 5, pp. 692699, 2010. V.A. Saetchnikov, E.A. Tcherniavskaia, “Using optical resonance of whispering gallery modes in microspheres for real-time detection and identification of biological compounds,” Journal of Applied Spectroscopy, vol. 77, no 5, pp. 714-721, 2010. V.A. Saetchnikov, E.A. Tcherniavskaia, “Analysis of the biochemical composition of biological tissue in vivo by the diffuse light scattering method,” Journal of Applied Spectroscopy, vol. 77, no 6, pp. 878-886, 2011. V.A. Saetchnikov, E.A. Tcherniavskaia, G. Schweiger and A. Ostendorf, “Optical micro resonance based sensor schemes for detection and identification of nano particles and biological agents in situ,” Nanophotonics III, Proceeding of the SPIE, vol. pp. 7712, 771221-771232, 2010.

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FENUGREEK CELL CULTURE IN VITRO AS A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF PHENOLIC ANTIOXIDANTS H. O. LOHVINA, V. M. YURIN Abstract. In this study potential of fenugreek cell lines as alternative source of phenolic antioxidants was evaluated. Callus lines were initiated from leaves and stems of Ovari 4 and PSZ.G.SZ fenugreek varieties. Their growth was enhanced by optimisation of nutrient medium composition. The study of dynamic of cell growth and production of phenolic compounds in optimal nutrient media allow us to determine that the maxima of biomass accumulation in the calli coincide with high-level synthesis of phenolics. The maximal total phenolics and antioxidant activity of fenugreek callus lines were compared to these characteristics of leaves, stems and seeds of both fenugreek varieties. It was found that leaf callus of fenugreek variety Ovari 4 is most productive cell line with nearly the same amount of phenolics as fenugreek organs and seeds. Strong positive correlation between total phenolics and antioxidant properties of the calli indicates a key role of phenolic compounds as antioxidants in free radical scavenging. Therefore, the high producing cell line has potent to be used for phenolic antioxidant production.

Key words: fenugreek, callus, total phenolics, antioxidant activity, positive correlation 1. INTRODUCTION Phenolics constitute a large group of plant secondary metabolites that includes compounds from simple phenol molecules to polymeric structures. Phenolic phytochemicals are actively involved in redox processes, boosting immunity and growth regulation [1; 2]. They also protect plants against the negative effects of stress being powerful antioxidants, which prevent free-radical oxidation of the DNA molecules, proteins and lipids [3; 4]. Because of strong antioxidant activity they act as anticancer, cardioprotective, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and neuroprotective agents [5; 6; 7; 8; 9]. Phenolics are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. However, their amount, qualitative composition, quantitative ratio and, consequently, the pharmacological effects exhibited by extracts containing phenolics are species-specific [2]. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) is one of the oldest cultivated food, condiment and medicinal herbs. This is an annual plant belonging to the Fabaceae family. Fenugreek is native to the Mediterranean region, but now it is widely cultivated in warm temperate and tropical regions such as west and South Asia, North Africa, parts of Central and South Europe, Australia, North and South America [10; 11, c. 260-262]. It demonstrates pronounced antidiabetic [12], anticarcinogenic [13; 14], antihypertensive [15], immunomodulating [16], and other therapeutic effects. Its pharmacological activity is related to a number of biologically active substances, including phenolic compounds [11, p. 260-262; 17]. It was found positive correlation between polyphenolic content in fenugreek seeds and strong free radical scavenging ability [18; 19]. Fenugreek seed polyphenols protect DNA molecules against UV-C radiation. It also protects lipid complex of mitochondria and antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase from destruction initiated by hydrogen peroxide [20]. They prevent oxidative damage to red blood cells [21; 22] and play a significant role in maintaining both content and properties of collagen in alcohol-damaged liver cell [23]. Premanath et al. (2011) suggested that fenugreek leaves are also rich in phenolics, and can be a rich source of these metabolites, along with the seeds [24]. They also found that the ethanol extract of T. foenum-graecum leaves exhibits antioxidant properties and strong antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter. Due to high concentration of phenolics and intensity of antioxidant effects this herb has potential to be used as a raw material for production of natural phenolic antioxidant complex. An alternative approach, which can provide industrialists with cheap and abundant fenugreek-derived substances, is the development and optimisation of procedures for the cell cultures. This technique not only provide means for getting high value natural plant products from cell culture in commercial scale, but also can overcome many problems associated with industrial production of these phytochemicals by extraction from field grown plants (mass cultivated or natural populations). In cultures, factory-type production of natural compounds can be carried out throughout the year, unaffected by the season. The risk of crop failure due to natural hazards and the danger of extinction of

some species due to their mass extraction from natural populations are eliminated. As a result of optimisation and standardisation of cultivation conditions a plant cell culture may produce higher amounts of the products than the intact plants from which they are derived [25; 26]. Thus, fenugreek cell culture is of great interest as a perspective source of phenolic compounds for natural antioxidants production. For the potential use of plant cell culture technology in pharmaceutical manufacturing a highproducing suspension culture is needed. Such suspension cultures are normally obtained from calli with high biomass productivity as well as significant biosynthetic activity. These characteristics depend on the origin of cultures in vitro, in particular, the type of primary explants and plant variety, and cultivation conditions [25]. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to achieve good growth of four fenugreek callus cell lines (leaf and stem originated of T. foenum-graecum variety Ovari 4 and PSZ.G.SZ) and select most productive cell line with higher phenolic content and antioxidant activity. With regards to the purpose, we investigated effect of phytohormones and sucrose concentrations on growth of fenugreek calli to optimise media composition. Then, cell growth in the optimal nutrient media was characterised and total phenolic content in the calli was evaluated during growth cycle to determine maximum accumulation of biomass and phenolic compounds. In order to identify best cell line of fenugreek that has potential to be used for suspension culture initiation we determined antioxidant activity of the calli in the maxima of growth and phenolic synthesis, and compared total phenolics and free radical scavenging ability in the calli and fenugreek plants. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Callus cultures

Seeds of T. foenum-graecum tax. conc. spring-summer variety Ovari 4 and tax. conc. winter variety PSZ.G.SZ were from Professor Shandor Makai’s collection (Department of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the University of West Hungary). Winter and spring fenugreek varieties have been aseptically cultivated during 4-5 weeks. Leaf and stem fragments have been excised from these plants and cultivated in medium with phytohormones (auxin and cytokinin) to initiate callus formation [25; 27]. As a result, we obtained four primary callus cell lines: leaf originated of variety Ovari 4 (FO-L callus), stem originated of variety Ovari 4 (FO-S callus), leaf originated of variety PSZ.G.SZ (FP-L callus), and stem originated of variety PSZ.G.SZ (FP-S callus) [28]. 2.2 Cultivation conditions

Cultivation of the calli has been carried out in the dark in thermostat at 24.5°C [25]. 2.3 Basal medium

The basal medium contained full strength Murashige and Skoog medium [29], 3% sucrose and 0.08% microbiology grade agar (pH 5.7-5.8 adjusted with NaOH/HCl) [30]. 2.4 Phytohormone combinations

Cytokinin kinetin and auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (1 and 2 mg/l) have been applied in four combinations for examination of phytohormone concentration influence on callus growth: 1 mg/l 2,4-D and kinetin, 1 mg/l 2,4-D and 2 mg/l kinetin, 2 mg/l 2,4-D and 1 mg/l kinetin, 2 mg/l 2,4-D and kinetin. 2.5 Sucrose concentrations

Media, containing optimal combinations of phytohormones, were used to find out the effect of sucrose concentration on growth activity. Here four concentrations of sucrose were tested: 2, 3, 4 and 5%. 2.6 Growth characteristics

Specific growth rate has been determined to examine growth activity of calli under influence of different concentrations of phytohormones and sucrose in nutrient media. Growth index has been

determined at day 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 29, 32, 35, 40 of cultivation to construct callus growth curve [31; 32]. 2.7 Plant material

Seeds, leaves and stems of fenugreek variety Ovari 4 (FO) and variety PSZ.G.SZ (FP) were used to estimate biosynthetic and antioxidant potential of the calli. To obtain above-ground biomass fenugreek seeds were couched and plat out. Plant were cultivated in phytostat conditions (14 h light/10 h dark) at room temperature and light intensity of 3000 lux till stage of seed formation. Then top part of plants was collected. Leaves and stems of both fenugreek varieties were washed in distilled water, dried at 60 °C and powdered. Fenugreek seeds were also washed in distilled water, dried at room temperature and powdered. 2.8 Extraction procedure

In order to conduct biochemical analysis fenugreek callus tissues were sampled 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 29, 32, 35, 40 days after subculture, dried at 60 °C and powdered. Plant material (0.1 g) was mixed with 70% ethanol, placed in a rotary shaker at 120 rpm at room temperature for 24 hours and then heated at 70°C for 1 h on a water bath to increase effectiveness of the extraction process. The samples were filtered through whatman filter paper. Extracts were centrifuged at 3500 g for 15 min. Supernatant was used in further experiments. For extract preparation from fenugreek organs (leaves and stems) and seeds, the same procedure was applied. 2.9 Determination of the total phenolics

Total phenolic content was determined spectrophotometrically using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (FCR) method [33]. This method is based on the reduction of FCR by phenolics with formation of blue colored reaction products showing maximum absorption at about 720-765 nm that mainly depends on type of phenolic compounds presented in solution and their ratio. 0.2 ml of the extract and 0.1 ml of FCR were added to 1.6 ml of distilled water. After 5 minutes 0.3 ml of 20% Na2CO3 was added to the solution. Sample then was mixed vigorously and kept in the dark for 2 hours. After incubation the solution was mixed with 2 ml of distilled water. The absorbance was immediately read at 750 nm against reagent blank with the use of UV-visible spectrophotometer. This wavelength corresponds to absorption maximum demonstrated by gallic acid that was used as a standard for calibration curve. The total phenolic content was expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry weight (mg GAE/g DW). 2.10 Free radical scavenging activity

The hydrogen atom or electron donation abilities of the extracts were measured from the bleaching of a purple-colored ethanol solution of the stable radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) [34]. To start the reaction 1 ml of 0.3 mM freshly DPPH prepared ethanol solution was added to 2.5 ml of the same extract that firstly was used for determination of the total phenolics. The sample was kept in the dark at room temperature for 30 min. The optical density of the solution was measured by spectrophotometer at experimentally found wavelength of 520 nm. To get a blank 1 ml of 96% ethanol was mixed with 2.5 ml of 70% ethanol. A negative control includes 1 ml of 0.3 mM DPPH solution and 2.5 ml of 70% ethanol. As positive control gallic acid was used which scavenges more 95% radicals DPPH in concentration of 0.004 mg/ml. Antioxidant potential of the extracts was expressed by percentage of inhibition activity (%I). 2.11 Statistical analysis

In all experiments, 3-4 independent replicates have been tested and statistically analysed (Student’s t test). P-values less than 0.05 have been considered to be statistically significant. Correlation between total phenolics and antioxidant activity was established by correlation analysis (with Pearson’s correlation coefficient).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Phytohormones auxins and cytokinins are essential for maintenance of cell culture growth [26; 35]. However optimal auxin and cytokinin concentrations are different for different cell lines. The optimal ratio of these hormones should be determined empirically [36]. Tests included examination of the effect of phytohormones (different concentrations of 2,4-D and kinetin). It was shown that the callus growth and biomass accumulation (measured after induction) varied in calli from different origins and different hormone mixtures. FO-L, FO-S, FP-L and FP-S calli demonstrated the most pronounced biomass increase in media containing 2 mg/l 2,4-D and kinetin, 1 mg/l 2,4-D and kinetin, 1 mg/l 2,4-D and 2 mg/l kinetin, 2 mg/l 2,4-D and kinetin, respectively (figure 1). The minimal and maximal specific growth rates have been found for FO-S cell line (0.014 day-1) and FP-L cell line (0.066 day-1), respectively. 0.08 1

0.07 Specific growth rate, day

-1

2 0.06

3 4

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 FP-L callus

FP-S callus

FO-L callus

FO-S callus

Varients of nutrient medium

Fig. 1. Effect of different combinations of 2,4-D and kinetin in the medium on growth of T. foenum-graecum calli: 1 – 1 mg/l 2,4-D + 1 mg/l kinetin; 2 – 2 mg/l 2,4-D + 1 mg/l kinetin; 3 – 1 mg/l 2,4-D + 2 mg/l kinetin; 4 – 2 mg/l 2,4-D + 2 mg/l kinetin

The next stage of our work was to examine the effect of carbohydrates on the growth rate of calli (carbohydrate optimisation stage). Sucrose is a key component of most commercial growth media that are used for cultivation of isolated plant cells and tissues [25; 36]. Here, the effects of several sucrose concentrations (2, 3, 4 and 5% sucrose) have been examined in media that were preliminary optimised for hormone combination (see above; figure 1). 4% sucrose has been found to be optimal for cultivation in all calli (figure 2). In some cases, addition of 5% sucrose resulted in similar or lower rate of biomass increase that was probably related to osmotic stress caused by this sucrose level [37; 38]. Overall, media supplied with 4 and 5% sucrose promoted 1.5-2.4-fold increase in growth rate of calli as compared to 2 and 3% sucrose-supplemented media. According to published data, the stimulatory effect of sucrose on plant cell culture growth is associated with increased availability of highly energetic organic substrate that can be directly used for anabolic reactions [39]. Sucrose has also been shown to increase the duration of the stationary phase of growth cycle, auxin production and enzyme activities of the pentose phosphate pathway [26]. It should also be noted that for FO-L, FP-L and FP-S cell lines specific growth rate was nearly 0.14 day-1, with the exception of FO-S callus which in spite of cultivation in optimal nutrient medium showed two times lower growth activity.

0.18 2%

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Sucrose concentration, %

Fig. 2. Effect of sucrose content in the medium on growth of T. foenum-graecum calli

After optimisation of nutrient medium composition for cultivation of fenugreek calli we determined their growth curves. It allows us to asses the activity of biomass accumulation at different stages of growth and to establish the optimal duration of cultivation. The growth of callus cultures is subject to general biological regularities. Typically, the growth curve of the callus is S-shaped, and includes a number of phases, which duration varies in different plant species [25]. А

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Fig. 3. Dynamic of biomass accumulation in T. foenum-graecum calli during growth cycle: A – FO-L callus; B – FO-S callus; C – FP-L callus; D – FP-S callus

It has been found that the growth curves of fenugreek calli had typical S-shaped (figure 3). The growth of cultures in vitro of fenugreek varieties differed by durations of the lag and log phase of growth cycle. FP-L and FP-S calli have not shown visible growth up to 5th days of cultivation (lag

phase), while the lag phase of growth of FO-L and FO-S calli was 2 times longer (10 days). After lag phase the cells entered log-growth phase. The log phase for all cultures was till 31 days of cultivation. Starting from 32 days the growth curves of the calli entered the stationary phase, when changes of the weight were minor. So we can conclude that the optimal duration of cultivation for all tested fenugreek calli is 35 days. After that period of cultivation indispensable to keeping the intensive growth of calluses is to transfer their fragments to the fresh nutrient medium. An important stage in cell culture study is a description of the features of biologically active compounds accumulation during growth cycle. Based on these results and knowing dynamic of biomass accumulation, we can determine the optimal time of cultivation that allow getting as much as possible biomass with highest content of target metabolites. The intensity of secondary metabolites synthesis depends on type of cell line and may considerably vary at different stages of cell culture growth. Thus, many plant cell cultures accumulate active constituents in large amounts in exponential phase or stationary phase of growth. However, some cell cultures in vitro demonstrate high level of secondary metabolism activity during all stages of growth cycle [40]. The dynamic of accumulation of phenolics in fenugreek calli during growth is presented in figure 4. A

B

12

12 10

Total phenolic content, mg GAE/g DW

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10 8 6 4 2 0

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Fig. 4. Dynamic of the accumulation of phenolic compounds in T. foenum-graecum calli during growth cycle: A – FO-L callus; B – FO-S callus; C – FP-L callus; D – FP-S callus

We found that content of phenolic compounds gradually increased during cultivation of FO-L and FO-S calli, reaching a maximum at the stationary growth phase (35th day of cultivation). While FP-L and FP-S calli were characterised by slight activation of the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds in the exponential phase of the growth cycle, after which the level of phenolics in the tissues did not significantly change. These results are consistent with the literature data, in accordance with which often there is an antagonism between cell proliferation and biosynthesis of phenolics, so cell cultures in vitro more intensively accumulate phenolic compounds when they are in the late stages of growth (late exponential and stationary phases) [40]. A high-producing plant cell culture is characterised by at least the same content of target metabolites as intact plant and, at the same time, it shows high values of growth. Therefore, evaluation of biosynthetic activity of fenugreek cultures in comparison with intact plants was the following stage of our research.

Total phenolic content, mg GAE/g DW

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 FP-L callus

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FO-S callus

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Fig. 5. Total phenolics in the calli, organs (leaves and stems) and seeds of T. foenum-graecum varieties

Total phenolic content in the leaves, stems and seeds of fenugreek varieties and level of phenolics in the calli were compared. We used value of total phenolics that was determined for calli in stationary phase of growth, because all studied cell lines reached maxima of accumulated biomass in this stage. It was found that total phenolic content in FO-L callus was 9.7 mg GAE/g DW, while total phenolics in the other calli ranged from 4.7 to 6.3 mg GAE /g DW weight (figure 5). So productivity of FO-L with respect to phenolic compounds was almost two times higher compared to other test calli. Moreover, this most producing callus had nearly the same amounts of phenolic content as seeds, leaves and stems of fenugreek varieties. Ethanol extract of FO-L callus line also demonstrated highest free radical scavenging activity among all tested cell lines and the same percent of DPPH inhibition as extracts of fenugreek organs (leaves and stems) and seeds (figure 6).

100

Inhibition of DPPH radicals, %

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 FP-L callus

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Fig. 6. Antioxidant activity of the extracts of the calli, organs (leaves and stems) and seeds of T. foenum-graecum varieties measured by DPPH radical scavenging assay

The relationship between total pnenolics and free radical scavenging ability of fenugreek calli and plant parts is presented in figure 7. A

B Inhibition of DPPH radicals, %

Inhibition of DPPH radicals, %

100

75

50 8

11 Total phenolic content, mg GAE/g DW

14

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30 4

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Fig. 7. Relationship between total phenolic content and antioxidant activities of the extracts of the calli, organs (leaves and stems) and seeds of T. foenum-graecum varieties measured by DPPH radical scavenging assay: A – FO and FB leaves, stems and seeds (r=0.940, p≤0.01); B – FO-L, FO-S, FP-L and FP-S calli (r=0.996, p≤0.005)

Correlation coefficients (r=0.940, p≤0.01) showed that a positive and highly significant correlation was observed between level of phenolic amounts and antioxidant activity for seeds, leaves and stems of fenugreek varieties that, as mentioned earlier, was also reported by Chatterjee et al. [18], Subhashini N. et al. [19] and Premanath et al. [24]. Highly significant positive correlation between total phenolic content and percent of DPPH inhibition was also found for fenugreek callus cell lines (r=0.996, p≤0.005). Strong positive correlation between total phenolics and antioxidant potential indicates a key role of phenolic compounds as antioxidants in free radical scavenging not only in fenugreek varieties, but also in callus cell lines. 4. CONCLUSION The screening of T. foenum-graecum calli obtained from leaf and stems of Ovari 4 and PSZ.G.SZ varieties in respect to phenolics shows that all cell lines accumulate these metabolites. Correlation analysis indicates that there is a positive correlation between total phenolic content and

DPPH radical scavenging ability of fenugreek callus tissues. Therefore, antioxidant potential of the cell lines is likely attributed to the presence of phenolic compounds. FO-L cell line (leaf originated of Ovari 4 variety) with high growth level is also characterised by highest amount of total phenolics that is equal to that of fenugreek plants. This high-productive callus cell line is greatest potential for initiation of suspension culture. Furthermore, in order to realise the possibility of using T. foenumgraecum suspension culture as a perspective source of phenolic antioxidants, detailed studies of growth characteristics, biochemical composition, purification of phenolic compounds and in vitro and in vivo examination of their antioxidant activity are required. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports by Belarusian Republican Foundation for Fundamental Research (Б13МС-028). References 1. Karakaya S., El S.N., Tas A.A. 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Polyphenol-rich extract of fenugreek seeds protect erythrocytes from oxidative damage // Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2004. V. 59. P. 143–147. 22. El-Malky W.A., Gouda H.A. Effect of green leaves and germination and boiling treatments of fenugreek and lupin seeds on chemical composition, serum glucose, lipid profile and hepatic enzymes of rats // Egyptian Journal of Biomedical Sciences. 2007. V. 23. P. 39–59. 23. Kaviarasan S., Viswanathan P., Anuradha C.V. Fenugreek seed (Trigonella foenum-graecum) polyphenols inhibit ethanolinduced collagen and lipid accumulation in rat liver // Cell Biol Toxicol. 2007. V. 23. P. 373–380. 24. Premanath R., Sudisha J., Lakshmi D.N., Aradhya S.M. Antibacterial and Anti-oxidant Activities of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum L.) Leaves // Research Journal of Medicinal Plant. 2011. V. 5 (6). P. 695–705. 25. Chawla H.S. Introduction to plant biotechnology (2nd ed.). Enfield: Science Publishers. 2002. 538 p. 26. Endreb R. Plant cell biotechnology. 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APPLICATION OF THE CRYSTAL BASED COLLIMATION SYSTEM AND BEAM EXTRACTION FROM THE ACCELERATOR FOR FUTURE HIGH ENERGY FACILITIES The planned experiments on the crystal based collimation system of the LHC and proton beam extraction in channeling regime from the Recycler and Debuncher Rings at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory are discussed. The simulations of possible variants of them are provided. The possibility of increase of the channeling efficiency by application of the narrow plane cut or amorphous layer in crystal is also tested. In addition, the application of these results for the FAIR project is considered.

Keywords: channeling, collimation, beam extraction, accelerator 1. INTRODUCTION Bent crystals possess wide capabilities for accelerator physics. Very strong intracrystal electric fields applied with accuracy of Angstrom provide very high deflection gradients unachievable for usual magnets. The main advantages of crystals are very compact size, low price of production and simplicity of installation and exploitation. Additionally, they can efficiently deflect the beams of different types of charged particles, of very different energies (from hundreds MeV up to tens TeV). For small angular divergence of the beam the channeling effect (see figure 1) provides rather high performance. For the best case the deflection efficiency exceeds 80%. For the multi-turn case it can exceed 95%. The first application of the channeling effect in bent crystal is the crystal based collimation system (figure 2). The main idea of it is to deflect the particles of beam halo directly into the absorber, if possible, during only one passage of the crystal. Such technique allows to considerably decrease the inelastic losses in proper-oriented crystal because of its transparence for the beam. The high efficient collimation system is very important for modern accelerators (like the LHC) because halo particles may quench the superconducting magnets. The experiments on the crystal based collimation were successfully provided at the SPS at CERN with both 120 GeV and 270 GeV protons and Pb82+ ions with 270 GeV per charge [1]. The analogical experiments with 1 TeV protons at the Tevatron at FNAL allowed 2 times decrease the noise in detectors as well as irradiation of the superconducting magnets [2]. Similar experiment is planned at the LHC after its restart in 2015 [3]. The second application is beam extraction from the accelerator. Such experiment were provided at the U-70 accelerator in Protvino, SPS, Tevatron and some others. The other applications concern obtaining circularly polarized gamma radiation with the channeling effect of positron beams. This type of radiation may be considered as a circularly polarized coherent bremsstrahlung. The probability of radiation and pair production can considerably increase due to electrons, positrons and gamma-quanta passing the crystal with energies of hundreds GeV and more. Additionally such particles may cause the high probability of wide number of polarization phenomena such as dichroism, birefringence, radiation self-polarization. These effects are useful not only for investigation of quantum electrodynamics of strong field but also for production and analysis of polarized gamma-radiation, electron and positron beams. The analysis of the latter can considerably widen the ILC potential. In this paper the bent crystal applications for two essentially different cases relevant to different machines are considered: the future LHC crystal based collimation system and the 8 GeV proton beam extraction from the Recycler and Debuncher Rings at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL) [4]. The simulation of deflection of proton beams in channeling regime is provided for these cases. Also the technique to improve crystal channeling efficiency of charged particles with the crystalline cut application [5] or amorphous layer [6] is applied to both of these cases. In the best case it allowes to increase the single passage efficiency up to 98-99%. Additionally, the possibility of application of both crystal based collimation system and beam extraction at the building accelerator SIS-100 of the Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR) project in Darmstadt is discussed.

Fig. 1. Possible effects of particle deflection by bent crystal

Fig. 2. Crystal based collimation system

Fig. 3. Miscut angle

2. CRYSTAL BASED COLLIMATION AT THE LHC The investigation of the collimation system by application of bent crystal at CERN was provided at the UA9 experiment. The obtained collimation efficiency turned to be much less than expected. In [7;8] it was showed that the reason of it is the miscut angle (figure 3) i.e. the angle characterizing nonparallelity between planes and surface of the crystal. It was also shown that this problem is not so important at the LHC because of large enough impact parameter of particles hitting the crystal. Anyway the channeling efficiency achieved 85% at the UA9 experiment [1] which is hopeful result.

Fig. 4. Dependence of Lindhard and r.m.s. coulomb scattering angles on proton energy

The case of the Large Hadron Collider is considerably different from any previous experiment. The main difference is record particle energy of 7 TeV. The scattering angle due to coulomb scat-

tering decreases inverse proportionally to the energy increase: θsc~1/pv. However, the critical angle of capture in channeling regime, so called Lindhard angle, is θL~1/√pv. This tendency is shown in figure 4. Thus, for the LHC the r.m.s. scattering angle is negligible in comparison with the Lindhard angle. At the same time for previous experiments at lower energy these angles are comparable. The consequence of negligibility of scattering is amplification of coherent effects. An example of their appearance is shown in figure 5. This is the distribution of particle deflection angle from its initial value due to single passage of 3 mm long silicon crystal with 40 µrad bending angle. This result was obtained with both simulation program CRYSTAL-channeling [9] and crystal routine of SixTrack [10] – CRYAPR [3;11;12]. CRYSTAL-channeling provides tracking by solving the 2nd order differential equation of motion with simulation at each step of processes of coulomb and different types of nuclear scattering as well as energy losses due to ionization and diffractive scattering. CRYAPR makes a statistical treatment of various interactions between protons and crystal, optimized for multi-turn tracking in accelerator. It is clear from figure 5 that the exact solution of the equation of motion allows to see much more various effects as well as to simulate the basic ones more accurately. The initial beam distribution was simulated by CERN colleagues with application of SixTrack. The simulation with CRYAPR was provided at CERN supercomputer LXPLUS.

Fig. 5. Horizontal kick distribution for the LHC case

The most interesting effect here is appearing of dechanneling peaks. The reason of them is good correlation between different trajectories in crystal due to small scattering angles and few number of channeling oscillations. The probability of the dechanneling effect i.e. particle escape the channeling regime (see figure 1) is high only close to crystalline planes. At the center of the channel it is low due to negligibility of coulomb scattering on electrons at 7 TeV. That’s why particles escape the channeling regime only near planes of the crystal. The number of dechanneling peaks must correlate with the number of particle oscillations. At 3 mm crystal length protons approach to the planes 24 times. Exactly this number of dechanneling peaks is observed in figure 5. This effect is essential only for the LHC energy. For considered case less than 80% of particles will be completely deflected in channeling regime. The remaining part will either escape the channeling regime or be deflected by volume reflection effect or simply be scattered (see figure 1). In the latter cases the deflection angle may be insufficient for interception by the absorber but large enough for particle to not be captured in channeling regime the next time. It will cause a lot of passages of the crystal before hit the absorber. Therefore, the probability of inelastic losses in crystal or at the accelerator aperture due to nuclear scattering increases much. The possible solution of this problem is the increase of the channeling efficiency allowing interception of particles by absorber during only one crystal passage. It may be achieved by application of a narrow plane cut [5] (figure 6). The idea of it is based on good phase correlation between different trajectories at the first channeling oscillation. This condition is valid for all the range of ener-

gies (figure 4) not only for the LHC energy. It allows to focus the particles in the crystalline cut. As the result the particles will be captured in the regime of stable channeling motion far away from crystalline planes.

Fig. 6. Crystalline cut

The disadvantage of such technique is requirement of small r.m.s. angular divergence of the incident beam 106). Modeling of turbulent flow by using solution of Navier-Stokes equations on Reynolds averaged ( RANS) and indissolubility equtions, or similar in structure to the equations used in the method of large vortices (LES). SST-k-ω model shear stresses Menter was used to model the flow of air sports prototype.The model combines the advantages of k-ε and k-ω model. This model uses a mathematical device to automatically switch between models, k-ε and k-ω [3].  Three-dimensional solid model of sports prototype was taken as a basis for 3D-model (Fig. 1), which has been further developed to build computational grids on the surface of the prepared model. The basic conditions for 3D-model:  1)The tunnel is a parallelepiped measuring 22x8x4 m, this size pipe is needed in order not to overload the working part of the pipe.  2)It is important to model the presence of wheels and race driver helmet.  3)Small details, not having a significant impact on aerodynamic performance, can be removed. 

  Fig. 1.3d solid model sportprototipa 

  Fig. 2Surface mesh Generated. sportprototipa 

3.Testing a mathematical model on the example of calculation modelsAhmed.  The mathematical models were tested on the example of calculation modelsAhmed etal. (from a databaseERCOFTAC).    

  Fig. 3.3D solid modelAhmed etal. 

Table 1 shows a comparison of the coefficients of pressureCp,frictionCfand of theresistanceCxcalculated data model experiments. All the definitions of ratios and forces are in accordance [1, p. 33].  Table 1Comparison of results of numerical simulation and experimental data  The values of the  coefficients

  

Error,% 

Cp

Cf

Cx

The results of the tested models 

0.249

0.0461

0.2951

1 

The experimental results 

0.241

0.057 

0.298 

0 

The result of numerical simulation shows that results correlate well with the results of the experiment (1%) of the error.  4.Results 

The main aerodynamic characteristics are shown in Table 2. The direction of these forces shown in the Fig. 4.  Table 2The main aerodynamic characteristics  Aerodynamic characteristics at a speed of 180 km/h 

 

The resistance (Fx) 

674 N 

Drag coefficient(Cx) 

0.373 

Clamping force(Fz) 

167 

Downforce Coefficient(Cz) 

0.09 

Reactions of supports for front axle (Z1) 

408 N 

The Reaction of the rear axle (Z2) 

-247 N 

During the calculation of drag coefficient was obtainedCx= 0.373 (Table 2). This coefficient is lessin 3 times than the drag coefficient of the cube, but is small compared to other racing cars (Cxother sports cars from 0.32 to 0.54 [1, p. 285]). 

  Fig. 4 Schematic image of aerodynamic forces acting on the sport prototype 

As you can see from results in Table 2andFig. 4reactions supports Z1 upwards, i.e. aerodynamic forces press the front axle of the prototype, and Z2 downward, i.e. aerodynamic forces raise the rear axle of the prototype. So in the study design on high speed cornering can appear oversteer, which will lead to skid the rear axle and speed.  During numerical simulation we've got pressure distribution on the surface of the sports prototype.   You can select the region with high red pressure, which are zones with a strong deceleration of flow and aerodynamic resistance. In Fig. 5 shows the distribution of pressure in the frontal part of the sports prototype. The maximum pressure is observed at the bottom of the front, on arcs and the helmet racer.   In areas with low pressure (marked in blue) air boundary layer disconnect from sports prototype surfaces. The surfaces of the frontal part, gradually passing into the lateral and upper body are zones with low pressure.  

  Fig. 5. Distribution of pressure in the frontal part sportprototipa 

  Fig. 6. Pressure distribution in the side of the sportprototipa 

  Fig. 7. Distribution of pressure in the aft 

In Fig. 8 shows the distribution of turbulent viscosity in the plane of symmetry passing along of the machine. Distribution of turbulent viscosity most clearly illustrates the eddy zones. Turbulent viscosity is high where is a vortex trail, as well as on the border of disturbed flow for

the model and the potential flow velocities. The distribution of turbulent viscosityshows in the Fig.9, then strip, indicating its maximum values, in fact shows most likely moving vortex structures (theircenters).    

  Fig. 8. Distribution of turbulent viscosity in the middle plane of the computational domain 

In Fig. 9 represented the line current near the surface structure of middle and trace sport prototype for the model. Are eddies that form behind the rear edge of the sport prototype. 

  Fig. 9. Air flow near the surface of the sportprototipa (a-b-back front part sportprototipa) 

In the Fig.8 the turbulent viscosity has small values behind the rear edge of sports prototype, but in the Fig. 9 there are vortices. This paradox is correct because in the Fig. 8 the turbulent viscosity is shown in symmetry plane, and in the Fig. 9 there are vortices in the left and right sides of the rear edge of the prototype. In the Fig. 10 there aren’t vortices in the symmetry plane. In the Fig. 11 there are vortices in the right and left sides of the rear edge of the prototype. From these we can consider that the bleeding, which is at the back of the prototype, has a positive effect on airflow.

  Figure. 10. The line current in the medial plane 

  Figure. 11. The line current, which formed near the right and left side of the back wall sports prototype 

5.Finally, recommendations for the improvement of sports prototype Results may be developed the following recommendations:  1.Rear axle is pushed up and front axle is pushed down under the influence of aerodynamic forces. That means that there may be a problem in high-speed corners. There are several solutions to this problem: the first option is the installation of wing above the rear axle to increase downforce on the rear axle. The second option is to shift the center of mass closer to the rear axle to increase the weight on the rear axle. The first option would increase the aerodynamic drag. The sports prototype will be equipped with lower-powered engine, so when a small increase aerodynamic drag, the dynamics of acceleration and maximum speed are greatly reduced. The second option does not change the aerodynamic resistance, but in the slow turns could create an understeer, which reduces the speed in the turns. Therefore, this task requires additional calculations and tests sports prototype on the track.  2.Increasing the blowing on the back wall can reduce aerodynamic drag of sports prototype. This option will reduce eddies or vortices generated from consigning the back wall. 3. Increasing speed of the flow under the prototype can reduce the pressure under the car. Therefore downforce will increase and the vehicle handling will be better and the aerodynamic drag will decrease.

6.List of references  1.Vysotski M. S., A.e. Evgrafov Aerodynamics wheeled transport.  2.http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/article on racing cars and sportprototipah.  3.Wilcox D.C. Turbulence modeling for CFD. La Cañada, California: DCW Industries Inc, 1998. 537p.    

THE INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTER SIMULATION IN THE PROCESS OF MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION N. Golubova, S. Valitskiy Implementation of the project management system in construction is the solution for many problems. Thus the creation of the project plan allows clearly differentiate authorities and determine the order of actions. Developing a Project Schedule in construction provides concrete deadlines for both separate set of works and the duration of the whole project. The monitoring process allows to find out about the problems and respond to them. And the event management leads to successful implementation of the project as a whole. This process cannot be imagined without the use of computer programs. The process of commissioning is extremely important, because it has a lot of nuances by the legislation of the Republic of Belarus. In this work an example of the developed project commissioning is shown as well as an option to optimize it order to reduce time.

Project management in construction, the commissioning process, legislation in Republic of Belarus 1. Introduction In the Republic of Belarus in the sphere of construction, the Owner is most interested in a successful and speedy completion of the work. In his interests to control the timing and quality of construction works, because it directly affects the final cost of the building project. Therefore, in the service of the Owner created a special service project management. These services are working to gather information from department heads on a whole range of works ranging from the birth of a business idea to the commissioning of the object. Their work is accompanied by the project at all stages of business planning, design, construction. . 2. Project management in construction The goal of any Contractor and Owner is to build a project on time and within budget. To be an effective and productive Owner, one must have a complete understanding of the construction process, which includes not only building the project, but, more importantly, effective scheduling and management of the project. Successfully managing a construction project is a four-step process. It requires that the parties establish a project plan, develop a project schedule, monitor the project schedule, and manage change events. Each step requires dedication and commitment from each team member, and each step in the process is essential to a successful project outcome 2.1 Establishing a Project Plan

The first step in successfully managing a construction project is establishing a game plan for executing the work. Planning should be thought of as completing a puzzle. All of the pieces must be identified, as they are all necessary to complete the puzzle. Furthermore, this process involves establishing the time and cost for each piece, ultimately leading to the total time and cost of the project. The Owner’s architect or engineer, will develop the plans and specifications for the project, as well as the overall sequence of construction activities. Each construction activity is then identified and assigned to a construction party, who identifies what is included in its scope of work and what related activities are not included. This identification process is critical for the contractor to know what activities have not been assigned and could “slip through the cracks.” During the project planning phase, the project price is established using several methodologies, such as competitively bidding, utilizing a not-to-exceed value, or paying for the cost of the work plus a fixed fee. Once the project price is established, the contract documents are reviewed, approved, and executed. During project pricing, product suppliers and manufacturers are also assigned.

Though every piece of the puzzle may not be known at the time of planning, an effort must be made to establish the full scope of work including the construction tasks. Once all of the “puzzle pieces” have been identified, assigned durations, sequenced, assigned to parties, and priced by parties, the project schedule can be developed. 2.2 Developing a Project Schedule

Following planning, the second step in successfully managing a construction project is developing the schedule. Proper scheduling of the work tasks is the most critical aspect of the construction management process. The project schedule not only divides the work by activities, but it allows other parties to know what activities need to be performed and when. Both construction and owner’s parties need to be involved in planning the schedule and “buy into” the project sequence before construction begins. A schedule can be as simple as a bar chart or as sophisticated as a computer model, but it must be developed and utilized. In a bar chart, each bar represents an activity and the length of the bar represents the activity duration. The bars can be stacked and placed so that as one activity is completed, the next activity in the sequence begins. Typically, construction schedules are computerized. There are multiple software programs that produce reliable schedules, with most utilizing the critical path methodology (CPM) technique. Of all techniques available, CPM has proven to be the most useful and effective means of developing and displaying project progress.[1] Microsoft Project is the ideal system for project management. First, the system provides most of the necessary functions. Second, Microsoft Office is the most common office application not only in Republic of Belarus but also in the world. It is very important for example for application integration. Utilizing the CPM technique, each work activity is assigned a duration, start date, and end date, and is sequenced to follow and precede another activity. This sequence of events becomes a construction path. Generally, there are multiple paths created and many can occur simultaneously with and independently of one another. But there is only one continuous path that occurs from the beginning of the project to the end; that path is considered the “critical path.” Delays in non-critical work activity paths will generally not delay the overall project; however, delays to the critical path will. Planning and scheduling project activities with CPM software creates a logic diagram or network that can be displayed graphically. In a successful construction project, the schedule becomes the project roadmap that all parties can review to determine when their respective work is sequenced. This allows parties to plan accordingly and ensure that they have the required materials, labor, and equipment available to perform their respective work. The schedule also informs construction parties what work precedes, follows, and occurs simultaneously with their work. This will allow each party to plan its work at the project site so that it will not interfere with other parties’ work. Further, the schedule allows the owner, architect, engineer, and contractor to plan decisions or approvals on certain project items or deliverables. 2.3 Monitoring the Project Schedule

The third step in successfully managing a construction project is monitoring progress. Before construction begins, the schedule is a plan, also known (later on in the project) as the “baseline” schedule. However, once construction begins, the schedule becomes a dynamic tool that can, and often will, change depending on progress. The Owner is interesting in receiving the updating information as often as it’s possible. The Contractor is responsible for ensuring the schedule is actively updated, which includes recording activity dates and durations once they have occurred. Once the frequency of schedule updates is determined, the Contractor will instruct the construction parties relative to updating their own work tasks. Normally, a schedule is updated monthly in order to keep pace with monthly payment applications made by the Owner. This should be a minimum frequency for all project schedule updates, no matter what the project.

Based on the new information, all schedule activities that should have started during the updated period are identified. All activities that were underway during the updated period are tracked and assigned progress. Finally, all activities that should have been completed during the updated period are identified. By performing these updates, any activity that is not on schedule will be recognized and can then be evaluated. There could be a number of reasons why an activity is not on schedule, including a design change or work that was added or subtracted. Whatever the reason, the schedule must be updated and re-issued to the involved parties. Additionally, it is important to analyze all of the scheduled and executed activities to determine whether the updates will affect the project completion date. If a delayed activity was not on the critical path, it may not affect the timely completion of the project. However, if a delayed activity was on the critical path, the entire project will be delayed. If this occurs, the Contractor’s obligation is to investigate the involved work activities and mitigate any delay. 2.4 Managing Change Events

The fourth step in successfully managing a construction project is managing change events, as changes will inevitably occur. Managing the schedule to account for changes is different than monitoring progress and reflecting that progress in an updated schedule. Whereas an “updated” schedule reflects progress of the ongoing work and the data date changes as appropriate, a “revised” schedule includes modifications to future baseline schedule work components or activities. These modifications could include work activities broken down into more refined tasks to more precisely describe the sequence of events. An example of such a refinement could be breaking the foundation work into several activities such as surveying for footing locations, drilling the footings, assembling reinforcement steel cages, casting concrete for the footings, and setting foundation anchor bolts. A change to a specific activity such as this describes future work in more detail and is considered a revision to the schedule. Once the construction has begun, it may be necessary to re-sequence certain activities to more accurately reflect project construction. In doing this, the activities that were originally scheduled to commence before and after the re-sequenced activity must be re-sequenced and re-scheduled as well. Other changes to planned activities could include modifying durations. After a project begins, it may be determined that a certain activity planned to take two weeks to complete should actually take three. For this change not to affect the final project completion date, the schedule has to be adjusted to absorb the additional week duration. Or, if no other activity timeline can be compressed, the change must remain and additional manpower or man-hours must be scheduled to compensate. Other changes that occur on a construction project involve uncommon and common events. Uncommon events can include unusual weather, labor disturbances, and/or outside events that neither the owner nor contractor can control. Any changes that affect the future project schedule must be documented. Furthermore, these changes must be evaluated to determine the most appropriate revision to the planned schedule. All parties involved in the project must “buy into” the change or, if not, the revised construction activity must be modified to accommodate the involved parties. If a Contractor or its subcontractors delay their own work based on their own actions or inactions, the schedule should reflect the extended duration, and the cause of that extension should be documented. The Contractor must assess the cause of the delay and pursue a solution. If there is insufficient labor, materials, or equipment to properly execute the work, the contractor must determine if additional resources can be utilized. If a contractor’s subcontractor is delayed, the contractor must assist in resolving the reasons for the delay. Furthermore, if the subcontractor is under contract with the contractor, the contractor is ultimately responsible, and it is its duty to rectify the delay and provide the necessary resources to put the project back on track. Any revisions or routine updates to the construction schedule must be republished, distributed, and communicated to all parties involved in the construction process. It should be noted that the planned completion date should not be affected by publishing a revised schedule. If the planned

completion date has been changed, the contractor must evaluate the project sequencing and determine how to avoid a different completion date than originally planned, unless a schedule extension is granted. Conclusion

In conclusion, scheduling and managing a construction project is composed of four steps, including planning, scheduling work activities, monitoring construction progress, and finally, managing changes to the project plan. Without a proper and complete construction schedule including adequate updates and revisions, construction parties cannot be informed of and ultimately held accountable for the timing and duration of their planned activities. Further, it will keep parties informed of the status of others’ activities that may precede or follow their work. Finally, it is the Contractor’s duty and the Owner’s right to be continuously informed of construction progress. Adhering to these best practices will ensure a successful relationship between the owner, contractor, and subcontractors and thus, a successful completed project. The schedule should be reasonable and include sufficient detail initially to define the planned start and completion dates for key activities, the work sequence, and the project float.

3. Project of the process of commissioning in construction in Republic of Belarus The list of civil works varies from one object to another, but it is generally the same for any construction in the country. And these blocks of work that affect the procedure of registration of documentation vary depending on the laws of the country. In the Republic of Belarus, one of the most complex procedures is the process of commissioning. It consists of complex validation procedures for both the general constructor and the owner. The control of this procedure is fully borne by the owner. Deadlines of this block of work is extremely important, as the quick commissioning ensures owner prompt receipt profits from tenants. Therefore, it is important to consider these procedures in the schedule and find ways to reduce the time.... To create a complete project of commissioning have been investigated a lot of legislative acts. Basically, the process of commissioning is regulated by Technical code of practice (TCP) 45-1.0359-2008 (02250) from 27.11.2008 № 433.[2] However, the more relevant is Presidential Decree «About some measures for improving building (construction, reconstruction)» from 8 May 2013 №215 is the most comprehensive source.[3] After compiling a list of tasks the executives were identified. The structure was based in a simple way when designing department is a part the service of the Owner. Next, guided by the laws and own experiences the timing of subtasks were stamped. Microsoft Project calculates the total duration of the subtasks and the total duration of the project. (See pic.1) The process of commissioning of the owner consists of 3 parts, in each of there are several main tasks, that should be done one-by-one. Main tasks are divided into sub-tasks: 1. Preparation 1.1 The notification from the general contractor about completion of work is received 1.2. Creation of Admission Commission 2. Active implementation phase 2.1 Obtaining the conclusion from SBI 2.2 Appointment of a person for the service heating supplies 2.3 Appointment of a person for the service electrical heating supplies 2.4 Formation of contracts 2.5 Working of Admission Commission 2.6 Validation of acceptance certificate 3 Legalization 3.1 Registration in MCA SR&LC 3.2 Transfer of engineering networks to the balance of the maintenance organizations It is very important information in the project is the list of executives. From the owner side the executives are itemized on divisions (+ Project Manager):  Department of design  General Designer  Legal service  Operation service The General contractor also has its own divisions responsible for its block of operations. Each subcontractor, subordinate General contractor, has its service. Governmental organizations responsible for compliance with all legal procedures are as follows:  DCC (Department of Capital Construction)  SBI (State building inspection)  MCA SR&LC (Minsk City Agency for State Registration and Land Cadastre) Admission Commission consists of representatives from the:

       

- owner - general constructor - general designer - SBI (State building inspection) - representative of executive committee - representative of operating organization - engineering supervision - Emergency Control Ministry.

The commission signed the act of acceptance. Date of signing of this act is considered to be the date of commissioning. One after this procedure, you must also register the object in MCA SR&LC.

Pic.1. Project of commissing (linear sequence) 

While performing work in a linear sequence without optimization schedule take 164 days, or 5.5 months. It's too long and this is followed by the loss of both the contractor and the owner. Contractor loses time, reputation, and cannot be involved in another contract. The owner loses the potential amount of rent and may lose tenants. By means of Microsoft Office, the rationalization and optimization of the project were held. Where appropriate, the tasks were connected in parallel. This entails an increase in the labor force to be sent to these challenges. However, after rationalization, the definition of responsible and bridging tasks, the minimum period of registration of the commissioning process was reduced to 28 days. All terms have been calculated taking into account the time necessary reserves to bureaucratic procedures. The sequence reflects the technological order. This reduction in the duration means that a very strong interest of the owner and the contractor under the laws of the Republic of Belarus object construction can be commissioned within one month. (See pic. 2) However, in this case an excellent cooperative efforts by both the owner and the contractor are very important. All documents must be sent on time, they should be received by executive employees. Thus, the entire system should be under strict control by the project manager. Apps of project management can significantly improve its efficiency. It increases at the stage of project implementation while it’s laid in the stages of initiation and planning, as it allows to plan all project risks in advance.

Pic.2.

Project

of

commissing

(optimized) 

4. Conclusion One of the main problems of the construction industry in the Republic of Belarus is the lack of strict control of the process by the Owner of the construction project. At the stage of civil works, many general and sub-contractors use software packages for the simulation of the process of project management. However, in most cases the construction project affects only a part of the general construction are rarely the design process. The phases from the appearing of an idea of construction, processing of documents for a site and receiving the building permits as well as process of commissioning are very often neglected. No one controls the timing of receipt of the documents, rarely there is a single service that takes everything under control. Different departments such as legal service, maintenance organizations, designers and estimators do not have a unified control system. However, the process of registration documents, such as process of commissioning, is extremely important from the viewpoint of finance, human resources and time management. Precisely on these stages strict planning a schedule, monitor task execution and monitoring of quality and deadlines is required. These tasks should be engaged in a single department of project management. The process of commissioning a very important process that summarizes all work performed under. The speed and simplicity of registration of documents for the finished object depend on the quality of the all previous project stages. It’s extremely important for the Owner to know the point at which work on the preparation of documentation should be started. After the decision it’s necessary to appoint an executor who will conduct further work. Without a computer simulation project management process isn’t possible. The software package Microsoft Office completely fulfills these functions. Term estimate, prioritization of tasks, optimizing schedules - all is carried out in the software package. Compatibility with other software allows sharing projects with other partners. In this work was developed a project of time minimization required to process commissioning of the facility according to the laws of the Republic of Belarus. Owners to control tasks being done, track deadlines, can use this project and delays, watch who are in charge for each point. Apps of project management can significantly improve its efficiency. It increases at the stage of project implementation while it’s laid in the stages of initiation and planning, as it allows to plan all project risks in advance. This is working project that is already used for 5 construction sites appropriate to the stage of commissioning. This project can be also used as a supplement to the existing project. It can be successfully used by Belarusian and foreign companies planning to commission the construction project under the laws of the Republic of Belarus. 1. 2. 3.

List of used sources Project Management for Construction. Fundamental Concepts for Owners, Engineers, Architects and Builders. by Chris Hendrickson, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA l52l3 Copyright C. Hendrickson 1998 Technical code of practice (TCP) «Commissioning of the completed facilities. The procedure» 45-1.03-59-2008 (02250) approved by the Ministry of Architecture and Construction of Belarus from 27.11.2008 № 433. The national legal Internet portal of the Republic of Belarus, http://www.pravo.by Presidential Decree «About some measures for improving building (construction, reconstruction) residential» from 8 May 2013 №215. The national legal Internet portal of the Republic of Belarus, http://www.pravo.by

Abstract. The article is shown institutional and cyclic groups of factors influence in international investment activity of companies. The key issues to research are pointed.

Key words: foreign investment company strategy, international investment activity, institutional framework of an investment market, transnational connection between macroregion, economic cycle.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT STRATEGY IN THE FRAME OF INTERNATUONAL INVESTMENT ACTIVITIES OF COMPANIES I.S. PYL Foreign investment strategy of the company is an approach to achieve the goal of the strengthening in the international market, which includes ways and practices of international investment activity. The main investment instruments include: leasing, licensing, franchising, lifreksding (complex of licenses , franchise agreements , exports of goods) , non-equity modes of international production (ways of organizing international production is not related participation in the capital . These include contracts for services, tolling , outsourcing , franchising , licensing and other types of contractual relationships ( long-term contracts for procurement of raw materials , contracts OEM, combining enterprise engaged in distribution of product under the brand name manufacturer , and the manufacturer of this product) ), a strategic alliance (includes both international trafficking of intellectual property rights ( licenses , franchises , contracts for the provision of services ) and direct investment (joint venture or branch) , service contracts , contract manufacturing (tolling) , a foreign production in the form of a subsidiary , associate or branch , there may be a joint venture ) [1]. According to World Investment Report – 2013 UNCTAD international production of TNC grew, but the total flows of FDI were reduced. For the last years the popular way of investing was non-equity modes of international production (NEMs). The author’s assumption is two groups of factors determine this tendency. There are institutional and cyclic groups of factors. The institutional factors are shown on three levels: national economy, international economy, global economy. Through the macrosociological theory of institutional framework on the each level subjects, objects, and methods for their use are pointed. Institutional factors are influenced by the relationship of institutional actors. The author marks the next subjects of the national investment market: 1) national, commercial and investment banks, banking houses and savings institutions; 2) finance companies (mortgage , trust , etc.); 3) traditional ) institutional investors (pension funds , mutual funds , insurance companies); 4) management funds 5) the exchange and over-the-counter institutions; 6) trade associations and business associations ; 7) national companies ; 8) national companies, included in the TNC. [2] A national investment culture is an object in institutional framework. Institutional tools are public bodies and agencies that regulate investment activities; public authorities and institutions, providing consulting services and information support, socio-political organizations and movements, which are formally or informally lobby groups, including professional associations and business associations, public-private partnership; media, investor relations, the right to property, inheritance and family law, intellectual property law, stock exchange law, competition law, corporate law, commercial law, employment law and financial law. Tendencies of TNC’s foreign investment strategies are shown: 1. There are some new intermediate tools, which include combination of the traditional investment instrument like lifrecsing, NEMs, strategic alliance; 2. Cooperation forms increase. The most popular is joint venture, strategic alliance, public-

private partnership; 3. There are some new tools of divesting appeared. This is outsourcing, outtasking, outstaffing, NEMs. 4. Islamic banking tools are developing through project management (istina), risk insurance (takaful) [1]. On the basis of the empirical studies of foreign scientist (K. Meyer , 1996 , and others) the author made factor model, which rank of national economies according the type of foreign investment strategies of TNCs . The model is supposed to test through program OxMetrics6 on the date of World Economic Forum report. International economic organizations and associations that govern the economic , industrial and trade cooperation and sectors of the world economy , regional economic organizations in the regulation of the world economy (political and economic regional organizations , international and regional economic organizations that regulate business activities , international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and associations that promote the development of international economic relations are subjects of the international market. On the basis of the theory of institutional framework evaluated the institutionalization of transnational linkages between selected matrices macro-regions. Institutional system of investment relations are: - At the interregional level : intergovernmental summits and forums: APEC, the transatlantic economic council , an intergovernmental summit "The EU - Latin America", the EU - Mercosur , the Ibero - American Summit , EvroLat , the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation ( Conference of Ministers ) ; - At regional level: the Barcelona process, the Eastern Partnership , the Committee open one of Latin America and the Caribbean; - At the subregional level: the Joint Committee of the EU- ASEAN Cooperation Council EU Mercosur , the Joint Commission for Cooperation EU - Mercosur Sub-Commission on the EU Mercosur trade , the Interregional Negotiating Committee EU - Mercosur , EU - Brazil summit ; - Lobbying groups: the Transatlantic Business Dialogue , the EU Business Summit ASEANEurocentres authorized by organizing programs AL-INVEST, ATLAS, Synergy , ALYUR , ALFA and systems COOPECO, Water Resources Development Fund EU-ACP , the Foundation for Development of Energy Africa, infrastructure Development Fund EU-Africa Romanian- American enterprise Fund , the Central Asian American enterprise Fund ; - Economic actors of the financial sector: the European Investment Bank, the investment fund in Latin America, the Fund for Peace in Africa, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, International Investment Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Islamic Development Bank , the Nordic Investment Bank [3]. UN and UN agencies, economic and political paroorganizatsii are subject of global economy level. Cyclical factors also should be viewed on three levels mentioned above for institutional factors. It based on theoretical basis of the theory economic cycle. The main points of theory of national business cycle fluctuations are studied in the economic literature. It’s not so clear with influence of cyclical factors in the international market, especially with influence of TNCs on changing global economic cycle. It is now established that the most significant synchronization of business cycles across countries in the G- 7. In this case, the relationship cycles of developed countries is mutually conditioned nature, and the relationship developed countries - reflected in nature. Cyclicality of imports in developed and developing countries is cyclical , export - vice versa. To determine the nature of the relationship of capital flows requires further research by analyzing the state of general economic conditions in the macro-regions identified by the author . The result is supposed to justify the dependence of the used forms and instruments of international investment to the business cycle macro-region. Global economic crises are explained by the theory of long waves, N. Kondratiev – J.

Schumpeter . Currently, economists disagree about the causes of economic cyclies. From the standpoint of economic synergy economic cycle is a structural transformation of the economy caused by technological change (B. -B . Zhang, S. Glazyev ) . In keeping with this approach , as well as on the basis of the concept of growth poles ZH.-R. Boudvil, research on flowing diffusion along the axial type (P. Potier , T. Hägerstrand, J. Friedman , T. Hermansen , H. Hirsch , E. Taafe) is supposed to identify promising regions and industries of concentration of capital that will predict the scenario of the international economy in international capital flows. Thus, we can conclude that the solution outlined in the article will help to solve problems of both applied and methodological issues of the international economy, which is particularly relevant given the structural changes in the world economic system. Literature 1. Pyl, I Current trends in the development of forms of foreign economic activity of transnational corporations / / Proceedings of the Mogilev branch of BIP : Right. Policy . Economy. 16th Edition / BIP - Institute of Law , Editorial Board : LI Wasilewski , GF Dubinchik , AA Skikevich [etc. ] under the total. Ed. AA Skikevicha . - Issue . 16. - Mogilev: MF Chuo BIP , 2012. - 180 . - P. 8087. 2. Pyl, I Institutional Aspects of Investment Activities Subjects’ Interaction (International Experience) // BSEU Journal. – 2012. – № 4. – P. 14-20. 3. Pyl, I Foreign investment framework from European Union to Latin America // Vitebsk State Technological University Journal. – 2012. – № 22. – P.162-172.

ZUR FRAGE ÜBER DIE URSACHEN DES SCHREIBENS DES «CHRONICON LIVONIAE» HEINRICHS VON LETTLAND M.S. PERAPIALITSA, A.A. PROCHOROV M.S. Perapialitsa. To the question of the of reasons of writing of «Chronicon Livoniae» of Henry of Livonia The article is dedicated to the problem of reasons of writing of «Chronicon Livoniae» that was written by Henry of Livonia. This Chronicle narrates about the Baltic crusades in early 13th century. There are many ideas and hypothesis about the reasons of writing of chronicle. The author comes to the conclusion that the text of chronicle has three different version and each of them has own reasons of writing. The main problem is that scientists spread the reasons of one version of chronicle on the reasons of writing of the whole chronicle. In connection with that author suggests the idea about the division of reasons in accordance with three versions of chronicle.

Schlüsselwörter: Livland, «Chronicon Livoniae», Kritik der Quellen. Die Chronik ist eine lateinsprachige Quelle und sie erleuchtet die Ereignisse, die in den Jahren 1184 - 1227 passierten. Die Chronik wurde vom livländischen katholischen Priester Heinrich geschrieben [5, s. v-xv]. Vier Bücher der Chronik bilden 30 Kapitel, in denen die Geschichte der Eroberung Livlands von den deutschen Kreuzfahrern dargelegt wird. Der Grundteil der Chronik wurde vom August 1224 bis den Anfang 1226 geschrieben, aber das Kapitel XXX wurde nach dem Februar 1227 geschrieben [5, s. xviii]. In der Zeit des Schreibens der Chronik waren für Heinrich die eigenen Beobachtungen und Erzählungen der Pilger als die Hauptquelle. Es gibt viele Hypothesen, die die Ursachen des Schreibens der Chronik erklären, weil man im Text der Chronik nur in einer Stelle das Zeugnis, das die Umstände der Entstehung der Chronik zu verstehen helfen kann, finden kann. Diese Stelle schallt so: «placuit eam [laudem] rogatu dominorum et sociorum humili scriptura conscribere et posteris relinquere» [5, XXIX.9, p.215]. Diese Passage hat einige Hypothesen hervorgerufen. Die Autoren dieser Hypothesen banden die Entstehung der Chronik mit der offiziellen Anfrage. J.D. Gruber meinte, dass man unter den Wörter «dominorum et sociorum” den Bischof Albert und den Schwertbrüderorden begreifen muss [10, p. ii]. H. Hildebrand glaubte, dass es außer direkter Anfrage der lokalen Herrscher andere Möglichkeiten gibt. Das kann auch der Einfluss, der päpstliche Legat Wilhelm von Modena an den Chronisten ausübten [6, s. 19-20]. A. Bauer verstand die nächsten Wörter von H. Hildebrand «die Aufforderung und Bitte der Landesherren und treuen Genossen» [6, s.19] als das direkte Zeugnis, dass H. Hildebrand gleichzeitig sowohl die Anfrage vom Bischof Albert als auch vom Orden annahm [5, s. xix]. Gerade das Gegenteil. H. Hildebrand bezeichnete, dass Heinrich keine Ursachen um die Brüder des Schwertbrüderordens als seinen Herrn zu betrachten hatte [6, s. 20, Anm. 1]. H. Laakmann betrachtete den Bischof Albert als einzigen Auftraggeber der Chronik. Nach seinem Gedanken ist die Möglichkeit des Auftrags von dem Legat oder von dem Schwertbrüderorden sehr klein [9, s. 74]. S.A. Anninsky entwickelte die Idee von H. Hildebrand über den einigen Einfluss von dem päpstlichen Legat Wilhelm von Modena auf den Chronisten. Aber S.A. Anninsky meinte, dass der Bischof Albert die Hauptrolle in diesem Prozess spielte [1, с. 48]. P. Johansen meinte, dass die Initiative zu dem päpstlichen Legat Wilhelm gehört konnte [8, s. 17]. Aber er schrieb in seinem Artikel auch, dass die Chronik «nicht eigentlich ein Loblied auf Bischof Albert … sondern das hohe Lied der Gemeinschaft christlicher Streiter in Riga, geistlicher und weltlicher.» [8, s. 22]. Genau so muss man nach seinem Gedanke die Wörter «rogatu dominorum et sociorum» verstehen. Die Hypothese von A. Bauer besteht darin, dass die Chronik nicht unmittelbar auf dem Auftrag von Legat Wilhelm von Modena geschrieben wurde aber diese Chronik für ihn und in Erwartung der seinen Ankunft gemacht wurde. Gerade in solchem Sinn betrachtete das obenerwähnte Fragment. Er glaubte, dass die Initiative von Bischof Albert nicht ausgehen konnte, weil die Chronik keinen offiziellen Charakter hat. A. Bauer nannte unter den Leuten, die ein Einfluss auf Heinrich ausübte, die Priester Daniel, Johannes Stric, Alobrand, Bischof Theoderich von Estland und auch Vasallen von Bischof Albert Theodorich von Roop [5, s. xviii-xxi].

Oben wurden die Hypothesen des Schreibens der Chronik aufgezahlt. Aber man muss zugeben, dass obwohl die Forscher die Möglichkeit des Bestehens der Notizen für das Gedächtnis bezeichneten [5, s. xviii; 1, c. 21], band niemand diesen Umstand mit den Ursachen des Schreibens dieser Chronik. Es wurde oben gesagt, dass es eine Möglichkeit des Bestehens der Notizen für das Gedächtnis gibt, weil der Chronist mit vieler Anzahl der konkreten Namen, Benennungen und Daten schrieb. Ich vermute, dass es eine direkte Verbindung zwischen den Ursachen des Schreibens und den Notizen für das Gedächtnis gibt, denn als der Chronist diese Notizen machen begann, hatte er wahrscheinlich ein Ziel in der Zukunft eine Chronik schreiben. Diese Notizen wurden vielleicht kurz nach der Ankunft von Heinrich in Livland aufgekommen, denn die Kapitel von dem IX bis das XXX sind annähernd gleich in dem Ausmaß, während der Kapitel von dem I bis das VIII wesentlich kleiner als darauffolgende Kapitel sind. Nach meiner Meinung war die wahrscheinlichste Form der Notizen für das Gedächtnis die Annalen. Aber was diente als der Anstoß, das Motiv, damit Heinrich die Ereignisse und mündliche Aussagen schreiben beginnen? Ich glaube, dass Heinrich für das Schreiben der Chronik von den Chroniken, die von Adam von Bremen, Helmold von Bosau und Arnold von Lübeck geschrieben wurden, begeistert gekonnt wurde. Heinrich konnte in der Zeit des seines Studium in Segeberg [4, p. 3-4] mit den ersten zwei Chroniken kennengelernt. Er kann begeistert werden und entschied sich auch für ein Werk über die Taufe der livländischen Heiden zu schreiben. Wenn er diese Chroniken nicht las, konnte der Bischof Philipp von Ratzeburg ihm über das Wesen dieser Chroniken erzählen. Heinrich hatte eine enge Beziehung mit dem Bischof Philipp. Heinrich arbeitete als Dolmetscher vor dem Bischof Philipp [5, XVI.3, p 107; 5, XVIII.3, p. 116], er gab auch zwei leidenschaftliche Gebete während der Schlacht in See an [5, XIX.5, p. 127-130]. Wir wissen, dass die „Arnoldi Chronica Slavorum“ dem Bischof Philipp von Ratzeburg gewidmet wurde [3, p. 9]. Wir wissen auch, dass der Bischof Philipp wohl ein Exemplar dieser Chronik hatte. Der Bischof Philipp konnte diese Chronik Heinrich lesen geben, denn „Arnoldi Chronica Slavorum“ wurde von 1209 bis 1213 geschrieben und Heinrich arbeitete als Dolmetscher mit diesem Bischof von 1212. Ich kann jetzt vermuten, dass gerade der Bischof Philipp von Ratzeburg Heinrich ein Wink über das Schreiben eine Chronik über die Christianisierung in Livland geben konnte. Die Idee über das Wesen die Notizen für das Gedächtnis in der Form der Annalen bestätigt in dem, dass R. Holtzmann zu dem Schluss über das Wesen der zwei Autorenvarianten kam. Die erste Variante der Chronik hatte annaliesctieschen Charakter, weil die Ereignisse in dieser Variante (das Protograph) strikt in den Jahren der Verwaltung von dem Bischof Albert von Riga eingeteilt wurden. Und in der zweiten Variante (die erste Redaktion) brach der Chronist die Chronologie gerade in dem Ziel der Kunsteinheit [7, s. 204-205]. Er brach die Chronologie in diesem Fall, wenn die Ereignisse in den anderen Jahren der Verwaltung von dem Bischof Albert passierten und diese Ereignisse eine enge Beziehung miteinander hatten. Also die ursprüngliche Ursachen des Schreibens des Heinrichs «Chronicon Livoniae» sehen folgendermaßen aus. Der Chronist begeisterte sich für die Chronik von Arnold von Lübeck, die ihm der Bischof Philipp von Ratzeburg gab. Der Bischof Philipp von Ratzeburg konnte ihn für das Schreiben einer Chronik interessieren. Die Bitte konnte auch von den Freunden und Kameraden des Chronisten ausgehen oder er entschied selbständig das machen (die Hypothese von A. Bauer). Wahrscheinlich kamen die Notizen für das Gedächtnis in das nächten Zeit nach seiner Ankunft in Livland in 1205 auf. Diese Notizen für das Gedächtnis kann ich als „Protograph“ nennen. Wenn Heinrich über die Ankunft des päpstlichen Legats Wilhelm von Modena erfuhr, schrieb Heinrich die erste Redaktion der Chronik (auch die Hypothese von A. Bauer). Er machte das vom Herbst 1224 bis den Anfang 1226 für den Legat Wilhelm von Modena. In dieser Zeit arbeitete Heinrich seine Notizen für das Gedächtnis um und schrieb gebundener und schöner Text. Im Kapitel XXIX wurde über die Vollendung des Kriegs, die Ankunft des Legats Wilhelm und seine Predigt zwischen livländischen Bewohnern und über seine Abfahrt gesagt [5, XXIX. p. 207-215]. Da gab es auch eine umfangreiche Beendigung der Chronik. Später wurde das Kapitel XXX, das über die Eroberung Ösels erzählt [5, XXX, p. 215-222], an die erste Redaktion der Chronik ergänzt. Es ist

wahrscheinlich, dass wenn Heinrich das Kapitell XXIX schrieb, wusste er weder über die Eroberung Ösels [1, c. 21] noch über den fas monatlichen Aufenthalt des Legats, weil es ein unbequemer Wind gab [1. с. 330, Anm. 290]. Die erste Beendigung der Chronik ist gerade mit der Abfahrt des Legats verbunden. Diese Abfahrt ist das letzte Ereignis im Kapitel XXIX und in Livland werden Frieden und Ruhe errichtet. Das ist die logische Endung der Chronik. Und Heinrich gab diese erste Redaktion mit 29 Kapiteln den Legat als ein Bericht über die livländische Ereignisse, die 42 Jahre vorher passierten. Die Version der Chronik mit 30 Kapiteln ist die Version der ersten Redaktion der Chronik mit dem zulegenden Kapitel XXX, das nur nach der Eroberung Ösels 1227 konnte entstehen. Wahrscheinlich war für Heinrich die Eroberung Ösels sehr wichtiges Ereignis, weil die Piraten aus Ösel erobert wurden. Deshalb nahm er dieses Erzähl in seine Chronik auf. Also nach der Meinung von Heinrich beendete die Eroberung in Livland. Schließlich kann ich sagen, dass das Problem des Schreibens der Chronik von Heinrich ziemlich aktiv ausgearbeitet wurde. Trotzdem beachteten die Forscher nicht die Verbindung zwischen den Notizen für das Gedächtnis und den Ursachen des Schreibens der Chronik. Die Forscher schlugen nur eine Ursache des Schreibens vor. Aber wir sahen oben, dass die Ursachen für jede Version der Chronik eigene waren. Mit anderen Worten kann man sagen, dass die Forscher die Ursachen des Schreibens des Protographs, der ersten und ersten zulegenden Versionen an die Ursachen des Schreibens der Chronik allgemein verbreiteten, während es für die Entstehung der jeden Versionen eigene Ursache gab. Literatur 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Генрих Латвийский. Хроника Ливонии / Введение, перевод и комментарии С.А. Аннинского. – Рязань: Александрия, 2009. – 384 с. Разумовская Л.В. Гельмольд и его «Славянская хроника» / Л.В. Разумовская // Адам Бременский, Гельмольд из Босау, Арнольд Любекский. Славянские хроники / пер. И.В. Дьяконова, Л.В. Разумовской и др. – Москва: «Русская панорама», 2011. – С. 508-522. Arnoldi Chronica Slavorum / Ed. I.M. Lappenberg // MGH. SS. rer. Germ. – Hannoverae, 1868. – 295 p. Brundage, J.A. Introduction: Henry of Livonia: The Writer and His Chronicle / J.A. Brundage // Crusading and Chronicle Writing on Medieval Baltic Frontier: A Companion on the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia / Ed. M. Tamm, L. Kaljundi, C.S. Jensen. – Farnham, 2011. – P. 1-23. Heinrici Chronicon Livoniae / Ed. L. Arbusow, A. Bauer. – Hannoverae, 1955. – lxiv, 255 p. Hildebrand, H. Die Chronik Heinrichs von Lettland. Ein Beitrag zu Livlands Historiographie und Geschichte / H. Hildebrand. – Berlin: Druck und Verlag von E.S. Mittler und Sohn, 1865. – 190 s. Holtzmann, R. Studien zu Heinrich von Lettland. / R. Holtzmann // Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde. – 1922. – Bd 43. – S. 159-212. Johansen, P. Die Chronik als Biographie. Heinrich von Lettlands Lebensgang und Weltanschauung / P. Johansen // Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. Neue Folge. – 1953. – Bd. 1. Hft. 1. – S. 1-24. Laakmann, H. Zur Geschichte Heinrichs von Lettland und Seiner Zeit / H. Laakmann // Beiträge zur Kunde Estlands. – 1933. – Bd. 18. – S. 57-102. Origines Livoniae sacrae et civilis seu Chronicon Livonicum vetus, continens res gestas trium primorum episcoporum / Recensuit J.D. Gruber. – Francfurti; Leipzig, 1740. – 331 p.

©BSU

DIE OPPOSITION «WIR-SIE» IN BIBLISCHEN QUELLEN IN PERSIEN PERIODE (DIE TERMINOLOGISCHE BESCHREIBUNG) H. VALYNETS The content of an opposition “we-they” in biblical sources of the Persian period is considered in this paper. Based on the terminology analysis, a new aspect of meaning of the term “the people of land” is determined.

Schlüsselwörter: Opposition «wir-sie», Volk des Landes, Feind. 1. EINFÜHRUNG Die Kategorien «wir» und «sie», oder kann man auch «Freund-Feind» sagen, sind universale binär Opposition, die ist gründliche Opposition von Kultur. Besondere Bedeutung dieser Opposition hattet die Hauptrolle in Ausbildung einer jüdischen Identität in Persien Periode und, wie Folgerung, in weiteren Jahrhunderten. In biblischen Quellen den Persian Periode finden wir Wiederspiegelung von dieser Opposition in besonders ausgeprägt Form. Das Begriff, dass Gott der jüdisches Volk wählte, gewinnet besondere Bedeutung und die Aktualität. Zugleich Vorstellung über «Feind» gewinnet weitere verbreitet und die prononcierten Charakteristik in vergleich mit vorexilische Periode [1, 27]. Der Ziel der Forschung ist Ausschreibung den Kategorien «wir», «sie» und ihren Relationen in biblischen Quellen von persischen Zeit. 2. QUELLEN UND METHODEN Quellen: Hauptquelle ist Esra-Nehemia-Buch Altes Testament. Auch kann man anderen Bibelbüchern nutzen, die datieren sich VI-IV vor Chr., Sacharia, Haggai, Ester, 1-2 Chronikbüchern und anderen [2]. In dieser Artikel hat sich lexisch-statistische Methode benutzt. Dieser Methode gründet auf These, dass je öfter einige Begriff in Text benutzt, desto diese Begriff mehre Bedeutung für Autor hat. 3. DIE TERMINOLOGISCHE BESCHREIBUNG 3.1. «Wir»

Der biblischer Autor nutzt verschiedene Wörter und der Ausdruck, die seine Gesellschaft bedeuten. In Esra-Nehemia-Buch benutzt sich meistens solche Terminen wie «Israel», «Söhnen Israels» (bnej Israel) «Volk Israels » (am Israel) usw1. Diese Ausdrücke benutzen allgemeine Sinne, wann meinen sich alle Hebräern oder geht weiter die Konkretisierung. Z. B. Esra 6:16: «Und die Kinder Israel, die Priester, die Leviten und die anderen Kinder der Gefangenschaft hielten Einweihung des Hauses Gotte mit Freuden2». Dieser Beispiel zeigt auch, dass die Begriff «Söhnen Israels» und «Söhnen der Gefangenschaft» ähnlich sind. In Vergleichung gibt es weniger Nennungen von bestimmte Volksstämme (die Söhne Jehud – 63, die Söhne Binjamin – 54). Der zweite Terminus ist Hebräer (17 mal) (jehudi ‫)יְהוּדִי‬. Diese Wort benutzt sehr lokal: Esra 4:4-6:14 und Neh. 2:16-6:6 (außer Neh. 13:12). Hier geht es über die Wechselwirkung mit Persern oder anderen Völkern. Die Ausdrücken, die die Ehrfarung der Gefangenschaft zeigen können: «die Kinder der 1

Esra 2:3; 2:59; 2:70; 3:1; 3:11; 4:3; 6:16; 6:17; 6:21; 7:7; 7:10; 7:13; 7:28; 8:25; 8:35; 9:1; 10:1; 10:2; 10:5; 10:10; Neh.1:6; 7:7; 7:72; 8:1; 8:14; 8:17; 9:1; 9:2; 10:40; 11:3; 12:47; 13:2; 13:3; 13:18; 13:26. 2 Alle Zitaten sind aus Deutsce Luther Bibel. 3 Esra 1:5, 4:1, 4:4, Нех. 4:10, 11:4, 11:25. 4 Esra 1:5, 4:1, Neh.11:4, 11:7, 11:31.

Landschaft, die heraufzogen aus der Gefangenschaft (haggolah bnej hammedina)» (Esra 2:1), «die Kinder Israel, die Priester, die Leviten und die andern Kinder der Gefangenschaft)» (Esra 6:16), «... denn er trug Leid um die Vergreifung derer, die gefangen gewesen waren (haggolah)» (Esra 10:6), «Und sie ließen ausrufen durch Juda und Jerusalem zu allen, die gefangen gewesen waren, daß sie sich gen Jerusalem versammelten » (Esra 10:7), «... er abgesondert von der Gemeinde der 5 Gefangenen (mikkahal haggolah)» (Esra 10:8) usw. Solche Ausdrücken benutzen 14-mal und oft in besonders emotionalen Ort den Text (Эзра 4:1; 6:19-20; 9:4; 10:6-8; 10:16). Außer EsraNehemia haben Führungskräfte der Kolonisten als Exil lebende Personen nur ein mal in Sach. 6:10 geheißen: «Nimm von den Gefangenen, von Heldai und von Tobia und von Jedaja» usw. Golah (‫ – )גּוֹלָה‬Nomen femiminum, die übersetzt als Exil und die Exil lebende Personen [3; 4; 5], geht aus Verb galah (‫ )ָגּלַה‬mit Bedeutung «entkleiden, vertreiben» [6; 7; 8]. 6 Haggai nannt die Gemeinde-golah als «übrig Volk» . Z.B. Haggai 1:14: «Und der HERR erweckte den Geist Serubabels, des Sohnes Sealthiels, des Fürsten Juda's, und den Geist Josuas, des Sohnes Jozadaks, des Hohenpriesters, und den Geist des ganzen übrigen Volkes…». In Sacharia gib es auch solche Ausdruck7: «Aber nun will ich nicht wie in den vorigen Tagen mit den übrigen dieses Volkes fahren, spricht der HERR Zebaoth» (Sach. 8:11). HALAT übersetzt Wort šeerit (‫)ש ֵארִית‬ ְ als Rest, Übriges [9]. 3.2 «Sie».

Erste Begriff ist nehar, die bedeutet fremde Land, Sohn des fremde Landes, der Fremdling (1 Mose 17:27), in Bedeutung der Feind, der Barbar (2 Mose 62:8) usw. [10]. In unseren Quellen benutzt diese Wort 12-mal. Der Kontext (Neh. 9:2; 13:30; Maleachi 2:11, 2 Chr. 6:32-33; 14:2; 33:15 und besonders Tritojesaja 56:3; 56:6; 60:10; 61:5; 62:8) zeigt, dass nehar etwas schlechte, fremdartig war. Aber der Fremd kann den Freund sein, wenn Gott das will (2 Chr. 6:33, Tritojesaja 56:3, 56:6). Was trennt nehar von der Tempel-Gemeinde ab: a) die Herkunft; b) die Religion; c) die Aufenthalt in dem andere Land. Die am vichtigste Begriff, die bedeutet Feind, ist “Volk des Landes” (am haares). Früher hattet diese Begriff neutrale Bedeutung. Aber in persian Zeit ist Alle anders. In Esra-Nehemia-Buch gigt es Episoden, wo die judische Gemeinde hat Konflikten mit am haares. So lesen wir schon in Esra 3:3: „und richteten zu den Altar auf seine Stätte (denn es war ein Schrecken unter ihnen vor den Völkern in den Ländern ( ‫“)) ַעמֵּי ָה ֲארָצוֹת‬. Auch diese Begriff steht in Esra 9:1, 9:11, 10:2, 10:11, Neh. 9:24, 9:30, 10:29, 10:31, 10:32. Der sowjetischer Wissenschaftler I. Amusin hat gemeint, dass diese Begriff solche Bedeutungen hatte: “1) Plural – alle anderen Völkern; 2) Singular – bestimmte ethnische Gruppen, kanaanische Bevölkerung (4 Mose 14:9), alle Hebräern in Ägypten, die hebräische religiöse Gemeind... auch die Untertanen von König” [11, 17]. Das waren die freien Gemeindeangehörigen und nach dem Exil nur die fremde Völkern [11, 29]. I. Weinberg denkt, dass am haares „das freie vollberechtigte Kollektiv war, wie Samaritanern. Die Gemeinde-golah wollte auch das freie vollberechtigte Kollektiv sein“ [1, 27]. Diesen Authoren haben sozialen Gründen von dieser Begriff gesucht. 8 Am haares benutzt 33-mal. In sie ist in Form am haares (Volk des Land) 10-mal , amej haares 9 10 (Völkern des Land) 10-mal , amej haaresot (Völkern des Ländes) 7-mal . 5

Esra 1:11, 2:1, 3:8, 4:1, 6:16, 6:19, 6:21, 8:35, 9:4, 10:6, 10:7, 10:8, 10:16, Neh. 8:17, und auch Sach.

6:10.

6

‫ ָהעָם ְש ֵארִית‬Hagg. 1:12, 1:14, 2:2. Sach. 8:6, 8:11, 8:12. 8 2 Chr.23:13; 23:20; 26:21; 33:25; Хр.36:1, Esra 4:4, Нех. 9:10, Neh.2:4, Sach.7:5, Job 12:24. 9 5 Mose.28:10, 1 Chr. 5:25; 2 Chr. 6:33; 32:19, Esra 10:2; 10:11, Neh.9:24; 10:31; 10:32, Ester 7

Am haares hat Bedeutung als in vorexilische Zeit. Amej haares sind nicht so freundlich und Juden sollen sich von ihnen abtrennen. Amej haaresot haben die total negativen Beurteilungen. Sie sind am meisten entgegensetzen von biblische Gemeinde. Diese grammatische Verschiedenheiten zeigen die Weltanschauung von biblischer Autor und, dass am haares keine sozial Gruppe ist.

Literaturverzeichnis 1.

Вейнберг, И.П. Гражданско-храмовая община в западных провинциях Ахеменидской державы: автореферат диссертации … доктора исторических наук: 07.00.03/ И.П. Вейнберг, Тбилиси, 1973. – 33 с. 2. Grabbe L. L. Judaic religion in the second Temple period. Belief and practice from the Exile to Yavneh / L. L. Grabbe. LondonNew York, 2000. – 424 Р. 3. ‫ גּוֹלָה‬// Еврейско-русский и греческо-русский словарь-указатель на канонические книги Священного Писания/ Сост. Цыганков Ю.А. – Спб., 2005. – С. 75. 4. ‫ גּוֹלָה‬// Genesius H.W.F. Genesius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. – USA, 1996. – P. 163. 5. ‫ גּוֹלָה‬//Strong's Hebrew Dictionary by James Strong. AGES Software Albany, OR USA Version 1.0 © 1999. – Р. 133. 6. ‫ גָּלַה‬// Еврейско-русский и греческо-русский словарь-указатель на канонические книги Священного Писания/ Сост. Цыганков Ю.А. – Спб., 2005. – С. 78. 7. ‫ גָּלַה‬// Genesius H.W.F. Genesius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. – USA, 1996. – P. 170. 8. ‫ גָּלַה‬//Strong's Hebrew Dictionary by James Strong. AGES Software Albany, OR USA Version 1.0 © 1999. – Р. 138. 9. ‫ ְש ֵארִית‬,‫ ָשׂאַר‬//Hebräisches und aramäisces lexikon zum Alten Testament. L. 5. – Leiden, New York, Köln, 1995. – Lieferung 5. – S. 1787. 10. ‫ נֵכָר‬,‫ נָכַר‬,‫ נֶכֶר‬// Genesius H.W.F. Genesius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. – USA, 1996. – P. 551. 11. Амусин, И.Д. «Народ земли» (К вопросу о свободных землевладельцах древней Передней Азии)/ И.Д. Амусин //Вестник древней истории. – 1955. – №2. – С. 14-36.

8:17.

10

2 Chr. 13:9; Хр.32:13, Esra 3:3; 9:1; 9:11, Neh. 9:30; 10:29.

Political collaboration and cultural interaction between Paekche and Yamato (366– 668) Irina Bozhenkova, Andrey Prohorov Annotation In this paper author describe political situation in the Korean peninsula when the process of the foundation and flourishing period of Paekche occurred. Foreign policy of Paekche and establishment of diplomatic relationship between Paekche and Yamato are analyzed. Key words: Paekche, Yamato, Koguryo, Silla, Imna, Jingo, king Keunchogo, diplomatic relationship, political collaboration, cultural interaction, state foundation.

History of the Korean peninsula is closely connected with the history not only North China and various states that have appeared in these areas, but also with the history of the Japanese islands. These contacts were different: it was tribal migration, peaceful resettlement of individual groups from one country to another, mutual attacks, and often both had been bound together. Later, on the one hand, a trip from Japan to Korea with the aim of transferring cultural values and the establishment of political relations, on the other hand, there had been more organized military expeditions, in order not only to plunder, but also to overlay tribute. The first fixed contact between Paekche and Yamato began from the middle IV century during the ruling of King Keunchogo and Queen Jingu, when Paekche was organized as a centralized state. Nevertheless, the first indirect contacts with Mahan, in which, as is well known, formation of Paekche had begun, we find in the messages from "Sango Zhi" and "Wei Zhi", which informs us about iron trade with Mahan and reports on embassies in Daifang that maybe had to pass through Mahan. Process of Paekche coming to being took place in the new political situation in the peninsula. After the Gojoseon crash - the first Korean state - the first Chinese districts appeared on the political map of the peninsula. Migration wave from the North to the South of the peninsula promoted the development of other tribe unions existed in the peninsula: koguryo had got independence and subordinated some neighborhood tribes (Okjeo, Tonye, East Okjeo); three huge tribal union (Mahan, Penhan, Jinhan) were formed in the Central and Southern part of the peninsula; Paekche, Silla and Kaya were created inside them. The relationships with the Chinese districts in the peninsula were the one of the leading directions of Paekche foreign policy. The Chinese districts were cultural developed and had a support of Han and later Wei, that’s were real pretenders for the establishment control over the trade routes and possible center of the peninsula unification. During the times of disturbance in the North China the districts lost the Chinese support that led to their liquidation by Paekche and Koguryo in 313 A.D. Gradually having subjected the neighboring communities, Paekche widened its territory on their account and at the same time it confirmed status Paekche as a strongest community in Mahan and came to Paekche’s military peak. However, it did not allow to become the leader of the peninsula. Koguryo was engaged in the war with Buyeo and Yuan and couldn’t pretend to that part. At the same time Silla hadn’t achieved that level of the political development which was necessary for gaining that goal. Moreover Silla had unsolved conflicts with Kaya and the Japanese islands. The next Japanese attack was rather successful in such a situation as the establishment diplomatic relationship between Paekche and Yamato happened. Imna was formed as a result of a join attack of Silla. From that moment the Japanese appeared to be as a one more important force. Political union had not lost long, but the Japanese presents took place until the middle VI c. a.d. The setting of the diplomatic relations, the further creation of the outpost Yamato on the peninsula, Imna, - became the reason for scholars. The incessant discussions on the cause and character of this contact, on the role of Imna, the most significant question: the role of the immigrants from Paekche in the process of the formation of Yamato. The so-called «horse – riding theory» of Egami Namio got the greatest popularity among the variety of theories and suggestions. However

Egami Namio didn’t have amply of the  indirects, this theory became the basis for the whole direction in the studying of contacts among the states of the peninsula and Yamato. Such a turn in the historiography is explained by the fact that two types of contacts were possible: political and cultural, frequently interconnected. Besides, the sources do not always explain how the borrowings entered the territory, their meanings were often overstated in the combination with the role of the immigrants in Yamato. Nevertheless, those borrowings had become an integral part of the Japanese culture. Many researchers consider that Paekche was on the peak of the power during the establishment of the official relations with Yamato. Having destroyed Koguryo, Paekche switched on Silla, whose weakness was beneficial for Yamato. Such a situation did not lost long, as Koguryo started pretending to be the most powerful state of the peninsula. The successful attack on Paekche as a pretext of defending Silla was proof of this. The balance of political forces changed in the region and such situation influenced the union Paekche – Yamato. The last one even interfered in the process of crown heritage. Examples are not rare: personal conflicts between the ruling elite mixed with relations between states. Paekche realized the necessity of preserving the union even at the expense of the intrusion not only the crown heritage, but in the court affairs, that immensely reduced the king’s power. Koguryo extreme strengthening threatened the security of Silla. In 433 political union between Paekche and Silla could help. Moreover Paekche was not able to resist: country is flooded with devastation, inter-clan intrigue, and extortions on military spending had led to famine and mass migration to other parts of the peninsula. In order to overcome the expensive politics of Koguryo, Paekche depend on the alliance with Yamato and Kaya. Yamato took control of a large area in basin of the Naktonggang river and established military garrisons there. The presence of these garrisons not only allowed Paekche protects flank in the case attack of Silla, but also strengthened the claims of Paekche to these areas, as the successor of the former lands of Mahan. The presence of Yamato troops gave a springboard by which could easily interfere in the internal affairs of the peninsula. However, even these measures to preserve their positions have not helped Paekche - Silla was soon to look for a rescue from the Japanese forces, which, because of the frequent cases of poor harvests increased the pressure on the Silla borders. As a result, Paekche had hoped only on the help of the state of Yamato. And Yamato presented Paekche the lands to the new capital after the defeat of Paekche in 475, that saved the state from the loss, but it didn’t solve internal problems of Paekche. It goes without saying that military and political situation in Korea of Vth century was character-ized by Paekche’s weakening and gradual strengthening of Silla as evidenced unsuccessful raids from Japanese to Silla  Taekaya appeared there, in order to shake the dependence of Kaya. Taekaya become the most influential of North part of confederation estimates. The rulers of Taekaya tried to save their lands from the possible attempts of Paekche to restore it power. Taekaya needed the support of Silla and Yamato, conducting the policy of traversing among three strong neighbors. Paekche positions were restored as an equal participant of the union Paekche – Yamato, when the ruler was King Muryong, who played the important role in the cultural development of Yamato. Though the cultural rise was a result of political union, but it effectiveness was lost, there was no control over Kaya and Imna. As a confidence Imna, Yamato lost influence on the peninsula. Yamato was busy with cultural contacts with the states and some unsuccessful trips to peninsula. It’s proved that Yamato was losing it important position in the foreign policy during the period of the Three states. The installation of Silla union with Tan Empire made Paekche to refer to the only ally. But when the first attacks were lost Yamato refused to promissory in connection with Paekche to the side of neutrality. Series of defensive contractions started to be. That’s stated about Japanese fears.

Summing everything up, having described the process of establishment and dynamic of relations Paekche – Yamato. It’s possible to say that dispute of the starting aims of establishment of diplomatic relationship the union very quickly stopped being pure political and changing the peninsula’s situation. As it was mentioned above the flourishing period did not lost long and the same was military part of the union. In the future, the union developed in the cultural direction: Paekche was the source of many of the cultural and political phenomena, which are subsequently formed the basis of the unique Japanese culture. BIBLIOGHAPHY 1. Best J. W. A History of the Early Korean Kingdom of Paekche, together with an annotated translation of The Paekche Annals of the Samguk sagi. / Best J. W. – Harvard East Asian Monographs. 2006 – 256 c. 2. Chizuko T. Allen. Early migrations, conquests, and common ancestry: theorizing Japanese origins in relation with Korea. / Chizuko T. Allen - Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. - Vol.8, № 1. - 2008. - 105-130 c. 3. Hong Wontack. Ancient Korea-Japan relations. Paekche and the origin of theYamato dynasty. / Hong Wontack – Seoul, 2010 – 302 c. 4. Hong Wontack. Paekche: An Offshoot of the Puyeo-Koguryeo in Mahan Land. East asian history: a korean perspective. / Hong Wontack - Korea and Japan in East Asian history. Vol. 1. No. 15 – 2005 – 1-30 с. 5. Ким Бусик. Самкук-саги . T.2/ Ким Бусик- М., «Восточная литература» РАН, 1995 – 770 c. 6. Нихон-секи: Анналы Японии. Т.I,II. - М., 1997. - 643 с. 7. Чэнь Шоу. Описание корейских племен начала нашей эры (по "Саньго чжи")./ Чэнь Шоу. [Электронный ресурс] – Режим доступа: http://www. vostlit.info/Texts /Dokumenty/China /I.htm - Дата доступа: 10. 09.2013 г.

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DIE LERNAUTONOMIE O.V.TOZIK The topic of the project is autonomous learning or self-learning in the sphere of foreign languages. Self-learning learning – is educational, anthropologic and ethic concept aiming at conscious development of the personality and gaining knowledge during the whole life. This concept implies direct student’s interest and self-study. The term “selflearning” which appeared in XIX is closely connected to the concept of autonomous learning. First it regarded only adults. Autonomous learning supposes student’s independence in the main aim, contents, methods, techniques, evaluation forms, time and place defining. The theoretical bases of the project is works of Rampillion, Bimmel, Frey, Bannach, Berger.

Ключевые слова: Selbstbildung, Lernautonomie. 1. EINFÜHRUNG Im Kontext der Notwendigkeit der Fremdsprachenkenntnisse entsteht die Forderung an die Lehrerinnen und Lehrer, den Schülerinnen und Schülern sowohl sprachliches Wissen als auch sprachliches Können zu vermitteln. Dabei müssen die Kenntnisse und Fertigkeiten einen klaren Bezug auf realistische Lebenssituationen haben. Nicht zu vergessen sind auch die Vermittlung von Einsichten über interkulturell unterschiedliche Normen und Verhaltensweisen sowie die Förderung von positiven Haltungen und Einstellungen zu Fremden und zu Fremdem. Ein Lehrer muss die Bereitschaft seiner Schülerinnen und Schüler unterstützen, ihre eigenen Fremdsprachenkenntnisse aktiv und zunehmend selbständig zu entwickeln bzw. weiterzuentwickeln. Dabei steht das selbständige Lernen, das eng mit der Selbstbildung zusammenhängt, im Vordergrund. Selbstbildung ist ein pädagogisches, anthropologisches und ethisches Konzept, das auf die absichtliche Gestaltung der eigenen Persönlichkeit und auf ein lebenslanges Lernen abzielt[5]. Es handelt sich um den personalen Aspekt der menschlichen Bildung. Selbstbildung spielt aber auch jenseits des klassischen Bildungsbereichs in einer Vielzahl von Geistesströmungen eine große Rolle. Selbstbildung kann sich auf verschiedene Persönlichkeitsaspekte richten und sich aus verschiedenen Motiven speisen. Die heute immer stärker geforderte Schülerautonomie setzt das Vorhandensein der vielfältigen Möglichkeiten zur Förderung selbstverantwortlichen Lernens der Schülerinnen und Schüler voraus. Diese Möglichkeiten vermitteln die Fähigkeiten der Schüler weiterzuentwickeln, selbst Unterrichtsmaterialien im Sinne des selbst gesteuerten Lernens herzustellen bzw. zu bearbeiten. Sehr wichtige Aspekte der Lernautonomie sind Selbstmotivation und Lernorganisation, wobei die Aktivitäten, Lernertypen, Möglichkeiten und Prinzipien des Lernens recht unterschiedlich sein können. 2. THEORETISCHE GRUNDLAGEN DES AUTONOMEN LERNENS 2.1 Die Geschichte der Entstehung der Selbstbildung und Lernautonomie

Selbstbildung ist weder an Institutionen, curriculare Bildungsgänge, formale Eingangsvoraussetzungen noch an bestimmte Lebensalter gebunden. Sie basiert auf Begegnung und Gespräch, auf Besichtigung und Beobachtung, auf Erkundung und Erprobung, auf Hören und Lesen, alles jedoch aus eigener Einsicht und Motivation, selbstgesteuert und mit der freien Entscheidung des betreffenden Mensch, ob er eine Lehrperson hinzuzieht oder nicht. Hieronymus Andreas Mertens war einer der ersten, die unter diesem Begriff über «die Kunst, stets froh zu leben», philosophierten [8]. Er bezog die Selbstbildung bereits auf Kinder, während viele andere Autoren dieser Zeit eher Erwachsene, insbesondere Lehrer und Wissenschaftler, oder eine Methode innerhalb der Schulen im Blick hatten. Seit dem 19. Jahrhundert erschien eine Vielzahl von Büchern zu dem Thema, v.a. aber auch populäre Ratgeber. So erschienen 1836 zwei Bücher, die Anstand und Sitte zum Gegenstand der

Selbstbildung machen wollten. Carl von Wallen hatte dabei schon Deutschlands Jugend beiderlei Geschlechts als Zielgruppe. Romano Guardini hat seit den 1920er Jahren die Selbstbildung zum Thema der katholischen Jugendbewegung gemacht, indem er den Jugendlichen «Briefe zur Selbstbildung» schrieb. Zu dieser Zeit begann auch die Suche nach dem Thema und der Methode der Selbstbildung in den Biographien und Werken herausragender Persönlichkeiten wie Adalbert Stifter, Friedrich Schiller, Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, Heinrich von Kleist, Friedrich Hebbel u. v. a. Von 1946 bis 1949 brachte Adolf Grimme unter dem Titel «Denkendes Volk» die sogenannten «Blätter für Selbstbildung» heraus. Der Begriff der Selbstbildung ist eng mit dem Begriff der Lernautonomie verbunden. Dieser Begriff wurde von Henri Holec ursprünglich mit Blick auf die Erwachsenenbildung geprägt. Die damit verbundene Idee der Selbstbestimmung und Selbststeuerung des Lerners geht mit den Leitvorstellungen der Reformpädagogik konform, Schüler zu eigenverantwortlichem Handeln zu erziehen. Lernautonomie ist eine besonders konsequente Form der Lernerorientierung mit dem Grundgedanken, den Lernenden selbst über Ziele, Inhalte, Methoden, Arbeitstechniken, Evaluationsformen sowie zeitliches und räumliches Umfeld bestimmen zu lassen. Lernautonomie und selbstgesteuertes Lernen entsprechen einer konstruktivistischen Lerntheorie. 2.2 Die Alltagstheorien beim autonomen Lernen

Wenn wir die Lernautonomie unter dem Gesichtswinkel des Deutschlernens heute betrachten, so soll es auf die Entstehung von Alltagstheorien eingegangen sein: sie hängen aufs Engste mit den Erwartungen der Deutschlernenden in Bezug auf den Deutschunterricht, deren Länge, Anstrengungen des Kursleiters zusammen. Dabei wird es auf die Übertragung früherer Lernerwartungen auf die für den Lehrling aktuellen Lernanforderungen hingewiesen. Die Überzeugung, dass der Deutschunterricht vor allem Grammatikregeln und Vokabellisten bedeute, kann im Unterricht störend auf die kommunikativen Lernaktivitäten wirken. Der Begriff der Alltagstheorie des Lernens kann folgenderweise erläutert werden: Eigene Lernerfahrungen, Schulerfahrungen und von anderen gehörte Erfahrungen bauen sich zu einem subjektiven Bild auf, zu einer Vorstellung, an die man glaubt. Das betrifft die Selbsteinschätzung der Lernenden («Ich bin für das Deutschlernen völlig unbegabt»), den Lerngegenstand («Deutsch ist schwer»), die Erwartungen an die Unterrichtenden («Die Lehrer sollen den Unterricht so aufbereiten, dass man selbst möglichst wenig tun muss») und Erwartungen an den Unterricht («Deutsch lernen = Grammatik und Vokabeln lernen»). Die Alltagstheorien können zu Vorurteilen werden: Vorurteile bezüglich der eigenen Lernkompetenz führen zu Lernbarrieren, zu Schuldzuweisungen an die Unfähigkeit der Unterrichtenden und an den Schwierigkeitsgrad der Sprache [4]. 2.3 Definition der Hauptbegriffe der Lernautonomie. Die Lernertypen

Zu den Mitteln, die das Deutschlernen erleichtern können, zählen Selbstmotivation und Lernorganisation. Dabei betrachten wir den Begriff der intrinsischen Motivation und definieren ihn als eigene, von innen herkommende Motivation, Interesse an einer Sache im Gegensatz zu der extrinsischen Motivation, die über Bestrafung oder Belohnung aufgebaut wird. Gerade die intrinsische Motivation bildet die Grundlage des autonomen Lernens. Weitere wichtige Begriffe, die hier definiert werden, sind Lernertyp und prozeduale Kompetenz: Lernende planen ihren Lernprozess unterschiedlich, sie nehmen den Lernstoff unterschiedlich auf, verarbeiten und bewerten ihn unterschiedlich - dieses Wissen führt zu der Einteilung der Lernenden in verschiedene Lernertypen. Die Bezeichnungen für die einzelnen Lernertypen sind unterschiedlich. Weiter definieren und analysieren wir die Lernertypen:  Erfahrungsbezogener Lernertyp; Er bevorzugt eine Situationsorientierung und akzeptiert auch einen beträchtlichen affektiven (gefühlsmäßigen) Anteil an der Lernsituation. Exemplarisches Lernen und entdeckendes Lernen sind seine bevorzugten Arbeitsformen.

 Analytischer Lernertyp; Er neigt dazu, Lerngegenstände zu strukturieren und zu abstrahieren. Schemata und Modelle sind nur eine Form, sein deduktives (ableitendes, d. h. vom Allgemeinen ausgehendes) und begriffliches Lernen auszudrücken.  Handlungsorientierter Lernertyp; Für ihn sind Experimentieren und Selbsttätigkeit die geeigneten Lern- und Übungsformen. Er fühlt sich im Projektunterricht zu Hause. Analyseaufgaben und intensive Lektüre widersprechen eher seinen Lerngewohnheiten.  Kognitiv-abstrakter Lernertyp; Er zieht exaktes und systematisches Beobachten wie auch die reflektierte Wahrnehmung allen erfahrungsorientierten Lernverfahren vor.  Kommunikativ-kooperativer Lernertyp; Er legt Wert auf den Austausch von Meinungen, Erfahrungen und Einstellungen mit anderen. Einzelarbeit - auch wenn sie im Klassenverband geschieht - lehnt er ab.  Visuell orientierter Lernertyp; Er zieht diejenigen Lernwege vor, auf denen er neue Informationen mit einem Blick erfassen und sich in Form mentaler Bilder (Bilder im Kopf) einprägen kann. Abstrakte Informationsausnahme widerstrebt ihm.  Auditiv geprägter Lernertyp; Er nimmt vor allem gehörte Informationen besonders gut auf. Es kann sein, dass er begleitende visuelle Angebote als störend empfindet.  Haptischer Lernertyp; Er prägt sich diejenigen Lerninhalte in besonderer Weise ein, die er selbst durch Basteln, Werkeln, Anfassen, Tasten u. Ä. wahrnehmen konnte [3, 4]. Wesentlich ist zu wissen, dass Lernende unterschiedlich lernen (etwa eher analytisch orientiert oder visuell oder auditiv usw. [6, s. 78] und dass kaum ein Lernender einem einzigen Lernertyp entspricht. 2.4 Die führenden Theorien, Strategien und Techniken des autonomen Lernens

Im Bereich «Lernautonomie» gibt es verschiedene Lerntheorien, vor allem sind das die konstruktivistischen und die subjektwissenschaftlichen Lerntheorien [6, s. 40]. Die konstruktivistischen Lerntheorien betonen die Individualität von Lernprozessen und Lernergebnissen. Die subjektwissenschaftlichen Lerntheorien behaupten, dass das Lernen nicht mechanisch abläuft, sondern ein begründetes menschliches Handeln darstellt. Die Schülerinnen und Schüler wissen meistens, dass man besonders gut lernt, wen man aktiv an dem Prozess teilnimmt, und dass das Lernen Anstrengungen bedeutet. Man weiß meistens auch, dass man das Gelernte wieder vergessen kann, wenn man es weder benutzt noch wiederholt, aber man kann das Gelernte wieder in Erinnerung bringen. Nicht zu vergessen ist, dass das Lernen nur dann stattfindet, wenn man die innere Bereitschaft dazu aufbringt und wenn man immer wieder übt [6, s. 45]. Die Rolle des Lehrers besteht laut diesen Theorien darin, dass es zur Herausbildung folgender Erkenntnisse bei den Schülerinnen und Schülern beigetragen wird: Fehler sind eine unvermeidliche und notwendige Erscheinung im Lernprozess. Sie sind keine Schande, sondern eine Chance. Der richtige Zeitpunkt und die Zeitdauer für das Lernen beeinflussen den Lernerfolg. Nicht jeder Lernende hat die gleichen Lernprobleme, aber jeder hat Lernprobleme. Jeder Schüler und jede Schülerin muss den eigenen Lernstil finden. Wenn man die eigenen Arbeitsmaterialien genau kennt, kann man sie auch erfolgreich einsetzen. Die Rolle des Lehrers besteht auch darin, Lernstrategien und Lerntechniken darzustellen und zu erläutern. Dabei verstehen wir unter der Lernstrategie folgendes: Eine Lernstrategie ist ein Plan,

den jemand im Kopf hat, um ein Ziel zu erreichen. Fremdsprachenlernende wenden sie an, um eine Fremdsprache möglichst erfolgreich zu lernen: «Lernstrategie ist ein Plan (mentalen) Handelns, um ein Lernziel zu erreichen [6, s. 45]». Um sich eine Lernstrategie zurechtlegen zu können, muss den Lernenden das Lernziel klar sein. Das lässt sich gut in einer Wenn ... dann - Formulierung ausdrücken: Wenn es mein Ziel ist, die Bedeutung eines Wortes zu ermitteln, dann schlage ich das Wort im Wörterbuch nach. Die Lerntechnik ist somit ein Element der Lernstrategie, die ein Plan ist. Damit werden Fertigkeiten bezeichnet, die Lernende gebrauchen, um etwas zu lernen, z. B. die Fertigkeit, etwas in einem Lexikon oder einer Grammatik nachschlagen zu können. Lerntechniken grenzen sich von Lernstrategien ab. Man unterscheidet logischerweise zwei Gruppen von Strategien: Sprachlernstrategien und Sprachgebrauchstrategien [6, s.62], und bei den Lernstrategien unterscheidet man direkte (kognitive) Strategien und indirekte Strategien [6, s. 64]. Bei den direkten (kognitiven) Lernstrategien unterscheidet man Gedächtnisstrategien und Sprachverarbeitungsstrategien, dabei gehören zu den ersten Herstellung mentaler Bezüge, Verwendung von Bildern und Lauten, regelmäßige und geplante Wiederholung und Handeln an sich. Zu den Sprachverarbeitungsstrategien gehören Strukturieren, Analysen aller Art und Anwendung von Regeln, Übungen und über sowie Anwendung solcher Hilfsmittel wie Wörterbücher, Grammatiklehrwerke, Lexikons. Zu den indirekten Lernstrategien gehören Strategien zur Regulierung des eigenen Lernens (erstens ist es das Konzentrieren auf das eigene Lernen, zweitens ist es die Einrichtung und Planung des eigenen Lernens, drittens ist es die Überwachung und Auswertung des eigenen Lernens), affektive Lernstrategien (Registrierung und Äußerung von Gefühlen, Reduzierung von Stress und Mutaufbringung) und soziale Lernstrategien (Erstellung von Fragen, Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung des Verständnisses für andere). Unter den Sprachgebrauchsstrategien ist die Verwendung von Vorwissen von Bedeutung, und zwar Herausbildung und Überprüfung von Hypothesen, Erschließen von Bedeutungen aufgrund sprachlicher Hinweise, Ableitung von Bedeutungen aus dem Kontext. Zwecks Voranbringung des Sprachgebrauchs wechselt man zur Muttersprache, man kann auch Mimik und Gestik einsetzen oder das Thema wechseln. 3. METHODISCHE ANWENDUNG DER KONZEPTION «LERNAUTONOMIE» Um die Konzeption der Lernautonomie erfolgreich umzusetzen, muss man die richtige Wahl der Methode treffen. In unserem Projekt betrachten wir drei Methoden: Lernen durch Lehren, Freiarbeit und Projektunterricht. «Lernen durch Lehren» (LdL) ist eine handlungsorientierte Unterrichtsmethode, bei der Schüler oder Studenten lernen, indem sie sich den Stoff gegenseitig vermitteln. Von den Anhängern des Konzeptes wird LdL ausschließlich als unterrichtsgestaltende Methode innerhalb eines Klassenverbandes benutzt. Vor jeder Lektion teilt der Lehrer den Stoff in zu bearbeitende Teilabschnitte ein. Es werden Lernergruppen aus maximal drei Schülern gebildet und jede Gruppe bekommt einen abgegrenzten Stoffabschnitt sowie die Aufgabe, diese Inhalte der Gesamtgruppe zu vermitteln. Die Schüler bereiten den Stoff didaktisch auf (spannende Impulse, Abwechslung in den Sozialformen usw.). Bei dieser Vorbereitung, die im Unterricht stattfindet, steht der Lehrer den einzelnen Lernergruppen zur Seite und gibt Impulse und Ratschläge. Grundsätzlich neigen Lehrer dazu, die didaktischen Fähigkeiten von Lernern stark zu unterschätzen. Nach einer Eingewöhnungsphase zeigen Schüler meist ein beachtliches pädagogisches Potenzial. Im Sinne optimierter Didaktik verlangt LdL, dass die selbstgestalteten Lehreinheiten nicht als ein durch Lerner gehaltener Frontalunterricht oder ein Unterricht durch Vortrag von Referaten missverstanden werden. Die unterrichtenden Schüler sollen sich ständig mit geeigneten Mitteln versichern, dass jede Information von den Adressaten verstanden wird (kurz nachfragen, zusammenfassen lassen, kurze Partnerarbeit einflechten). Hier muss der Lehrer intervenieren, wenn er feststellt, dass die Kommunikation nicht gelingt oder dass die von den

Lernern eingesetzten Motivationstechniken nicht greifen [2]. Die zweite Methode heißt «Freiarbeit» (auch Freie Arbeit). Das ist eine Form des Offenen Unterrichts. Freiarbeit wurde beispielsweise von den Reformpädagogen Célestin Freinet und Maria Montessori – allerdings mit unterschiedlichen Intentionen eingesetzt. Bei der Freiarbeit können die Schüler ihre Themen nach ihren eigenen Interessen wählen und in ihrer eigenen Lernstruktur bearbeiten. Sie haben dabei Freiheiten: organisatorisch – zeitlich (wann), räumlich (wo), kooperativ (mit wem), methodisch (wie), inhaltlich (was) –, sozial (Regeln in der Klasse), persönlich (welche Werte) und bei der Bewertung. Sie arbeiten weder inhaltsgleich noch zeitgleich oder zielgleich. Der Lehrer ist Unterrichtsbegleiter, er gibt den Schülern Rückmeldungen über ihre Aktivitäten in der Unterrichtszeit. Er verzichtet auf Lehren und ist stattdessen Lernberater. Freiarbeit ist die Aufhebung dessen, was man allgemein unter Unterricht versteht. Freiarbeit ist kein Teil des Stundenplans, sondern durchgängiges Unterrichtsprinzip. Freiarbeit ist die konsequente Verwirklichung differenzierten Unterrichts. Die Schüler arbeiten nicht in einem «didaktischen Garten», sondern in der «freien Natur» [1]. Die dritte Methode heißt «Projektunterricht». Sie bezeichnet allgemein eine Lehr- und Lernform, bei welcher der Projektgedanke die maßgebliche Rolle spielt. Es handelt sich um eine mehr Lebensnähe, Problembewusstsein, Verselbständigung und Kooperationsbereitshaft anstrebende Erneuerungsidee, die als Alternative zu der theoretisch-intellektuellen Verengung der schulischen Bildung und als Reaktion auf den Frontalunterricht zu sehen ist und in der Schul- und Hochschuldidaktik wie in der Berufs- und Erwachsenenbildung seit den 1970er Jahren einen Reformschub auslöste. Die für und durch den Projektunterricht zu entfaltende Projektkompetenz ist als Überbegriff zu werten und schließt folgende Teilkompetenzen ein:  Kooperationskompetenz in Verbindung mit der Arbeit in Teams und Gruppen;  Kommunikationskompetenz zum Herstellen und Pflegen von Kontakten, zur gemeinsamen Reflexion und Arbeit im Projekt;  Organisationskompetenz als Teil der Methodenkompetenz schon im Planungsprozess;  Produktionskompetenz hinsichtlich der zu erstellenden Produkte wie Texte, Videos, Fotos, Reportagen, Websites usw.;  Self-Access-Kompetenz, d.h. Fähigkeit zur Selbstbestimmung, Selbstreflexion und Verselbständigung der Schüler (Selbstwirksamkeit);  Didaktische Kompetenz, die letztendlich darauf abzielt, dass Lernende selbst als Lehrende tätig werden, wenn sie ihre Produkte im Plenum oder sogar in der Öffentlichkeit präsentieren [7]. Diese Methoden können nicht nur einzeln angewendet werden, sondern schließen die Möglichkeit der Kombination nicht aus. Die Entscheidung darüber hängt von der Phase des Lernprozesses, dem Zweck, vorhandenen Mitteln und anderen Faktoren ab. 4. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Das autonome Lernen bedeutet Lernen, in dem die Schülerinnen und Schüler in zentralen Bereichen Entscheidungen über ihr Lernen selbst treffen, z. B. was sie lernen und vor allem wie sie vorgehen, um zu lernen, welche Materialien und Hilfsmittel sie verwenden, ob sie allein oder mit anderen zusammenarbeiten, wie sie kontrollieren, ob sie erfolgreich gelernt haben. Aufgrund der außerhalb der Schule gewachsenen Selbstbestimmung von Jugendlichen und Erwachsenen ist es notwendig, über mehr Selbstbestimmung auch in der Schule nachzudenken. In diesem Projekt wurden sowohl die theoretischen Grundlagen der Lernautonomie (darunter die Geschichte, die wichtigsten Techniken und Strategien), als auch die methodische Anwendung der Konzeption «Lernautonomie» mit der Darstellung von drei Hauptmethoden betrachtet. Die Einführung des autonomen Lernens in den Fremdsprachenunterricht setzt auf Veränderung und Verlassen vertrauter veralteter Muster und Lernformen und hat positive Konsequenzen sowohl für die Lehrkräfte als auch für die Schülerinnen und Schüler, denn das Prinzip der Kooperation

bedeutet auch, dass der Unterricht nicht mehr lehrergesteuert, sondern lernerzentriert ist. Als Ergebnis unserer Arbeit dient die Schlussfolgerung, dass die autonome Weise des Lernens im Gegensatz zur instruktivistisch-reaktiven viele Vorteile hat und zwar:  das Lernen basiert auf der intrinsischen Motivation, was Lernbereitschaft der Schüler und als Folge bessere Ergebnisse bedeutet;  aufgabenorientierte Arbeitsformen regen das Interesse der Schüler an;  Verantwortungsübernahme durch die Schüler bis hin zur Übernahme der Lehrfunktion. Alle diesen Faktoren zeugen von hoher Wichtigkeit und Aktualität des Thema «Lernautonomie».

Literaturverzeichnis 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Bannach M. Selbstbestimmtes Lernen. Freie Arbeit an selbst gewählten Themen. Baltmannsweiler, 2002 Berger, L. Lernen durch Lehren im Fokus - Berichte von LdL-Einsteigern und LdL-Experten / Lutz Berger, Joachim Grzega, Christian Spannagel Epubli, 2011. Bimmel, P. Lernstrategien im Deutschunterricht/ P.Bimmel. In: Fremdsprache Deutsch, Heft 8 “Lernstrategien”, S. 4-11 Bimmel, P. Lernerautonomie und Lernstrategien. Fernstudieneinheit 23 /P. Bimmel, U. Rampillion // Red. H. Meese. – Langenscheidt, 2001. – 208 S. Gabriel W. Personale Pädagogik in der Informationsgesellschaft. Berufliche Bildung, Selbstbildung und Selbstorganisation in der Pädagogik. Rudolf Steiners, 1996 Gerl-Falkovitz H.B. Auf der Suche nach Identität. Von der Erziehung zur Selbstbildung, 1991 Frey K. Die Projektmethode. Weinheim 1982. Mertens H.A. Vortrag eines Vaters an seine Kinder. Über die Kunst, stets froh zu leben. Zur Selbstbildung beym Eintritt in die große Welt; 17. Erziehungsrede, 1788