archaeology of eastern north america

ARCHAEOLOGY OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA

Volume 41 2013

© Copyright 2013 Eastern States Archaeological Federation ISSN 0360-1021

DIGITAL REPRINT ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

AFTER HOPEWELL IN SOUTHERN QUÉBEC Christian Gates St-Pierre and Claude Chapdelaine The northeastern expansion of the Hopewell manifestation barely reached southern Quebec, and the coeval Middle Woodland is characterized as the pseudo-scallop shell ceramic horizon. While the Late Woodland concept is applied elsewhere to cover regional culture histories, the term Late Middle Woodland is used in our research area, mostly because there is no Mississippian development, and corresponds to the interval between AD 500 and AD 1000. It will be argued in this paper that the Jack’s Reef Horizon defines our Late Middle Woodland with a distinctive set of ceramics. The temporal range and geographic distribution of these cultural manifestations as well as their settlement, subsistence, and burial pattern will be summarized and discussed within a broader geographical perspective. INTRODUCTION This paper examines the post-Hopewellian archaeological record of the southern portion of the Province of Quebec, specifically the St. Lawrence River valley and some surrounding areas. This region lies rather far from the Hopewell heartland and is at the northernmost limit of the Northeast cultural area as defined in this volume (Figure 1). As a consequence, Hopewellian manifestations are extremely rare in Quebec, and are limited to the southernmost portion of the province. The rare evidence of an Hopewellian influence mostly consist of isolated shark teeth, marine shells, or platform smoking pipes found on habitation sites (Figure 2). For example, 12 Hopewell-like platform pipe fragments were found at the Pointe-du-Buisson site complex located along the St. Lawrence River near the modern City of Montreal. Those 12 examples bear important stylistic differences with the more typical Hopewell platform pipes: effigies are rare, bases are not always curved but are flat, the bowl is not perfectly centered, and some fragments were perforated as if they were used as pendants (Chapdelaine 1982). Each specimen of pipe is broken and most were heavily worn, indicating that they were used during a very long period of time, perhaps kept as heirlooms or as rare and precious objects of exotica. Moreover, those platform pipes were found in contexts dated to several hundred years after the end of the Hopewell culture, suggesting a post-Hopwellian exchange network (Chapdelaine 1982: 208), a phenomenon also noted elsewhere in the Northeast (Ritchie 1969: 228, 252; Wright 1967: 127). Finally, they were abandoned on a secular, habitation site without any indication of ritual or ceremonial activities. In sum, Hopewell artifacts are not only rare in Quebec, but they also date to post-Hopewellian times and they seem to have lost a part of their original function and cultural meaning along their way to this region. Post-Hopewellian cultures in Quebec are significantly different from what can be observed at the same moment in the Midwest or the Mid-Atlantic, or even in closer regions such as Southern Ontario and New York State. The presence of artifacts typical of the Jack’s Reef horizon will be presented in this article, but important attention will also be given to the many ways in which the Native inhabitants of Southern Quebec adopted a unique and different way of life. This will be done in considering the material culture (lithics and ceramics), settlement pattern, burial customs, subsistence data, demography and ethnicity. We must be explicit concerning the chronological sequence used in Quebec before we proceed to a description of the archaeological data. Cultural phenomena do not happen in synchronicity throughout the Northeast as we have just seen with the example of Hopewell trade objects (Figure 3). Thus, the Woodland period in Southern Quebec comprises an Early Woodland period (1000 to 400 BC), an Early Middle Woodland period (400 BC to 500 AD), a Late Middle Woodland period (500 to 1000 AD), and a Late Wood-

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Archaeology of Eastern North America

Figure 1. Map of Southern Quebec showing major Late Middle Woodland sites. 1: North Gordon Island (Thousand Islands, Ontario); 2: Parc du Lac Leamy (Gatineau); 3: Thompson Island; 4: Cadieux (Ile de Beaujeu); 5: Pointe-duBuisson and Ile des Cascades; 6: Nivard (Montreal Island); 7: Laprairie; 8: Boucherville Islands; 9: Pointe-duGouvernement (Richelieu River); 10: Winooski (Vermont); 11: Florent-Gosselin (Lake Champlain & Pike River); 12: Bogemans, Gasser and Bilodeau sites (Pike River); 13: Husler (Yamaska River); 14: Schachtler (Missisquoi River); 15: Magog River; 16: Lac Mégantic; 17: Monique; 18: Beaumier; 19: Place Royale (Quebec City); 20: Cap Tourmente (several sites including Royarnois); 21: Davidson (Témiscouata); 22: Turcotte-Lévesque (Île Verte); 23: Chicoutimi; 24: DbEl-9 (rivière Sainte-Marguerite); 25: Pointe-à-Crapaud; 26: Escoumins-1. JCRN = Jack’s Reef Corner-notched points. CWSP = Cord-wrapped stick decorated pottery.

Figure 2 (left). Platform pipes and shark tooth from Pointe-du-Buisson. (Photo: Pointe-du-Buisson)

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After Hopewell in Southern Québec

Figure 3. Woodland chronologies in the Northeast. Following Gates St-Pierre (2001b), the Hunter's Home phase in the New York State chronology is being subsumed under the Owasco culture.

land period (1000 to around 1600 AD). The Jack’s Reef horizon essentially belongs to the Late Middle Woodland period in our region, while the Late Woodland is characterized by the florescence of the St. Lawrence Iroquoian culture. MATERIAL CULTURE As elsewhere in the Northeast, the most common type of projectile point in southern Quebec during the Late Middle Woodland period is the Jack’s Reef Corner-notched type, as defined by Ritchie (1971), with some less frequent examples of Jack’s Reef Pentagonal points. The largest number of Jack’s Reef points comes from a series of sites (Station-3, Station-4, Station-5, Hector-Trudel and Pascal-Mercier) of the Pointedu-Buisson site complex where 81 of them have been identified to date: 73 of the Corner-notched variety and 8 of the Pentagonal variety (Clermont and Chapdelaine 1982; Corbeil n.d.; Joyal 1995; Plourde 1986). Those points are generally well made, they are thin, they have deep and symetrical notches, while evidence of reshaping or rejuvenating is rare (Figure 4). However, the variability is great, especially in regard to the shape of the blade, which is often asymmetrical. A comparison of three assemblages of Jack’s Reef Corner-notched points indicates a strong homogeneity of the format, although the specimens from the BgFp-2 site on Thompson Island (Bilodeau 1988) are wider and thicker than the best assemblages coming from the Station-4 and Hector-Trudel sites at Pointe-du-Buisson (Table 1).

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Figure 4. Jack’s Reef projectile points from Pointe-du-Buisson. Upper row: Corner Notched variety from the Hectortrudel site; two middle rows: Corner Notched variety from Station 4; lower row, three first specimens: Corner Notched variety form the Passerelle site; lower row, last four specimens: Pentagonal variety from Station 4. (Photo: Claude Chapdelaine)

Table 1. Major attributes of Jack’s Reef Corner Notched Points from three sites located in Southern Quebec. Data were taken from Clermont and Chapdelaine (1982: 151) for Station-4, from Corbeil (n.d.) for Hector-Trudel, and from Bilodeau (1988) for the BgFp-2 site located on Thompson Island in Lake St.Francis. Site Station-4 Hector-Trudel BgFp-2

N 22 15 9

Length mean 31.4 31.5 31.4

σ 5.5 5.4 5.5

N 28 15 9

Width mean 24.4 24.7 26.1

σ 2.8 4.4 3.7

N 32 15 9

Thickness mean 5.6 6.0 6.4

σ 1.0 1.4 1.4

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Another important characteristic of those Jack’s Reef points is the material predominately used in their making: Onondaga chert from the Niagara peninsula (between 65 and 68, or 89 to 93% of the Jack’s Reef points from Pointe-duBuisson). There are only a few examples of other exotic raw materials that were used to produce Jack’s Reef points, such as yellow jasper (possibly from Pennsylvania) and rhyolite (possibly from Maine). Local materials are equally rare. One could wonder if this might represent a revival of Figure 5. Port Maitland (left and center) and Long Bay the Meadowood exchange network so heavily (right) projectile points from Pointe-du-Buisson. (Photo: dependent on Onondaga chert that prevailed Pierre Corbeil) during the Early Woodland period and which seemed to have declined during the Early Middle Woodland period. This picture does not hold anymore when one moves east or northeast of the Montreal area: Jack’s Reef points not only become quite rare in those regions, but it has also been noticed that local materials were favored over Onondaga chert and other exotic materials. This is an indication that Late Middle Woodland groups from the Montreal area were more regularly in contact with groups from southern latitudes compared to their St. Lawrence River valley neighbors to the East. However, this situation could also be the result, at least in part, of the scarcity of good quality materials in the Montreal area. It is worthy of note that Jack’s Reef points might not be exclusive to the people of the Late Middle Woodland period and might have been made and used earlier, during the Early Middle Woodland period. This is suggested by the discovery of a few Jack’s Reef points (mostly of the corner-notched variety) on various sites where the sole or main component is dated to the Early Middle Woodland period, such as the Station 3-arrière at Pointe-du-Buisson (Méhault 2011), the BhFn-25 site on Leonard Island (Pinel and Côté 1985), the BgFp-2 site on Thompson Island (Bilodeau 1988), the Cadieux site (Pinel and Côté 1986), the Pointe-du-Gouvernement site (Sénécal 2008), and the Chalet site (Chapdelaine and Beaulieu 2007; Graillon 1998). However, there are no clear stratigraphic or radiocarbon associations to support this hypothesis more strongly. Other types of projectile points that seem to be somewhat contemporaneous with the Jack’s Reef Horizon in Southern Quebec are Long Bay and Port Maitland points, but only a very few sites contain those point types (Figure 5). The assemblage of the HectorTrudel site at Pointe-du-Buisson has nine Long Bay points and 35 Port Maitland points (Corbeil n.d.); interestingly, this is more than the seven Port Maitland points found at the type site in Southern Ontario (Ritchie 1969: 233; 1971: 125) and perhaps one of the largest assemblage of Port Maitland points in the Northeast. Toward the end of the Late Middle Woodland period, a new type of projectile points appears: the Levanna point (Figure 6). The most suggestive evidence comes from the BhFa-3 site on the shores of the Magog River Figure 6. Levanna projectile points from Pointe-du-Buisson. (Photo: Claude Chapdelaine)

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Figure 7. Melocheville pottery sherds from Pointe-du-Buisson. (Photo: Robert Larocque)

located southeast of Montreal, where very Late Middle Woodland ceramics and a radiocarbon date of 1100 AD were associated with a lithic assemblage containing one Jack’s Reef Corner-notched point and 43 Levanna points. The Levanna points were made of quartz, Onondaga chert, rhyolite from Mount Kineo in Maine and various cherts from Vermont (Joyal 1999). The Monique site, near the city of TroisRivières, also contained two Levanna points associated with cord-wrapped stick decorated pottery and a radiocarbon date of 890 AD (Clermont, Chapdelaine and Ribes 1986). Digs on the Hector-Trudel site and Station-4 at Pointe-du-Buisson have yielded many Levanna points again primarily associated with Late Middle Woodland ceramics, and mostly made of Onondaga chert. A few points are made of jasper, rhyolite or quartzite, among other exotic materials (local materials are rare). Something similar happens at the not-so-distant Winooski site in Vermont, where numerous Jack’s Reef and Levanna points were found along with Late Middle Wooldand ceramics (Petersen 1980). These are serious indications that Levanna points, predominant during the Late Woodland period, began to be made and used during the preceding Late Middle Woodland period. It is also an indication of some continuity during the Middle-to-LateWoodland transition, a point to which we shall return later in this paper. While the lithic assemblages from Late Middle Woodland sites in Southern Quebec are dominated by Jack’s Reef and other projectile points very similar to the ones found elsewhere in the Northeast (but more especially the Jack’s Reef points made of Onondaga chert in Ontario and New York State), the ceramics from our region show a great deal of unique traits indicative of an increase in regionalism expressed by the emergence of a distinct regional stylistic tradition that we have called the Melocheville Tradition (Clermont and Chapdelaine 1982, 1986; Gates St-Pierre 1998, 2001a, 2003, 2006). This tradition is characterized by grit-tempered vessels having an elongated body, a slightly constricted neck, everted lips, and smoothed surfaces. Collars are present on half of the vessels, but they are always short (about two centimeters high) and thin (Figure 7). Decoration was produced with a large variety of tools and techniques: cord-wrapped stick impressions, square or circular dentate impressions, linear


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impressions, incising, suture stamping1, punctates or a combination of two or more of these on a same vessel. Except cord-wrapped stick and dentate stamping never appear together on a same vessel, despite the fact that they were clearly favored in about equal proportions. Rockerstamping is absent and the push-pull technique is rarely used. Motifs are also varied, but series of simple and short oblique lines predominate over crisscross motifs or series of vertical or horizontal lines. Also, 75% to 80% of the vessels have small circular punctations (0.5 cm in diameter) located at the base of the collar and producing bosses on the inside wall. This proportion of punctuations is unequalled in the Northeast, not even among Princess Point ceramics from Ontario where this trait is also common (Fox 1990; Smith and Crawford 1997; Stothers 1976, 1977; see also Gates St-Pierre 2006) but still in much lesser proportions than among the ceramics of the Melocheville Tradition. The persistence of dentate stamping in the Montreal area until the very end of the Late Middle Woodland period, at around 1000 AD, is intriguing in the face of its disappearance in nearby regions (southern Ontario, New York State, northern New England, and also in eastern Quebec) to the profit of cord-wrapped stick Figure 8. Juvenile pottery sherds from Pointe-du-Buisson. decoration that becomes ubiquitous in the (Photo: Robert Larocque) Northeast at this time. In fact, it has been suggested that the Jack’s Reef horizon was coeval with a Cord-wrapped stick Horizon in the Northeast (Gates St-Pierre and Chapdelaine 2012), but that the people of the Melocheville Tradition maintained their own regional originality in this large geographical horizon. Small vessels or so-called "juvenile pots" are sometimes recovered along with the regular, larger-size cooking vessels (Figure 8). These small pots were made and decorated with the same techniques, tools and styles that we just described for larger vessels, but they were obviously made by younger, inexperienced potters as indicated by their small size, their imperfect manufacture (temper unevenly distributed and sometimes absent, irregular thickness and smoothing), the scarcity of collars (something more difficult to produce than the rest of the vessel), and the generally poorly executed decoration (if present at all) which more frequently consists of small fingernail impressions compared to larger vessels (Clermont and Chapdelaine 1982: 103; Gates St-Pierre 2006: 129-139). The absence of soot or carbonized encrustations further suggests those pots were not used to cook food and were used by children. Ceramic smoking pipes are rare and of simple manufacture, although varied in their shapes and sizes. They usually consist of grit-tempered, elbow pipes with cylindrical or conical bowls forming a right or oblique angle with the stem, and having smoothed or slightly polished surfaces (Figure 9). Effigies are absent and the decoration is usually absent, but a few specimens are decorated with linear stamping or incisions producing sets of vertical or horizontal lines on the bowl.

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Figure 9. Ceramic pipe fragments from Pointe-du-Buisson. (Photo: Robert Larocque)

Archaeology of Eastern North America The inventory of the material culture from Late Middle Woodland sites in Southern Quebec also included various bone tools such as awls, harpoons, needles and fish hooks (Figure 10), but there is no tool type nor functional category that appears to be specific to these people and time period. Native copper is very scarce (there are five pieces of copper at Station-4, including an awl): this material had been nearly abandoned since the end of the Early Woodland period ca. 400 BC. Finally, mica apparently had no other utility than as an occasional material used in crushed form as temper for ceramic vessels. BURIAL CUSTOMS, SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND DEMOGRAPHY

It must be said at the onset that Middle Woodland "intrusive mound sites" are totally unknown in Quebec. Actually, there are no mounds in the Quebec portion of the St. Lawrence river valley. Moreover, not a single burial clearly associated with a Late Middle Woodland occupation has ever been found yet. This means that we know close to nothing about the burial practices of the post-Hopewellian peoples of Southern Quebec, beside the fact that burials are totally absent from habitation sites. It is possible that Late Middle Woodland people had special places where they buried their relatives, outside habitation sites, but Figure 10. Bone tools from Pointe-du-Buisson: bone awls, harpoon this as yet to be demonstrated. heads, fish hooks, and barbs. (Photo: Robert Larocque) Habitation sites are better documented. First among these are Station-4 and Hector-Trudel, two multicomponent sites with a primary Late Middle Woodland occupation (Figures 11 and 12). The sites are rather large (covering more than one acre each), they were intensively and repeatedly occupied on a semi-annual basis, they have middens (one on Station-4, six at HectorTrudel) and high artifacts densities (220,000 and 336,000 artifacts respectively, or 682 and 834 artifacts per square meter). Actually, only the absence of longhouses could disallow the classification of these sites


Figure 11. Plan of the excavations and middens at the Hector-Trudel site, Pointe-du-Buisson. Figure 12 (right). Plan of the excavations and midden at the Station-4 site, Pointe-du-Buisson.

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as villages as noted by Chapdelaine (1993: 179). Nonetheless, they are best described as semi-permanent habitation sites, where bands gathered half of the year during the warm season (from April to October), leading some archaeologists to describe Late Middle Woodland populations of the St. Lawrence River valley as semi-sedentary groups, or groups having developed a "prolonged seasonal sedentism" pattern of settlement (Clermont and Cossette 1991; Cossette 1997, 2000). The area around Place-Royale in Quebec City might have been a similar, albeit smaller, gathering location for semi-sedentary groups in the Eastern portion of the St. Lawrence River valley (Clermont and Chapdelaine 1992: 165-166). It is believed that during the winter, these groups would disperse in the hinterland on smaller camp sites, although small sites with an unquestionable winter occupation have yet to be identified. This semi-sedentary settlement pattern suggests a reduced degree of human mobility in comparison with previous time periods. This is supported by the existence of large and semi-permanent habitation sites as mentioned above, and by the decrease in the number of sites during the transition from the Early to the Late Middle Woodland. According to the ISAQ databse2 (as of May 2010), there were 112 sites having an Early Middle Woodland component and 76 with a Late Middle Woodland component (Gates St-Pierre 2010b: 25). In other words, there is a diminution in the number of sites, but an apparent increase in the size of the sites during the Late Middle Woodland period (Gates St-Pierre 2010a, 2010b; Gates StPierre and Chapdelaine 2012). At first sight the lower number of sites could suggest a demographic fall off, but the larger size of the sites could suggest otherwise. It this thus difficult to identify any demographic trend for the people of the Jack’s Reef horizon on this basis, although a demographic stability would actually represent the most probable interpretation of the available data. Actually, this hypothesis is also supported by the apparent economic and techno-stylistic stasis that was identified for the entire Late Middle Woodland period at the Hector-Trudel site of Pointe-du-Buisson (Cossette 1996, 2000; Gates St-Pierre 1998, 2006). Population numbers and density will grow again with the onset of the Late Woodland period. SUBSISTENCE When they gathered on the large warm-season camps, Late Middle Woodland groups practiced a large variety of subsistence activities. Fishing during the peaks of abundance of some specific species (sturgeon, bullheads, bass, walleye, yellow perch and freswater drum in the spring season; channel catfish, redhorse and longnose gar in the summer; eels and salmon in the fall). Hunting large or mediumsize prey occured during the spring and fall seasons (primarily beaver, white-tail deer, black bear, and moose). Occasionally hunting smaller mammals or birds during the summer (muskrat, river otter, raccoon, porcupine, ducks, etc.), and collecting plants, fruits and nuts, again depending on the seasonal availability (see Cossette 1997, 2000) complete the list of subsistence pursuits. While fishing was of primary importance in the Montreal area (Table 2), faunal assemblages from sites located in the Quebec City area, such as Place-Royale, indicate a dominance of mammals over fishes, as well as an inclusion of sea mammals (seals and belugas) in the list of captured species (Clermont and Chapdelaine 1992; Plourde 2003; Plourde and Gates St-Pierre 2003). Until very recently there were no indications of domesticated plants in Southern Quebec before the Late Woodland period. However, a recent analysis and dating of the phytoliths contained in the carbonized encrustations on Middle Woodland ceramics revealed that corn appears to have been obtained through exchange and consumed as early as the beginning of the Early Middle Woodland period, at around 400 or 200 BC, and was probably being cultivated on a small scale during the Late Middle Woodland Period beginning at around 500 AD, in both the Montreal and Quebec City areas (Gates StPierre 2012a) (Table 3). These data are the oldest and northernmost evidence of corn consumption in the Northeast. There is also slight evidence for the consumption of wild rice at this time (Gates St-Pierre 2012a). Finally, a pollen analysis recently conducted at Pointe-du-Buisson concluded that corn was

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Table 2. The faunal assemblage of the Hector-Trudel site at Pointe-du-Buisson (data from Cossette 1997). NIST = Number of identified specimen per taxa, NIST S4 = at Station-4 ("S4") where only the mammal bones were identified by Julien (1982). Taxon

Scientific name

NIST

%

NIST S4

% S4

Mammals Beaver White-tailed deer American black bear Muskrat Moose Eastern chipmunk Cervid family River Otter American red squirrel American porcupine Raccoon Cricetid family Canid family Domestic dog Snowshoe hare American marten Mustelid family Fisher Reindeer Grey squirrel White-footed mouse Red fox American mink Bobcat Phocid family White whale or beluga Artiodactyl order Woodchuck Zapodid family Total (mammals)

Castor canadensis Odocoileus virginianus Ursus americanus Ondatra zibethicus Alces alces Tamias striatus Cervidae Lutra canadensis Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Erethizon dorsatum Procyon lator Cricetidae Canidae Canis familiaris Lepus americanus Martes americana Mustelidae Martes pennanti Rangifer tarandus Sciurus carolinensis Peromyscus leucopus Vulpes vulpes Mustela vison Lynx rufus Phocidae Delphinapterus leucas Artiodactyla Marmota monax Zapodidae

905 497 298 178 99 55 43 30 29 25 16 14 14 13 11 8 6 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 255 (4.25%)

40.13 22.04 13.22 7.89 4.39 2.44 1.91 1.33 1.29 1.11 0.71 0.62 0.62 0.58 0.49 0.35 0.27 0.27 0.09 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 99.99

1917 629 180 74 90 8 702 9 3 7 2 4 19 10 1 7 1 2 2 2 1 1 3671

52.22 17.13 4.90 2.02 2.45 0.22 19.12 0.25 0.08 0.19 0.05 0.11 0.52 0.27 0.03 0.19 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 99.99

Birds Anatid family Anserinae subfamily Bald eagle Ardeid family Great blue heron Corvid family Ruffed grouse Common raven Common loon Canada goose Brant Phasianid family Passenger pigeon American white pelican Northern pintail American black duck Wood duck Accipitrid family Tétraonid family Ring-billed gull Strigid family Great horned owl Total (birds)

Anatidae Anserinae Haliaeetus leucocephalus Ardeidae Ardea herodias Corvidae Bonasa umbellus Corvus corax Gavia immer Branta canadensis Branta bernicla Phasianidae Ectopistes migratorius Pelecanus erythrorhynchos Anas acuta Anas rubripes Aix sponsa Accipitridae Tetraonidae Larus delawarensis Strigidae Bubo virginianus

14 12 12 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 75 (0.14%)

18.67 16.00 16.00 5.33 5.33 5.33 4.00 4.00 2.67 2.67 2.67 2.67 2.67 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 99.98

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Taxon

Scientific name

NIST

%

Fish Channel catfish Catostomid family Lake sturgeon Ictalurid family Catostomus genus Brown bullhead River redhorse Longnose gar Stizostedion genus Perciform order American eel Silver redhorse Freshwater drum Percid family Greater redhorse Esocid family Bass Shorthead redhorse Centrarchid family Yellow perch Copper redhorse American shad Cyprinid family Bowfin Quillback White sucker Longnose sucker Rock bass Salmonid family Burbot Pumpkinseed sunfish Black crappie Mooneye Muskellunge Walleye Total (fish)

Ictalurus punctatus Catostomidae Acipenser fulvescens Ictaluridae Catostomus sp. Ictalurus nebulosus Maxostoma carinatum Lepisosteus osseus Stizostedion sp. Perciformes Anguilla rostrata Moxostoma anisurum Aplodinotus grunniens Percidae Moxostoma valenciennesi Esocidae Micropterus sp. Moxostoma macrolepidotum Centrarchidae Perca flavescens Moxostoma hubbsi Alosa sapidissima Cyprinidae Amia calva Carpiodes cyprinus Catostomus commersonii Catostomus catostomus Ambloplites rupestris Salmonidae Lota lota Lepomis gibbosus Pomoxis nigromaculatus Hiodon tergisus Esox masquinongy Stizostedion vitreum

11 225 10 813 10 622 8 159 5 468 643 425 418 384 376 363 284 185 174 170 146 128 113 63 54 44 31 30 25 22 12 9 8 7 4 3 3 2 2 1 50 416 (94.93%)

22.26 21.45 21.07 16.18 10.85 1.28 0.84 0.83 0.76 0.75 0.72 0.56 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 traces traces traces 100.00

Reptiles Common snapping turtle Painted turtle Spiny softshell turtle Northern map turtle Musk turtle Spotted turtle Total (reptiles)

Chelydra serpentina Chrysemys picta Trionyx spiniferus Graptemys geographica Sternotherus odoratus Clemmys guttata

117 111 66 23 2 1 320 (0.60%)

36.56 34.69 20.63 7.19 0.63 0.31 100.01

Amphibians American toad Ranid family Bullfrog Northern leopard frog Total (amphibians)

Bufo americanus Ranidae Lithobates catesbeianus Rana pipiens

27 8 4 2 41 (0.08%)

65.85 19.51 9.76 4.88 100.00

Total (all taxa)

53 107 (100%)

NIST S4

% S4

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After Hopewell in Southern Québec Table 3. AMS dating of carbonized samples from ceramic pots with positive identification of maize phytoliths. Data from Gates St-Pierre (2012a) Site Place-Royale (Quebec City) Hector-Trudel (Pointe-du-Buisson) Station 4 (Pointe-du-Buisson) Hector-Trudel (Pointe-du-Buisson) Hector-Trudel (Pointe-du-Buisson) Hector-Trudel (Pointe-du-Buisson)

Lab No ULA-3335 ULA-3333 ULA-3338 ULA-3334 ULA-3337 ULA-3336

δ13C (‰) -25,1 -25,8 -24,3 -25,6 -25,9 -26,9

AMS date 2250 ±20 2050 ±20 1380 ±20 1350 ±20 1270 ±25 1270 ±20

Calibrated date 391 to 209 BC 161 BC to 4 AD 619 to 672 AD 645 to 688 AD 668 to 800 AD 678 to 776 AD

Period Early Middle Woodland Early Middle Woodland Late Middle Woodland Late Middle Woodland Late Middle Woodland Late Middle Woodland

present on the Hector-Trudel site, probably during the Late Middle Woodland period (Landry 2013). The more intensive exploitation of aquatic resources and the introduction of new plant species (corn and wild rice) may be indicative of some sort of population pressure at this time, the need to extract a larger and wider variety of food resources to feed larger populations. However, this pressure might have occurred earlier, as indicated by the first appearances of corn during the Early Middle Woodland period. Once these new plant foods were introduced, and once new fishing strategies were developed at the beginning of the Late Middle Woodland period, they stayed the same for a period of at least 500 years. Aas noted earlier, an economic stasis was then attained (Cossette 1996, 2000), and perhaps a demographic stasis occurred as well during this period. SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION Little is known about the social and political organization of the Late Middle Woodland people living in southern Quebec. Yet, it is reasonable to believe that they lived in egalitarian societies that were organized in bands consisting of lineages of related families, and tasks were ascribed according to gender, age and, in some cases, personal and acknowledged qualities or accomplishments. The Melocheville people were probably patrilineal and patrilocal, at least at first. However, the economic role and social status of women certainly rose gradually during the Middle Woodland period. This hypothesis, first advanced by Norman Clermont (1990, 1996a), is based on the premise of emerging sedentarism during the Late Middle Woodland period, of the gradual integration of maize in the regular diet of the people of the Melocheville Tradition, and of the prominent role of women in horticultural activities that will provide an ever more important quantity of food on the long run. In such a context: "[Women] may have created maternal families during summer in Late Middle Woodland times when man often were hunting and trading. Women had created close and more formal links between themselves. The Late Woodland horticultural villages were simply places where these families had built multifamily longhouses as social equivalents of the older inhabited clearings. They were social spaces where women would share close relationships and would develop a new network of maternal families and clans." (Clermont 1990:79). This would have significantly strengthened the influence of women in the daily activities and decisions of their communities, thus favoring the emergence of a matrilineal and matrilocal social organization that was to characterize their Iroquoian descendents of the Late Woodland Period. As noticed earlier, there is evidence for long distance trade, but no evidence of warfare in southern Quebec during this cultural period. The increase in demographic density that occurred during the Middle Woodland period might have lead to an intensification of the competition over the resources, but apparently the end result was not an increase in hostile or antagonistic intergroup relations, but rather the development and affirmation of regional identities that may be recognized through the emergence of

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regional styles in ceramic production. As will be discussed in more detail in the next section, we believe that this regionalization process can be used to identify and track down the origins of some historically known native peoples such as the St. Lawrence Iroquoians. ETHNICITY Ethnicity is a difficult and complex subject to deal with, and the use of this concept in archaeology has generated many debates as to what exactly ethnicity is (or is not), how it can (or cannot) be recognized in the archaeological record, and how it should be analyzed and interpreted. It will not be possible to address these theoretical issues in this paper. However, we believe there are strong arguments to suggest that Late Middle Woodland groups of the Montreal area, those people belonging to the Melocheville Tradition, were the direct ancestors of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians (Gates St-Pierre 2003, 2006, 2010b, 2012a). First there is clear continuity between the ceramic production of the Late Middle Woodland and Early Late Woodland periods (Gates St-Pierre 2003, 2006; Morin 1999, 2001), especially the continued use of cord-wrapped stick to decorate the ceramic vessels. Also the perpetuation of the coiling manufacturing technique occurs, despite the gradual introduction of the paddle-and-anvil technique (the two techniques co-existed for decades if not centuries before the latter finally replaced the former.) Second, there is continuity in settlement patterns. As explained earlier in this paper, the people of the Melocheville Tradition had become semi-sedentary groups inhabiting large summer camps in large numbers and for long periods of time. They also discarded their debris in middens, something never seen before and a definite characteristic of later Iroquoian village sites. Thirdly, there is also a certain continuity in the subsistence pattern, something that has recently been exposed by way of a phytolith analysis of the carbonized encrustations inside Melocheville Tradition ceramics. This analysis has demonstrated the existence, the consumption, and probably the cultivation of corn by Melocheville Tradition people at Pointe-du-Buisson, and apparently by their culturally related neighbors from the Quebec City area as well (Gates St-Pierre 2012a). There is also some continuity in the intensive exploitation of fish resources by the people of the Melocheville Tradition and the St. Lawrence Iroquoians in the same area, such as those inhabiting the Droulers and neighboring village sites (Gates St-Pierre 2012b, 2012c). Fourth and lastly, the territory occupied by the Late Middle Woodland people of the Melocheville Tradition overlaps closely the territory occupied by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians of the Late Woodland and historical periods, as determined by Chapdelaine (1989, 1990b) (Figure 13). Such a correspondence could hardly result from pure chance. In the absence of any clear and undisputable evidence of population replacement, this geographical continuity must be understood in terms of a cultural continuity in time between related groups sharing a common historical development. Based on these multiple lines of evidence, and without ignoring the possible pitfalls when establishing a correspondence between an archaeological culture and an ethnic label, the Late Middle Woodland people of the Melocheville Tradition should be seen as the direct ancestors of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, and should be thus described as Proto-St. Lawrence Iroquoians. This is in agreement with the prevailing in situ hypothesis to explain the development of the Iroquoian populations in the Northeast (see Chapdelaine 1989; Clermont 1996a; Crawford and Smith 1996; Gates St-Pierre, 2001b, 2003, 2006; Griffin 1944, 1946; Hart 2001; Hart and Brumbach 2005; Kraus 1944; Lenig 2000; MacNeish 1952, 1976; Martin 2008; Pendergast 1975; Ritchie and MacNeish 1949; Smith 1997; Smith and Crawford 1995, 1997; Tuck 1971; Wright 1966, 1984, 2004), and in opposition to the migration hypothesis proposed by Dean Snow and others (Bursey 1994; Fiedel 1987, 1991; Snow 1991, 1992, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1995a, 1995b, 1996, 2001; Starna and Funk 1994; Sutton 1994). The cultural continuity identified

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Figure 13. Location of the Melocheville Tradition sites in correlation with the St. Lawrence Iroquoian provinces.

here is between people of the Late Middle Woodland and Late Woodland periods in the St. Lawrence River valley, and this continuity is definitely more easily recognizable that the one between the Early Middle Woodland and Late Middle Woodland periods (Gates St-Pierre 2003, 2006, 2010a, 2010b). This does not contradict, but neither does it necessarily support, the view of those archaeologists who position the origins of the Northern Iroquoians further back in time, during the Early Woodland period (Kraus 1944), or as early as the Late Archaic (Byers 1959, Chapdelaine 1989; Clermont and Chapdelaine 1982) or even the Laurentian Archaic (Tuck 1977; Wright 1984). Such assertions still necessitate further demonstration. CONCLUSION It should be reiterated that our knowledge about the post-Hopewell or Jack’s Reef horizon archaeology in Southern Quebec is somewhat limited and is based on a handful of type sites such as Station-4 and Hector-Trudel at the Pointe-du-Buisson complex, near Montreal, or the Place-Royale site in Quebec City. The study of those sites have provided valuable and unparalleled information regarding the material culture (ceramics, lithics, bone artifacts, etc.), settlement patterns, subsistence, exchange networks, demography, and ethnicity, but very little about bioarchaeology, burial patterns, ideology and sociopolitical organization. The data clearly indicate that the southern portion of our research area was part of the Jack’s Reef horizon, while the northern portion lies at its periphery, but was nevertheless part of it, with people introducing southern cultural elements (Onondaga chert, projectile point models, corn, etc.) into their distinctive regional culture and identity.

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Unhappily bracketed between the more attractive cultural phenomena of the Early Woodland (Meadowood archaeology) and Late Woodland (Iroquoian archaeology), the archaeology of the Early and Late Middle Woodland periods has long suffered from a lack of attention in our region (Gates St-Pierre 2006, 2010b). Things are slowly changing however, as indicated by the continued research of one of us (Gates St-Pierre) and new researches conducted by recent graduate students (Brodeur 2006; Courtemanche 2003, 2008, 2012; Dumont 2010; Méhault 2011, 2012; Miller 2011; Sénécal 2008; StArnaud 1996). Thus, there are good reasons to be optimistic about the future of archaeological research on the Middle Woodland period and the Jack’s Reef horizon in Southern Quebec. END NOTES 1. Suture bones have fibrous joints that combine to form the cranium in most vertebrate species. Similar bones are also found in the skeleton of turtles where they combine to form the plastron (i.e. the flat, ventral surface of the shell structure). "Suture stamping" refers to the imprint of the joint side(s) of suture bones on fresh clay in the process of ceramic decoration. The term was borrowed from Kenyon (1968) by Gates St-Pierre (2006: 104, 144) as an hypothesis to explain the production of an unusual variety of complex impressions found on Melocheville ceramic vessels from Pointe-du-Buisson, named "empreintes suturiformes." 2. ISAQ stands for Inventaire des sites archéologiques du Québec, an inventory of archaeological sites in Quebec maintained and continually updated by the ministère de la Culture et des Communications du Québec. This inventory contains 162 more sites having a "Middle Woodland component," but it is not specified whether the component is Early or Late Middle Woodland. This is because many sites were discovered and registered in the ISAQ database before the somewhat recent subdivision of the Middle Woodland period in Quebec, during the early 1990s (Chapdelaine 1990a: 3, 1990c: 25; Clermont and Chapdelaine 1992: 88; see also Gates St-Pierre 2006: 13-14). REFERENCES Bilodeau, Robert 1988 Les occupations préhistoriques du site BgFp-2, Île Thompson, Haut Saint-Laurent. M.A. Thesis. Montreal: Département d’anthropologie, Université de Montréal. Brodeur, Marie-Eve 2006 Documenting the Channel Catfish Population Exploited by the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Station-3Avant Site at Pointe-du-Buisson, Southern Québec (Canada): 216-226, in D. Ruscillo (ed.); Recent Advances in Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Bursey, Jeffrey A. 1994 The Transition from the Middle to Late Woodland Periods: A Re-Evaluation: 43-54, in A. Bekerman and G. Warrick (eds); Origins of the People of the Longhouse: Proceedings of the 21st Annual Symposium of the Ontario Archaeological Society inc., Held at Toronto, Ontario in October, 1994. North York: The Ontario Archaeological Society. Byers, Douglas S. 1959 The Eastern Archaic: Some Problems and Hypothesis. American Antiquity; vol. 24, No 3: 233-256. Chapdelaine, Claude 1982 Les pipes à plate-forme de la Pointe-du-Buisson: un système d’échanges à définir. Recherches amérindiennes au Québec; vol. 12, No 3: 207-215. 1989 Le site Mandeville à Tracy: variabilité culturelle des Iroquoiens du Saint-Laurent. Collection Signe des Amériques, No 7. Montréal: Recherches amérindiennes au Québec. 1990a Le concept de Sylvicole ou l’hégémonie de la poterie. Recherches amérindiennes au Québec; vol. 20, No 1: 2-4. 1990b The Mandeville Site and the Definition of a New Regional Group Within the Saint Lawrence Iroquoian World. Man in the Northeast; No 39: 53-63. 1990c Un site du Sylvicole moyen ancien sur la plage d’Oka (BiFm-1). Recherches amérindiennes au Québec; vol. 20, No 1: 19-35.


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ARCHAEOLOGY OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA The preceding article was subjected to formal peer review prior to publication.