Aug 10, 2006 - Seventy female first year university students were .... For assessing students' knowledge of rule violations in basketball, ... Federation's (FIBA) (1994) official referees' guide were classified by an ... It consisted of 17 articles which were ... with ten phases from the Men's European Basketball Championship,.
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Applying Multimedia Computer‐Assisted Instruction to Enhance Physical Education Students’ Knowledge of Basketball Rules Panagiotis Antoniou , Vassiliki Derri , Efthimios Kioumourtzoglou & Spiridon Mouroutsos Published online: 10 Aug 2006.
To cite this article: Panagiotis Antoniou , Vassiliki Derri , Efthimios Kioumourtzoglou & Spiridon Mouroutsos (2003): Applying Multimedia Computer‐Assisted Instruction to Enhance Physical Education Students’ Knowledge of Basketball Rules, European Journal of Physical Education, 8:1, 78-90 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1740898030080106
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European Journal of Physical Education, 2003, 8, 78-90
Applying Multimedia Computer-Assisted Instruction to Enhance Physical Education Students' Knowledge of Basketball Rules
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Panagiotis Antoniou, Vassiliki Derri, Efthimios Kioiimourtzoglou and Spiridon Mouroutsos1
Research has shown that computer-assisted instruction appears to be a highly promising mode for teaching cognitive concepts of physical education and sports. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of multimedia computer-assisted (MCAI), traditional (Tl), and combined (traditional and multimedia computer-assisted) (Cl) instruction on learning rule violations in basketball. Seventy female first year university students were randomly divided into three groups: MCAI, Tl and Cl' and each followed five-hours of instruction. A multimedia software program was created for the purpose of this study. All students completed a pre-test a post-test and a retention test For the assessment of knowledge of rule violations, students completed a 25-item questionnaire (written test), and evaluated 10 basketball phases presented through video (video test). The scores from each of the tests were added to yield a total score. With regard to the written test, results indicated that students in all groups improved their knowledge of rule violations but only those in the Tl and Cl groups retained this knowledge since their scores in the retention test were greater than those in the pre-test Also, the Tl group showed significantly greater retention than the MCAI group both in the written test and in total performance. On the contrary, the type of instruction did not affect performance in the video test and students' improvement was temporary. It appears that physical education students can learn basketball rules through Tl and Cl. However, for real-game situations which require recall of information, more research is needed to identify which method results in better retention of information.
INTRODUCTION Physical education should foster learning to move, through motor skill acquisition and physical fitness enhancement, and learning through movement, by developing social-emotional and cognitive concepts (Gallahue, 1996). According to the same author, activity concepts are aspects of cognitive 1 Panagiotis Antoniou, Vassiliki Derri and Efthimios Kioumoiirtzoglou are in the Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece and Spiridon Mouroutsos is at the Polytechnic School ofXanthi, Greece.
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European Journal of Physical Education concept learning that relate to movement, focus on learning patterns, formations, rules and strategies, and provide children with a knowledge base for effective and more frequent participation in sport, games and recreational activities. In-service teachers but also physical education students during their teaching practicum in physical education are required to help upper elementary or high school students learn activity concepts relevant to sports, providing them essential knowledge about how to position themselves, to respond to elements of the activity and to follow the rules and strategies (Gallahue, 1996). They should also be able to referee during intra- and extra-mural games of schoolchildren. Technological innovations and applications appear to be a highly promising mode for teaching cognitive concepts of physical education and sports. It has been stated that computers and information technology can influence positively the learning environment (Coelho, 1999) if they fit the pedagogical principles and the goals of physical education (Rintala, 1998), help educators to provide more and better information experiences, and children to meet the goals of physical education (Lambdin, 1995). Skinsley and Brodie (1990) consider the use of the computer ideal to teach theory, strategies and rules 'relevant to motor skills. According to Kerns (1989), when CAI is applied to learning the above topics, the physical educator is able to allot greater amounts of time to teaching motor skills. Researchers (e.g. Capper and Copple, 1985; Fletcher, 1990; Kulik, 1983), who have investigated the effects of comp'uter use on variables such as student achievement, attitudes and learning rate, in several educational areas have found that CAI tends to be'more interactive than TI (Najjar, 1996), results in faster learning (Capper and Copple/1985; Kulik, 1983), and develops better attitudes toward the information presented (Fletcher, 1990). With CAI, the instructional material can also be better organised, and the learner can set a personal pace of learning. Moreover, CAI fosters critical thinking and problem solving skills (Bowman, 1995), enhances learners' interest, comprehension, and engagement, especially when used to complement instruction (Boyce, 1988). In addition, the instructor is able to teach multiple, large sections of a course providing tailored instruction to an unlimited number of learners on an individual basis (Goggin, Finkenberg and Morrow, 1997), and to monitor students' progress. Meta-analyses (Najjar, 1996) of over two hundred studies in areas such as foreign languages, biology, chemistry and operation of electronic equipment indicated that in general CAI either used alone or as a supplement, produces higher achievement than TI in primary, secondary and college education, in industry, and in the military. Some of the research findings support, however, the conclusion of Dalton and Hannafin (1988) that the effectiveness of both TI and CAI is enhanced when they complement one another. Similarly, in physical education and sports it is not clear that CAI is more effective than traditional methods of teaching in promoting student achievement. More specifically, CAI has been found to be as effective as TI in teaching tennis (Kerns, 1989) and golf rules and strategies (Adams, Kandt, 79 —
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Thogmartin and Waldrop, 1991) to college students. Similar findings have been reported for schoolchildren who learned tennis rules (Alvarez-Pons, 1992), and badminton rules (Skinsley and Brodie, 1992) through CAI. However, most studies investigated the effect of CAI on achievement using nongraphic or low graphics-capable computer technology. Nowadays, many multimedia programs have been developed which use different types of sources such as text, pictures, video, sound, animation, and high quality graphics to provide information. These are faster and more user-friendly than their predecessors (Haggerty, 1997), and have been found to enhance retention of information (Kerka, 1990). People seem to prefer multimedia as a means of learning, enjoy interacting with it, and believe that it assists them to learn (i.e. Bosco, 1986; Fletcher, 1990). Only a few researchers (e.g. McKethan, Everhart and Stubblefield, 2000; Vernadakis, Zetou, Antoniou and Kioumourtzoglou, 2002), though, have investigated the effectiveness of MCAI in the area of physical education and sports. They have reported inconsistent findings. Vernadakis, et al. (2002) found that MCAI is as effective and profitable as TI in improving knowledge and skill in volleyball setting by high school students. In a study by Everhart, Harhsaw, Everhart, Kemodle and Stubblefield (2002), a year-long MCAI designed to provide nutritional and physical activity guidance did not affect significantly high school students' physical activity or nutritional patterns. McKethan, et al (2000) reported that preservice elementary teachers in the TI group scored significantly higher than those in the computer group on all of the critical components of the movement skills. However, no significant differences were found between groups on specific cue descriptions. Similarly, in a recent study in athletic training education (Wiksten, Patterson, Cruz and Buxton, 1998), those who received TI had significantly better cognitive knowledge on assessment of the quadriceps angle and more favourable attitudes toward instruction than those who received MCAI. However, no differences were found between the two groups on practical skill assessment of the quadriceps angle. On the contrary, Fisher-Stitt (1996) found that the MCAI group was superior to the TI group on learning ballet terminology. These studies examined the effectiveness of MCAI comparing it with TI in topics relevant to physical education and sports. There are also a few studies which specifically address the use of MCAI in the acquisition of cognitive aspects of sport skills, such as rules. To educate physical education students, trainers should consider using the method which best meets their instructional objectives. Consequently, different forms of instruction with multimedia applications might assist physical education students to acquire cognitive aspects of sport skills, such as rules and strategies. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of MCAI, TI, and CI on learning rule violations in basketball by university physical education students. It was hypothesised that students in the MCAI and CI group would show greater retention than those in the TI group, on all tests. —
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METHOD
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Participants Seventy-three female first year students from the Department of Physical Education and Sport Science at the Democritus University of Thrace with mean age 18.4+1 years, volunteered initially to participate in this study. The students were randomly divided into one of the three experimental groups (MCAI, TI and CI). However, three students did not participate in the post and retention measures and therefore were not included in this study. Thus, the participants were seventy students [MCAI (n=23), TI (n=22), CI (n=25)]. None of the students was a basketball player nor had previously received instruction on the rules of this sport. For their participation in this study students were given a 10% credit to their final grade in the computer course.
Measures For assessing students' knowledge of rule violations in basketball, a written and video test were created. The articles of the International Basketball Federation's (FIBA) (1994) official referees' guide were classified by an international referee and a referee from the National division, in the following categories: a) articles and penalties for rule violations; b) articles which define personal and technical violations; and c) others. The first of these categories was used in this study. It consisted of 17 articles which were further classified to a) ball handling (26, 27, 39), b) court area (37, 43), c) inbounds (31), d) shot (30, 38, 44), e) free throws (60), f) timing (18, 40, 41, - 42), g) actions of the referee when rules are violated (8), condition of the ball (i.e. in the referee's hands before the jump ball) (24), and definition of the term 'violation' (36). Written knozvledge test Based on the tests used by the Hellenic Federation of Basketball Referees for the evaluation of referees' knowledge level, a 25-item questionnaire was created. Each question described a basketball situation. There were four questions for ball handling (e.g. a player is not allowed to dribble again after he stops dribbling), seven questions for timing (e.g. an offensive player can not remain in the opponents' restricted area for more than three consecutive seconds when the game is in progress), five questions for the shot (e.g. a player is not allowed to shoot the ball through the lower end of the basket or to touch the ball or the basket whilst the ball is in the basket), and five questions for the court area (e.g. a player is out-of-bounds when any part of his body is in contact with the floor or any object but not with a player, on, above or outside the boundary lines). Also, there were two questions associated with inbounds (e.g. the player who executes an inbound cannot have any part of his body over the boundary 81 —
European Journal of Physical Education line before throwing the ball across the line), two questions for free throws (e.g. the player has to stand behind the free-throw line and inside the semicircle, and to release the ball within five seconds after receiving it from the referee). Each question described a basketball situation. Ten questions required a positive answer and fifteen a negative answer. Questions were scored one point for a right answer and no point for a wrong answer. The highest possible score was 25 points and the lowest score 0 points. Cronbach's alpha for this test was .89.
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Video test The Video Machine of Fast Electronic GmbH was used to create a video cassette with ten phases from the Men's European Basketball Championship, similar to those used by the Hellenic Federation of Basketball Referees to educate referees. Each phase had a different duration and the total duration was 3 minutes and 15 seconds. In five of the phases the game was played according to the rules. In the other five phases the rules were broken The basketball phases were projected through a Seleco Digital Electronic video projector and students were required to mark on the assessment form which was distributed before the start of the test the word 'YES' if, according to their opinion a rule violation was apparent in a phase or the word 'NO' if it was absent, i.e. that the game was played according to the rules. Each phase was followed by a 5 second interval to enable students' to record their response. For each correct response a student scored 2.5 points, thus, the highest possible score was 25 and the lowest 0 points - the same possible totals as for the written tests. Cronbach's alpha was .91. Students were not familiar with such type of tests.
Instruction Based on the time used in seminars for referees, a total of five hours - 2.5 hours in the morning and 2.5 hours in the afternoon, were allotted for teaching rule violations in basketball. Students in the MCAI group were asked to learn the required information on rule violations via the multimedia application. After receiving guidelines and a demonstration of the program by the researcher, students practiced individually, within a pre-scheduled time in a room specifically arranged for the purpose of the study. An international referee provided lecture-based instruction to the TI group. Before the start of the lectures, each pair of students was given a book with the basketball rules. During the lecture, students interacted with the referee and took notes. Students in the CI group received both TI (2.5 hours) and MCAI (2.5 hours). More specifically, they attended the referee's lecture in the morning and practiced individually in the afternoon, after receiving guidelines and a demonstration on the multimedia application. - 82
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The multimedia computer program The multimedia computer program was created by Authoring software, the Authorware Pro 2.0.1 (Macromedia Inc., 1993). It consisted of pictures and photographs from books and journals, text from the FIBA's (1994) official referees' guide, video from Olympic and National level games, and audio (comments of a referee). Additional basketball phases were videotaped and were included in the program. The multimedia program included the following sections: a) user's guide; b) the official referees' guide in a digital form; c) additional knowledge (screen 1); and d) articles for rule violations (screen 2) (see below). Two pull down menus, one for the termination of the program and one for help, were also included. The program started with a video of violent basketball behaviours and a text which partly related these behaviours to unfamiliarity with the rules. The screen with the title of the program, the cover page of the rule book, the contents, the names of the author and the institution followed. The user can continue or terminate the program. If the user selects to continue, the main menu appears with four active picture-buttons which serve as links to the other sections of the program. In the user's guide, there is a description of the active picture-buttons and suggestions for the program use. In the section with the official referees' guide, the user can read the basketball rules electronically and search for certain articles and pages. Both sections provide the option for the user to return to the main menu. Screen 1 contains a section consisting of four sub-sections. These contain supplementary information for understanding rule violations. The active picture-buttons are entitled: 1) violations: definition; 2) violation and the referee; 3) ball condition; and 4) court: size. By selecting Screen 2, the following categories of violations appear: 1) Shot; 2) Ball handling; 3) Court area; 4) Free throws; 5) Inbounds; and 6) Timing, along with the corresponding articles of the referee's guide. Each category includes different relevant material [visible or hidden texts (the user has to select it if he wishes to see it), video, audio, animated pictures]. The students could use all this information to understand each article and could also return to any section of the program or to the main menu. After the multimedia computer program was completed, it was presented to high level basketball coaches and to members of the Department for comment. Three phases were replaced with others more relevant to the purpose of the study, and with better close-ups. Prior to this study, a fourhour pilot study was conducted with ten students in the Department to check for possible problems either with the software of the multimedia program or with the computer because of the software configuration (software bugs). Students in the pilot study reported no problems in using the program. In addition, they improved their knowledge, and had positive attitudes toward the multimedia program. 83 —
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Procedure Prior to instruction, students were required to complete the 25-item questionnaire. Then, they watched 10 video phases from basketball games to identify possible rule violations. After receiving a five-hour instruction, students were given the written and video tests again as a post-test and a week later they were tested again to ascertain if the received information was retained (retention test). No feedback was provided to students about their scores after they took each of the tests each time.
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Data analysis To check for possible differences between the experimental groups (MCAI, TI and CI) in the pretest scores, multivariate analysis of variance (Manova) was used. Analysis indicated that there was no significant difference between the three groups for the written (F2,68=2.1, p>.05), and the video test (£2,68=1.75, p>.05). The Manova [3 instructions (MCAI, TI, CI) X 3 measures (pre-, postand retention test) with repeated measures was used to test the pre-, postand retention test differences (factor "measure") between the three groups (factor "instruction"), on the written and the video test. Post hoc comparisons were made using the Scheffe test. However, Manova indicated significant differences between groups on the total score (written and video test score) in the pre treatment measure (F2,68=3.28, p
