Applications of 24-hour Noninvasive Ambulatory Blood Pressure

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Aug 1, 2006 - measurements of BP have shortcomings.1–3 In add- ... a research device to an established and valuable clinical tool for assessment and ...
REVIEW ARTICLE

Applications of 24-hour Noninvasive Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring Yung-Zu Tseng* Casual blood pressure (CBP) measurements using a standard sphygmomanometer have traditionally constituted the principal modality for the assessment and management of hypertension. However, CBP measurement has shortcomings. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) provides abundant information on blood pressure (BP), including heart rate, all BP readings for test periods, BP average, BP variability, BP load, load index, distribution pattern of BP, reduction percentage of BP, trough/peak ratio, and summary statistics for overall 24-hour, daytime and nighttime periods. Over the last three decades, ABPM has evolved from a research device to an established and valuable clinical tool for assessment and management of hypertension. This technology has been proven to be useful in terms of the distribution pattern of BP, characterization of BP profiles in normotensive and hypertensive patients, evaluation of patients with mild or labile hypertension, physiologic and psychologic factors for fluctuation of BP, load index study, study of white coatt hypertension, etiology of hypertension, prognosis of hypertension, and assessment of antihypertensive management. Nevertheless, the technology remains underused due to lack of insurance reimbursement in mostt countries. Accordingly, insurance reimbursement is crucial to promote increased utility of ABPM. Clinicians should be familiar with the role of this technology in the care of patients with abnormal BP. This review is an attempt to increase clinicians’’ understanding off ABPM and the appropriate use off this technology. [J Formos Med Assoc 2006;105(12):955–963] Key Words: ABPM, circadian rhythm, dipping, load index, target organ damage

Casual blood pressure (CBP) measurements using a standard sphygmomanometer have traditionally constituted the principal modality for the diagnosis and management of hypertension. There is substantial evidence, however, to suggest that CBP determinations may not always reliably reflect blood pressure (BP) at rest in other settings or during ordinary daily activities. Apparently, casual measurements of BP have shortcomings.1–3 In addition to the rationale that BP varies widely and that CBP measurements are unrepresentative of BP at other times, the superiority of multiple BP measurements rather than a single measurement in

pressure-related morbid events underlies the value of noninvasive ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM). Over the last three decades, ABPM has evolved from a research device to an established and valuable clinical tool for assessment and management of hypertension,4–10 although the technology remains underused. This review is an attempt to increase clinicians’ understanding of ABPM and the appropriate use of this technology. In the first part of this paper, I describe the devices used in ABPM. Next, I summarize the applications of ABPM and, finally, I mention the problems in the use of ABPM.

©2006 Elsevier & Formosan Medical Association .

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Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, and Show Chwan Memorial Hospital, Chang Hua, Taiwan. Received: June 5, 2006 Revised: August 1, 2006 Accepted: August 1, 2006

*Correspondence to: Dr Yung-Zu Tseng, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, 7 Chung-Shan South Road, Taipei 100, Taiwan. E-mail: [email protected]

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Applications of ABPM

Figure i 1. Examinee wearing the 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitor.

ABPM Devices and Items Ambulatory BP monitors record BP by means of oscillometric or auscultatory methods, or both. Oscillometric monitors perceive arterial pressure vibrations and calculate systolic and diastolic BPs using an algorithmic approach. The readings can be affected by arm movement but not background noise. Auscultatory monitors detect the Korotkoff sounds by using a microphone on the bladder cuff. These monitors may be disturbed by background noise but not arm movement. There are several types of monitors that have been validated by the British Hypertension Society and the Association of Advancement of Medical Instrumentation.11 The examinee wears the ambulatory BP record for a 24-hour period (Figure 1). BPs and heart rates (HRs) are measured usually every 10–20 minutes during daytime hours and every 20–30 minutes during nighttime hours. The examinee is instructed to keep a diary throughout the testing period for evaluation of BP changes. The data are analyzed with a microcomputer. The report provides abundant information on BP, including HR, all BP readings for test periods, BP average, BP variability, BP load, load index, distribution pattern of BP, reduction percentage of BP, trough/peak ratio, and summary statistics for overall 24-hour, daytime, and nighttime periods. Examples of ABPM graphs are shown in Figure 2. Obviously, ABPM can offer data on BP distribution and pattern that cannot be obtained from CBP measurements.12–23 956

ABPM has been proven to be useful in terms of the distribution pattern of BP,15–23 characterization of BP profiles in normotensive and hypertensive patients,15–25 evaluation of patients with mild orr labile hypertension,25,26 physiologic and psychologic factors for fluctuation of BP,12–14,27,28 load index study,29,30 etiology of hypertension,31–36 prognosis of hypertension,37–53 and assessment of antihypertensive management.4,54–60 ABPM has been increasingly used in the assessment of elevated BP in addition to the diagnosis of hypertension.

Distribution pattern of BP ABPM has demonstrated that normal people have a BP pattern with suppression at nighttime.14–17,61,62 However, this normal circadian change in BP is not observed in certain groups of people, such as some hypertensive patients,18,19,61,62 patients with diabetes mellitus,63 those with autonomicc dysfunction63,64 or organ transplants65,66 or cerebral vascular accident.67,68 The abnormal circadian change including non-dipping or reversed circadian are associated with target organ complications.42–45,49

White coat hypertension BP is a fluctuating variable that is influenced byy multiple physiologic and psychologic factors. Twenty-four-hour ABPM is more representative off these factors.12–14,27,28 There are some people who have persistently elevated clinic BPs but normal pressures on ABPM. This effect of a physician on BP is often referred to as white coat hypertension (WCH).1,2,69 This phenomenon has been reported in 15–35% of subjects currently labeled and treated as hypertensive.1,70–72 The prevalence of WCH was 21% among our hospital population. Although controversy exists regarding the management off WCH, most studies have suggested that it is a benign condition.73–76 WCH also represents a low w risk stratum of Taiwanese with isolated office hypertension.77 Accordingly, identification of WCH is of medical, social and economic importance. WCH is most dramatically illustrated by using ABPM. J Formos Med Assoc | 2006 • Vol 105 • No 12

Application off ABPM Figure i 2. Parameters off 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure (BP) monitoring: (A) distribution of ambulatory BP; (B) histogram of BP.

Three point running average

A 250

BP (mmHg)

200 150 100 50 0 13.00

16.00

19.00

22.00

1.00 4.00 Time (o’clock)

7.00

10.00

13.00

16.00

B 50% Diastolic Systolic

Percentage of BP

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 40 50

60

70

80

90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 BP (mmHg)

Etiology and mechanism of hypertension ABPM is also of great value in the investigation of the etiology and mechanism of hypertension, when it correlates other measurements with a subject’s BP profile. Jefferies et al32 found that increased nocturnal BP and reduced nocturnal BP dipping may be risk factors for the later development of hypertension in twins. Significant genetic effects on both systolic BP and diastolic BP by ABPM was found and estimates of genetic effects were higher for daytime than nighttime ABPM values.33 The interaction of adducing gene variants (ADD1 and ADD3) in humans is statistically associated with variation in ABPM values.34 Ramunni and his colleagues35 suggested that factors other J Formos Med Assoc | 2006 • Vol 105 • No 12

than the renin–angiotensin system probably contribute to the increase in renal vascular resistance and to the early development of hypertension evaluated by ABPM. Differences in peritoneal transport properties were also demonstrated to be associated with the development of hypertension in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients.36

Diagnosis of hypertension ABPM is a highly useful diagnostic tool as it can distinguish masked hypertension, WCH and sustained hypertension. Therefore, the technology is a more sensitive method for diagnosing hypertension than is sole reliance on office BP in chronicc 957

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renal disease patients and renal transplant recipients.78–80 Hypertension is linked to increased left ventricular mass, stroke, cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and progression to end-stage renal disease. ABPM is also a fundamental tool to diagnose resistant hypertension (RH) and to evaluate treatment efficacy.81,82 True RH patients have more target organ damage. The presence of a greater pulse pressure and a lower nocturnal BP reduction in true RH patients may be responsible for this increased cardiovascular risk profile. Morning periods have been associated with a greater risk for cardiovascular events compared with the rest of the 24 hours. The morning surge in BP is believed to contribute to the heightened risk and can only be detected by ABPM.83

Mechanism of myocardial ischemia ABPM is useful in load index study, which is imperative for evaluating the mechanism of myocardial ischemia.15 With Holter monitoring, the prevalence of silent myocardial ischemia in hypertensive patients without coronary artery disease is between 25% and 73%. Silent myocardial ischemia resulting from increased oxygen demand remains to be studied. The combined 24-hour Holter electrocardiography (ECG)/ABPM device is imperative.29 Nowadays, a new device allows simultaneous ST segment analysis with extra BP recordings triggered by episodes of ST segment depression and demonstrated episodes of silent myocardial ischemia during BP and HR increases in a study.30

Assessment of antihypertensive management A relevant analogy to the use of Holter ECG monitoring for evaluating response to antiarrhythmic therapy is the use of ABPM for monitoring response to antihypertensive medications. ABPM has been used in the evaluation of the pharmacologically antihypertensive effects of various antihypertensive agents, including monotherapy or combination therapy,4,54–60 in special hypertensive groups.63,84 This technology has also been proven to be useful in the evaluation of antihypertensive duration of long-acting antihypertensive drugs. It has demonstrated that some 958

long-acting antihypertensive drugs cannot control BP throughout the day or night or both periods.56 ABPM can provide the trough/peak ratio of various antihypertensive drugs and, thus, the optimal BP control.85,86 ABPM is also used to study the mechanism of BP lowering effect.60

Prognostic implications Another important use of ABPM is in the prediction of target organ damage and cardiovascularr morbidity. In every study in which ABPM has been compared with CBP, ABPM has been shown to be superior in predicting either target organ damage38,42–47,50–53 or morbid events.37,39–41,48,49 In a study,42 24-hour ABPM revealed a close relationship between hypertensive target organ damage (ECG and chest roentgenographic evidence of leftt ventricular hypertrophy, proteinuria and retinopathy) and the parameters of such measurements in terms of BP pattern (reversed circadian pattern, non-dip), comparisons between CBP and ambulatory BP (ABP) in addition to BP load and BP average. ABPM measurements such as BP pattern, comparisons between CBP and ABP, and BP load correlate more closely to the surrogates of cerebrovascular (CVA) and cardiovascular disease than office BP.67,68

Comparison between CBP and ABP In normal conditions, ABP is lower than CBP. In cases where ABP is higher than CBP, there was significantly greater presence of target organ damage or cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.42 A subject with reversed WCH—normal CBP and variable fraction of abnormally high ABP—mayy have greater target organ damage than those with normal ABP.87

Circadian rhythm BP in normotensive subjects is characterized by a clear circadian pattern, with values tending to peak during the day but falling to a nadir at midnight. However, some hypertensive patients have a reversed circadian pattern where BP values fall to a nadir during the day and reach a peak at midnight. The frequency of a reversed circadian rhythm J Formos Med Assoc | 2006 • Vol 105 • No 12

Application off ABPM

is significantly higher in patients with target organ damage.42,48,49 Reversed circadian rhythm is found more frequently in organ transplant recipients65,66 and patients with cerebral stroke.67,68 In acute CVA disorders, the risk for loss of circadian change in BP was strongly inversely correlated with the distance between the lesion and hypothalamus.68

Dipping Verdacchia et al43 found that a nocturnal reduction in systolic and diastolic BP of more than 10% (dipping), could delay or prevent the development of left ventricular hypertrophy. In contrast, a nocturnal BP reduction of less than 10% of the daytime value (non-dipping) was closely associated with target organ damage.42,45,49 In patients with CVA disorder, there was a close correlation between the distance from the lesion to the hypothalamus and the ratio of nocturnal BP reduction (circadian index). ABPM may be useful in localization of the CVA lesion.68

Verification of hypertension in organ transplant recipients In renal transplant recipients, hypertension is common and associated with increased cardiovascular and allograft rejection risks. Nocturnal hypertension is an underestimated phenomenon in this population.78 The later serum creatinine correlated positively with 24-hour systolic BP load and ABPM-derived pulse pressure.88 However, BP control is not optimal in one-third of this population. Therefore, ABPM is required for accurate diagnosis and optimal treatment of hypertension to reduced cardiovascular events in this population.72 ABPM is also useful in evaluating the circadian rhythms of BP in liver allograft recipients.66

Table 1.

Application in pediatrics Varda and Gregoric89 suggested that ABPM is applicable in the assessment of BP in very young children. Wuhl et al90 found that ABPM provided superior information for diagnosis and treatmentt of pediatric hypertension. They suggested that neither CBP nor home BP detected hypertension with enough sensitivity or specificity to replace ABPM. ABPM is useful in evaluation of the relationship between BP measured with ABPM and the progression of renal damage in normotensive children with reflux nephropathy and in selecting children at risk of hypertension.91

Problems in the Use of ABPM Although ABPM is a useful modality for stratifying cardiovascular risk and guiding therapeuticc decisions, the technology remains underused. Problems hindering the widespread use of ABPM include technology, the normal values of ABP, and its cost-benefit.

Technology A minority of examinees do not sleep well with the records and tend to have somewhat unstable BP values. Rarely, examinees may not be able to tolerate the test or they may develop erythema in the area distal to cuff placement. However, these problems should disappear as the technologyy improves.92

Normal values of ABP The definition of normal ABP remains to be established. Many large population studies have been carried out to define normal ABP (Table 1).93–96 All

Ambulatory blood pressure of normotensive subjects

93

O’Brien et al Imai et al94 Staessen et al95 Mancia et al96

24-hr SBP/DBP (mmHg)

Daytime SBP/DBP (mmHg)

Nighttime SBP/DBP (mmHg)

118 ± 11/72 ± 7 118 ± 11/69 ± 7 116 ± 10/70 ± 7 118 ± 11/74 ± 7

124 ± 12/78 ± 8 121 ± 12/72 ± 7 122 ± 11/75 ± 8 123 ± 11/79 ± 8

106 ± 11/61 ± 8 106 ± 11/61± 7 106 ± 11/61 ± 8 108 ± 11/64 ± 8

SBP = systolic blood pressure; DBP = diastolic blood pressure.

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Table 2.

Normal reference values for mean 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure

O’Brien et al93 Staessen et al95 Mancia et al96 Ohkubo et al97 JNC VI8

Authority

SBP/DBP (mmHg)

Allied Irish Bank study International database PAMELA study Cohort of Ohasama JNC VI

134/84 134/82 130/81 134/79 135/85 (awake) 120/75 (asleep)

SBP = systolic blood pressure; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; JNC VI = The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure.

960

of the studies have shown that ABP averages are lower than CBP averages in normal subjects. Several methods have also attempted to define the normal values of ABP, with similar results. Table 2 shows the diagnostic thresholds for ABPM currently agreed on by the British Hypertension Society and the American Society of Hypertension.8,93,95–97

therapy, reimbursement for ABPM is imperative. Accordingly, national insurance coverage is crucial to promote the increased clinical utility of ABPM. However, in case of widespread clinical use off ABPM, clinicians should use the technologyy judiciously.

Cost-benefit issues

References

The issue of cost-benefit is controversial. ABPM has been considered to be an investigative technology and its cost is not reimbursed in most countries. This lack of reimbursement underlies the low use of ABPM. Moser98 emphasized that ABPM performed on hypertensive patients each year would add to treatment expenditure, while other studies99,100 have shown that appropriate use of ABPM does not increase the cost of care. Cost savings would be found in people assessed with ABPM compared with CBP measurement.55,99 In addition to lower cost of medications and physician fees, reducing the unnecessary prescription of medications for the highly prevalent WCH population would be the most important source of cost savings. More recently, the value of ABPM has been recognized and it has been approved for reimbursement by the center for Medicare and Medicaid Services of the United States. Currently, ABPM is only recommended for the evaluation of WCH, patients with drug resistance, hypotension with antihypertensive medications, episodic hypertension and autonomic dysfunction.8 As ABPM is still useful in identifying those who truly require antihypertensive therapy and those who may best be managed with non-pharmacologic

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