applying information architecture in design thinking

APPLYING INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE IN DESIGN THINKING: IDEATING SOLUTIONS TO THE WICKED-PROBLEM OF ADDICTION

Jason Hobbs (2018)

Masters in Design Proposal

FACULTY OF FINE ART, DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE At the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Marc Edwards

Co-supervisor: Thea Tselepis

CONTEXT The purpose of this Research Through Design (RTD) study is to explore the use of Information Architecture in the context of Design Thinking to ideate solutions to wickedproblems. To this end addiction, as a complex, social problem as it manifests for those striving for recovery from substance abuse in Johannesburg, South Africa will be addressed. Information Architecture (IA) is a term that may be found across a variety of fields including Library and Information Science, Knowledge Management, Information Science, Computer Science and Design. Within Design, IA in its mainstream application is most closely related to the planning and schematic ‘blueprinting’ of digital products such as websites, mobile applications and desktop applications where the concern lies in the structure, organisation and presentation of information for end users (customers or staff of organisations) with an emphasis on usability, findability and understanding (Rosenfeld, 2015). Recent developments in the field of IA have seen it reframed (Resmini, 2014) as a practice with a far broader interest in the design of information environments that span multiple contexts, services and products across digital, physical and blended digital / physical spaces referred to as Pervasive IA (Resmini, 2011). Nonetheless, the development of the field of IA is overwhelmingly practice-led and while practiced within the processes of design, as a form of design in its own right it is not well understood at a theoretical level. Design Thinking (DT) is a set of discourses and also a young discipline with an interest in understanding how designers come to knowledge (the epistemological), how designers do design (praxeology) and how we learn from the artefacts produced by designers (the phenomenological) (Cross, 2006:101) in a view which spans the various forms of design (architecture, industrial design, interaction design, interior design, etc.). Broadly, DT understands design as being concerned with the creation of preferred futures (Zimmerman, et. al., 2007) through the introduction of artificial human-made systems, services or artefacts into society (Simon, 1998). Within the discourse of Design Thinking there is an acknowledgement that problems and solutions should be considered as occurring within social reality (Rittel, 1973), that design in a human centred framing is concerned with the betterment of people’s lives (Buchannan, 2001) and that problem (and solution) identification takes on an indeterminate nature as a result of the complexities that emerge from being required to understand social reality (Buchanan, 1992). Socially situated, indeterminate problems are referred to as wicked-problems in DT which Kolko (2012:10) frames as “…social or cultural problem[s] that [are] difficult or impossible to solve for as many as four reasons: incomplete or contradictory knowledge, the number of people and opinions involved, the large economic burden, and the interconnected nature of these problems with other problems.” As we shall see, this characterisation aptly describes the problem of addiction in South Africa. The Ubuntu Addiction Community Trust (U-ACT) is a registered Not for Profit Section 18a Trust (IT 9717/07) based in Oaklands, Johannesburg. It provides a wide array of services across the addiction lifecycle and ecosystem in particular Recovery Coaching services through their Academy of Coaching and Training and in- and out-patient programs through

the treatment centre, the Foundation Clinic1. In-line with U-ACT’s desire to offer “well researched and uniquely developed innovative solutions” (U-ACT, 2018) they have agreed to participate in this project. While some theory exists which highlights the relationship between IA and DT (Fenn & Hobbs, 2014), this research project presents an opportunity to develop design-led solutions that will hopefully benefit U-ACT, the field of addiction and advance our understanding of the particular manner in which IA can assist in ideating solutions from the perspective of DT in the context of complex, social problems.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to explore how applying Information Architecture methods and techniques, from the perspective of Design Thinking, could offer an effective approach to ideating solutions to wicked-problems. CENTRAL RESEARCH QUESTION: How can information architecture be applied in the design of solutions to address the challenges of addiction? The objectives of the study follow: 1. 2. 3.

1

Determine a working theoretical model for applying IA in DT appropriate to and for the purposes of addressing the wicked problem of addiction in Johannesburg, South Africa, Ideate solutions to the problem of addiction by employing IA thinking, techniques and methods in the context of addicts recovering from substance abuse in relation to the Ubuntu Addiction Community Trust, and Evaluate objectives 1 and 2 based on criteria set out in the Research Through Design methodology

In this document, reference to U-ACT refers to the Trust, the Training Academy and the Foundation Clinic unless specific mention is made to one or more of the entities.

PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW The field of addictionology is vast, touches on many disciplines and areas of practice and is itself divided on the causes of addiction and its very definition (Du Plessis, 2012). DiClemente (1998), Du Plessis (2012) (2014) and West (2005) all provide broad reviews of the etiological landscape of addiction. While their categorisations of theories differ, they all cover single-factor theories from a variety of perspectives (biological, psychological, sociocultural, spiritual…), integrative and dynamic theories (such as the Biopsychosocial Model) and comprehensive or unifying theories (such as the Transtheoretical Model), including their own. Perhaps the largest contemporary development we see in this space regards neurological research and biological understandings of what occurs in addiction (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2016) and what Du Plessis (2012:13), quoting Sremac, refers to as the “increasing ‘medicalization’ of the notion of disease” in addiction. These new findings are central to and form the basis of the Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs and Health (2016) for the USA in 2016. Nonetheless, to my knowledge, no universally accepted, comprehensive etiological model of addiction yet exists. It has been noted that 15% of South African’s have a drug problem; that 5.7 million South African’s will suffer from an addiction disorder in their lifetime; and that 1 in 14 South African’s are regular narcotics users (Akeso Psychiatric Clinics, 2016)2. It is of course not just addicts who are affected. The broader problem ecology includes families and communities, workplaces, supply systems (including the supply of legal, over-the-counter substances), health and recovery systems, educational institutions, political and legal systems and the criminal justice system (Hobbs, 2016). Furthermore, within this ecosystem we see multiple interconnected problem spaces, for example the relationship between alcohol and drugs and crime, road accidents, breakdowns in the family unit and so on (Department of Social Development, 2013). It follows that the economic burden to the state, at the very least, is significant (Hobbs, 2016). For all of these reasons we may consider addiction to be a wicked problem. Of particular interest is the ontological challenge posed by the field of addiction. This view is the driving force behind the work of Guy Du Plessis (2014:38) who has argued for the application of Integral Theory in an effort to develop a “transdisciplinary framework, in an attempt to arrive at an integrally informed metatheory of addiction”. Du Plessis (2014) highlights the relationship between addiction as a complex, social problem and its related ontological challenge which offers a meaningful link to the application of IA and DT to solutioning in this space. David Benyon (2014:49) describes IA as providing an ontology which acts as a “conceptual model of a domain described in terms of objects (or entities), their relationships and their structure…[where an] information architect analyses some domain (a sphere of activity, or activity space) and decides on the objects of interest and the relationships between those objects.”. Not only does this description exclude reference to digital products, channels,

2

The same article notes that overdosing on drugs is now the number one cause of death for people under the age of 50 in the USA.

media or technology but it also suggests a place for the notion of a ‘Conceptual IA’ employed during design synthesis as part of the DT process of problem solving.

Ideation in Design Thinking In Design Thinking designers are understood to solve problems through a synthetic process of ideation (Kolko, 2010). This aspect of DT differentiates it from more analytical approaches to problem solving, especially as applied in business contexts, for its potential to arrive at innovative solutions (Brown, 2008). Synthesis in ideation is understood in DT as sense-making and abductive reasoning (based on conducting design research) where developing a hypothesis of and for the wicked-problem becomes the solution (Kolko, 2010). In other words, to understand the problem is to determine the solution (through synthetic modes of thinking) achieved by the designer moving through multiple iterations of problem / solution conceptions (Cross, 2006) which is the ideation process. Ideation further manifests as the prototyping of solutions in whichever form is relevant to the ideas that have emerged: this could be a building, a process, a website, a policy, etc. Lastly, because of the indeterminate nature of wicked-problems and the synthetic nature of ideation, these prototypes are ‘tested’ with stakeholders in an attempt to validate their appropriateness. As such, the relationship between DT and wicked-problems is well documented in the theory and is often represented as the DT design process. This process (Figure 1) can broadly be described as the designer moving through stages of enquiry (researching), ideation (solutioning) and prototyping (making). See Annex 1 for a comparison of descriptions of the DT process from a variety of different authors.

Figure 1: Diagrammatic description of the Design Thinking process (see Annex 1)

As previously noted however, no formal theoretical account of the relationship between IA and DT has been written to date from within either mainstream or Pervasive IA. That said, a description of the similar ways in which IA and DT operate is provided in the text: “The Information Architecture of Meaning Making” (Fenn & Hobbs, 2014) wherein suggestion is made of a variety of approaches, methods and techniques that may be applied from IA, within the context of the DT process, for synthetic problem resolution. Pervasive IA, although not in explicit reference to DT, does address how our changing technological and media landscape bring to IA (and design) many of the challenges of wicked-problems such as systems complexity, problem identification and framing and, by implication, issues of assumption in product- (or channel-) led IA or other design approaches (Resmini, 2011). In the paper "Information Architecture and Design Strategy: The Importance of Synthesis during the Process of Design" John Kolko (2007) makes the point that many elements of design synthesis appear in the practices of IA and Design Strategy. Design strategy refers to the production of strategy as part of the process of design thinking (Nixon, 2016:xiii) where strategy is understood as the creation of a plan that is sustainable under conditions of uncertainty (Fenn & Hobbs, 2017). In terms of IA, Kolko is not referring to mainstream or Pervasive IA per se but rather some other aspect or form of IA which I shall refer to here as Conceptual IA: IA performed as ideation through synthesis in DT. This view then becomes the principal meditation of the research project: how can applying Information Architecture methods and techniques, in the context of Design Thinking, offer an effective approach to ideating solutions to wicked-problems.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY The conceptual framework for this project may be understood as a triangulation of theory regarding DT, IA and wicked-problems as represented in Figure 2 below, where the objective to determine IA oriented solutions to the challenges of addiction in Johannesburg, South Africa, is centered at their intersection (a.).

Figure 2. Illustration of the theoretical framework which forms the background to this project

In terms of DT (b. in Figure 2), several positions apply to this project. First, that design is interested in the introduction of the artificial into the world through the application of methods such as modelling, pattern-formation and synthesis in order to address problems (Cross, 2006). It does so with an emphasis on “practicality, ingenuity, empathy and a concern for appropriateness”3 (Cross, 2006:2). Furthermore, design operates in the complexity that emerges from understanding problems in social reality (Buchanan, 1992; Krippendorf, 2007). Various DT processes exist all of which emphasise an initial enquiry phase (researching problem ecologies), determining solutions (ideation) and the making of said solutions in prototype form such that they might be tested and iterated upon (see Annex 1). Lastly, DT places the sustainability and improvement of the human condition at the centre of its efforts (Buchanan, 2001). Wicked-problems (c. in Figure 2) are understood in the manner initially articulated by Rittel and Webber (1973) and further expanded upon by Buchanan (1992) and Kolko (2012) as noted in the introduction to this proposal. The final element in this triangulation is IA (d. in Figure 2). While this project acknowledges the positions of both Mainstream IA (Rosenfeld, 2015) and Pervasive IA (Resmini, 2011), and will employ some methods and techniques from these forms, its intention is to build upon

3

As opposed to “objectivity, rationality, neutrality, and a concern for ‘truth’” in the sciences and “subjectivity, imagination, commitment, and a concern for justice” in the humanities (Cross, 2007:2)

this theory by exploring the particular role of IA in ideation as a form of synthetic cognition to address wicked problems.

Methodology Research through Design (RTD) is a methodology which positions the design researcher as design practitioner (Frayling, 1993/4; Zimmerman, et. al., 2007). In RTD, research takes the form of developing and evaluating design outputs where knowledge is generated to contribute to the world, in terms of the subject-matter (in this case addiction), and to the discipline of Design (Hevner, et. al., 2004). In the form developed by Zimmerman et. al. (2007), and the methodology to be applied in this project, RTD follows the DT process and focuses on wicked-problems. The emphasis is on creating the 'right' solution, designing artefacts which "transform the world from its current state to a preferred state" (Zimmerman, et. al., 2007:1), where "research contributions should be artifacts that demonstrate significant invention. The contributions should be novel integrations of theory, technology, user need, and context; not just refinements of products that already exist in the research literature or commercial markets." (Zimmerman, et. al., 2007:7). In terms of contribution to Design, the purpose of RTD lies in developing artefacts with “the potential to become pre-patterns from which design patterns can begin to emerge." (Zimmerman, et. al., 2007:5). This project will be divided into three primary stages in order to achieve its aims: first, a literature review of relevant theory from the fields of IA and Design and a theoretical positioning, as required and relevant to the topic of addiction, for the manner in which IA will be performed in the context of the DT process for practical execution and evaluation on this project; second, conducting design through the DT process such that a Conceptual IA may be delivered supported by problem and solution exploration (Figure 3); and thirdly, the evaluation of the design and the project as a whole applying criteria from the RTD methodology.

Figure 3: High-level diagrammatic description of the intended design process (top) mapped to the DT process presented in Figure 1

The criteria of Process, Invention, Relevance and Extensibility (Zimmerman, et. al., 2007:7 – 8) will then be applied to evaluate the project, and the IA design outputs of the process, so as to generate insight and hopefully contribute knowledge regarding the issue of addiction in SA and the practice and theory of IA and DT. A brief description of the evaluation criteria follows (Zimmerman, et. al., 2007:7 – 8): • • • •

Process: Evaluation of methods employed and ‘rich descriptions’ of the design process such that insight, improvements and documentation may exist for further future use. Invention: Presentation of a robust literature review such that the contribution of the project may be clearly and critically situated within the field of design research. Relevance: Articulation of and justification for the preferred future state which the project aims to deliver framed in the context of the ‘real world’. Extensibility: Description and documentation of the project and its (artefactual) outputs such that the knowledge contained therein may be leveraged by the field.

The project will be conducted over the course of 2018 as a full-time Masters in Design. The research plan follows below:

Notes regarding Phase 1: Enquiry Exploration work on this project began informally late in 2016 and has included:

• • •

A stakeholder interview with David Collins (conducted over three sessions) (Hobbs, 2016). Collins is the founder and current acting CEO of U-ACT. Please see the attached file: Interview Consent Form.docx Desktop research and participation in a variety of the services offered by U-ACT. Concepting of tools.

This documentation (available upon request) will act as a research input into the Enquiry phase of the project. Further interviews with Collins and other staff members are anticipated in the Enquiry phase for which the content of the previous consent form will be amended and applied. Topics to be discussed in these interviews is contained in the document Research Topics Exploration - Stakeholder Interviews.docx.

PROPOSED STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY

The study will be structured around detailed descriptions of the design process bracketed, as it were, by methodology description and the literature review at the start and the RTD analysis at the end. Chapter 1 will provide the introduction to the study and the context of the study. Chapter 2: Literature Review •

Literature review of relevant Design, IA and related addiction theory and research to situate the study.

Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework and Methodology • • •

Conceptual framework of theory relevant to the study. Rationale for and description of the RTD methodology. Development of a working theoretical model for applying IA in DT appropriate to and for the purposes of addressing the wicked problem of addiction in Johannesburg, South Africa

Chapter 4: Phase 1 – Enquiry •

Description and documentation of design research exploration into the problem ecology of addiction in Johannesburg, SA. Outputs will include the research data and analysis, research findings and a problem framing amongst other potential material.

Chapter 5: Phase 2 – Ideation •

Description and documentation of the ideation process and Conceptual IA solutions.

Chapter 6: Phase 3 – Prototyping

•

Description and documentation of IA design prototypes of and for a ‘solution ecology’ which exemplify the Conceptual IA solutions developed in Phase 2. This phase will include gathering feedback as a form of testing from the staff of U-ACT regarding the prototypes developed.

Chapter 7: Phase 4 - Project Reflections •

Although not explicitly required by the RTD methodology I plan to include this chapter to gather notes and record the design project process and insights derived from project execution regarding topics which may not be covered by the RTD evaluation criteria, for example reflections on the theoretical model developed in Phase 0.

Chapter 8: RTD Evaluation •

Analysis and documentation of the project according to the RTD criteria of process, invention, relevance and extensibility.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Addicts should be considered to be vulnerable individuals many of whom emerge from previously disadvantaged backgrounds. However, while addicts are intended as the primary beneficiaries of this project, U-ACT is the primary stakeholder as the solutions for U-ACT are intended for addicts. At no time will this project engage directly or indirectly with addicts, whether in active addiction, treatment or recovery, of any kind, from U-ACT as in- or out-patients or from anywhere else. U-ACT have also agreed to share a variety of forms of data, including patient data, upon signing of their confidentiality agreement. Please see the attached document UACT Confidentiality Agreement.pdf In the context of DT this may seem to contradict the principles of a human-centered philosophy which emphasises participation with end users during research, prototyping and testing. The challenge is the scope of user research and testing. Any individual may fall victim to addiction be they young or old, rich or poor, from any variety of background, any race or gender. Indeed, the single act of user profiling could warrant its own dissertation. To counter this dilemma, I will be drawing on secondary research available from the public domain and the expert opinion of the staff at U-ACT. User profiling will take the form of a user-types ‘hypothesis’ based on a matrix of human factors to ensure that sufficient variance in types-definition is in place to inform ideation and review prototypes. Additionally, U-ACT staff will be engaged to gather feedback regarding concepts developed in Ideation and prototypes developed in the Prototyping phase. A review of phases and activities as they relate to ethics follows:

1. Phase 1: Enquiry a. Stakeholder interviews: i. Stakeholder interviews will be conducted with U-ACT employees only and not in- or out-patients ii. Letters of consent will be signed by U-ACT employees iii. Any patient data from U-ACT will maintain the privacy of patients b. Desktop research i. Secondary research will be drawn from the public domain ii. Any patient data from U-ACT will maintain the privacy of patients c. Environmental analysis i. Will not involve in- or out-patients in any manner ii. Will not include any observation of in- or out-patients d. User profiling and personae development i. Profiling will be based on best practise criteria from the field, inputs from stakeholder interviews and desktop research ii. Profiling will take the form of a user types hypothesis to ensure sufficient differentiation exists between types to inform ideation and prototyping iii. Will not involve in- or out-patients in any manner 2. Phase 2: Ideation a. U-ACT employees will be engaged in the process to gather feedback, validation and for information hand-over (of ideas to U-ACT) b. No in- or out-patients will be involved in the process 3. Prototyping a. U-ACT employees will be engaged to ‘test’ prototypes from the perspective of gathering feedback and validation and for information hand-over (of ideas to U-ACT) b. No in- or out-patients will be involved in the process

REFERENCES Akeso Psychiatric Clinics. (c2016). SA drug abuse trends paint a grim picture. Intervention is necessary. Available from: https://www.akeso.co.za/articles/addiction-treatment/sa-drugabuse-trends-paint-a-grim-picture-intervention-is-necessary. Benyon, D. (2014). Spaces of Interaction, Places for Experience. In Synthesis Lectures on Human-Centered Informatics. Edited by Carroll, J. San Rafael, CA: Morgan & Claypool. Brown, T. (June 2008). Design Thinking. Harvard Business Review, 84-92. Buchanan, R. (1992). Wicked Problems. Design Issues, 8(2):3-23 Buchanan, R. (2001). Human Dignity and Human Rights: Thoughts on the Principles of Human-Centered Design. Design Issues, 17(3): 35-39. Cross, N. (2006). Designerly Ways of Knowing. London: Springer-Verlag. South Africa. Department of Social Development. (2013). National Drug Master Plan 20132017. Available from https://www.gov.za/documents/national-drug-master-plan-2013-2017 DiClemente, C. & Prochaska, J. (1998). Toward a comprehensive, transtheoretical model of change: Stages of change and addictive behaviours. In Treating addictive behaviours. Edited by Miller, W. R. & Heather, N. New York: Plenum Press. Du Plessis, G. (2012). Towards an Integral Model of Addiction: By Means of Integral Methodological Pluralism as a Metatheoretical and Integrative Conceptual Framework. Journal of Integral Theory and Practice, 7(3):1-24. Du Plessis, G (2014). An Integral Ontology of Addiction: A Multiple Object as a Continuum of Ontological Complexity. Journal of Integral Theory and Practice, 9(1):38-54. Fenn, T. & Hobbs, J. (2014). The Information Architecture of Meaning Making. In Reframing Information Architecture. Edited by Resmini, A. Cham: Springer. Fenn, T. & Hobbs, J. (2017). Conceiving and Applying Relationship Models for Design Strategy. Conference proceedings of iCord 2017 held in Guwahati. Singapore: Springer Nature. Frayling, C. (1993/4). Research in Art and Design. Royal College of Art Research Papers. Volume 1(1):1-5. Harris, P. & Ambrose, G. (2009). Basic Design: Design Thinking. Lausanne: Ava Publishing. Hevner, A., March, S., Park, J. & Ram, S. (2004). Design Science in Information Systems Research. MIS Quarterly. 28(1):75-106. Hobbs, J. (2016). [Stakeholder interview with David Collins]. Unpublished raw data.

Kolko, J. (2007). Information Architecture and Design Strategy: The Importance of Synthesis during the Process of Design. Conference proceedings of the Industrial Designers Society of America Conference. Available from: http://www.jonkolko.com/writingInfoArchDesignStrategy.php Kolko, J. (2010). Abductive Thinking and Sensemaking: The Drivers of Design Synthesis. Design Issues. MIT 26(1):15-28 Kolko, J. (2012). Wicked Problems: Problems Worth Solving: A Handbook & A Call to Action. Available from: https://www.wickedproblems.com/ Krippendorf, K. (2007). Design Research, an Oxymoron? In Design Research Now edited by Michel, R. Basel: Birkhauser Verlag AG. Nixon, N. (2016). Strategic Design Thinking: Innovation in Products, Services, Experiences and Beyond. New York: Bloomsbury. Resmini, A. & Rosati, L. (2011). Pervasive Information Architecture: Designing CrossChannel User Experiences. Burlington: Morgan Kaufmann. Resmini, A. (Ed.). (2014). Reframing Information Architecture. Cham: Springer. Rittel, H. & Webber, M. (1973). Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2):155-169. Rosenfeld, L., Morville, P. & Arango, J. (2015). Information Architecture: For the Web and Beyond (4th Edition). Sebastopol: O'Reilly Media. Simon, H. (1998). The Science of Design: Creating the Artificial. Design Issues, 4(1/2):6782. Stanford D.School. (c2015). Welcome to the Virtual Crash Course in Design Thinking. Available from: dschool.stanford.edu/dgift Ubuntu Addiction Community Trust (U-ACT). (c2018). About us. Available from: https://uact.org.za/about-us/ U.S.A. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Office of the Surgeon General. (2016). Facing Addiction in America: The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Available from https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/sites/default/files/surgeongenerals-report.pdf HPI Academy. (c2018) Glossary: Design Thinking Process. Available from: https://hpiacademy.de/en/journal/glossary.html West, R. (2005). Theory of Addiction. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Zimmerman, J., Forlizzi, J. & Evenson, S. (2007) Research Through Design as a Method for Interaction Design Research in HCI in the proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Available from:

http://repository.cmu.edu/hcii/?utm_source=repository.cmu.edu%2Fhcii%2F41&utm_mediu m=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

Annex 1: The Design Thinking Process Design Thinking (DT) applies a particular process which can broadly be described as the movement through phases of enquiry (research), ideation (problem / solution conceptualization) and prototyping (making and testing ideas). This process is described by various DT theorists and institutions and is elaborated upon in Table 1. It is important to note that although the process appears linear and procedural, the synthetic nature of the thinking employed in design sees the designer moving to and fro between phases as she moves towards resolution.

Table 2: Comparison of Design Thinking process descriptions