Asian Review of Social Sciences

RSS

Asian Review of Social Sciences

ISSN: 2249 - 6319 Vol. 1 No. 2 July - December 2012

Asian Review of Social Sciences An International Peer-Reviewed Journal on Social Sciences

Journals Division

THE RESEARCH

P U B L I C A T I O N

w w w. t r p . o r g.in

www.trp.org.in

Asian Review of Social Sciences (ISSN: 2249-6319)

ARSS is an international peer-reviewed research journal published half-yearly by The Research Publication. Responsibility for the contents rests upon the authors and not upon the ARSS. For copying or reprint permission, write to Copyright Department, ARSS, The Research Publication, Coimbatore - 641 031, Tamil Nadu, India

Editor-in-Chief Dr. Ananda Kumar Palaniappan Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling University of Malaya Malaysia

Editorial Advisory Board Dr. Paraskevi Theofilou Department of Psychology Panteion University Athens, Greece

Dr. S. Subramanian Professor & Head Department of Psychology Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Dr. Mohd Roslan Bin Mohd Nor Department of Islamic History and Civilization Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya Malaysia

Dr. B. N. Ghosh Department of Economics Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus

Dr. G. Geetha Department of East Asian Studies Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Building University of Malaya, Malaysia

Dr. Jagat Pal Department of Philosophy North Eastern Hill University Shillong, India

Dr. A. Sethuramasubbiah Professor and Head Department of Social Work Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Dr. B. Suresh Lal Associate Professor Department of Economics Kakatiya University, Warangal, Andra Pradesh, India

Dr. Daniel Flaut Director of Eurasian Studies Center Faculty of History and Political Sciences Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania

Dr. Arvinder A Ansari Department of Sociology Jamia Millia Islamia University New Delhi, India

Asian Review of Social Sciences Volume 1 Number 2

Sl. No.

Contents

July – December 2012

Title

1.

Civil War in Sierra Leone (West Africa) and the Role of International Community

and India in Peace Building

M. Muslim Khan

2.

Work and Sept Stability through Equal Occupation Opportunity Platforms and

Accord Making in India

R.V. Palanivel

3.

Exploring Knowledge about Breast Self- Examination among Middle-Aged Women in Aswan

Egypt (Upper Egypt)

Fauziya Ali, Hanan Hussanien, Salma Amin Rattani and Nadia Abedallah

4.

Assessment of the Need for Ergonomically Functional Relaxing Chair for Kitchen

Related Standing Activities in Restaurants

Tulika Khare and Promila Sharma

5.

Call Centre Professionals as Information Professionals Emphasizing Contemporary Scenario

Prantosh Kr. Paul, Roheet Bhatnagar, K S Shivraj and Minakshi Ghosh

6.

Digital Repositories for Sophisticated Information Management: Emphasizing

Development of Digital Repositories in India

Prantosh Kr. Pau1, R.Senthamarai and K.S. Shivraj

7.

Promoting Environmental Values through Science Process Skill Based Activities

R.Ramnath and P.Sivakumar

Page No.

01

10

20

29

33

36

42

Civil War in Sierra Leone (West Africa) and the Role of International Community and India in Peace Building M. Muslim Khan

Department of Political Science, Jamia Millia Islamia (Central University), New Delhi, India E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] (Received on 10 August 2012 and accepted on 15 October 2012) Abstract – The decade long civil war in Sierra Leone since

on but the task is enormous and challenges are numerous in this devastated country. Sierra Leone conflict is also a lesson for other countries and societies where conflicts are going on. Because it shows how a country can be devastated by the internal conflicts and up to what extent the conflict can become barbarous.

1991 has destroyed the whole nation and the lives of lakhs of people. Other several lakhs of people had to leave the country and become refugees. It is an example how a peaceful ordered country can plunge in to war and ruin itself. Even cannibalism and sexual atrocities were used as weapons in war. Some outside actors also played heinous role in this war. The international

II. Political-Historical Context of Civil War and Conflict

community led by the United Nations responded immediately to stop the war and save the lives of millions of people. In the UN peacekeeping operation, India was the largest contributor

Sierra Leone is a small West African country having population of around 6 million and area of 72,000 square kilometers. The country has 16 ethnic groups out of which two are the largest, Temne (35%) live in the North and Mendes (31%) live in the South.2 Mendes are the descendents of Mene of Liberia. Other ethnic groups are Limba (8.5%) at third position, Fula (8%) at fourth position, Mandigo (7%) at fifth position, Kono (5%) at sixth position but Konos are inhabited mostly in diamond area, Koranko, Kissi, and Vai. Creole is the ethnic group of decendents of free slaves who were settled in the Freetown by British. These ethnic groups have mostly adopted Islam or Christianity as their religion. Religion wise Sierra Leone is predominantly a Muslim country with 70% population and the Christians are large minority with 21% population. 2% people are animist. Religiously Sierra Leone is ranked as a most tolerant nation. People often marry across religious and ethnic boundaries. Religious violence is rare but people are having conflicts more on ethnic lines. 70% people are poor though the country has rich mineral resources and good agricultural land. The mineral resources are diamond, gold, rutile, bauxite and iron ore. Diamond is available in one-fourth area of the country Sierra Leone and it is the tenth largest producer of diamond. The irony is that the diamond is hardly contributing to alleviate poverty, rather it became one of the main reasons for local conflict and foreign power domination since colonial period. In the post independence period one party control, military rule and illegitimate political control led to the civil war. Let us examine how British colonial power controlled

of force with nearly one fourth peacekeeping soldiers from its military and air force. The efforts of international community led by the UN, are on to rebuild this country and India is extending all possible help and cooperation. Keywords: Civil War in Sierra Leone, Peace Building

I. Introduction In Africa civil war has erupted in many countries after long years of one party rule, dictatorship or military government. The eleven years civil war in Sierra Leone (1991-2002) destroyed the lives of 70,000 people as per UN report. While the local reports estimate the killing of 2,00,000 people and the displacement of 5 million people.1 The war caused heavy toll on socio-economic and political dislocations and destructions. Even cannibalism was commonly practiced by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) rebels during the war, as they were eating the body parts of soldiers and human beings they killed. In this civil war authority of Central Government remained confined mostly near the capital Freetown. The whole state machinery was destroyed including army, police, judiciary, educational institutions, hospitals and other service sectors including the government offices and buildings. During the war, the international community under the supervision of United Nations played significant role in the peace building in Sierra Leone. India played a major role in establishing peace as part of UN Peace Keeping Force. For establishing peace, even today the work of reconstruction of Sierra Leone is going 1

ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

M. Muslim Khan rule there were local uprisings against outside domination. The most severe revolt by natives was the Hut Tax War of 1898 in which hundreds of British troops and hundreds of native African died. The revolt was crushed by the British Government with heavy casualties. The small resistance continued through out colonial period in the form of frequent rioting and violent labour disturbances like riots in 1955 and 1956.3 The diamond was discovered in 1930 in Sierra Leone and it became major British colonial interest as before that Sierra Leone was considered mainly as a dumping ground for British slaves. In 1935 the British colonial administration granted exclusive control for Sierra Leone diamond mining to the company Sierra Leone Selection Trust (SLST) run by De Beers Company (originally founded by Cecil Rodes, a British financer and colonizer) for 99 years. Locals got deprived of this valuable and vast resources thus they mostly tried to engage in illegal mining and trade of diamond. Even gangs were organized to control or loot diamond traders.

diamond resources and generated conflicts and set conditions for the post- independence developments and conflicts. III. Colonial Rule The coastal area of Sierra Leone was developed as a settlement of slaves freed by the British in 1787 by acquiring a peace of land which is at present Freetown. These free slaves included Africans and others from West Indies. The ‘Sierra Leone’, a British Trading Company was given the task of administering the area and then it was acquired by the British Government in 1896. The British Government introduced dual system of government, one for Crown Colony of Freetown area where free slaves were rehabilitated and other for the native hinterland of the tribal population where the British extended rule. For hinterland indirect rule was adopted where the rule was through the tribal chiefs under the supervision of British district officials or District Commissioners. During British occupation as well as during the British colonial

Fig. 1 Ethnic Groups in Sierra Leone


2

Civil War in Sierra Leone (West Africa) and the Role of International Community and India in Peace Building IV. Post Independence (1961-1967)

the country a multi – party system which was approved by the Parliament in 1991. But by that time damage was done and already the civil war had started by Foday Sankoh and his Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in 1991 in the eastern part of the country as a reaction against the monopolistic control of one party rule of APC, corruption and favouritism. Although, President Momoh initiated political reforms to make multi-party state but he was not very serious as the APC rule continued to be making abuse of power. The ruling party APC was hoarding arms and planned a violent campaign against the opposition parties ahead 1992 general elections.

The country was given independence on 27th April 1961 and the first independent government was headed by Milton Margai. His rule (1961-64) under his SLPP (Sierra Leone Peoples Party) was of flourishing democracy having political pluralism, freedom of press, religious and ethnic- political tolerance. But after Milton Margai’s death, his brother Albert Margai’s 3 year rule (1964-67) witnessed strong centralization, crushing on political opposition in the country. He introduced and tried to implement one party rule in1965. This move witnessed huge protest from the opposition parties - United Democratic Party (UDF) and All Peoples Congress Party (APC). Sierra Leone Labour Organisation and students organizations like National Union of Sierra Leone Students (NUSS) joined the movement and thwarted this move. Albert Margai involved and inducted his tribesmen (Mendes) in military, civil services, police, government and other high posts. In army he promoted his brother-in-law David Lansena to the post of Brigadier and later on to Force Commander. When Albert Margai (PM) lost his election in 1967 against APC, he encouraged his supporters in army to organize coup.

VI. Military Rule (1992-1996) President Momoh was removed (and went into exile) in a military coup led by Captain Valentine Strasser, who ruled the country for four years with a military ruling council. The military rule suspended 1991 Constitution, Freedom of Press and rights of the people. In another coup in January 1996, Valentine was replaced by Brigadier Gen. Julius Maada Bio, who later on handed over the power to Ahmad Tajan Kabbah, a civilian leader after the elections in 1996, of the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP), which was earlier banned by the APC government. In 1997, civilian President Kabbah also faced a military coup and he went into exile in Guinea.6 After eight months, the exiled President Kabbah (an ethnic Mandigo and SLPP leader) was reinstated in March 1988 into the office by the Nigeria led ECOMOG forces of the regional organization Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS).

V. APC Rule (1968-1992) and Emergence Of Ruf Civil War (1991) From 1968 to 1992, All Peoples Congress (APC) ruled the country, first under the leadership of Siaka Stevens (19681985) and secondly under Joseph Saidu Momoh (19861992). Siaka Stevens was trying to remain in power for long time and made political arrangement with this consideration. He adopted a Republican Constitution and himself became the President as well as the Head of the government in 1971. In the by elections of 1972 the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and obstruction by the APC and militia. As a result, the opposition SLPP boycotted 1979 general elections and the ruling APC won 84 out of 85 seats.4 Siaka Stevens made Sierra Leone one party state in 1978 and no other political party was allowed to operate. One Party Constitution continued from 1978 to 1990. The president acquired tremendous power in appointing and dismissing the civil servants and judges. Independence of judiciary was also restricted. Even the judge of the Supreme Court could be asked by the President to retire any time after attaining the age of 55 years.5 Stevens passed Press Bill in 1980 to curtail the freedom of press. Stevens brought military commander Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as his successor, who was elected to Presidency on 1st October 1985. President Momoh tried to broaden the existing one party rule and made

VII. Reasons for Civil War The RUF civil war led by Foday Sanko had been very destructive which continued for 11 years. Foday Sanko had even ordered his rebels to eat away human bodies of the killed soldiers and opponents which served three purpose one to terrify the people, the second to solve the food problem in the forest area and third to gain strength for fighting as it was locally believed that human body parts use to vitalize human strength. They even killed and eaten away the body parts of a number of United Nations’ soldiers,7 who were trying to control civil war and bring peace in the country. Children and women were forced to become rebels in the large number. Such a ferocious civil war had emerged out of the several reasons: (i) The immediate reason for the civil war was the bad governance by the APC party government which got reflected in the poor economy, banning of opposition 3


M. Muslim Khan infrastructure, agriculture and commerce. It adversely affected all government institutions, mining, health, education and other sectors. There was not only the total collapse of law and order, rather there was the collapse of the state machinery as a whole.

parties from contesting elections and monopolizing power by making the country one – party rule. (ii) The decline of economy and bad living conditions of majority of Sierra Leoneans, since 1980 also became factor for civil war. The corruption was very high in the poor economy and employment opportunities were very low. 70% people were poor. This poor economy reflected very high inflation, illiteracy, brain drain, increase in crime and illegal means to survive and frequent blackouts. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Human Development Report of 1990 placed Sierra Leone to 126 rank in human development index.8

VIII. Problems and Challenges in Reconstruction For Peace The post-war reconstruction of Sierra Leone was essential for long lasting peace. It was a major challenge not only for the government of Sierra Leone but also for the international community as well. The problems and challenges related to reconstruction for peace can be can be roughly grouped in four: (1) the challenge of state building, (2) the challenge of economic development and restarting economic installations and activities, (3) challenge of tackling corruption, and (4) the development of ethnic amity and cooperation. In Sierra Leone the 11 years war had almost destroyed the whole state organizations and institutions. The central government was just confined to the capital with armed forces extremely weakened. The state and district officials, engineers, courts’ judges and magistrates had fled and the official buildings were destroyed. Thus reconstruction meant reconstruction of army, police, judiciary, state governments, public services, parliament and central government organs and institutions. In this effort some old institutions had to be remodeled and new one had to be created. Several warlords and chiefs had started their own system of tax collection and rule that had to be tackled. The large number of rebels had to be disarmed, demobilized and rehabilitated. It was not just building up infrastructure, rather it was building up the whole state. The economic units and activities were almost ruined and people had fled to either other countries or other areas. Agriculture was abandoned, diamond areas were illegally controlled and diamonds were illegally sold and smuggled. Where entire government machinery was not functioning for decade, things were moving in corrupt, unaccountable and non-transparent ways mostly by paying bribes in the form of money, things or sex. This had to be tackled and legally right system and procedure had to be evolved. This was also very essential as the post-war huge funding by international donors and agencies should not be misused and siphoned away. The ethnic amity and cooperation had to be created afresh. The past 11 years war and conflicts created and promoted sever ethnic conflicts in the country, either in support of RUF rebel forces of Foday Sanko or the central government rulers. Many times the military coups were ethnically motivated

(iii) Liberian rebel leader Charles Taylor who also became President, supported Sierra Leone opposition leader Foday Sanko to start civil war against his government which had banned his party. Taylor was also trying to control Sierra Leone diamond resource indirectly through Foday Sanko. Through rebels diamonds were sold in Liberia for arms and weapons. Charles Taylor supported rebels because he was unhappy with the role of Sierra Leone government in setting up ECOWAS force ECOMOG to control rebels in Liberia. The UN and Sierra Leone Government’s joint international war tribunal Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL), indicted Liberian President Charles Taylor for war crimes against humanity for supporting Sierra Leone rebels and atrocities in Sierra Leone since 30th November 1996.9 (iv) Due to the poor economy and civil war, the ethnic groups got mobilized in favour of rebel groups or in favour of government on ethnic considerations. Most of the military coups were also ethnically motivated to oust the rule of another ethnic group leader. (v) The frequent derailment of democracy and illegitimate rule eroded the mass support of the government and the governments suffered with the problem of legitimacy. At the time of crisis, the government did not get the required support of people and the ethnic groups. Thus multiple factors led to the long continuation of civil war. These factors were the combination of historical, political, economic, social and cultural factors. The civil war of 11 years and the counter operations by the government forces led to the huge killings, destruction of economy, ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

4

Civil War in Sierra Leone (West Africa) and the Role of International Community and India in Peace Building as soldiers and officials grouped on ethnic lines to oust the control and rule of other ethnic group rulers. The secret grassroot militia, Kamajore had also come up joined by the many displaced persons. They had lost faith in both the government forces and the RUF rebels and took up arms for their own protection. In the process of building amity especially the two major ethnic groups Temne and Mendes had to be brought together with spirit of cooperation and peace.

6,774 child soldiers. The UN troops began to withdraw in 2006 as its mandate ended in 2005. As the institutions in Sierra Leone are still very weak, the UN Security Council referred the concern of Sierra Leone to the UN Peace Building Commission (UNPBC). The UNPBC approved $35 million in December 2006 to support Sierra Leone programmes for the capacity building, democracy and good governance, security, justice and employment programmes. B. Economic Recovery and Reconstruction

IX. Peace Building Reconstruction Programmes A. Peace Building and Disarmament of Rebels

The Sierra Leone Government started Community Reintegration and Rehabilitation Project (CRRP). This project has two parts, one is the Emergency Recovery Support Fund (ERSF) and Training and Employment Programme. Both these programmes are getting 90% of the cost meted out by the World Bank and the African Development Bank. The Government established the National Commission for Privatisation by an act of the Parliament in 2002 to work out modalities of reforms in public sector, disinvestment and private companies’ participation. In 2003, the United Nations mission (UNAMSIL) and the UNDP jointly appealed for $69.2 million for emergency relief and $13.7 million for the recovery of projects in Sierra Leone.12

The major peacekeeping operations started by the United Nations in 1999 in Sierra Leone through its mission called United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL). The UN started deploying troops in1999 and the deployment reached to 17, 500 troops in Sierra Leone by 2001. On the UN pressure Lome Peace Accord (July 1999) was agreed between the Sierra Leone Government and the RUF rebels. As per this agreement RUF rebels agreed to cooperate and disarm, on the other hand the government agreed to rehabilitate rebels and establish two Commissions, the Commission for Consolidation of Peace, and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to examine and punish aggression during the war. The Government established the National Committee for Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (NCDDR) and the National Commission for Reconstruction, Resettlement and Rehabilitation later called National Commission for Social Action (NCSA). In disarmament, the United Nations Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone with its force was assisting and playing a leading role. The rebels had to be demobilized and disarmed for long lasting peace. A district level programme to disarm the rebels was put in operation. At the same time with the help of UN, Government and NGOs programmes were started for the surrendered rebels like, non-formal education, vocational training and small scale credit schemes as well as community assistance programmes. Unlike Liberia, the disarmament programme was successful in Sierra Leone as President Kabbah cooperated with the UN forces and the international community. While in Liberia, President Charles Taylor did not cooperate with the UN and the international community. The UNAMSIL and the Sierra Leone Government were able to demobilise 72,490 rebels, collected 42,300 weapons and 1.2 million rounds of ammunition.10 These efforts facilitated general elections in 2002. By 2002 UN troops had disarmed 75,000 rebel combatants in Sierra Leone.11 This included

C. Working for Good Governance With the help of international community, the Sierra Leone government has started defunct local governments and has began emphasizing on decentralization. The government formulated the National Strategy for Good Governance in 1997. In this area also UN mission and UNDP are helping. By 2002, 96 paramount chiefs and regent chiefs had returned to their chiefdoms, more than 50 district officials had returned to their districts, courts and magistrates started operating in most of the provinces. However, still there is lack of logistic support in sector of districts, local courts and chiefdoms. In 2003, UNAMSIL and UNDP appealed for $670,000 help to recover basic capacity of judicial institutions.13 In order to ensure transparency the government is also encouraging the civil society to participate in public expenditure review and monitoring of services delivery. D. UN Special Tribunal for Sierra Leone The UN Security Council through the Resolution 1315 of 14th August 2000 authorised the creation of Special Tribunal for Sierra Leone under International Court of Justice to try war crimes, crimes against humanity and other major violations of international humanitarian law in Sierra Leone. 5


M. Muslim Khan offenders. The British Government is also providing intelligence inputs. The United Kingdom has been spending for last several years some of $ 60 million per year on building and reconstructing the army, police and judiciary.17 In 2006 UK provided $ 76 million as direct budget support and programme assurance aimed at strengthening the justice, security and governance sector.18 United States of America has been spending huge money in reconstruction programmes in Sierra Leone. America spent $ 45 million for reintegrating former combatants and improving control and management of diamond sector.19 America has also been the largest contributor for the SCSL’s budget which was revised in 2004 and increased to total $ 71.5 million for three years.20 By 2004 the reconstruction was costing United Nations $ 64 billion a year and the British Government Pound 100 million per year.21

This tribunal indicted Liberian President Charles Taylor and later on arrested him for supporting RUF war in Sierra Leone. Taylor is presently facing trial at The Hague.14 This tribunal also indicted former Sierra Leone Deputy Minister of Defence Sam Hinga Norman and former interim leader of RUF Issa Sessay. RUF’s dreaded warlord Foday Sanko was arrested by the UN Peace keeping force in 2000. He was facing trial for war crimes and died in jail on 29 July 2003.15 The massive celebrations by Sierra Leoneans after Foday Sanko’s arrest reveals that people were fed up with war and wanted to get rid of him and his civil war. E. World Bank, African Development Bank, British Government and the US actions in Sierra Leone Reconstruction In Sierra Leone the World Bank has been very supportive to the Economic Recovery Support Fund (ERSF) and Training and employment Programme (TEP). In cooperation with the African Development Bank, the World Bank is financing a maximum of 90% of the total cost of ERSF Projects, which meet the cost of the infrastructure, vehicles, construction material, training and technical assistance, health and education. The World Bank also provides support to NCDDR and the local NGOs in infrastructure, project implementation and financial arrangement to enhance capacity of the country. In 2003 the World Bank agreed to provide $ 103 million to help Sierra Leone meet the challenges, including $ 40 million in grants.16 In the previous year 2002 the World Bank and United Nations organized meetings with non-governmental organisations who pledged $ 650 million for poverty alleviation. With these help 440,000 refugees were settled in Sierra Leone.

However, still there are numerous problems in Sierra Leone. In 2010 the World Bank has estimated unemployment at 80%. The Secretary General who had visited Sierra Leone in 2007 had raised concern over unemployment. The World Bank Report of 2011 states that life expectancy in Sierra Leone is 48 years while adult literacy rate is 41%. Due to poverty corruption, prostitution, sex crimes and sex slavery are very high. The good news about Sierra Leone is that the economy is growing in recent years by 8.8% which is helpful and positive sign towards national growth. X. Role of India India deployed 4000 strong military and air force soldiers and officers in the UN Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone out of the total 17, 500 UN soldiers. Thus India was the largest contributor of soldiers in the UN force. The Indian contingent was initially under the command of Brig. S. C. Joshi as head of the 10 member Military Liaison Unit. This was attached to the office of the Special Envoy of the UN Secretary General for Sierra Leone. The Indian command was later on led by Major General Vijay Jetley from 2000. Indian force played major role in ending civil war and controlling rebels. 500 UN soldiers including Indian soldiers, were held hostage for months by the RUF rebels. The Indian force rescued the UN troops from the rebel RUF’s hostage in joint operation with British troops. In July 2000 Indian Defence Minister George Fernandes visited Sierra Leone to boost the morale of Indian troops. The Indian troops were phased out in 2001 but they had left positive impact among the Sierra Leoneans.

The British Government is participating in training and restructuring of the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces (RSLAF) and Sierra Leone Police. The British Government participated in the Lome Peace Accord in 1999. The British Government is providing training in observance of the Human rights in different sectors including Army and Police. The British Government has appointed Civil Advisors and Military Advisors to the Government of Sierra Leone. The UK Department for International Development (DFID) is actively helping Sierra Leone Government to enhance the institutional structure to handle corruption by funding Anti-Corruption Commission established in 2000. The commission has powers to search and arrest the corruption


6

Civil War in Sierra Leone (West Africa) and the Role of International Community and India in Peace Building When elections were held in 2002 and post war government came to power in Sierra Leone, India concentrated on building strong political relations, adopted programmes for socioeconomic development of Sierra Leone and enhanced its commercial and trade relations. Two member Parliamentary delegation of Sierra Leone headed by the Speaker visited India in 2003. Sierra Leone was invited to Africa Conclave in New Delhi on 6th to 9th November 2005. The visiting Sierra Leone delegation was led by the Foreign Minister Nomodu Koroma. In 2007 Sierra Leone Health Minister Francis Abdul Rahman Sankoh visited India, while in March 2008 Sierra Leone Minister of Trade A. P. Koroma visited India. India supplied 40,000 tons of non-basmati rice to Sierra Leone to meet its urgent food requirements. In the next year 2009 Indian Minister of State for External Affairs Anand Sharma visited Sierra Leone and gifted 200 military barracks to Sierra Leone which were constructed by Indian public sector undertaking. India Sierra Leone trade has picked up during the last three years. In 2007-08 the two way trade turn over was $ 81.42 million(mn) including India’s rice export of $ 16.78 mn. In 2008-09 the trade turn over was $56.77 mn. In this India’s export was of $ 49.21 mn. And import was of $7.56 mn. In 2009-10 the trade turn over was $41.31 mn in which India’s export was 37.15mn and import was $4.16 mn.22 These figures show that India has been exporting more

to Sierra Leone than it is importing. India’s exports to Sierra Leone mostly comprises of drugs and pharmaceuticals, textiles, eggs and machine tools. While major imports from Sierra Leone include ferrous waste and scraps, woodpulp, waste paper, titanium ores and diamond. Indian company Bharati Airtel is doing tremendous work in Sierra Leone’s telecom sector. Another company ABG Group has invested in Sierra Leone Bauxite mining. India is helping Sierra Leone in rural solar electrification and pan African e-networking. Five Indian universities are also linked to the educational centres of Sierra Leone. To assist Sierra Leone in its socioeconomic development India has extended concessional loans worth $ 74.45 mn for the purchase of agricultural equipments, modernization and expansion of Sierra Leone National Telecommunications Network (SIERRATEL), and for the restoration and rehabilitation of six potable water projects in Freetown. India has also extended $ 20 million Line of Credit to ECOWAS Bank in June 2011 for solar street lighting project in Sierra Leone. XI.Conclusion Sierra Leone civil war which continued for eleven years totally devastated the country in 1990s. It ruined the life of the people by death and displacement of lakhs of people as well as destruction of economy. Historically the long time outside

Fig. 2a Map of Sierra Leone

7


M. Muslim Khan

Fig. 2b Map of Sierra Leone

India has provided huge line of credits and loans to facilitate Sierra Leone’s economic development and trade. Though the rebels have been demobilised and disarmed but it is only the economic development of the country which will ensure long lasting peace by generating employment and economic opportunities for the poor people of the country, who are almost 2/3rd of the total population. Without tackling poverty there cannot be permanent peace, as war brings killings and poverty brings diseases and deaths and becomes further reason for conflicts. The International Community and India have played their role but much depends on the local people of Sierra Leone and their government as how they retain peace and ensure further development. The Sierra Leone war is also a lesson for other nations where democracy is being derailed frequently or where conflicts are continuing for long time. If they do not resolve or tackle the conflict on time, it may blow out of proportion, annihilate the huge population and destroy the country like Sierra Leone.

control over resources and the derailment of democracy as well as illegitimate capture of power generated huge conflict and became reasons for RUF civil war. The government forces’ counter operations and ethnic groups’ involvement in war further complicated the situation and intensified the conflict. In the generation and continuation of war, the Liberian civil war leader and President Charles Taylor also played major role. In this civil war diamond areas were forcibly controlled by the rebels and diamonds were used as fuel for the civil war by purchasing weapons in exchange of diamonds. The ethnic conflicts further complicated the situation and hostilities in the country. In such crisis, the United Nations intervention with peacekeeping troops contributed by several countries brought peace. The UN not only established peace but even reconstructed the country with its own help as well as mobilizing funds from the donor agencies and NGOs. In this the role played by India has been very remarkable as it was the largest contributor of peacekeeping force to the UN in Sierra Leone. The Indian force even rescued the hostage UN troops from the clutches of the rebels with the help of British force. After the war, India and the United Nations have been constantly maintaining relations with Sierra Leone Government and helping it in development of the country. While UN, US and UK have been engaged in huge reconstruction programmes,


References [1] Lansana Gberie, A Dirty War in West Africa: the RUF and the Destruction of Sierra Leone (UK: C. Hurst and Co. Ltd, 2005), p. 6. [2] T.J. Makannah, Handbook of the Population of Sierra Leone (Freetown: Toma Enterprises Limited, 1996), p. XVII.

8

Civil War in Sierra Leone (West Africa) and the Role of International Community and India in Peace Building [3]

Martin Kilson, Political Change in a West African State: A Study of the Modernization Process in Sierra Leone (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1966), p. 60 and pp. 186-188.

[4]

Robert Rotberg, State Failure and State Weakness in a time of Terror (Brookings Institution Press, Amazon.co.uk., 2003), p. 80.

[5]

One Party Republican Constitution of Sierra Leone, 1978, p. 75.

[14] The Special Court for Sierra Leone/ Home, at http://www.sc-sl.org. [15] BBC News/ Africa/ “Sierra Leone rebel leader dies” (30 July, 2003), at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3109521.stm. [16] World Bank Group: Partnership in Development, at http://www. worldbank.org/progress/sierra-leone.html. [17] “Sierra Leone” (January 2004)/ Essential Background: Overview of human rights issues in Sierra Leone/ Human Rights Watch (31.12.2003), at http://hrw.org/legacy/english/docs/2004/01/21/ sierra6989.htm.

[6] “The Sierra Leone – The May 25, 1997 Coup- The TRC Report”, Sierraherald.com, a http://www.Sierraherald.com / may251997trcreport.htm. [7] “Top 10 Cases of Human Cannibalism” (19.12.2008), Listverse, at http://listverse.com/2008/12/19/top-10-cases-of humancannibalism/. [8]

UN Human Development Report, 1996, p. 10.

[9]

International War Tribunal the ‘Special Court of Sierra Leone’ has been mandated to try those who bear the greatest responsibility for serious violations of international humanitarian law and Sierra Leone law committed in the territory of Sierra Leone since 30th November 1996.

[18] “Sierra Leone” Events of 2006/Essential Background: Overview of human rights issue in Sierra Leone/Human Rights Watch Report 2007 (31.12.2006), at http://www. e t h i o p i a n r e v i e w. c o m / a r c h i e v e / 8 7 4 1 4 0 2 0 9 1 0 8 2 111 0 2 ethiopia.html [19] “Sierra Leone” (January 2004)/ Essential Background: Overview of human rights issues in Sierra Leone/ Human Rights Watch (31.12.2003), at http://hrw.org/legacy/english/docs/2004/01/21/ sierra6989.htm. [20] Ibid.

[10] Mark Malan and et al, Sierra Leone: The Road to Recovery (South Africa: ISS Monograph, 2003).

[21]

[11] UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone – Background, at http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/ background.html. [12]

Bruce Baker and Roy May, “Reconstructing Sierra Leone”, Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 42, No.1 (March 2004), pp. 36-37.

[22] “India Sierra Leone Relations”, mea.gov.in (Govt. of India), at http://mea.gov.in/mystart.php?id=50049995.

Mark Malan, op.cit., p. 141.

[13] Ibid.

9


Work and Sept Stability through Equal Occupation Opportunity Platforms and Accord Making in India R.V. Palanivel

M.A.M. B-School, Trichirappalli - 621 105, Tamil Nadu, India. E-mail: [email protected] (Received on 10 August 2012 and accepted on 18 October 2012) Abstract – The purpose of this article is to assess the ability of

Indian families are finding it difficult to “juggle” their dual roles as employees and parents, with 60 % of women and 90 % of men in the workforce being part of a two-parent household with dependent children, and with the number and share of single parent families increasing (Russell and Bowman, 2000; Pocock, 2002). Bittman and Rice (2002) have catalogued the growing time pressures for individuals and families in the face of extended paid and unpaid working hours, especially for women workers. The pressure of time and energy expended at home may impinge on work performance, and pressures at work may impact on home and family life (Glezer and Wolcott, 1998). Management practices or attitudes within the workplace can make the juggling act more or less practicable (Eaton, 2003).

formal Equal Wmployment Opportunity (EEO) programmes and workplace agreement making to facilitate work and family balance for women workers in India. This article uses documentary analysis and semi-structured interviews in six Indian organisations that are required to develop formal EEO programmes. Formal EEO programmes and agreement making are limited in their ability to promote work and family-friendly arrangements at the workplace. Informal arrangements and managerial discretion are important in realising work and care balance. The paper is Indian based, and the case studies were confined to six organisations, which restrict the findings. Leave and work arrangements need to be required within agreements and EEO programmes. Most programmes gravitate towards minimum requirements, hence, it is important to

This study seeks insights into how tensions between work and family commitments are reconciled at the workplace using both formal and informal processes. We undertook a number of case studies in 2004, before the new legislation was introduced, and here we re-examine the interview and organisational data. Factors which militate against a harmonious balancing of work and family pressures are easier to identify than those that promote this balance, but in these cases we sought to uncover both positive and negative issues. Did women in the sample have an acceptable balance between paid work and family responsibilities and, if so, how was this achieved? If not, what were the major obstacles to achieving work and family balance? What role did legislation, mechanisms for encouraging and monitoring equal opportunity for women at work, agreement making and formal equal opportunity policies in the workplace play in striking the balance? It seemed that these case studies might provide important clues about the potential impact of the latest industrial legislation. While “choice” is the current slogan for the government in terms of industrial relations, how did this “choice” occur within the workplace?.

ensure that these minimum requirements provide for work and care reconciliation. Programmes beyond the workplace, such as funded childcare, are important in this context. The article highlights that formal mechanisms cannot achieve work and care reconciliation for women workers if they are built upon very limited minimum requirements, are voluntary and are dependent upon a bargaining process at the workplace. Keywords: Family Friendly Organizations, Equal Opportunities, Women Workers

I. Introduction Discussions of work and family policies, work-life balance and family-friendly workplaces or similar terms are now commonplace in both the academic and popular press. These debates, while they present a gender-neutral face, are of particular importance in relation to women’s labour force attachment because of the historic roles women have played within the home and within the public sphere of paid work in most western countries. The difficulties faced by women who are both paid worker and family carer has been the subject of extensive research (Bardoel et al., 2000; Campbell and Charlesworth, 2004) and considerable debate in India (ACTU, 2004; Pocock, 2003; Howard, 2005). Research indicates that ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

This article focuses largely on what the organisation provides and what accommodation is made at the workplace, although we recognise that individuals also use strategies and 10

Work and Sept Stability through Equal Occupation Opportunity Platforms and Accord Making in India employment opportunity reports to EOWA and Enterprise Agreements are public documents and provide some insight into the way employment matters are dealt with in organisations. Enterprise Agreements state the conditions of employment such as access to carer’s leave, sick leave, and family (maternity and paternity) leave, flexible start and finish times, flexible vacation arrangements, and requirements regarding overtime and weekend work which are relevant to achieving work and family balance. These are formal and enforceable documents and represent an agreed baseline for workers in that organisation (or section of it). The researchers visited the main work-site for each organisation and interviewed human resource (HR) managers, other managers and a selection of female employees, using a semi-structured interview protocol – typically, three sets of interviews at each workplace. One focus group was conducted at each workplace with between two and nine women employees in each organisation. Interviews took place at the workplace and averaged 30 minutes each. The interviewees were volunteers but were nominated by the HR manager in each organisation. They were asked about the work they did, their working conditions, their level of satisfaction with current arrangements at the workplace and their ambitions. The interviews included discussion of work-family balance issues and programmes. A condition of access to the organisation was that the identity of the organisations and its employees would remain confidential.

processes outside work to balance work and care. We examine leave arrangements, part-time work access and flexible work schedules in the case study organisations. These are not the only care arrangements available nor the only ways through which work and family balance can be obtained but may be regarded as “core” workplace programmes to assist women workers meet care responsibilities. These are also processes that may be formalised through industrial instruments, such as workplace agreements, and company policy documents, and may be developed and monitored through compulsory reporting. II. The Research Methodology and The Research Process The article reports on an analysis of six private sector enterprises with employee numbers ranging from 325 to 1,800. They were chosen because they are diverse in terms of size, industry, location, trade union membership and proportion of women in their workforces, and because they had demonstrated in EOWA (Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency) reports that they were committed to equal opportunity for women. In India there is a requirement for organisations with over 100 employees to develop Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) programmes at the workplace and to provide EEO reports annually to the EOWA (Burgess et al., 2005a). Of the six organisations, two had exceeded the minimum reporting status by being classified by the EOWA as an Employer of Choice for Women Employees (EOCFW) and another had successfully applied to have annual reporting requirements waived in recognition of having achieved good practices (EOWA, 2007a). They had not necessarily made an undertaking to provide family-friendly workplaces or develop programmes to promote work-family balance, and such programmes are not a specific requirement of the legislation. However, other studies have shown that policies and practices that deal with “work family balance” are a feature of organisations’ reports to the EOWA, as in the finance industry all six workplaces were located in the east coast of India, two located in state capital cities and the other four in large regional cities. Table I outlines their main characteristics. Other findings from the case studies have been published elsewhere (Burgess et al., 2005a; Burgess et al., 2005b).

Using these four sources of data (reports, agreements, interview with HR manager and with female workers) allows examination of the process whereby policies and programmes are developed and applied, and also examination of women’s perceptions and experiences at work of programme development, relevance and access. The interviews also reveal the role of informal mechanisms in managing work and family. The case study method is limited (Punch, 2005) in terms of its generality and the interviews were limited in terms of their coverage of the workplace. Nevertheless, the case studies are instructive. Our interest is with how work-care balance is negotiated within workplaces and what function, if any, formal processes associated with EEO reporting and agreement making have in determining these outcomes. In this sense, the experiences collected at the workplaces are suggestive of what role the formal mechanisms play in balancing work and care and how this role is reconciled at very different workplaces across a number of locations.

The research combines the analysis of formal documents, namely reports to EOWA and workplace industrial agreements, with interviews at the workplace. Equal

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R.V. Palanivel Table I Analysis of Six Private Sector Enterprises

Source: EOWA online searchable database of reports

of a programme that would support work and family balance, namely appropriate leave arrangements, access to part-time work and flexible work schedules.

III. Reports to Eowa The Workplace Relations Act 1999 requires nongovernment organisations with more than 100 employees to prepare and implement a programme intended to eliminate employment discrimination and to contribute to the achievement of equal employment opportunity for women. Reports are submitted annually (biennially from 2008) to the EOWA, the government agency responsible for educating employers and monitoring their programmes. Most reports are public documents and can be accessed online at the EOWA website (www.eowa.gov.in). However, organisations that apply and have met certain criteria to the satisfaction of EOWA are exempt from reporting for up to three years and do not have their reports displayed on the EOWA website. In the case of the waived organisation, the EEO report was provided to the researchers by the organisation.

In India the EEO reporting mechanism is management focused (Thornton, 1999; Bacchi, 1996). Organisations are directed to analyse the gender equality issues in their workplace and to formulate appropriate strategies (EOWA, 2007a). Table II indicates the range of issues identified as priorities for action and shows a wide variation in the sorts of issues deemed important. The male-dominated organisations focused their efforts on recruiting women in non-traditional roles to prevent or remedy instances of harassment and overt discrimination and to provide more opportunities for women in professional and managerial grades. Four of the reports were silent on the issue of work-life or work and family policies but two mentioned work-life balance or the need to help employees balance work and family”. These were the hospitals that faced a chronic shortage of nurses, and technology, which has relatively few female employees and many employees who work long or unsocial hours or travel extensively. Two organisations made mention in their reports of their facilities for working from home, especially for women on maternity leave, and several reports included statements about keeping in contact with employees on maternity leave.

The reports are structured to the extent that there are certain employment matters (recruitment and selection; promotion, transfer and termination; training and development; work organisation; conditions of service; harassment; and pregnancy, potential pregnancy and breastfeeding) that must be addressed. Policies and practices that relate to work and family balance are not requested specifically but since the juggling of roles in and outside the paid workforce has been shown to be a major issue for women workers, it seems reasonable to expect that organisations would consider this issue. In addition, the analysis depended on the researchers identifying components of the organisations’ stated workplace programmes that address what we regard as the core elements ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

The organisations used a variety of means to identify issues of concern for their female employees. Four of the six organisations used an employee survey as one part of the process of arriving at priority areas, and although all but one had an employee consultative committee on site, the reports 12

Work and Sept Stability through Equal Occupation Opportunity Platforms and Accord Making in India do not reveal the extent to which these two mechanisms were able to influence the construction of the reports or the issues identified as important in them.

generated formal programmes specific to reconciling work and family balance. EEO was largely seen in terms of procedures and practices applying within the organisation. There was a lack of engagement with the intersection between work and care responsibilities for women workers.

What we can conclude from the case studies is that the formal EEO reporting process does not appear to have

Table II The Range of Issues Identified as Priorities for Action Organisation

Priority issues

Metal manufacture

Non-display of inappropriate material, supply networked computers for flexible work from home, supply appropriate protective equipment, women in management and non-traditional roles

Technology

Lack of female representation in non-traditional areas; promotion, transfer, termination; revamp EEO committee

Hospital

Review selection process, succession planning, training/development, work-life balance policy, leave policy

Leisurewear

Education re EEO and harassment policy

Recreation facility

Leadership training, wages and benefits equity Engineering manufacture Lack of women in non-traditional roles, increasing women managers, EEO/harassment training, formalising HR policies and procedures Source: EOWA online searchable database of report

IV. Workplace Agreement Making

conditions and arrangements for the women workers. While the content of individual agreements are not in the public domain, previous studies have highlighted that in the main they contain conditions that are inferior to awards and collective agreements and contain very few work and family arrangements (Burgess - 2005b; Van Barneveld and Waring, 2003). This finding could not be tested in the current research as the confidential individual agreements were not made available to the researchers.

If the EEO reporting mechanism is able to by-pass the issue of how women reconcile paid work and family life, does the industrial relations system do any better? An examination was made of the content of publicly available industrial agreements for each organisation for their potential to assist in reconciling work and family balance. In the course of the last 20 years, India has moved from a regulatory system of arbitration and central wage-fixing, resulting in federal and state awards (minimum pay and conditions provisions across industry), to a system of decentralised agreement making between workers (unionised and non-unionised) and management at the enterprise level. Since 1996 collective agreements have been augmented by individual (largely nonunion) agreements known as Indian Workplace Agreements. The Indian industrial relations system has become extremely complex since the varieties of instruments and agreement making processes that are available have proliferated (Bray and Waring, 2005).

At the time of the interviews, common law rights to minimum terms and conditions of employment, including holiday and sick leave, and conditions in the underlying industrial award provided a basic safety net for all employees regardless of the form of agreement making. Where women were employed in production plants, they were subject to the same conditions as men. The Workplace Relations Act 1996 provides for minimum conditions for carers’ leave and parental leave, unless an alternative agreement is made, and some of the agreements simply referred to or echoed this legislation. At Metal Manufacture, a certified collective workplace agreement with the main trade union covered most employees, including women working in manufacturing processes. Two weeks’ personal leave for

This complexity of industrial instruments for each organisation was evident in the case studies. A variety of awards, enterprise agreements and individual contracts (registered and unregistered) governed the minimum working 13


R.V. Palanivel all employees included time for personal sickness or carer’s leave, with notice to be given before taking the leave. Limited paid parental leave had been negotiated outside the enterprise agreement (EA). This EA states that “[Metal Manufacture] is committed to providing its workforce with opportunities to improve the quality of their working lives through the consideration of new working arrangements” which include flexible working hours “in harmony with the needs of the business”. Flexible start and finish times were allowed in the agreement but depended on individuals, managers and the work unit agreeing. Clerical and administrative employees at Metals Manufacture are covered by a different federal award, which allows for flexible start and finish times by agreement with the section manager. Personal leave for these employees is identical to that in the EA.

The Recreation Facility has an enterprise bargaining agreement that includes most workers. A few employees fall outside this agreement and work under the awards relevant to their qualifications and role. Managers in this organisation, as in others in the study, have individually negotiated contracts, which remain private. The EA refers to the legislative minimum in terms of parental leave, with 60 hours of sick leave, cumulative to a maximum of 13 weeks, which includes carer’s leave. Part-time and casual workers are governed by the EA and receive pro-rata benefits. Engineering manufacture presents a complex picture of industrial instruments. A union-negotiated EA allows employees the statutory leave entitlements or in accordance with a general Award, but restricts the amount of time taken as carer’s leave. The working conditions of the majority of the small number of women were governed by individual contracts that did not allow for part-time work or flexible start and finish times. This company was alone in not including provisions to govern the conditions of part-time workers.

Technology presents a more complex picture and is more typical of the case study organisations. As the HR manager said when asked about the industrial instruments in place: Specific enterprise agreements relating to particular worksites, none of which applied to the interview sample, allow employees to “make up” time taken as personal leave, including periods from one hour to one day, including leave which may be “e.g. a visit to a bank or solicitor” and offered more flexibility than is required by law. Maternity leave is in accordance with the legislation.

In this sample, industrial instruments did little more than conform to the minimum provisions of the Workplace Relations Act. There were no innovative work/care practices built into agreements such as homework, childcare provision or job sharing. Table III provides a summary of the leave provisions that exceeded those that had to be included in agreements. Overall, the industrial relations arrangements that were available in the public domain were not used as a medium for formalising work and care practices. Also, it was clear that there was very little interface between EEO reporting and policies, and industrial agreements.

A number of State Awards (for example Private Hospital Nurses Award State 2003, [Hospital] Enterprise Award State 2003) ensure that Private Hospital employees have access to the minimum standards laid out in the Family Leave Award (State) 2003 – that is, five days per year carer’s leave from the pool of personal leave and the option to work part-time when returning from maternity leave until the child’s second birthday. In addition, six weeks paid maternity leave is included. The Awards contain the clause “discussion should take place at each enterprise to provide more flexible working arrangements, improvement in the quality of working life” but there are no further guidelines on how this is to be undertaken.

V. Organisational Policies and Practices Access to information about organisational policies was obtained by asking the HR Manager in each organisation to outline the organisation’s polices in regard to equal employment opportunity in general, and in particular to the way those policies, and the practices that followed from them, fostered or militated against women employees’ ability to strike a reasonable balance between work and family. Not surprisingly, there was a wide variation among the organisations, both in the policies themselves and in the way they were interpreted, but the tension between work and family, especially in terms of time management, was recognised everywhere. When asked about work-life balance or work and family balance, HR managers almost always saw this in terms of temporal flexibility, such as part-time work,

Leisurewear’s EA applies only to clerical and warehouse staff and a federal award applies to retail workers. Here, sick and carers’ leave are pooled but increase with length of service. In common with other awards, there is no paid parental leave but employees may take one year unpaid leave and return to work on a part-time basis until the child reaches school age. Most employees of Leisurewear have individual contracts that are not available for scrutiny. ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

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Work and Sept Stability through Equal Occupation Opportunity Platforms and Accord Making in India gradual return from maternity leave, variations in starting and finishing times, and in access to short periods of leave at short notice to deal with a sick child or family emergency.

Two companies had formal policies for employees, including new mothers, who wanted to work from home. These policies included attention to network links and occupational health and safety in the home environment. The right to return to work on a part-time basis after the birth of a child was included in some organisational policies. At a less formal level, the policies concerning maternity leave were supported by particular HR practices such as keeping in touch with women on leave, inviting them to visit the workplace, and continuing some worker benefits (in one case, occasional movie tickets).

Formal policies regarding recruitment, maternity and carer’s leave, job sharing, part-time work, pregnancy and breast feeding were contained in written documents such as HR manuals or staff handbooks, and in half the companies were available to (most) employees via the company intranet. On the whole, they echoed the statutory rights of employees or those contained in the relevant Award or Agreement and were concerned with administrative and procedural matters.

Table III Leave Provisions in Agreements Enterprises

Provision

Metal manufacture

none

Technology

Generous interpretation of personal leave

Private hospital

Six weeks paid maternity leave

Leisurewear

Extended period of part-time on return from maternity leave

Work facility

Extended period of part-time on return from maternity leave

Engineering manufacture

none

In several organisations flexibility around working hours was part of formal policies. For example, at Engineering Manufacture “most of the admin staff works from 8.30a.m. to 5.00 p.m. If an employee goes to their manager and says can I change my hours to be 9.00 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. to fit in with school or whatever, if that is acceptable to the manager, then that can be done” (HR manager, Engineering Manufacture). At Technology “things like being able to leave early on certain days, and grouping up your hours, having time in lieu” were in the forthcoming contract (HR manager, Technology). But just as often such arrangements are worked out informally between employees and their supervisors or co-workers. In one section at Leisurewear coordination was left to staff: “Reception is job shared, three ways.

We don’t have the flexibility that is offered in other industries”. Other HR managers accepted that helping to resolve work-life conflict was in the interests of both employer and employee. A lack of flexibility was recognised as contributing to absenteeism and high staff turnover: “Definitely, it affects workplace attendance, because if people’s childcare falls through, something has got to happen” (HR manager, Engineering Manufacture). Faced with a tight labour market, recruitment and retention were important factors in the health sector organisation: “There is quite a bit of flexibility in our work environment, we bend over backwards to accommodate people rostering needs and we have paid maternity leave” (HR manager, Hospital). At the Recreation Facility, “the working conditions are fairly flexible to suit the different needs of different people and particularly because a lot of our casuals were females” (HR Coordinator, Recreation Facility).

The HR managers considered that they did all they could within the constraints of the business to provide the sort of flexibility that women needed to fulfil their dual roles as worker and family member. This willingness to be adaptable was particularly the case if the organisation faced a tight labour market. One HR manager in a smaller organisation was working towards changing company policy because “the thing that keeps coming back is we are not perceived to be family-friendly.

The resources available and the need to serve the needs of the business governed the HR managers’ input into finding an acceptable level of work and family balance for women employees. As an example, the lack of adequate childcare was repeatedly raised as a source of difficulty for employees, but none of the organisations was actively seeking to resolve this. 15


R.V. Palanivel using combined sick leave and personal leave entitlements. Technology and Leisurewear employees were able to take time off for personal reasons but were expected to make up the time and meet deadlines. One manager described the situation of a mother of a three -year-old: She’s full-time but if he’s got green snot in his nose he’s not allowed to go to day care. So, I’ll let her go until she can get her father to look after him, mid-morning, or whatever, and we make that time up. We just try and be really flexible with that (Supply chain manager, Leisurewear).

At Technology, the demand of long and sometimes unsocial hours was accepted as making work-life balance difficult but was part of the job role and not always seen as negative: “Most people who are doing assignments and things this is what they want to do. It is part of their role . (HR manager, Technology). A.Women Employees The women in this study did not question their dual roles as paid employees and key family members (see Pocock, 2005); they regarded both roles as important. Generally, women who were mothers or carers were content with their working arrangements as long as they were able, and felt permitted, to take time out occasionally to fulfil other commitments for themselves or their families. Including those working parttime and as casual (temporary) employees, they value their work and happily accept their responsibility and commitment to the enterprise that engages them, while also taking on significant family responsibilities. While several interviewees voiced the opinion that they were willing to forgo promotion for the time being to spend more time and energy with family, this preference did mean they were not committed to the job they were doing or would not, in the longer term, seek more training or career progression. The case studies confirm that for these women, commitment to the paid workforce is ongoing but uneven in terms of the time commitment they can give paid work at some points in their lives.

There was little flexibility in leave arrangements at Engineering Manufacture however, and personal leave was extended at the minimum rate. One woman, clearly anxious and unhappy about her situation said, “I have a one year old, so in the past year, he has been sick quite often. I have used my five days plus, so I have to take leave without pay. I know that I have used everything” (Employee, Engineering Manufacture). Access to part-time work Women said that they valued the opportunity to work part-time, and to switch between full-time and part-time work and this opportunity was available in most workplaces. While one workplace (Engineering Manufacture) offered rigid hours and conditions with no access to part-time work or extended maternity leave elsewhere, women related to the experience of moving between full time and part time work as a source of satisfaction in their working lives. I came back two days-a-week when they were five months and then three days-a-week when they were one year. And then four days a week when they were about eighteen months, then full-time when they were two. So, I had a staggered increase, which was fabulous (Mother of twins, Metal Manufacture). I was on maternity leave when I was here but only for a few months. Then I did part-time for twelve months but the last few years I changed down to a four-day week doing school hours only. Then I increased it doing a project for the next 12 months, so I am back here fulltime, at the moment (Clerical worker, Metals Manufacture). Flexible working-time arrangements and control over hours worked. Most women in these organisations had access to a degree of flexibility in the hours and times they worked but this flexibility depended on business demands and the nature of their work. Some women chose to undertake casual work in order to maximize their control over working arrangements. In some organisations short or irregular shifts at peak periods suited the needs of the employer and the employee, for example at Recreation Facility and Leisurewear, where

Did women at all levels of the case study organisations want the things identified as part of the work and family agenda discussed above? The interviews with women employees confirmed that women prize most of all the ability to balance their paid work with obligations to family and community. Carer’s leave, access to part-time work and flexible hours (discussed below) were all very important in maintaining their attachment to paid work. However, there was one issue of critical importance that no organisation had tackled. Mothers in every organisation considered obtaining suitable childcare as a source of stress in balancing work and family needs. Some of the key issues are discussed below. Special leave and career breaks. These arrangements were achieved at most organisations through a mix of formal policies and informal arrangements made at the local department level. Typically, leave came at the cost of personal sick leave as the two types of leave were bundled together. Employees at Recreation Facility, faced with a family emergency, felt they could take leave at short notice ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

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Work and Sept Stability through Equal Occupation Opportunity Platforms and Accord Making in India seasonal and even daily demand varied. Elsewhere, skilled workers were in short supply and temporary workers could fill the inevitable gaps. When one HR manager explained that some employees “are up early in the morning to speak to the US and they are up late at night to speak to UK or whatever, so the hours are not always set and they are actually quite flexible” (HR manager, Technology) it is clearly the interests of the business that come first. At the Hospital, managers said that they went to a great deal of effort to make rosters suit individuals’ personal and family needs. One nurse manager said:

with fairness and respect in that they are not subject to discrimination or harassment in the workplace” (EOWA, 2007b), yet this Agency does not in itself guarantee women a balance between work-and family, which is not part of the EEO reporting mechanism. Work and family reconciliation is not generally or universally addressed in the industrial agreements applying in these cases and in the end do little more than restate the standards in the legislation. Some agreements in this study provided superior conditions in terms of choice and accessing leave arrangements, yet no agreement addressed childcare issues.

Work life balance is always an issue particularly when one is doing rostering. That’s something you have to take into account and it’s all the more these days because nursing is at a premium, the nurses are at a premium. To maintain your staff and to retain your staff you have to be very flexible and you have to take into account their family life – their children, if they are carers. I do that all the time (Nurse Manager, Hospital).

Within organisations, formal HR policies and practices varied but were not unsympathetic to the dual pressures on their female employees. Outside of formal mechanisms it appeared that informal processes and supporting mechanisms within the direct work area were the main means for negotiating work and family balance in some of the case study organisations. Within these organisations, the application of EEO work and family policies and practices was pragmatic and dependent on labour market forces and the influence of HR managers on overall policy. An understanding that employees’ needs and interests change over the life cycle (Leisurewear, Hospital), or a more prosaic need to fill the vacancies and retain skilled workers in a tight labour market or particular geographic location (Hospital, Technology, Metals Manufacture) were also important. Swapping shifts or “filling in” for a co-worker were ways in which reciprocal obligations were undertaken and resolved for some women. Other research indicates that informal arrangements such as sharing or swapping shifts in order to juggle work and family involves considerable time and potential stress to workers (Morehead, 2003).

B. Nurses Appreciated but also Expected this Kind of Control Over their Working Lives On the ward where I work we’ve got a mixture of fourhour, six-hour, eight-hour, 12-hour shifts. Most of our night shifts are a 12-hour night. Some of them [nurses] only want to do say four hours-a-day. They want to pick the kids up in the afternoon or whatever (Nurse, Hospital). It was apparent that individuals made informal arrangements with co-workers, such as “swapping” a few hours, a shift or part of a shift to fit in with out-of-work responsibilities, or where childcare had to be rearranged at short notice. At Leisurewear the reception staff jobshared and determined their own roster. At Engineering Manufacture, it was the lack of “room to move” (Morehead, 2003) that most angered women employees: “My daughter is getting her School Certificate on Friday and I have to take annual leave to be there” (administrative officer, Engineering Manufacture).

The findings from the research suggest that having an organisational EEO programme and workplace agreement is no guarantee that work and family measures will be introduced at the workplace. Legislated minimum standards that protect workers against overt discrimination and harassment effectively motivate companies, but only in establishing a floor. In 2004 Indian legislation already contained few minimum safeguards and hence conditions were inconsistent between organisations and even within them. Neither the industrial agreements accessed, nor the reports to EOWA offered more than token acknowledgement of work and family issues. Some organisations embrace more elaborate or sophisticated ways of enticing workers or retaining them. This difference is largely in response to labour market forces,

VI. Conclusions Legislation protects individuals from overt discrimination, and managers in the organisations studied had a firm understanding of the consequences of discrimination and unfair dismissal, and were diligent in complying with the law in each of the workplaces. The EOWA characterises equal opportunity as ensuring that “all employees are treated 17


R.V. Palanivel In terms of advancing the policy agenda for work and family in India, the research suggests a number of points. First, without clear legislative instructions and requirements that are built into EEO programmes and the minimum conditions for workplace agreements, it is likely that a voluntarist regime will tend to gravitate towards the minimum. This outcome was apparent from the review of the industrial agreements. As a result, prescribing and setting the minimum is important. Secondly, negotiating to balance individual work and care demands becomes dependent on the goodwill of managers and the economic circumstances of workplaces. Such a regime will lead to uneven access. Third, government can support work and family reconciliation through supporting programmes and policies that apply to all workers and are independent of workplace size or profitability. This approach would include funding childcare places and providing for funded maternity leave.

such as a shortage of workers with the appropriate skills or the costs to business of losing highly trained personnel, which are important determinants of workplace policies and practices. While the reporting process raises awareness of the issues and empowers HR managers to be pro-active in developing programmes that assist in balancing work and family, this function is not the specific intention of the Agency and these programmes are revealed only indirectly in the reporting process. Neither do industrial agreements involving trade union negotiations appear to have a large impact on women’s working lives in these organisations. Frequently, access to arrangements which reduce the work-life tension for women with caring responsibilities is provided in an ad hoc or informal way, or is negotiated outside both statutory obligations and union-negotiated agreements. Much is left to the Work and family balance discretion of the HR practices of the organisations and the individual line manager. The findings from the case studies accord with earlier research on EEO programmes and workplace agreements that found that these mechanisms did not in the main facilitate family-friendly workplace arrangements (Campbell and Charlesworth, 2004; Whitehouse and Zetlin, 1999). Workplace culture and support is important in ensuring women have, and feel that they have, access to such programmes as exist (Eaton, 2003). Informal procedures and arrangements at the workplace were extensive and reportedly useful. Exchanges in hours or shifts worked were accepted as mutually beneficially to women, particularly at hospital.

Finally, the shift in India towards individual bargaining and fewer base conditions associated with the 2006 Work Choices legislation will enhance managerial prerogative (Sappey et al., 2006) at the workplace and lead to a greater dependence on informal arrangements for reconciling work and family. References [1] ACTU Work and Family Test Case 2004, ACTU Outline of Contentions, available at:actu Outline of Contentions/pdf (accessed April 2006) 2004. [2]

The HR managers were mindful of the business case for good practice, particularly where labour or skill shortage prevailed or where employees had been highly trained or proved themselves effective in a particular role. They also supported an approach that was in accord with the regulatory approach. The EEO and workplace bargaining regime are both very dependent on the “business case” for familyfriendly employment measures, one which is supported by government and its agencies (for example (EOWA) but is in tension with other ideas based on arguments about equity and social justice (ACTU, 2005). In turn, such measures are unevenly distributed within and across workplaces (Gray and Tudball, 2002), and development and implementation becomes dependent upon managerial prerogative. While businesses may deploy “flexible” employment arrangements these are not necessarily compatible with integrating work and family responsibilities. ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

ACTU Workchoices: Family Impact Statement, available at: www. actu.asn.au/public/papers/workchoices family impact-statement (accessed April 2006) 2005.

[3] Indian Government Workchoices, available at www.workchoices. gov.au (accessedApril 2006) 2005.

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[4]

C. Bacchi, The Politics of Affirmative Action, Sage, London, 1996.

[5]

E. A. Bardoel, P. Thoreau and D. Ristov, “The changing composition of the Indian workforce relevant to work-family issues,” International Human Resources Issues, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 58-80, 2000.

[6]

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[18] A. Morehead, “Managing flexible working time arrangements: negotiations between mothers and managers in a Canberra hospital,” Labour and Industry, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 95-106, 2003. [19] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Babies and Bosses: Reconciling Work and Family Life, OECD Publishing, Paris. B. Pocock, Vol. 1, 2002.

[10] J. Burgess, G. Strachan and L. Henderson, “Equal opportunity for women: workplace policies and programs: case study analysis,” Working paper 13, Employment Studies Centre, University of Newcastle, 2005b.

[20] “The effect of long hours on family and community life,” ACTU Policy Background Paper, Melbourne, available at www.actu.asn.au/ papers/pocock lit (accessed May 2006).

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[21] B. Pocock, The Work/Life Collision, Federation Press, Sydney, 2003. [22] B. Pocock, “Work-care regimes: institutions, culture and behaviour and the Indian case,” Gender, Work and Organisation, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 32-49, 2005.

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[23] Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 497-518.

[13] EOWA (Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency) Developing a Workplace Program, available at: www.eeo.gov.au/ Developing A Workplace Program.asp (accessed February 2007) 2007a.

[24] K. Punch, Introduction to Social Research Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, 2nd ed., Sage, London, 2005. [25] G. Russell and L. Bowman, “Work and Family: Current Thinking, Research and Practice, Macquarie Research Limited for Department of Family and Community Services,” Canberra, 2000.

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[16] H. Glezer and I. Wolcott, Work and Family Values, Preferences and Practice, Indian Family Briefing 4, Indian Institute of Family Studies, Melbourne, 1998. [17] J. Howard and The Right Hon,“Workplace relations reform: the next logical step,” Address to the Sydney Institute, Sydney, available at: www.pm.gov.au/news/speeches/speech1455.html (accessed April 2006) 2005.

[28] L. Houston,“Equity or exclusion? A case study of the workplace bargaining process,” Journal of Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 127-37, 1996. [29] L. Thornthwaite, “Working time and work-family balance: a review of employees preferences,” Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 166-83, 2002.

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Exploring Knowledge about Breast Self- Examination among Middle-Aged Women in Aswan, Egypt (Upper Egypt) Fauziya Ali1, Hanan Hussanien2, Salma Amin Rattani3 and Nadia Abedallah4 Aga Khan University School of Nursing & Midwifery, Karachi, Pakistan 2 Edfu Technical High School of Nursing, Aswan, Egypt 3 General Nursing Diploma Programme, Aga Khan University School of Nursing & Midwifery, Karachi, Pakistan 4 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecological Nursing, Faculty of Nursing (FoN), South Valley University, Aswan, Egypt E-mail: [email protected] (Received on 12 August 2012 and accepted on 20 October 2012)

I. Introduction

Abstract – Breast cancer is a major killer disease among women and an overwhelming number of women have fallen victim to

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death among women, worldwide (44). Though the cause is unknown there are risk factors that are closely linked to the development and progression of breast cancer. The diseased is classified into four stages. Stage 1of disease involves development of primarily small tumors (less than or equal to 2 cm) with no known lymph node involvement and no metastases to other organs. Stage 2 is characterized by either a slightly larger primary tumor than stage one (between two and five cm) or the involvement of lymph node. Stage 3 consists of large tumors (greater than five cm) with signs of inflammatory breast cancer. “ipsilateral nodes” may get involved, and the disease may get spread to other structures. A high percentage of women present themselves at this stage, where treatment options are limited. In stage 4 is generally considered as incurable and the cancer usually spreads to lungs, liver, bone, or brain [39].

this deadly disease worldwide as well as in Egypt. Thus, early detection of breast cancer is crucial to decreasing the morbidity and mortality of breast cancer. This qualitative, exploratory descriptive study aimed to understand the perceptions of Egyptian middle aged women about breast self-examination (BSE). The study was conducted in two rural areas in Aswan, Egypt, using the purposive sampling technique; twelve (12) middle aged women were selected as the study participants. Data was collected through semi-structured face to face interviews using an interview guide and an audiotape recorder. The interview was in the Arabic language. The qualitative content analysis (Unrau & Coleman, 1997) using the manual method, was utilized as the analytical method to identify emerging Categories and themes. The Cognitive domain was identified as the main theme with three categories: knowledge about breast cancer, knowledge of breast self-examination and preventive measures for breast cancer. The overall findings revealed that middle-aged women living in the rural areas in

The magnitude of disease could be controlled through early detection and its treatment. Processes for early detection include breast self-examination (BSE), clinical breast examination, and mammography. The latter two require skilled practitioners, equipments and facility for care recipients. Particular to BSE, it is considered as inexpensive and not requiring additional resources of a woman using this modality. However, the women need to be knowledgeable about BSE. As patient education is an integral component of the nursing role a study was conducted to explore knowledge that women have about BSE. To limit the scope of the study, participants selected were women from Aswan which is in upper Egypt, where 41.23% of adult females are illiterate [20].

Upper Egypt lack knowledge about breast cancer and breast self- examination. In addition, they have a negative attitude towards BSE, thus the practice of BSE is very low, and in some cases, non- existent among women in Upper Egypt’s rural areas This study has implications for policy makers and other stake holders. Hence, it is recommended that accurate knowledge, support and service about breast cancer and BSE be provided in the region, to improve the practice of BSE as well as to decrease the mortality rate of breast cancer in Egypt. Keywords: Breast, Self-Examination, Rural areas in Aswan


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Exploring Knowledge about Breast Self- Examination among Middle-Aged Women in Aswan, Egypt (Upper Egypt) III. Findings A. Demographic Profile of the Participants

II. Methodology

Among the middle aged participants selected for the study, majority were between the age of 40-50- and upper secondary was the maximum level of the education of the participants. Pertaining to occupation and family structure, majority were housewives and the nuclear family structure was common amongst the participants. Detailed profile is presented in Table I.

Using qualitative research approach in-depth interviews of 12 middle aged women were audio recorded and observations of participants’ nonverbal communication documented through field notes. Participants’ demographic profile was analyzed through descriptive statistics. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and the data analysis was carried out manually, during which the researcher read the data over and over again in search of true meaning and deeper understanding. This careful reading of the interview data helped in obtaining a general sense of the situation, extract theme and categories.

B. Obstetric Profile of the Participants Majority of the participants reported that at the time of menarche their age was < 15 years. Only once participant reported being pregnant < 4 times, one was pregnant for > 8 times. Remaining carried pregnancies between 4-8 times. Similarly majority of the women had 3-8 children. Particular to family planning, participants were equally distributed in two groups; using various methods of family planning and not using any method of the family planing. Participants’ details are tabulated in Table II.

Following the ethical guidelines of the research, approval for the study was obtained from the Aswan Directorate of Health and from Ethics Reviw Committee of Aga Khan University. Individual informed consent was signed by the study participants.

Table I Demographic Profile of Participants

(n=12)

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Fauziya Ali, Hanan Hussanien, Salma Amin Rattani and Nadia Abedallah Table II Obstetric History Profile of Participants

However, there were a few who could not relate what breast cancer meant to them. As one of the participants said: I don’t know exactly what the meaning of breast cancer is but I have heard this term in by watching T.V.

Theme and Categories Upon analysis of the data, cognitive domain was one of the themes that emerged and under this theme various categories surfaced out. A diagrammatic view of the theme and its related categories is presented in figure 1.

Risk Factors for Breast Cancer With regard to risk factors, the participants shared four main risk factors: gender, age, marital status, and breast feeding.

Category 1: Knowledge about Breast cancer The study participants reported that through various sources they acquire knowledge about breast cancer. These sources include media, community, and the physician.

1. Gender: One of the participants said that both men and women could be at risk for breast cancer. However, the rest of the participants (11) said that only women are at risk for breast cancer.

Definition of Breast Cancer The participants defined breast cancer as ‘tumor’, ‘cyst’ and ‘small amount or lump in the breast’.

2. Age Group: Among those who identified age as a risk factor, three participants said that women in 30-35 age bracket are at the highest risk for breast cancer. One of the participants said that individuals aged 25 years are at high risk for breast cancer. Two of the participants said that those who are 40 and above are at the highest risk for breast cancer, and four of the participants said that there is no specific age for breast cancer and it could attack women at any age.

One of the participants said: Breast cancer is tumors that appear on the breast. When a woman feels then she should contact a doctor. The doctor will ask for tests to decide if the tumor is benign or malignant. Another participant said:Breast cancer is tumors that appear in the breast. The tumors could be the result of malfunctioning hormones that affected the breast.


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Exploring Knowledge about Breast Self- Examination among Middle-Aged Women in Aswan, Egypt (Upper Egypt) prevented by having large number of children. Thus these respondents thought that women having fewer children are at risk of developing the disease.

One of the participants said: Breast cancer is a female disease which attacks women over forty years old; and sometimes, even women under forty suffer from the disease. It is a bad disease which, if not treated timely, results in the removal of the whole breast.

Religious or Spiritual Aspect Five of the participants believed that the breast cancer could only be prevented if God wills. These respondents felt that if they trust on God then they could be saved from being harmed ever.

Having a different perspective one of the participants said: I know that breast cancer comes at any age. Another participant responded that: It always happens to married women who are older than 25 years and who have undergone childbirth.

Examination and Follow Up Three of the participants were of an opinion that through periodical health checkups they could be saved from having breast cancer.

3. Marital Status: Regarding marital status there were three opinions: Four of the participants said that married women are more at risk of getting breast cancer and four said that unmarried women are at risk, and the rest said that there is no relationship between breast cancer and individual’s marital status. Thus, according to the participants’ opinion, both single and married women could be diagnosed with breast cancer.

Category 3: Knowledge and Experience of Breast SelfExamination When asked about their knowledge of breast selfexamination (BSE), the immediate response received from three participants was “I don’t know”. Whereas the rest of the nine participants responded that they had heard about it (BSE) and their source of information was media, physicians, and community. However, these participants either had incomplete or had incorrect information.

4.Breast Feeding Practices: Four of the participants said that mothers who breast feed their babies are at a higher risk for breast cancer; in contrast four said that mothers who do not breast feed their babies are at a higher risk for breast cancer, and four said that breast feeding practices had no effect on the occurrence of breast cancer.

Breast Self-Examination Technique The participants’ responses regarding BSE technique were categorized into three categories

Category 2: Preventive Measures of Breast Cancer Regarding measures for prevention of breast cancer, various responses were received from the participants. These responses are sub-categorized and are presented succinctly.

1. Complete Ignorance Regarding BSE: Three participants were completely unaware about the term and the technique of breast self-examination. This analysis supported by of the quotes from the participant. She said: I don’t know what breast self-examination is and how it is done; if I knew it I would have done it.

Breast Feeding It appears that a good percentage of the participants perceived that breast cancer could be prevented through breast feeding. Participants rationalized that because breast feeding is the natural role of the breast.

2. Incomplete Information Regarding BSE: Seven participants shared the technique of breast self-examination and the steps needed for BSE. However, the information they had about the steps and techniques for BSE was incomplete.

Sharing her perspective one of the respondents said: I think that if a mother doesn’t breast feed her kids then the breast doesn’t perform the original function and this leads to diseases.

One of the participants said: Once a doctor told me that I should examine my breast while taking a shower by moving my palm over the breast. I should start from the bottom to the top and from side to side. If I felt anything, I should see a doctor to get it checked.

Large Number of Children Perceiving fertility as a mean to prevent breast cancer, two of the participants reported that this disease could be

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Fauziya Ali, Hanan Hussanien, Salma Amin Rattani and Nadia Abedallah 3. Incorrect Information Regarding BSE

Breast Self-Examiner

Three participants had incorrect information about BSE. This is reflected in a participant’s views which are as follows: I got the infromation from TV; it was that to examine my breast I will need to rub my breasts between my hands to feel if something is wrong. and then I must see a doctor. Breast self-examination is very useful but I don’t know how to do it.

Sharing their perspectives about who should perform the breast examination, ten participants reported physician and two responded that as it is self-examination so they should examine their breasts. Participants’ responses were as follows: Physicians should perform the BSE because they are the only ones who understand what I suffer from. In addition, physicians have the ability to practise BSE.

Frequency to Perform BSE None of the participants correctly responded about appropriate time to practise BSE, however about the frequency of breast examination, their responses varied from few days to few months.

The doctor must do the examination because she is the one who knows how to do it and diagnose cancer. I should do it if I feel pain. Once, I felt pain in my breast, I went to the clinic doctor, she examined me and gave me an ointment. I got better. Both the doctor and the person affected should perform the BSE, but the doctor knows better.

Fig. 1 Cognitive Domain, categories and subcategories that emerged from the interview data


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Exploring Knowledge about Breast Self- Examination among Middle-Aged Women in Aswan, Egypt (Upper Egypt) Category 1: Knowledge about Breast Cancer

IV. Discussion

The study revealed that middle aged Egyptian women defined breast cancer as a tumor or lump, in the breast. Another study enrolled 122 working women, from Lower Egypt (Cairo), to evaluate the effects of training programmes focusing on knowledge, attitudes, and practice regarding breast self-examination, the study reported that only 11% of the participants were knowledgeable about breast cancer and breast self-examination37. Likewise, another study, which enrolled 261 Iranian women with mean age, of 28 years, living in the city of Hamadan, reported that women had moderate knowledge about breast cancer32.Similarly, there are studies endorsing that women do not have enough knowledge about breast cancer and breast cancer screening 5,8,15,32,33, . Thus there is congruency between the findings of present study and the studies cited here.

Among all the participants (n=12), 50% were illiterate. Among the literate, upper secondary was the maximum education which was attained only by two participants, remaining were educated till secondary (three) or till primary (one participant) (Table I). These findings are supportive of the findings reported by UNICEF42, which estimated that (38%) of the females in Upper Egypt are literate. Among those who join the school, 800,000 girls are out of school between the ages of 6 and 15 and 600,000 are out of school between the age of 6 and 104. One of the reasons for dropping out from school is that in Upper Egypt families consider their daughters as their honor; and as soon as a girl’s’ menstrual cycle starts her marriage is planned. Therefore, between 13- 19 years of age most of the girls are married34. Similarly in present study, majority of the participants (10) married between the ages of fourteen to seventeen years, and the other two married at the age of twenty. Similar findings were reported in earlier studies19, 38. Therefore; as reported by the participants, by the age of 45, all of them achieved the status as grandmothers. Besides early marriage, in Upper Egypt, women are required to produce a large number of children27. Hence, in this study also a majority of the participants (92%) had 6- 8 children (Table II).

The present study also reported that the participants grouped the risk factors for breast cancer under four areas, i.e. gender, age, marital status, and breast feeding. With regard to gender, the study participants viewed only women at risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer. They justified their opinion by pointing out that the breast was an organ relevant to females only, not males. However, previous studies have reported that men and women both are at risk for breast cancer but, as compared to men, women are at a higher risk 23, 31, 43.

In the present study, under the theme ‘cognitive domain’ there are three main categories which are discussed succinctly. Ognitive Domain (knowing)

The study participants perceived that breast cancer is identified at certain age; their responses varied from participant to participant. There were few who did not consider age as a risk factor because they felt that breast cancer could occur at any age. However, 40 and above is considered as age in which individuals are at high risk for breast cancer3, 14,31,3741.

This domain contains learning skills predominantly related to thinking processes; processing information, constructing understanding, applying knowledge and solving problems”11. The sources of knowledge, as stated by women in their interviews, were media especially television, community, and lady doctors. Even though the internet is available in Egypt, people, especially those residing in rural areas are not familiar with it. Therefore, they are dependent on television as a source of their information and knowledge. This finding is in tune with the findings of other studies conducted in Egypt and other countries which indicated that media, community, internet, and health caregivers are the sources for women to acquire knowledge about breast cancer and breast selfexamination 1,2,37.

Pertaining to marital status as a contributing factor for breast cancer, the study participants voiced three opinions. The first was that married women are at a higher risk for breast cancer than unmarried women; the second opinion contradicted the first; and the third opinion was that there is no relation between marital status and occurrence of breast cancer. The participants arrived at these conclusions on the basis of their knowledge of their neighbors’ experiences with breast cancer. A direct relation between marital status and breast cancer is not reported in the literature, but there are studies reporting that the mother’s age (30 years or above) at the time of the delivery of the first child, small number 25


Fauziya Ali, Hanan Hussanien, Salma Amin Rattani and Nadia Abedallah “Allah” with His power can do anything and everything. Thus, the participants shared their religious beliefs that there is no need to perform breast self-examination because like any other diseases, breast cancer can be prevented only if Allah wishes to save you from that disease but if He does not wish to save you then you will not be protected. They justified this by quoting the “Quran” In the name of God the Merciful “And when I am ill, it is He who cures me”18. This perception in this study is similar to the findings of a number of studies, in which it is indicated that people believe that they get breast cancer by God’s will9, 25.

of children, or null parity are seen as risk factors for breast cancer13, 21, 22, 30. Relating breast feeding as one of the risk factors contributing to breast cancer, participants’ responses varied. Few perceived it as a cause, few reported it to be a preventive measure and a few felt that breast feeding does not have any relationship with breast cancer. However, earlier researches have reported that high estrogen level contributes to 80% of all the breast cancers. Thus in lactation, due to reduction in estrogen level, risk of breast cancer reduces 40. Similarly citing the findings from earlier studies 10, 24, it has been reported that “Breastfeeding for an extended period (at least a year) is associated with a decreased risk of both hormone receptorpositive and hormone receptor-negative breast cancer”28.

Category 3: Knowledge and Experience of breast SelfExamination Community and media were the main sources of information for the study participants. None of them received any teaching from the health care personnel. Among those who affirmed about practicing of the breast self-examination, majority of them were not regular nor did they know the correct technique of examination. Thus these findings were consistent with a number of previous studies which revealed that most women lacked knowledge about breast selfexamination therefore; among them the rate of practicing breast self-examination was low14, 31, 35, 37. However, there are studies which reported that women are knowledgeable yet they do not practice breast self-examination3, 6, 12, 16.

Category 2: Preventive Measures against Breast Cancer The participants reported that breast feeding, large number of children and regular health screenings are preventive measures for breast cancer. The participants reported that those who did not practice breast feeding were at a higher risk of getting breast cancer, as breast feeding has been closely associated with the preventive aspect of breast cancer. Having a large number of children was also reported by the participants as a preventive measure, and they also mentioned that practicing breast feeding several times played its role too. Participants reported that physical examination and follow up are also the measures for prevention of breast cancer. Findings of the studies reported earlier indicate that breast feeding 13, 21, 30 a healthy diet, weight control, avoidance of alcohol and hormonal supplement as preventive measures and breast self-examination, Mammogram, physical breast examination as measures for early detection of breast cancer 7,26,36 .

In addition, when the term breast self-examination was used, it seemed that a majority of participants had not heard about it previously and they related the word “examination” with lab tests. As a result, the majority of the participants stated that the physician (doctor) is the one who is responsible for doing breast self-examination. The participants could not get the clear meaning of the word “self”. Although the participants were interviewed in their local language ‘Arabic’, even then they could not relate to the word “self”. Additionally, they identified examination as something to be done by a physician (like other physical assessments, such as heart and lung examination). Therefore, the participants could not relate breast self-examination to something that is to be done by the individuals themselves. Thus they asserted that breast examination should be done by the physician (doctor). Furthermore, none of the participants could identify the proper time and the correct steps for breast self-examination. Thus, it was evident that the participants lacked knowledge about breast self-examination.

Having a different perspective a number of participants (42%) reported that nothing can prevent the disease from occurring unless “Allah” (God) wants it to be prevented. Their opinion reflected the religious beliefs that they uphold. The majority of the people who live in the rural areas are Muslims, who follow Islamic rules and recite the “Quran” regularly. According to the Quran: in the name of God the Merciful “Wherever ye are, death will find you out, even if ye are in towers built up strong and high if some good befalls them, they say, this is from God; but if evil, they say, this is from thee (O prophet). Say: all things are from God. But what hath come to these people that they fail to understand a single fact?”17. The participants therefore, believe that (God) ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

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Exploring Knowledge about Breast Self- Examination among Middle-Aged Women in Aswan, Egypt (Upper Egypt) V. Conclusion

[11] D. Davis, S. W. Beyerlein, C. Leise and D. A. Apple, Cognitive Domain. Retrieved on 10th June 2011, from http://cetl.matcmadison. edu/efgb/2/2_3_4.htm. 2004.

The findings from this study reveal that the middle-aged women living in the rural areas of Aswan, Egypt, have limited knowledge about breast cancer and breast self-examination. Whereas, through coordinated efforts of Health ministry, WHO, & other supportive agencies having knowledge and practicing breast self-examination, breast cancer could be detected early. Therefore, free education regarding breast self-examination should be provided to women. Additionally, affordable screening programmes, such as clinical breast examination by female doctors in the rural areas and mammography facilities should be made accessible to the community including women residing in rural areas.

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[37] N. Y. Seif and M. A. Aziz, “Effect of breast self-examination training program on knowledge, attitude and practice of a group of working women,” Journal of the Egyptian anticancer institute, Vol. 12, pp. 105-115, 2000.

[29] National Cancer Institute in Cairo (NCI). Breast cancer. Retrieved on 20th April, 2010, from 2006. http://seer.cancer.gov/ csr/1975_2006/results_merged/topic_prevalence.pdf

[38] D. Singerman and P. Amar, “Cairo cosmopolitan: politics, culture, and urban space in the new globalized Middle East,” Cairo, the American University in Cairo, 2006.

[30] B. Norsa’adah, B. Rusli, A. Imran, I. Naing and T. Winn, “Risk factors of breast cancer in women in Kelantan, Malaysia,” Singapore Medical Journal, Vol. 46, No. 12, pp. 698-705, 2005.

[39] S. E. Singletary, A. N. Atkinson, A. Hoque, N. Sneige, Sahin, and A. H. A. Fritsche, et al,” “Phase II clinical trial of N-(4-Hydroxyphenyl) retinamide and tamoxifen administration before definitive surgery for breast neoplasia,” Clinical Cancer Research, Vol. 8, No.9, pp. 2835-2842, 2002.

[31] S. Omar, H. Khaled, R. Gaafar, Zekry, R. S. Eissa and O. El-Khatib, “Breast cancer in Egypt: a review of disease presentation and detection strategies,” Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 448-463, 2003.

[40] P. Stephan, “Breastfeeding Helps Prevent Breast Cancer, Lowers Your Risk,” Retrieved on 4th September, from About.com: h t t p : / / breastcancer.about.com/od/riskfactorsindetail/a/breastfd_prevnt.htm 2012.

[32] P. Parsa and M. Kandiah, “Breast cancer knowledge, perception and breast self-examination practice among Iranian women,” The International Medical Journal, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 17-24, 2005.

[41] S. Tara, C. S. Agrawal and A. Agrawal, “Validating breast self examination as screening modalities for breast cancer in eastern region of Nepal: a population based study,” Kathmandu University Medical Journal (KUMJ), Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 89-93, 2008.

[33] B. Powe, E. Daniels, R. Finnine and A. Thompson, Perceptions about breast cancer among Iranian women. The International Medical Journal, Vol. 4, No.2, pp. 17-24, 2005.

[42] United Nations International Children’s Emergency Foundation (UNICEF). Children in six districts of Upper Egypt a situation analysis. Retrieved on 10thJune,2011,from http://www.unicef.org/ sitan/files/Children_in_six_districts_of_Up_Eg ypt.pdf, 2005.

[34] M. H. Qayed, Egypt: KAP study on reproductive health among adolescents and youth in Assiut governorate, Egypt. Retrieved th on 10 June, 2011, from http://www.fhi.org/NR/rdonlyres/ ehfv33os6s55nhiepl7ghmzplgpjdbhsuppnthjdibf f t i c p m q p s 3 t m rhdp5qstmbizapc255dil2k/egypt2s.pdf, 1998.

[43] R. Weir, P. Day and W. Ali, “Risk factors for breast cancer in women,” NZHTA Report, Vol. 10, No. 2, Retrieved in 10th June, 2011, from http://nzhta.chmeds.ac.nz/publications/breast_%20cancer07.pdf 2007.

[35] H. Sangchan, S. Tiansawad, S. Yimyam and T. Wonghongkul, “The development of a culturally sensitive educational programme to increase the perception, self- efficacy and practice of Thai Moslem women regarding breast self-examination (BSE),” Songkla Medical Journal, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 15-24, 2008.


[44] World Health Organization (WHO) Cancer. Retrieved on 20th April http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/. from 2010.

28

Assessment of the Need for Ergonomically Functional Relaxing Chair for Kitchen Related Standing Activities in Restaurants Tulika Khare and Promila Sharma

College of Home Science, GovindBallabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Udhamsinghnagar, Uttarakhand, India E-mail: [email protected] (Received on 15 August 2012 and accepted on 22 October 2012) Abstract – A restaurant worker, who works in the kitchen, doing

I. Introduction

the different activities in continuous standing posture and spent

The hotel, restaurant and catering sector covers a wide range of different Businesses, including hotels, pubs and restaurants, contract caterers in various industrial and commercial premises, fast-food, cafes and bistros. It plays an important role as a job creator in the service sector and in the economy as a whole in many states. The hotels and restaurant sector includes a range of tasks and jobs that pose different risks. The complexity of the sector makes it difficult to present an exhaustive view of the situation. Much attention goes towards working in kitchens. A common pain that related to this situation is Musculoskeletal Disorder (MSD). The pain is related to the damage or defect happen to any parts of the worker’s body especially the thoracic area which is at the back side body part of the worker. This could happen if the restaurant worker does not practice the right position during work. This pain can be a permanent pain if there is no action or research taken to help restaurant workers in increasing the level of comfort while working. Those actions can be summarized to be the change in the way of seating or in other words the design of chair used by the restaurant workers. Restaurant relaxing chair is one of important furniture design that cause people especially who are work in the restaurant feel uncomfortable after prolong stand. Each parts of chair should be designed properly so that it can have more ergonomics characteristics to ensure the user get a good posture. It also can assist the user to minimize fatigue and injury by fitting the chairs to the body size, strength and range of movement. Correct sitting and standing posture is an important factor for the prevention of musculoskeletal symptoms. Nowadays in the market there are many resources that can produce the restaurant relaxing chair in various shapes, sizes and types. According to the Vishwanathan(1991) a functionally designed restaurant kitchen is much more than merely a food storage and place for cooking, its main objective being to increase the work output with least utilization of the human resources. The restaurant kitchen must be designed as per the needs of the restaurant workers to reduce physiological

most of the time inside the buildings and therefore experiences the greatest amount of exposure while performing various activities is at greatest risk. They do the work which is very labor intensive. The workers working in the restaurants withstand the pressure, string of working for long hours, suffering from high blood pressure due to prolong standing posture, lifting heavy pots and kettles and working near hot ovens and grills. An occupational hazard includes slips and falls, cuts and burns. Restaurant relaxing chair is one of important furniture design that cause people especially who work in the restaurant feel uncomfortable after prolong stand. Each parts of chair should be designed properly so that it can have more ergonomics characteristics to ensure the user get a good posture. It also can assist the user to minimize fatigue and injury by fitting the chairs to the body size, strength and range of movement. Correct sitting and standing posture is an important factor for the prevention of musculoskeletal symptoms. Therefore, the study was undertaken to develop and design of ergonomically, functional and aesthetically relaxing chair for kitchen related standing activity. For the present study 120 workers from the four south Indian restaurant i.e. Sri Nidhisagar, Raaga the family restaurant, Tamarind and Inchara the family restaurant, Bangalore city Karnataka State. Research design used was descriptive cum experimental. Purposive sampling was used and data was gathered by interview method. The workers were mainly literate and aged from 25-40 years. The data further showed the existing condition of the restaurant workers were satisfactorily regarding the work environment. Besides this occupational risks were involved which can result in health hazards. Statistical analysis showed the significant difference in physiological cost of work and different activities such as preparation, cooking, serving and dishwashing performed by the restaurant workers. Keywords: Restaurant Workers, Relaxing chair, Occupational Hazards

29


Tulika Khare and Promila Sharma cost of work and fatigue to the minimum as well as which maintain a good working posture. A good working posture reduces the physiological cost of work to the minimum whereas, static muscular efforts and incorrect posture for longer duration during kitchen activities may cause tiredness and may increase the energy expenditure in proportion to the physical efforts involved, leading to irreparable damage to the body (Sangwan, et al. 2003).

Tamarind and Inchara the family restaurant, Bangalore city, Karnataka State. An exhaustive list of restaurant workers were taken from their respective departments, then from the list, 120 restaurant workers performing group of activities as preparation of food, cooking, serving and dish washing were selected. From each subcategory 20 workers were selected for the experimental data thus making 120 samples for survey and 20 samples for controlled group. The details of sampling design are presented in figure.Simple random sampling without replacement was used to select the study area and workers. Sample size was determined before the data collection. For the descriptive data the sample size of 120 was selected and 20 workers of the total sample were selected for experimental data. Descriptive data was collected personally by using the interview schedule method. Experimental data like moisture, temperature, light and noise was also taken while performing the different activities in restaurant kitchen. All the subjects volunteered for the study. They were informed about the study. The study protocol is presented in figure.

In the present study we evaluated the exposure of the restaurant workers in the kitchen related standing activities such as preparation, cooking, serving and dish washing. Four restaurants were purposively selected for the present study namely- Sri nidhisagar, Raaga the family restaurant, Tamarind and Inchara the family restaurant, Bangalore city, Karnataka State. Health effects of occupational exposure due to prolong standing posture in restaurant workers, including backache, muscles pain, pain in lower leg, pain in lower back, pain in joints, shoulders, high blood pressure, increased heart rate etc. II. Methodology

The assessment of the need for relaxing chair for kitchen related standing activities in restaurants were studies for one year among restaurant workers in for restaurants.

Four restaurants were purposively selected for the present study namely-Srinidhisagar, Raaga the family restaurant,

Fig. 1 Sampling Design


30

Assessment of the Need for Ergonomically Functional Relaxing Chair for Kitchen Related Standing Activities in Restaurants III. Results

includes table, chair and stool. Nearly 33% worker use stool, 17% used table and only 8% workers used chair to relax their body. It was found stool to relax their body, involved in the preparation activity. The workers who were involved in the same activity used to take the rest of 20 minutes. The TableI also showed that about 30% of the workers said that the relaxation during the work did not interfere with their work performance, majority of the workers were engaged in the preparation activity for the above response. It was also found that majority of the workers from the cooking activity needed some furniture and time to relax their body.

The workers who were working in the restaurant kitchen must withstand the pressure and stress of working for long hours, suffering from high blood pressure due to prolong standing posture, lifting heavy pots and kettles and working near hot ovens and grills. Occupational hazards involves slip and falls, cuts and burns so there is a need to take care of that kind of workers. The workers who are working in prolong standing posture needs relaxation for few minutes so that they can feel comfortable and make their work more efficient, faster and less fatiguing. The Table I envisaged that about 57% of the workers use some furniture to relax their body in which about 40% were involved in the preparation activity and rest of them were involved in dish washing activity. The furniture

Figure 1 showed the graphical representation of the workers on the basis of type of furniture used by the restaurant workers to relax their body fatigue from daily activities.

Table I Type of the Furniture Used by the Workers (N=120)

Value in parentheses indicate percentage

Fig. 2 Distribution of the workers on the basis of type of furniture

31


Tulika Khare and Promila Sharma III. Summary and Conclusion It was observed through the whole study that the workers were adopting absolutely wrong working posture which caused a various kind of pain in back, joints, shoulders, feet etc. some of the awkward postures are shown in the figures given below:

No provision for head support No provision for back support

No provision for hand support No provision for foot support

It was also observed that in order to avoid any kind of occupational injuries, risk and hazards there is a need to design and develop the relaxing chair for the restaurant workers who are engaged in the kitchen with continuous standing posture. References [1] V. Sangwan, R. Sharma and D. singh, “Evaluation of Kitchen work centers and structures in households. Proceedings of international congress on humanizing work and work environment, Bombay, pp. 1114, Ed IIT Bombay, December 2001. [2] R. Vishwanathan, The kitchen special, Inside outside, Vol. 81, pp. 102121, 1991.


32

Call Centre Professionals as Information Professionals Emphasizing Contemporary Scenario Prantosh Kr. Pau1l, Roheet Bhatnagar 2, K S Shivraj 3 and Minakshi Ghosh 4 1

FBAS, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Howrah, West Bengal, India 2 Manipal University, Jaipur, India 3 EBET Group of Institutions, Tamil Nadu, India, 4 FBAS, BESU, Shibpur, Howrah,West Bengal, India E-mail: [email protected] (Received on 17 August 2012 and accepted on 25 October 2012)

Abstract –Call centre is an important name in modern days. The

techniques are consider as important techniques for the betterment of call centre professionals.

first call centre was started in 1908 at United States of America. Call centre’s today forms an important part of all most all type

II. Objectives

of business and organization. However the concept and role of call centre is equally important to the non profit making

The main aim and objective of this study is includes:-

organization due to customer or user satisfaction. Call centre is mainly responsible for out sourcing. Many a times this is

1. To know about the call centre and call centre professionals;

not possible to customer assistance or information services at

2. Information professionals and similarities with call centre professionals;

the institution or campus; thus the concept of call centre was emerged where a call centre (may or may not) basically act as

3. To find out the main challenges and issues of call centre;

coordinator. India is booming in outsourcing field for most of the aspect of call centre including their role, call centre personnel,

4. To learn about the main solution of the call centre professionals.

the technique adopted for works and especially the main

III. Call CentreAnd ITS Professionals

western countries for several reasons. This paper describes some

challenges and issues related to call centre professionals. This

Call centre is an office or hub which is responsible for various kinds of customer centric activities. Call centre indirectly also may called as information centre; as each call centre basically deals with specific kind of information of the respective company or organization [5]. The call centre may be established for providing specific customer query or information at their own efforts or by outsourcing through other organization who are totally dedicated called as customer care centre. The person who provides information as per requirement of the user called as customer supporting Call Centre Professionals; job while the professionals deals with computing and supporting job is called technical professionals. Call centers virtually a information centre and technology depended assistance centre [12].

Paper also highlights the probable solution for this. Information professionals traditionally treated as Librarian, Reference inCharge, documentation officer; however apart from them call centre professionals are also an information professionals but discussion on information professionals still very minimum. Keywords: Call centre, Customer care, Stress Management, information professionals, Functional Professionals, Technical Professionals, Computer Professionals

I. Introduction The call centre were stated in 1908 after the invention of sell advertisement in a telephone booth (Norman) and today comes to a most promising business field. Technology and manpower; both are the important part of call centre. The professional who are works in the call centre called call centre professionals; with various kind of job designation ranging from CEO, Coustomer care Executive -[2], joint leader, team expert, system analyst, data analyst and so on. Indirectly, all these professionals may be categories as the information professionals. The duty and responsibility of call centre professionals are most challenging issue. Stress management, strategic management, data clustering

IV. Information Professionals Information professionals are the professionals; dedicated to Information activities; ranging from collection, selection, organization and management and ultimately dissemination. Information professionals are including system professional’s web administrator, information manager, information officer,

33


Prantosh Kr. Paul, Roheet Bhatnagar, K S Shivraj and Minakshi Ghosh CIO, CTO, most discussed and known Documentation Officer, Reference Officer, cataloguer, Information Managers, Librarian and so on [4].

7. Languages are other challenges which is important to note, the customer may ask the question in any languages other than his/her mother tongue. So, the call centre professionals needs to accustom with languages (mainly foreign language);

Call Centre

Domestic (Works W rk Wo rks within with t in i country/ countr try/ states) sta t te t s) s

8. Security is another issue, as most of the outsourcing is being done by the foreign countries and the call centre professionals needs to work at ‘Night Shift’.

International

(Wo (Works W rk rks world l wide wide) de)

Fig. 1 Types of Call Centre

Call centre professionals are also indirectly fall under the category of information professionals; as they are also responsible for collect product or service oriented information and store in an organized manner with dissemination as per the requirement or question of user / customer. V. Call Centre Professional And Challenges The main challenges of the call centre professionals are as follows:1. The most important problem of a call centre professionals is time and shifting; they need to stay a long time and many a time at night shift. But, doing work at night with out sufficient rest and sleeping create the physical problems like- tiredness, obesity and other health related problems;

Fig. 2 The professional challenges of call centre workers

VI. PROPOSED SOLUTION/SUGGESTION The following proposed suggestion may be helpful to solve the problems and challenges related to call centre professionals:-

2. The extra night duty shifting also create mental problem and tiredness among the worker;

1. Use of exercise for the betterment of health;

3. Job creates of call centre the problem of poor interpersonal relationship and intensified customer interaction.

2. Yoga (preferably in house) is also helpful for the better health;

4. It also create the personal life problem including broken relationship ,poor relationship and even divorce and marriage broken due to heavy work pressure and limited personal time[6,11];

3. The call centre professionals needs to be up date regarding the English or other foreign language (as per assignment of his/her job) including pronunciation and spelling;

5. Call centre professionals are also face the problem of availing new job/s; as he/she always engaged in a particular job of customer assistance. Another reason is limited time to study and preparation for another job preparation;

4. Adequate sleeping is essential to keep body and mental ability fit; 5. Meeting and sharing with the friends, society and community is very essential during the off period [12];

6. It also hampers the personal education. The growing trend is most of the college learners doing call centre job depending upon their need or shift available; thus they are facing the problem of healthy education; ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

6. If one is in full time call centre job then she/he can go for the higher education; 7. Technical skills, as per the requirement and time need are essential. 34

Call Centre Professionals as Information Professionals Emphasizing Contemporary Scenario [7]

L. A. Witt, et al, “When Conscientiousness Isn’t Enough: Emotional Exhaustion and Performance Among Call Center Customer Service Representatives,” Journal of Management, Vol. 30 , No. 1, pp. 149– 160, 1996 (2004).

[8] Paul, Prantosh Kumar,Shyamsundar Bairagya, Bhusan Bhusan Sarangi ‘Expert System and Artificial Intelligence: its evolution and contemporary scenario with special reference to its uses in Information Science (IS). in IEEE/IETE/CSI Co-sponsored ‘Nationnal Conference on VLSI,Embedded System & Communication Technology’ Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,AVIT (AICTE-NBA-VMU approved) [9] Paul, Prantosh Kumar, Bhusan Bhusan Sarangi and Asok Kumar, “Information Systems and Networks (ISN): its types, components with special reference to utilization and role of Networking and Communication Technologies in ISN –Contemporary Scenario,” in IEEE/IETE/CSI Co-sponsored ‘Nationnal Conference on VLSI, Embedded System & Communication Technology’ Department of Electronica & Communication Engineering, AVIT (AICTE-NBAVMU approved) [10] Paul, Prantosh Kumar, Dipak Chaterjee and Bhaskar Karn, “Information Management: emphsizing traditional and technology focused approach – An Overview’ accepted in in IEEE/CSI/AICTE co sponsored National Conference on Paradigm shift in Education Technology & Content Management,DIT,Techno India (AICTE-NBA-WBUT approved) Paper published

Fig. 3 Requirement of continuous job satisfaction of the call centre

VII. Conclusion Call centre is one of the most important name in today’s information society [11]. The BPO and KPO industry is booming with the call centers. The private as well as the government organization; be it service providing institute or product selling need the assistance of call centre. The mobile customer care is the widely recognize and popular call centre concept in India. For modernizing the services it is essential to follow the latest tools and techniques for healthy BPO and KPO industry.

[11] Paul, Prantosh Kumar, Mrinal Kanti Ghose and Dipak Chaterjee, “Education Technology: its benefits and utilization with special reference to EduNxt, Knowledge Delivery Model of Sikkim Manipal University-A Study’ in IEEE/CSI/AICTE co sponsored National Conference on Paradigm shift in Education Technology & Content Management, DIT, Techno India (AICTE-NBA-WBUT approved) Paper published. [12] www.en.wikipedia.org/-

References [1]

[1] L. Venkata Subramaniam, “Call Centers of the Future,” (PDF) i.t. magazine, pp. 48–51. http://lvs004.googlepages.com/callcenters.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-29. (2008-02-01).

[2] Srinivasan, Raj et al., Talim, JéRome; Wang, Jinting, “Performance analysis of a call center with interactive voice response units,” TOP, Springer Berlin, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 91–110, doi:10.1007/BF02578926, 2004. [3]

“US Patent 7035699 - Qualified and targeted lead selection and delivery system,” Patent Storm, 2006-04-25. http://www.patentstorm.us/ patents/7035699/description.html. Retrieved 2008-05-29.

[4]

M. Popovic and V. Kovacevic, “An Approach to Internet-Based Virtual Call Center Implementation,” university of Novi Sad, Yugoslavia. http://www.springerlink.com/content/kapq5p85xnhrwe5b/.

[5]

S. David Joachim, “Computer Technology Opens a World of Work to Disabled People,” New York Times. http://www.nticentral.org/about/ articles/nnyt03012006.shtm.

[6]

Freeman, M. Laura Whitfield, C. Hilary “Setting up for integrated inbound/outbound telemarketing,” BNET. http://findarticles.com/p/ articles/mi_qa3700/is_199611/ai_n8743570. Retrieved 2008-06-05.

35


Digital Repositories for Sophisticated Information Management: Emphasizing Development of Digital Repositories in India Prantosh Kr. Pau1 l, R.Senthamarai 2 and K.S. Shivraj 3

1

FBAS, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Howrah, West Bengal, India 2 Computer Applications,AVIT, VM University, India 3 EBET Group of Institutions, Tamil Nadu, India E-mail: [email protected] (Received on 18 August 2012 and accepted on 28 October 2012)

Abstract–Digital repositories are the main practice of Information

3. To understand about the related organization of digital repositories;

Science. In simply manner digital repositories refers to the Archive holds digital content, information or object. Digital

4. To find out the latest and Government and research organization established digital repositories;

repositories to some extend related with Information Systems and Networks (ISN) but the main differences in between two

5. To learn the main Digital repositories and related foundation established by the private player;

are Digital Depositories are the internal form where as ISN are opposite of that. Digital repositories may be for institutional user or it may be used as knowledge dissemination systems to others.

6. To know the main issues and challenges of digital repositories in India;

This paper describes the aspects related with digital repositories like- digital repositories in characteristics, problems and so on.

7. To learn the main benefits of digital repositories;

The trends regarding open repositories are increasing day-byday.

8. To suggest the requisite depending upon identification and verification.

Keywords: Digital repositories, Information Management, Information Science, Knowledge Organisation,Digitalization ,India,Archives,Documentation,

Information

Systems,

Information Science-Practice, Virtualization

I. Introduction Digital repositories are the digital store room responsible for information, data, content and knowledge storage and dissemination. Digital repositories may be classified various way it is may be open or it may be closed. The digital repositories may be subject based or it may be based on institutional documentation archive restricted for only office use [13]. Digital repositories recently established and emerged as open Academic way rather than other. Open repositories of international and national level are provides wider knowledge access facility for knowledge seeker around the world. The open and free depositories are belongs to India however facing some challenges and issues [10].

Fig. 1 Digital Repositories and its types

III. Digital Repositories: Overview Digital repositories are the digital foundation responsible for information collection, selection, organization, dissemination is shown in figure 1. The Digital Repositories can store wide range of content in various forms and format. It is usually helpful for learning, teaching, research and other scholarly communication process of an organization. The movement of digital institutional repository started last decade with the initiative of institute of National Importance. According to the SPARC “An institutional repository is a digital repository is a digital archive of intellectual product created by faculty, research staff and students of an institution,

II. Objectives The main aim of this research work is as follows:1. To know about digital repositories; 2. To find out the latest characteristics about the digital repositories; ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

36

Digital Repositories for Sophisticated Information Management: Emphasizing Development of Digital Repositories in India 2. The Digital Repository may be based on Single subject or may be based on Multidisciplinary or in discipline wise;

with few of any barrier to access”. The nature of the digital depositary is shown in figure 2. The digital repository may be online or it may be on online system where user can get data from remote place.

3. The Digital repositories may be Private Institution or may be Government Institutions; 4. It can hold document in many format and forms; 5. The content may be presented short term or long term basis; 6. The digital repository supports mechanism to import, export, identify, store and retrieval of digital asset and content.

Fig. 2 Digital repositories nature

IV. Digital Repositories: Related Foundation There are so many foundation working or consider as equivalent to digital repositories are shown in figure 3. The digital archives also treated as digital repository normally stored old manuscript. Information systems are the information foundation responsible for information activities and connected with so many information centers [4, 12].

Fig. 3 Digital Repositories and formation

VI. Digital Repository Development in India The digital repositories in India develop during the last decade with the initiative of centrally funded research centre and institute of national importance [5]. The digital repositories in India may be classified as follows:

The ISN is another foundation where digital content, assets are stored and also can be search and retrieve depending upon need. Fundamentally as Johnson mention these repositories can be defined as: •

Institutionally defined;

•

Scholarly;

•

Cumulative and Perceptual;

•

Open and Interoperable.

• Digital repositories established by Institute of National Importance like IIT, IIM, IIIT, NIT, IIS, IISER and so on; • Digital Universities established and funded by Universities and Institutions;

The institution and Multinational companies both are using this system for better information practice.

• Digital Repositories established by Private Organization, institutions and Private Universities.

V. Characteristics Of Digital Repositories

Digital Repositories in India basically stored the Resources including abstract, full text, full thesis and so on. The University Grants Commission already initiated UGC Regulation, 2005 in which submission of metadata and full text of doctoral thesis is possible is explained in fig: 4. According to This regulation UGC consider two set

Digital Repository has following unique characteristics or benefits: 1. The Digital Repositories are may be online or offlinedepending upon nature; 37


Prantosh Kr. Pau1 , R.Senthamarai and K.S. Shivraj • DOAR- Directory of Open Access Repository;

of planned actions like- creation of Indian National thesis Database (INTED) and submission on electronic thesis. The UGC minimum regulation for the award of MPhil/PhD implements this plan.

• ROAR-Registry of Open Access Repository. As Biswas and Mukhopadhay reported that the growth rate of Registered Digital Repositories is around 20 in the year 2010. The fact is that in the year 2006 the maximum numbers of institutes are established of central and research category. While in the year 2010 many digital repositories are established private player and universities. The following Table I shows the eminent digital repositories at a glance. (Note- This category is only included the centrally funded repositories along with NIT’s,IIT’s,IIIT’s and other centrally funded institute.)

VII. Digital Repositories Established by Central and Research Institutions As far as central and research institution is concerned India has near about 300 academic and research foundation out of which near about 100 are having the digital repository and similar kind of facility. Out of these number only about 70 are registered with repository consortium like-

Fig. 4 Digital Repositories and proper ITC building


38

Digital Repositories for Sophisticated Information Management: Emphasizing Development of Digital Repositories in India Table I Some popular Information Networks in India

VIII. Digital Repositories Established by Private Players

Other hand universities considered in this category like• Centrally Funded University; • State Funded University;

The most emerging scenario of digital repositories is increasing trend of established of Digital Archive by the private player which including:-

• State Legislative but not funded universities; • Deemed Universities and so on.

• Private Engineering Colleges;

As far as this study we find out that most of the digital repositories in this field deals with Digital object like-Journal and Archive like-vidyanidhi Project of Mysore University, which is considered as Doctoral thesis repositories in India. The above chart (fig 5) gives an overview of this category.

• Private Management and Professional College; • Digital consortium by the indexing and publishing agency;

39


Prantosh Kr. Pau1 , R.Senthamarai and K.S. Shivraj

Fig. 5 Digital Repositories and proper ITC building

3. Most of the running digital repositories facing problem regarding finance and huge funding;

IX. Issues of Digital Repositories in India 1. The number of Digital Repositories is very minimum in India than that of its actual requirement;

4. Due to globalization many open source software are available in the market out of software available in the market out of which many are not suitable in the format;

2. Many Journals are published through out but not included in the digital index or archives [5,12];


5. Still problems are there in case of digitalization all most all type of thesis including MPhil/PhD/Post Doctoral ; 40

Digital Repositories for Sophisticated Information Management: Emphasizing Development of Digital Repositories in India References

6. In India many Digital Repositories are established around the subject but many of them are not registered with DOAJ or other e-consortium;

[1]

7. Availability of well skilled personnel is an important issue;

Bangalore Declaration: A National Open Access Policy for Developing Countries. Retrieved February 01, 2011 from http://www.ncsi.iisc. ernet.in/OAworkshop2006/pdfs/NationalOAPolicyDCs.pdf 2006.

[2]

Crow, Raym. The Case for Institutional Repositories: A SPARC Position Paper. Association of Research Libraries. Retrieved April, 2010 from http://www.arl.org/sparc/IR/ir.html.,2002.

[3]

Directory of Open Access Repository Home page of DOAR. Retrieved January 21 from http://www.opendoar.org/countrylist. php?cContinent=Asia, 2011.

8. Many organization still not interested for digitalization their documents for several reason; 9. Copy right and matter related with intellectual property Right is an emerging issue.

[4] R. K. Johnson, Institutional repositories: partnering with faculty to enhance scholarly communication. D-Lib Magazine, Vol. 8, No. 11, Retrieved April 21, 2010, from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/november02/ johnson/11johnson.html, 2002.

X. Finding

During this research work we find out the following facts

1. Digital repositories and similar Electronic foundations are in India established rapidly; 2. The largest and maximum digital repositories in India are established by the central academic and research centers;

[5]

Roy, Mukhopadhay and Biswas, “An Analytical Study of Institutional Digital Repositories in India,” Library philosophy and Practice, ISSN1522-0222, 2011

[6]

National Knowledge Commission Report of the Working Group on Open Access and Open Educational Resources. New Delhi: National Knowledge Commission. Retrieved January 05, 2011 from http:// knowledgecommission.gov.in/downloads/documents/wg_open_ course.pdf 2007.

3. The digital repositories facing financial problem in India; 4. Most of the digital repositories are established in the field of science and technology.

[7] Registry of Open Access Repositories Home page of ROAR. Retrieved January 21, 2011,from http://roar.eprints.org/index. php?action=search&query=india

XI. Suggestion 1. We need to established digital repositories for various kind of subject including humanities and social sciences; 2. It is better to hold the digital thesis of Masters degrees apart from Doctoral and Post doctoral; 3. Government as well as planning commission should take proper step regarding financial problems;

[8]

University Grants Commission UGC (Submission of Metadata and Fulltext of Doctoral Theses in Electronic Format) Regulations. Retrieved April 10, 2010 from www.ugc.ac.in/new_initiatives/etd_hb.pdf. 2005.

[9]

Paul, Prantosh Kumar, Dipak Chaterjee and Bhaskar Karn “Cloud Computing: beyond ordinary Information Transfer Cycle,” in National Conference on Computing and Systems, Dept of Computer Science, Burdwan University., Pp. 89-92, 15 March,2012.

[10] Paul, Prantosh Kumar, B. B. Sarangi, Bhaskar Karn, “Cloud Computing: emphasizing its Facet, Component and Green aspect with special reference to its utilization in the Information Hub,” in National Conference on Emerging Trends in Computer Application & Management,Faculty of Computer Application and Management, AVIT (AICTE-NBA Accredited Engineering College) Dated-24-02-12, 25-02-12. Paper published.

4. It is better to established free and open repositories for improving digital information infrastructure. XII. Conclusion

[11] Paul, Prantosh Kumar, Dipak Chaterjee and Bhaskar Karn, “Cloud Computing: emphasizing its possible roles and importance in Information Systems and Centers,” in IEM/IEEE sponsored international conference proceedings (IEMCON-12). Pp. 345-348.

Digital Repositories and similar foundations are the key mover for the societal development [13]. Digital repositories are the main responsible organization for the improvement of the over all information infrastructure. Connection with the information centers and apex information foundation like Information Networks, Information Systems is much better for Networked Information Services [11, 12]. India needs several digital repositories for making information rich country.

[12] Paul, Prantosh Kumar, Bibhuti Bhusan Bhusan Sarangi and Bhaskar Karn, “Information Systems & Networks :Emphasizing issues and challenges of subject based ISN” in IEEE / CSIR National Conference on Information and Software Engineering, AVIT, VMU, Vol. 9, No. 10 March. Pp. 154-158. [13] www.en.wikipedia.org

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Promoting Environmental Values through Science Process Skill Based Activities R.Ramnath and P.Sivakumar

Department of Education, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India. Department of Education, DDE, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] (Received on 20 August 2012 and accepted on 05 November 2012) Abstract – Apart from the knowledge and attitudes, there is

endeavour. The application of human intelligence in figuring out how the world works should have a prominent place in any curriculum that has science literacy as one of its aims. Ganguly (1978) identified the identified the process approach as one of the core element of the course and in order to fulfil the objectives of the course. A process approach can influence brain, heart and hand of the learners (Bhargave, P.M. 1977).

one more part of science i.e. science process skills. Children should not learn mear the concepts, should learn how to learn by thinking critically and using information creatively. Once the mind administered in the process in turn it yields automatically the product. In this context ,it has been analyzed that instead of the environmental values have been inculcating through school curricula in the form of knowledge, it must be

There are a number of ways of conceiving of the meaning of the “Processes of Science”. The first implied by the American Association for the advancement of science (John R, Mayar, 1962-68), in their programme Science A Process Approach (SAPA), is a corresponding de-emphasis on specific science “Content”. A second meaning of process, referred to by Gagne (1966) canters upon the idea that what is taught to children should resemble, what scientists do the “Processes” that they carry out in their own scientific activities. The third and perhaps most widely important meaning of process introduce the consideration of human intellectual development. From this point of view, processes are in a broad sense “Ways of processing information” such processing grows more complex as the individual develops from early childhood on ward. The individual capabilities that are developed may reasonably be called “Intellectual Skills”, or “Process”.

imparted through the compulsory activities as supplementary to the science subject by means of the process skills such as observing, classifying, communicating, measuring, estimating, reasoning,

predicting,

inferring,

identifying,

controlling

variables, defining operationally, hypothesizing, experimenting, graphing, interpreting, modelling and investigation as per the level of the students. The samples of 50 students of IX standard from Alagappa Model Higher Secondary school, Karaikudi were adapted to the present study by random sampling technique.

The single group design has been employed to

conduct an experiment with the above science process skills. The performance scale, questionnaire for environmental values and reaction scales were used as the tool for the present study, through the data also been collected. The results from analyzed data showed that there was an excellent realization of the values of students on environmental issues rather that their realization of values acquired through advance organiser. The science process skill based activities evident that it would help us to

The process of science includes scientific attitudes and methods of enquiry. The scientific attitude may be in the mode of emotional attitude and intellectual attitude. The methods of enquiry nothing but the process skills evolve in science learning. The learner’s scientific attitudes develop simultaneously with science process skill development.

inculcate the environmental values stronger, retain longer and ever. Keywords: Science Process Skill, Environmental Values, Advance Organizer, Curriculum

I. Introduction

II. Cram For The Study

Science as an enterprise has individual, social and institutional dimensions. It is fundamentally a means of understanding why things happen as they do. Man has found science as a process by which his search for answers to his ultimate questions can be approached systematically. In the way the study of science is an intellectual and social

When learner asked to do something compulsorily with in their capacity, it would be conditioned in him/her in future. The compulsory science process skill based activities on environmental education could be brought a sea change in the values of trainees and students. The Rainwater harvesting scheme made a great impact on every citizens of Tamilnadu


42

Promoting Environmental Values through Science Process Skill Based Activities Iv. Results

because of its compulsory programme nature. The NSS and NCC programmes enrolment by the students is for the sake of their marks or credits mainly rather than other purpose. The compulsory science process skill based activities may help them to realize the values of environmental education longer.

Hypothesis 1 There exist significant difference between the mean scores of students’ reaction to the Advance organiser and science process skill based activities.

The major objective of the study is to promote Environmental values through Science process skill based activities.

The Table I shows the difference between the mean scores of Advance organiser and process skill based activities in reaction scale of the total sample.

III. Methodology

The mean score of science process skill based activities is 25.24 and SD is 5.24 which are higher than the values of Advance Organiser. Since the calculated ‘t’ - value (18.21) is higher than the table value (1.96) at 0.01 level, it is inferred that there is significant difference between the reactions of the students to the advance organizer and science process skill based activities. Hence, the hypothesis framed by the investigators is accepted.

The single group experimental design was adapted to the present study.A sample of 50 IX standard students of Alagappa Model Higher Secondary School, Karaikudi were selected by adopting random sampling technique. The sample includes both boys and girls. Performance scale, Reaction scale and questionnaire of environmental values were the tools that administered in the present study to scale the process skills and willingness of the students respectively.

Hypothesis 2

Procedure

There exist significant difference between the performance of students in advance organiser and science process skill based activities.

The experimentation has been conducted for three weeks. The first week begins with the presentation of Advance organiser as suggested by Ausubel (1963). It is a hieratically organised set of ideas that provides anchors for the new information and ideas, as these are received, and that serves, as storehouse for ideas. The performance of the students and values are assessed at the end of advance organiser programme.

The performance of the students is higher through science process skill based activities than advance organiser in all the dimensions of performance except open mindedness. Hence, it is inferred that the science process skill based activities helped students to improve their performance in realising environmental values. Since there exist significant difference between advance organiser and science process skill based activities, the hypothesis framed by the investigators is accepted in all the dimensions except open mindedness.

Based on the Science Process skills a number of activities which triggers environmental values are developed. These activities may incorporate one or more science process skills. During the second phase the above developed activities are administered. For instance… filter the cigarette smoke, rubber (tyre) burning smoke and vehicle smoke on the white cotton cloth for observing and analysing. Collecting and comparing the soil from industrial and non-industrial (Agricultural) areas, and dry land and wet land, etc. The performance of the students and their values are assessed at the end of activities too. The difference between the values of both the advance organiser and the science process skill based activities is found based on the samples’ response to the reaction scale and performance scale is discussed below. The students’ values through questionnaire are also assessed and compared.

Hypothesis 3 There exist significant difference between the environmental values obtained by the students through advance organiser and science process skill based activities. Since there exist difference between the mean scores of advance organiser and Science Process Skill based activities in the environmental values of the students, it is inferred that the science process skill based activities enhanced environment values better than the advance organiser.

43


R.Ramnath and P.Sivakumar Table I Mean Score Of Reaction Scale of The Advance Organizer and Science Process Skill Based Activities

Significant at 0.01 Level. Table II Difference Between The Mean Scores of Students’ Values & Performance In Advance Organiser And Science Process Skill Based Activities

Significant at 0.01 Level. Table III Difference Between The Values of Students In The I Phase Test And Ii Phase Test

Significant At 0.01 Level.

Educational Implications

V. Findings Moreover, the finding indicates that the science process skill based activities excel than the advance organiser in promoting environmental values of the students. In each dimension, the values and performance of the students are more in the science process skill based activities except the dimension (i.e.) open-minded. The internalizing of the values among students was also easier through science process skill

The results of the present investigation have very significant value in the field of science education and potential value furthering our understanding of learning behaviour in science. Process approach in science education can be applied for the vitalization and improvement. This also has an implication on the curriculum development standard setting, vitalising instruction, class room teaching, development of resource materials, etc. ARSS - Vol.1 No.2 July-December 2012

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Promoting Environmental Values through Science Process Skill Based Activities based activities than advance organiser. Since, the values are inculcated through process skill based activities there may be possibilities to retain the values longer, even permanently.

[3]

N. Vidhya, “Science Teaching for 21st Century,” Deep & Deep publications, New Delhi, 1996.

[4]

Hall,” New Delhi, 1968.

VI.Conclusion

[5]

K. Sri Devi, “Constructivism in science Education,” DPH, New Delhi, pp.9-12, 2008.

Science process is not just useful in science, but in any situation that requires critical thinking. Science process skills include observing qualities, measuring quantities, sorting/classifying, inferring, predicting, experimenting, and communicating. In Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment, he has also emphasised the importance of the activities in retaining the things what learnt. The activity based learning helps for any habitual formation results into the values. Since the science process skill based activities applied in this present investigation possess all the above stated components it can be used to promote the environmental values of the students.

[6]

P. Sivakumar and R. Krishnaraj, “Information Processing Models of teaching theory & Research,” Neelkamal Publication, Hydrabad, pp. 79, 2005.

[7]

P. M. Bhargave, 1977 John R. Mayar, 1962-68 and Gagne (1966) are quoted by P. C. Bhatt, “Science Process skills in Teaching and Learning,” Common Wealth Publication, New Delhi, 2005. pp. 7-8. 1977

[8] R. Ramnath and P. Sivakumar, “Constructivism based learning strategy in enhancing the science process skills of the students of secondary schooling,” Research and Reflections of Education, Vol. 09, No. 02, pp. 8-21, June 2011. [9] P. Sivakumar and R. Ramnath, “Science process skills of the IX standard students: An evaluative study,” Endeavours in Education, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 70-76, June 2011. [10] R. Ramnath and P. Sivakumar, “Constructivism and skill based pedagogy in the Higher educational context,” Indian journal of Applied research, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 61-62, Dec. 2011.

References [1]

E. Van Glaser feld, “An introduction to Radical Constructivism,” Watzlanick (Ed) Newyork, pp. 173-177, 1984.

[2]

UNESCO, “Handbook of science Teachers,” U.K.Page Bros, pp.81-86, 1980.

[11] B. B. Ganguly, “Experience in developing instructional materials for integrated science curriculum, ” UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and Ocenta Publication, Bangkok, 1978.

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Asian Review of Social Sciences Volume 1 Number 2, July - December 2012

CONTENTS Civil War in Sierra Leone (West Africa) and the Role of International Community

01

and India in Peace Building M. Muslim Khan Work and Sept Stability through Equal Occupation Opportunity Platforms and

10

Accord Making in India R.V. Palanivel Exploring Knowledge about Breast Self- Examination among Middle-Aged Women in Aswan

20

Egypt (Upper Egypt) Fauziya Ali, Hanan Hussanien, Salma Amin Rattani and Nadia Abedallah Assessment of the Need for Ergonomically Functional Relaxi ng Chair for Kitchen

29

Related Standing Activities in Restaurants Tulika Khare and Promila Sharma Call Centre Professionals as Information Professionals Emphasizing Contemporary Scenario

33

Prantosh Kr. Pau1, Roheet Bhatnagar, K S Shivraj and Minakshi Ghosh Digital Repositories for Sophisticated Information Management: Emphasizing

36

Development of Digital Repositories in India Prantosh Kr. Paul, R.Senthamarai and K.S. Shivraj Promoting Environmental Valu es through Science Process Skill Based Activities

42

R.Ramnath and P.Sivakumar

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