Aspects of cultural heritage

ENHANCING COMPETITIVENESS OF V4 HISTORIC CITIES TO DEVELOP TOURISM

Aspects of cultural heritage

Enhancing competitiveness of V4 historic cities to develop tourism

Aspects of cultural heritage

Edited by:

Robert Faracik _________________________

Reviewed by:

Krzysztof Widawski

The project was financed and supported by the Standard Grant (no. 31210067) of the International Visegrad Fund.

Krakow–Debrecen, 2014

Project partners:

Jagiellonian University in Krakow (Poland)

University of Wrocław in Wrocław (Poland)

Palacký University in Olomouc (Czech Republic)

University of Presov in Presov (Slovakia)

Károly Róbert College in Gyöngyös (Hungary)

Edited by: ROBERT FARACIK Reviewed by: KRZYSZTOF WIDAWSKI

ISBN 978-615-5212-26-0

Kiadta a DIDAKT Kft., Debrecen Felelős kiadó: a DIDAKT Kft. ügyvezetője Nyomdai munkák: Center-Print Kft., Debrecen

University of Debrecen in Debrecen (Hungary)

Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. 7

Irina Blazhevich Ethnocultural potential as a factor in the increase of regions’ excursion attractiveness ............................................................................................................... 9

Zoltán Bujdosó, Lóránt Dávid, Veronika Major-Kathi, Csaba Szűcs The Roman Danube Limes as a possible thematic route and cultural heritage attraction .............................................................................................................................................. 25

Małgorzata Durydiwka Cultural heritage and its diversification in spa towns in Poland ............................... 37

Gábor Kozma, Klára Czimre Role of historical elements in the slogans and logos used by Hungarian places in tourism promotion .............................................................. 63

Krzysztof Kołodziejczyk Industrial and technical heritage of Wrocław – wasted potential? .......................... 73

Magdalena Kubal, Robert Pawlusiński Small towns in the Polish Carpathians – the coexistence of heritage and tourism ......................................................................................................................................... 91

Wojciech Kurda, Katarzyna Pukowiec Historical and morphological determinants of the cities in Lower Silesia .......... 113

Elena Matei, Daniela Nicolaie Cultural heritage of the Romanian historical cities and the perspectives of sustainable tourism development in the early 21st century .................................... 125

Kvetoslava Matlovičová, Jana Kolesárová, René Matlovič The use and stimulation of culinary tourism in learning about local and regional cultural peculiarities and historical heritage ........................................... 141

Aneta Pawłowska Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie as places of development of creative industries in tourism and culture sector in Kraków ........................................................ 165

Marcin Popiel The growing challenge of accessibility for disabled people in selected historical European cities ..................................................................................... 181

Elżbieta Stach Military and historical cultural heritage and its development for the tourism and recreation purposes exemplified by the Cracow Fortress..................................... 199

FOREWORD __________________________

A growing interest in historical and cultural heritage has recently also been observed in number of tourism studies and research. The interest in historic urban complexes is increasing among tourists; this also broadens the meaning of the term "a historic city". The concept of cultural heritage includes today, in addition to the traditional places of interest, also those previously often overlooked sights like the industrial heritage. The V4 countries (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary) are characterized by rich historical tradition, with many common roots. The centuriesold common social and economic relations contributed to the expansion of scientific and cultural ties. Many well-known historical figures tie together the history and culture of many of the countries in the region. The role of cities in this regard is special; they held, over centuries, various functions and become a "treasure trove" of historical, aesthetic, and other values. Other countries of Central and Eastern Europe – in a broad sense also possess heritage directly associated with the history of the V4 group. The post-war legacy is extremely important as it shaped the character of the relationship between the people of this region to the history and heritage. From a current perspective the post-war period helps to nuance specific problems of the modern, free-market management of the regional heritage. This volume contains 12 chapters examining the broad concept of historical urban heritage and its applicability in tourism studies. Subjects discussed include i.a. issues related to archaeological, industrial, military and the spa heritage. This volume includes also two examples from countries outside of the Visegrad Group (Romania and Belarus), which, due to the direct historical context, constitute an important comparative reference for managing heritage and tourism in the V4 countries.

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Ethnocultural potential as a factor in the increase of regions’ excursion attractiveness __________________________ Irina Blazhevich1

Introduction Due to its national structure Belarus is a multinational country. According to the population census of 2009, among 9 504 000 population Byelorussians account for 84 % (ethnic majority) and the ethnic minority of RB constitutes 16 % including more than 140 nationalities. The largest ethnic groups of RB are: Russians – (785 100), Poles (294 500), Ukrainians (158 000), Jews (12 900), Armenians (8 500), Tatars (7 300), Gipsies (7 100), Azerbaijanis (5 600), Lithuanians (5 100) and Moldavians (3 500); other groups consist of less than 3 000 people each. There are about 180 public organisations of national communities for the support of ethnic minorities of RB, representing 26 nationalities (Osipov 2012). The first records of ethnic groups on the Belarussian land are the following: in the 15th and 16th centuries Russians started their migration, the greatest number moved to Belarus after the October revolution in 1917; Poles appeared here in the 12th century; Ukrainians in the 18th and 19th centuries; the first communities of Jews were recorded at the end of the 14th century in Brest and Grodno; Armenians started to migrate after the Great Patriotic War; Tatars appeared on the terrain of Belarus at the beginning of the 14th century; Gypsies begun to migrate from Poland and Germany in the 15th century ; Azerbaijanis 1

Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland, [email protected]

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moved here after the October revolution; Moldavians appeared only after the Great Patriotic war as throughout the 13th to the 18th century Lithuanian lands were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Though a considerable number of Poles (about 80,7% of the population) live in Voronovsky district of Grodno region, all areas of the country are mostly multicultural as there are no places, in which particular groups of ethnic minorities live exclusively. The Polish minority accounts for a quarter to half of population in Volkovyssky, Grodno, Ivevsky, Zelvensky, Lidsky, Shchuchinsky districts of Grodno region, as well as in Braslavsky district of Vitebsk region (Osipov 2012). There are 207 residential settlements including 112 cities and 95 urban settlements that considerably differ in population in Byelorussia. Small urban settlements of Belarus include 73 cities and 95 urban settlements. Many small urban settlements of Belarus have rich natural, ethnic, historical and cultural potential. Still, the modern social, economic and demographic situation in districts of RB is characterised by many problems, which are being solved at present according to programmes of the ‘National strategy of the stable social and economic development of Byelorussia till 2020’ and the ‘Basic directions of social and economic development of Byelorussia for 2006-2015’. Typical problems include the low level of the economic basis development, unprofitable or little profitable enterprises in residential locations, high level of unemployment, limited number of social infrastructure objects and low quality of services provided for population, low level of housing fund accomplishment, the migratory outflow of employable population (especially youth), lost or not restored objects of the cultural-historical heritage. Resolution of mentioned problems will improve the social and economic situation for the population in small urban settlements and create conditions for development of touristrecreational activity thanks to modernisation and construction of new tourist infrastructure objects as well as restoration of regions’ historical buildings. These will increase the area’s attractiveness for tourists and excursions. The main purpose of this research is to characterise elements of ethnocultural potential of Belarus districts and justify the expediency of potential usage for the increase of districts’ excursion attractiveness. The theme of tourist appeal and tourist potential of areas has recently acquired significant interest among researchers. Various aspects of tourist appeal and tourist potential of areas are studied in Belarus by following scientists: I. Pirozhnik, G. Potaeva, I. Sitnikova, N. Kabushkin, A. Durovich, G. Bondarenko, V.I. Malashenko, Z. Gorbyleva, M. Sharshavitsky, C. Shulga, A. Lokotko, A. Maldis, A. Zelenkova; G. Shapoval; N.V. Savin, T.A. Fedortsova, D.G. Reshetnikov, A.I. Tarasenok, G.R. Potaevy, L.M. Haydukevich, V.V.

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Dvornichenko, A.F. Samusik, O.V. Sivograkov, O.S. Shimova, S.A. Luchenok; V. Blishch. Also in works of foreign scientists: M. Sokolova, A. Karamshova; I. Selivan, C. Orlovskaya, M. Bekta, S. Vechorok; M. Kristal, E. Valter, R. Bendiks, K. Palmer; M. Pikar, V. Smith, K. Adams, F. Shuten, E. Bruner, E. Koen, K. Olshen, D. Louental, P. Nora. However, research on this problems is fragmentary and does not have systematic character, so it requires further examination. To carry out scientific research it is important to determine and analyse the main elements of a problem. During the theoretical research of literature, ethnocultural potential and tourist appeal were specified as main elements. The interrelation between these two elements consists in preservation of culture and traditions of ethnic groups and implementation of excursion activity in areas with ethnocultural potential. In this article, small residential locations and areas of Byelorussia with low and medium tourist appeal will be examined along with characterization of elements of ethnocultural potential. Interrelations, which will lead to the justification of expediency of the ethnocultural potential usage in less attractive areas for of Belarus tourists will be found as the result of comparison of elements increasing their excursion appeal. Summary of main material According to the data of National statistical committee of Belarus the lowest number of organised tourists, who visited Belarus and were served by organisations active in tourism from 2000 to 2012 is recorded in Gomel, Grodno and Mogilyov regions. Table 1. Number of organised tourists, who visited Belarus and were served by the tourism organisations (thousand persons). Region 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 Brest 8,2 11,9 24,4 24,9 20,4 Vitebsk 4,1 5,1 13,5 11,7 17,0 Gomel 0,6 1,3 2,5 1,7 1,5 Grodno 17,2 4,7 1,9 1,3 1,5 Minsk city 29,6 66,5 71,8 69,3 69,7 Minsk 0,5 0,6 2,5 4,6 6,6 Mogilyov 0,0 0,7 3,6 2,5 2,2 Source: the data of National statistical committee of Belarus (Tourism and travel services 2014).

According to the research conducted by the scientific personnel and presented in The analysis of small urban settlements (SUS) of Belarus with excursion routes passing through, SUS with average tourist appeal were detected in the Brest region (Stolin, Pruzhany); the Grodno region (Ostrovets, Ive, Ljubcha, Korelichi, Zelva); the Gomel region (Chechersk); the Minsk region (Volozhin,

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Mjadel, Krivichi, Zaslavl, Ivenets, Berezino, Columns); the Mogilyov region (Belynichi, Mstislavl) and ‘depressed’ SUS, which do not comply with the status of a tourist city of Belarus: Brest region (Ruzhany, Kossovo, Kamenets, David Gorodok town; Vitebsk region (Begoml, Penetrating, Lyntupy); Grodno region (Sopotskin, Beryozovka, Oshmjany, Porozovo); Gomel region (Branch); Minsk region (Radoshkovichi, Smilovichi, Svir) (Kolendo 2010). Therefore, the purpose of the scientific article is to characterise the elements of ethnocultural potential that could increase the excursion appeal of small residential locations with medium and the lowest tourist attractiveness . The author suggests that forming of the region’s tourist appeal should be based on its potential as the sum of material and non material objects. The tourist attractiveness “depends on the attitudes between availability of existing attractive objects and their accepted importance” (Lovingwood 1989). In author’s opinion, the importance of tourist objects to organised tourists most probably will increase by means of mass media and tourist trips. The definition of an excursion was given in the Tourist terminological dictionary by its respected authors I.V. Zorin and V.A. Kvartalnym. It states that “Excursion is a collective attendance of noteworthy places, museums and so on led by a guide with educational or cultural-educational purposes”. The author thinks that in order to develop areas, which do not possess significant tourist resources, the incorporation of an ethnocultural resource in the excursion program of an organised tour is needed. The increase of the importance of elements of ethnocultural area’s potential to local residents and tourists will allow generating a strategy of region’s development with involvement of the ethnocultural resource in economic turnover. The ethnocultural potential attracts tourists and develops tourist’s infrastructure in regions. The heritage bound to traditions and culture of specific ethnos (Belarus, Russian, Polish, Jewish etc.) is regarded as ethnocultural resource. Using the existing potential correctly and rationally it is possible to create various kinds of tourism (informative, nostalgic, festival). The tourist product created on the basis of ethnocultural potential can be regarded as an additional resource to the basic tourist program in following types of tourism: business, event, pilgrimage, agritourism. Festivals, ethnographic holidays and other events can be regarded as important elements of tourist appeal which complement the program of a tourist route. Development of a tourist route is a complex multistage procedure, which include the selection of objects for the excursion and demands high qualification. It is one of the basic elements of technology of the new excursion creation (Emelyanov 2007).

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An excursion route represents the most convenient transit of excursion groups promoting a presentation of the excursion theme. Preparation of the new excursion is based on three basic steps: – preliminary work – selection of materials for the future excursion, studying them (i.e. process of accumulating of knowledge on the topic; determination of the purpose and excursion problems). At this stage the selection of objects, on which the excursion will be constructed is conducted simultaneously; – immediate development of the excursion includes: drawing up of an excursion route; handling of the collected material; reflexion over the content of the basic part of the excursion; preparation of a methodical part of the excursion, writing of individual tests by guides; – final part – acceptance of an excursion on a route; the approval of new excursion by the head of an excursion organisation; permission to work on a route for new guides who passed the exam. To summarize the above mentioned, the development of a new route depends on the professionalism of a guide, his creativity in choosing a theme of the excursion, which would be interesting for tourists, his ability to find and select objects representing purposes and goals of the excursion. Correct selection of objects, their quantity and sequence of display affect the increase of tourist appeal of regions in which they are located. It is possible to classify the objects of excursion as follows: – memorable places connected to historical events in life of people, society and state development; – buildings, constructions and memorial monuments bound to lives and activities of outstanding people; – natural objects – forests, groves, parks, ponds, reserves; – expositions of state and national museums, art galleries, constant and temporal exhibitions; – archaeology monuments – sites of ancient settlement, ancient parking, settlements, barrows with entombments, roads, sanctuaries, canals, etc.; – art monuments – products of graphic arts and crafts, sculptures, landscape gardening, etc. The objects of excursion can also fall into specific ethnos. Studying of the ethnocultural potential will allow finding such objects. We will try to introduce the resulting classification of excursions in regions of Belarus using the example of cultural-informative tourism, which is the most widespread type of tourism and which is popular among tourists. By assessments of researchers the group of tourists interested in cultural-informative tours is 10-15 % of all visitors (Emelyanov 2007). The remaining 85-90 % of tourists have minimum interest in culture (Mechkovskaya 2006). Cultural-

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informative tourism and other types of tourism are interdependent and can complement each other. Cultural-informative tourism is becoming acquainted with the history and culture of the country in all its exhibitions (architecture, painting, music, theatre, folklore, lifestyle of people). Proceeding from this definition, it is possible to evolve following subtypes of cultural-informative tourism (Mechkovskaya 2006): – cultural-historical (visiting historical monuments and memorable places) – cultural-religious (visiting cult constructions, pilgrimage places) – cultural-archaeological (visiting monuments of antiquity, places of excavations) – cultural-ecological (visiting natural-cultural ensembles, parks). According to subtypes of the cultural-informative tourism, organised excursions can have a range of thematic types: historical, literary, ethnographic, folklore, art criticism, musical, action scenes of famous literary works, places of known writers’ life, etc. Incorporation of regions’ historical and cultural potential into excursion routes will lead to the innovation of old routes and building of new ones. The state list of historical and cultural values of Belarus includes: 5533 monuments: 1763 – architecture monuments, 1191 – stories, 60 – arts, 2350 – archaeology, 11 – town-planning, 4 – reserved districts, 77 – movable historical and cultural values, 77 – nonmaterial historical and cultural values (Haydukovich 2011). The classification of historical and cultural values was performed by the author according to the following definitions (Lovingwood 1989): – architecture monuments are buildings, constructions and other objects of economic, production, military or cult purpose, individual or aggregated in complexes and ensembles (together with environment), objects of graphic arts and crafts, landscape gardening art; – history monuments are buildings, constructions and other objects (including terrains), connected to significant historical events, society and state development, international relations; related to development of science and technique, culture and life; life of politic, state, military figures, scientists, personalities of literatures and arts; – archaeology monuments are remains of fortified settlements (ancient cities, sites of ancient settlement, castles), unfortified settlements (ancient parks, settlements, separate housing); buildings, constructions, other objects (sanctuary and places of ceremonies, monasteries, temples); crosses, cult stones, statues, obelisks; barrows and soil burial grounds, separate entombments, necropolises, mausoleums and other burial places; land infrastructures, waterways; monetary

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and material treasures, which together with artefacts were stored in the cultural layer as well as in natural and artificial reservoirs. The analysis of the data about the quantity of historical and cultural heritage in regions of Belarus with a medium and low evaluation of tourist appeal showed their irregular distribution. Classification of objects of historical and cultural values by types allowed to determine regions with the prevalence of architectural, historical, archaeological values, ancient parks, churches and catholic churches (Lovingwood 1989). The analysis of these data shows that (table 2) there is a potential for development of the following types of tourism in Brest region:  Pruzhansky district (cultural tourism of the historical and religious orientation)  Stolinsky, Ivatsevichsky and Kamenetsky districts (culturalarchaeological tourism and tourism of the cultural-religious orientation)

Mjadelsky

52

Volozhinsky

33

Berezinsky

30

Molodechensky

24

Chervensky

22

Zaslavl Mjadel, Krivichi Volozhin, Ivenets Berezino

Radoshkovichi Smilovichi

Historical monuments

35

21

9

2

30

2

5

13

2

14

3

6

10

0

20

1

8

1

0

12

1

4

6

1

12

2

8

0

0

Ancient parks

29

Churches

"Depressed" for tourist SUS Svir

Architectural monuments

96

Archaeological monuments

Minsk

SUS with medium tourist appeal

Historical and cultural heritage (Quantity)

District

Table 2. Historical and cultural heritage in small residential locations of Brest region

Stolbtsovsky 21 Columns 10 3 2 5 1 Source: Data of the scientific personnel research (Kolendo 2010) and (Historical and cultural potential of Belarus 2014).

The analysis of these data shows that (table 3) there is a potential for development of following types of tourism in Vitebsk region:  Dokshitsky district (cultural-archaeological tourism and cultural tourism of the historical orientation);

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 Gluboksky and Postavsky districts (cultural-archaeological tourism and tourism of the cultural-religious orientation).


61

Glubokoe

37

4

3

16

1

Postavsky

31

Lyntupy

10

4

6

9

2

Dokshitsky

29

Begoml

23

0

3

2

1

Churches

Ancient parks


Gluboksky

District


"Depressed" for tourist SUS



Table 3. Historical and cultural heritage in small residential locations of Vitebsk region

Source: Data of the scientific personnel research (Kolendo 2010) and (Historical and cultural potential of Belarus 2014).

The analysis of these data shows that (table 4.) there is a potential for development of following types of tourism in Gomel region:  Vetkovsky district (cultural-archaeological tourism and cultural tourism of the historical orientation);  Chechersky district (cultural-archaeological tourism and culturalhistorical tourism).

Chechersky

33

Chechersk


2

19

1

1

20

7

3

2

1

Ancient parks

34

Churches

"Depressed" for tourist SUS Vetka


57


Vetkovsky



District

Table 4. Historical and cultural heritage in small residential locations of Gomel region


The analysis of these data shows that (table 5) there is a potential for development of following types of tourism in Grodno region:

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 Grodno, Lidsky, Ivevsky, Ostrovetsky, Korelichsky and Oshmjansky districts (cultural-archaeological tourism and tourism of a cultural-religious orientation);  Zelvensky, Svislochsky districts (cultural-archaeological tourism and cultural tourism of a historical orientation);  Novogrudsky district (cultural-archaeological tourism and culturalhistorical tourism).

Grodno

82

Lidsky

38

Zelvensky Ivevsky Ostrovetsky

28 26 25

Svislochsky

23

Korelichsky

21

43

5

7

1

Sopotskin

57

0

11

13

1

Beryozovka

16

7

5

10

0

17 15 18

0 1 1

6 4 0

5 6 6

0 0 0

12

3

6

2

0

8

1

4

6

2

Zelva Ive Ostrovets Porozovo

Churches

Ancient parks

27

Ljubcha

Korelichi




83


Novogrudsky



District

Table 5. Historical and cultural heritage in small residential locations of Grodno region

Oshmjansky 17 Oshmjany 9 0 2 6 0 Source: Data of the scientific personnel research (Kolendo 2010) and (Historical and cultural potential of Belarus 2014).

The analysis of these data shows that (table 6) there is a potential for development of following types of tourism in Minsk region:  Mjadelsky, Volozhinsky, Molodechensky and Stolbtsovsky districts (cultural-archaeological tourism and tourism of a cultural-religious orientation);  Berezinsky, Chervensky districts (cultural-archaeological tourism and cultural tourism of a historical orientation);  Minsk region (cultural-archaeological tourism, cultural-historical tourism, cultural tourism of the historical orientation).

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Mjadelsky

52

Volozhinsky

33

Berezinsky

30

Molodechensky

24

Chervensky

22

Zaslavl Mjadel, Krivichi Volozhin, Ivenets Berezino



29

35

21

9

2

30

2

5

13

2

14

3

6

10

0

20

1

8

1

0

Radoshkovichi

12

1

4

6

1

Smilovichi

12

2

8

0

0

Svir

Churches

Ancient parks


96


Minsk



District

Table 6. Historical and cultural heritage in small residential locations of Minsk region

Stolbtsovsky 21 Columns 10 3 2 5 1 Source: Data of the scientific personnel research (Kolendo 2010) and (Historical and cultural potential of Belarus 2014).

The analysis of these data shows that (table 7) there is a potential for development of following types of tourism in Mogilyov region:  Belynichsky district (cultural-archaeological tourism and cultural tourism of the historical orientation);  Mstislavsky district (historical and cultural tourism and tourism of the cultural-religious orientation).


73

Belynichi

69

0

4

0

0

Mstislavsky

16

Mstislavl

0

6

1

9

0

Churches

Ancient parks


Belynichsky

District





Table 7. Historical and cultural heritage in small residential locations of Mogilyov region


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Tourist development of the country depends on the confirmation of the cultural-historical heritage value by the world community, the accessibility to these objects for tourism and their incorporation in various thematic tourist routes. According to the above introduced data, tourist attractiveness of a region depends not only on quantity, accessibility and importance of the culturalhistorical heritage, but also on the tourist information system, the mass media and their incorporation in excursions. It is visible in the above classification of the cultural-historical heritage in regions of Belarus that objects of material heritage divide the region in different thematic directions. Objects of the cultural-historical heritage can be presented in different thematic categories at the same time, depending on an excursion theme. (For example: If the object of the display is “church as an architectural construction” the excursion’s subjects will be within the cultural-historical orientation. And if the object of the display is “church as a place of worship” the excursion’s subjects will be within the cultural-religious orientation). The division of the cultural-historical heritage in different thematic directions invokes difficulties as the same object can be either an architecture monument or a monument of the history and etc., the same object can be chosen for the display in various thematic excursion routes, therefore the main task of the guide is the correct choice of objects for the display. Besides, this classification of the cultural-historical heritage showed that it is necessary to study other elements of the excursion, which will divide thematic routes more clearly and differ in features and attractiveness. Therefore, the theme with an ethnic orientation, which includes the culturalhistorical heritage of regions and other important elements of ethnos can be considered as the most attractive for a tourist route. Objects representing the excursion theme of the heritage of the specific ethnos can be elements of ethnocultural potential: elements of the cultural heritage (objects of the material heritage, objects of the nonmaterial heritage); institutions (informal rules, formal rules); institutes (social, economic, civil, administrative) (Panikarova 2010). Objects of the material heritage are archaeology monuments, historical monuments, museums and reserve museums, ethnographic villages, architectural monuments, objects of national life, costumes, etc. (as for 2002: historicalethnographic museums and museums of local history - 83 objects; monuments of national architecture – 87 objects; houses of crafts, schools of national creativity – 77 objects; factories of art items – 25 objects) (Haydukovich 2011). Small cities with ancient origins, in which valuable fragments of the historical layout and unique ensembles remained: Kletsk (1127); Rogatchyov (1142); Novogrudok (1212); Retchitsa (1213); Nesvizh (1223); Slonim (1251); Volk-

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ovysk (1252); Kobrin (1287). By assessments of specialists the total number of small urban settlements representing the perspective centres of tourism is now more than 30 castles and fortresses (Reshetnikova 2004): – Dneprovsky system of castles and fortresses – Dubrovno, Orsha, Kopyt, Shklov, Mogilyov, Byhov, Rogatchyov, Streshin, Gorval, Retchitsa. – castles along a channel of Zapadnaya Dvina – Surazh, Vitebsk, Soritsa, Ulla, the Land, Garene, Voronech, Polotsk, Disna, Drissa, Zadvine, Druja, Ikazn. – fortresses along a channel of Pripyat – Bragin, Mozyr, Lelchitsy, Tours, David-Gorodok, Pinsk, Kobrin. – castles Podneprovja with the front orientation to rivers – Sozh, Pronja, Dnepr, Drut. Objects of the non material heritage are products of the oral national creativity and fiction, art, religion, etc. (as for 2002: folklore collectives – 27 objects; traditional festivals and trade fairs of national creativity – 16 objects) (Haydukovich 2011). Informal rules are pitched through culture (customs, ceremonies and festivals; oral traditions and forms of their expression; traditional and ancient technologies; kinds and forms of managing, life and natural management; knowledge and skills bound to traditional crafts; religious cults and beliefs; kinds and forms of traditional education, medicine and sport, etc.), (the Belarus ritual ceremony «Koljadnye tsars» in the village Semezhevo in Kopylsky region). Water objects of cult worship (Half-Ykavichsky well with a chapel in Mogilyov, spring of Okmenitsa on the bank of the lake of Strusto in Braslavsky region, cult of spring in the village Nivki in Logojsky region, Rakovsky krinitsa); legends about cult lakes (lake Sacred, in the village Marksmen in Verhnedvinsky region, in the village Mikulino in Polotsk region, near to Lepel in Chashniksky region) (Mechkovskaya 2006). Formal rules are preferences fixed in precepts of the law for nationalterritorial formation or measures of the state support for small native ethnic communities, etc. Social institutes are the centres of the traditional crafts development, folklore collectives, etc. The centres of the traditional crafts development: Gomel region – Kalinkovichesky region (Kalinkovichi – costumes, weaving); Chechersky district (Chechersk – ceramics, weaving); Vetkovsky district (Negljubka – costumes, weaving); Grodno region – Grodno district (Grodno – ceramics; Skidel – ceramics); Mogilyov region – Mogilyov district (Mogilyov – ceramics, costumes); Krichevsky district (Krichev – ceramics, tiles); Mstislavsky district (Mstislavl – tiles, ceramics) (Haydukovich 2011).

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Economic institutes are organisations of public catering specialising on national kitchen; organisations for sale of souvenir goods, tourist organisations, etc. Civil institutes are national public affiliations and cultural autonomies, communities, genera, etc. (public organisations of national communities). Analysing data from table 8. it is possible to observe that the greatest quantity of public organisations of national communities (Polish – 73, Jewish – 33, Ukrainian – 9, Russian – 9, Lithuanian – 8) are situated in various regions of Belarus: Grodno (59), Vitebsk (25) and Brest (21). Studying of districts’ heritage with public organisations of national communities will allow using this potential for increasing the excursion appeal of districts in the future. Table 8. Public organisations of national communities in regions of Belarus Nationality Azerbaijani (4) Armenians (3) Georgians (2) Greeks (1) Jews (33)

Brest

Gomel

Grodno

Minsk

Grodno

Grodno

Baranovichi Brest Pinsk Stolin

Vitebsk Orsha Polotsk

Gomel Mozyr Retchitsa

Grodno Lida

Mogilyov MogilyovBobruisk Bobruisk Mogilyov Mogilyov

Grodno

Latvians (1) Lithuanians (8)

Poles (73)

Vitebsk Orsha

Molodechno Borisov Molodechno Slutsk Soligorsk

Mogilyov Bobruisk

Vitebsk Braslav

Baranovichi Biarozauka Brest Kobrin Logoshin Ljahovichi Pinsk Pruzhany

Braslav Hlybokaye Dokshitsy Kamai Karasino Miory

Gomel Lelchitsy Mozyr

Grodno Lida Ostrovets Pelesa Radun Rymdjuny Bolshie Ejsmonty Beryozovka Benjakoni Volkovysk Voronovo Gniezno Grodno Zabolot Zaleshany Zelva Ive Iotkishki Korelichi Kamelishki Lida

Derevnaja Rubezhevichi Snou Vilejka Stowbcy Minsk Kletsk Nesvizh Volozhin Molodechno

Mogilyov Bobruisk

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Russian (9) Tatars (1)

Brest

Ukrainians (9)

Brest

Vitebsk

Molodechno

Mogilyov

Kolodishchi Molodechno

Mogilyov Bobruisk

Grodno

Gypsies (3) Chuvash (1) Total (148)

Mizherichi Mosti Mstibovo Novi Jatvez Novogrudok Ostrovets Oshmjany Porozovo Radun Svisloch Soli Slonim Smorgon Folvarki Shilovichi Shchuchin Grodno

Vitebsk

Gomel

Vitebsk

Gomel

Grodno Lida Oshmjany Grodno

21

25

8

59

19

16

Source: the data from the Office of the Commissioner on affairs of religions and nationalities (Public associations of national communities 2014).

Administrative authorities are ministry of culture, regional development, regional authority. (Coordination council on affairs of national minorities at Cabinet of the Republic of Belarus; the Apparatus of the Representative on affairs of religions and nationalities; National centre of national cultures; Ministry of culture of RB; department of culture of regional executive committee; department of culture of the city authorities). Incorporation of the ethnocultural potential of the public national organisations in excursion servicing of tourists of Gomel, Grodno and Mogilyov regions of Belarus will the increase tourist appeal of regions and small urban settlements. In areas with the low level of development and profitableness of commercial tourism turning to innovative forms, and namely, to the ethnocultural oriented designs can considerably stimulate the tourist industry as a whole. Ethnocultural combined tours and programs can soon become the economic development acelerator of some depressed districts. This research allowed disclosing the ethnocultural potential of problematic regions and small tourist urban settlements 22

of Belarus. The author thinks that these areas can become attractive due to the incorporation of the ethnocultural potential objects into tourist routes, namely the potential of the national public affiliations. The ethnocultural resource can have the widest usage in complex agritourism product, which one or several agritourism farms create for visitors intended for long stay. If there are no museums and houses of crafts in this district, an ethnographic exposition can be created at the farm itself.

References Lovingwood Jr. P.E., Mitchell L.E., 1989, Regional analysis of South Carolina tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 16, 3, 301-317. Haydukovich, L.M., 2011, The Cultural-historical heritage of Belarus’s Polesye as the basis of the development of the tourism in the region, [in:] Folklore and modern culture: materials from the III International scientific and practical conference, 21-22 of April, 2011 BNU, Minsk. Yemelyanov B.V., 2007, Ekskursovedenie, The Soviet sport, http:// tourlib.net/books_tourism/ekskurs.htm (14.02.2014). Kolendo E.T., 2010, The assessment of the tourist appeal of small urban settlements of Belarus, The Bulletin of the Belarus state university, Chemistry. Biology. Geography, 1, 70-76. Mechkovsky O.A., 2006, Economic-graphical tendencies of the development of the international tourism in the Central and Eastern Europe, Tourism and regional development, 4, 270-276. Osipov ., 2012, Ethnocultural policy in Belarus: comparison to the international context, Questions of minority in Belarus, Europe and the world, collected articles, 171-197. Panikarova S.V., Anzhiganova L.V., 2010, Structurally functional configuration of ethnocultural potential of the region, Problems of modern economy, 3 (35), 319 – 323. Reshetnikova A.N., 2004, Cultural-historical potential of aqueous objects as a tourist resource of Belarus, [in:] Belarus in the modern world: materials of II Republican scientific conference, 17-18 December 2003, 109110. Internet sources: Public association of ethnic communities, http:// www.belarus21.by/ (10.09.2014). 23

National statistical committee of Belarus, http://belstat.gov.by/ (10.09.2014). Historical and cultural potential of Belarus, http://sights.gov.by/ (10.09.2014) __________ This research paper has been prepared as a part of the Visegrad Fund project titled: „Resource potential and development perspective of ethnic tourism in areas of ethnic Polish population in Belarus”.

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The Roman Danube Limes as a possible thematic route and cultural heritage attraction __________________________ Zoltán Bujdosó1, Lóránt Dávid2, Veronika Major-Kathi3, Csaba Szűcs4

Introduction The Roman Limes is the single largest cultural heritage monument in Europe approved as a multi-national “Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site” by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee in 2005. The Roman Empire, its provinces and outer boundaries are at the heart of Europe´s identity and history (Visy 2011). 10 countries along the Danube, from the Black Forest to the Black Sea in Romania, share the history as a former Roman province and frontier territory of the Roman Empire, which lasted for more than 500 years. Although there are regional characteristics, the overall concept and system of the frontier zone was planned, built and maintained as an entity. It forms an impressive archaeological landscape with hundreds of military installations – fortresses, forts, watchtowers and civil settlements (http://www.ripapannonica.hu) (14.11.2014). Those monuments tell the vibrant story of the Roman frontiers’ centuries-long evolution and culture. The remains of the fortified frontier, both above and below ground, are often in a remarkably good condition (Hirschberg 2013). They have been well integrated into the landscape and certainly deserve more attention and care. The World Heritage designation on the Danube Limes heritage would guarantee a long term and sustainable protection and develop1

Károly Róbert University College, Mátrai út 36, 3200 Gyöngyös, Hungary. Károly Róbert University College, Mátrai út 36, 3200 Gyöngyös, Hungary. 3 Károly Róbert University College, Mátrai út 36, 3200 Gyöngyös, Hungary. 4 Károly Róbert University College, Mátrai út 36, 3200 Gyöngyös, Hungary.

2

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ment and also ensure a proper and adequate utilization of the cultural heritage resources and a great increase in awareness raising. The Danube Region as a flagship project will foster the establishment of a common cultural route, a joint action plan and a common marketing strategy. The Parliamentary Resolution 97/2005 (XII. 25.) outlined the regions of national priority in the National Regional Development Concept – including the River Danube. The Danube area has unequalled opportunities for tourism, there are attractive landscapes and cultural environment, and outstanding tourist attractions are available. However, this utilization is curbed in peculiar ways by ecological and environmental damage generated by human influences, as well as by the general level of living standards, the lack of social capacity, the lack of tourism infrastructure in terms of quality and quantity, the low level of tourism co-operation, as well as the capacity of the landscape and indeed of the settlements. The international role of the Danube presents a large number of cooperative obligations as well as additional opportunities for the region, but its foundation must be consensus based long-term development strategies that rely on integrated national action5. The Danube is characterised throughout its whole length by lively and diverse cultural traditions, large-scale nature conservation, and landscape and cultural values. Despite this, the only internationally competitive destination is the capital city, while the significance of tourism in the Danube Bend and Ráckevei (Soroksari) Danube branch, as well as in the culturally rich urban centres (Győr, Komárom, Esztergom, Visegrád, Kalocsa, Baja etc.) is evident. There are also valuable but unused facilities of the region such as the 412 km long riverbank (60% of which is natural) with its habitat-rich islands and side systems (Szigetköz), traditional wine-growing regions (Pannonhalma, Ászár-Neszmély, EtyekBuda, Szekszárd, Mecsekalja, Hajós-Baja, Kunság), the diversity of cultural traditions (ancient crafts, gastronomy, ethnic folk traditions) and produce of the region (berries, Kalocsa paprika etc.), extensive hill forests, natural areas, world-renowned big game (Börzsöny, Gemenc, Béda-Karapancsa), thermal spas (Budapest, Ráckeve, Győr, Mosonmagyaróvár, Lipót), and the present and prospective World Heritage Sites (Pannonhalma Abbey, Budapest Danube Embankment, Komárom fortress system), in other words the limes line (Dávid et al. 2010). Methodology Károly Róbert College has faculties in the field of economics and agriculture, among them a Faculty of Tourism and Regional Development, one of the few in Hungary, offering both a Bachelor and Master of Science degree in Tour A Duna menti turizmus hazai és nemzetközi dimenziói koncepció, 2008, Nemzeti fejlesztési és Gazdasági Minisztérium. 5

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ism. This multidisciplinary sector of expertise is of special added value to the project since it will connect the management of cultural values with the expertise in the field tourism. Based upon knowledge gained so far, Károly Róbert College has long time experience in cultural heritage and destination management. In regard to Project objectives such as innovation, entrepreneurship, development of professional skills and cultural values for development, Károly Róbert College is especially interested in implementing policies on education and sustainable tourism development in the area, derived from the Project. Károly Róbert College is fully capable to disseminate Project results at regional and national level, so as to enhance the region’s sustainable tourism offers. Within this project, Károly Róbert College is interested in supporting research activities and Pilot Project Implementations in the field of historical heritage protection, destination management and development of services related to historical heritages (e.g. accommodation and spa services along the Limes lines), by analyzing the effects of supply and demand at destination level and elaborate education and awareness programs for all tourism stakeholders in public and private sector as well as consumers, in order to directly engage them in the response processes. Other objectives include: to set up a common marketing action plan in association with spas, baths and accommodation providers (etc.) in order to develop and enhance the management and promotion of establishments connected to the Hungarian Limes area; to create a network of spas, baths, museums, etc. and accommodation services along the Hungarian Limes line; to build a manageable partnership between service providers in the area with the common goal of successful destination management and to create joint tourism attraction possibilities; to increase the number of visitors in the Hungarian limes area.

Figure 1. The Roman Limes in Hungary Source: Népszabadság Grafika.

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Results As mentioned before, many settlements and military camps were established in the Hungarian Limes section, but only the ones noted above have available remains, among which only a few are in presentable condition (figure 1). These remains represent the basis for the potential utilisation of the Danube Limes for tourism purposes (figures 1, 2). The following section will introduce sites that are or could be utilised for tourism. Klapka György Múzeum, Komárom (György Klapka Musem, Komárom) The unit of the museum with the largest collection is the archaeological unit, exhibiting artefacts from Brigetio of the Roman ages, found in the Szőny part of Komárom. The stone carvings (sarcophagi, tombs, altar stones, bricks, etc.) are exhibited in the Roman Lapidarium, while other artefacts (ceramics, jewellery), paintings and frescos can be seen in the main building of the museum. After the excavations and rescue works of 1922 at the Roman Brigetio area, the archaeological collection grew so rapidly that the exhibition and storage rooms proved to be not enough. The most important pieces of the collection are the frescos from the excavations at the market square (the former commoner’s city of Brigetio): the woman on horseback (Andromeda and Pegasus) at the ceiling, and the portraits of the four seasons are all outstanding pieces of provincial art. Other unique works of art are the wall paintings from the nearby houses illustrating people serving tight animal skins and food. The main attractions of the exhibition are the three sarcophagi that are exhibited with the skeletons and other findings (jewellery, everyday goods, etc.). The graves of the Girl, the German solider and the Couple (man and wife) were excavated in the summer of 1998 at the Szőny Factory of MOL Rt, in the former military town of Brigetio. Római kőtár, Lapidárium (Roman Lapidarium) The Igmánd Fortress was built between 1871 and 1877 as part of Komárom’s fortress system, a circular defence line around Új-Szőny (New Szőny). The fan-shaped fortress was designed by Austrian military engineers, and faces south - towards the enermy - with its dry trenches hidden behind ramparts and a wide alley protected by loopholes. The fortress was used as accommodation for the infantry and as storage for ammunition. The first exhibition of the György Klapka Museum opened in 1965 in the 250 m long casamate-alley of the fortess. The exhibition was rearranged in 1993, and the stone carvings found in Szőny (the eastern part of Komárom) were relocated to the inner rooms of the historical building. The tombs and sarchophagi symbolising the continuance of worldy pleasures in the afterlife; the altar stones representing the diversity of the 28

Roman religion; milestones and other stones used in buildings give us an insight into the life of Brigetio, the town that have long disappeared from the map.

Figure 2. The ruins of the Roman Limes Source: http://www.ripapannonica.hu Letöltés (14.11.2014)

Óbuda (Aquincum) Aquincum was the capital of Pannonia province. The imperium was bordered by the river Danube. The military guarded the frontier and the most important waterway of the continent. Military forces stationed here from the time of Claudius, 40 AD. The Limes line had been built by the 90’s AD. The first camps were plank camps, and 2 centuries later, stone camps were established in the area. Later, the settlements of craftsmen and their families were built among the military camps. After the reorganization by emperor Traianus, Aquincum became the capital of Pannonia Inferior. The Governor’s palace at the Hajógyári Island was built for governor Hadrianus. The military town was equipped with a road and canal system that provided fresh and thermal water from the wells of Rómaifürdő (Roman spa). Besides the large factories, also workshops, Danube ports, markets and malls, representative private houses and public buildings were erected. Two amphitheatres belonged to the two (military and civilian) towns of Aquincum. A range of expert artisans served the needs of the military. The Danube offered a convenient means of contact with the Western provinces (waterways, transportation). The civilian settlement gained the rank of a municipium, providing civil rights to the elite of the inhabitants, veterans and foreign tradesmen. The 2nd and 3rd century saw constant wars and renovations. In 194 AD, the emperor showed his gratitude towards the legio by donating the title “colonia” to the town. However, as the governor moved his headquarters to the inner parts of the province, the situation of Aquincum became unstable. The

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fortress of Contra Aquincum was located opposite to Aquincum, on the left bank of the Danube; its ruins can be seen on Március 15. square, close to the Erzsébet bridge. Lussonium By the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, conquerors erected a protection system called Limes, consisting of a line of fortresses and watchtowers (figures 1, 2). The castrum under the name of Lussonium in the area of today’s Dunakömlő was also part of this fortress system. According to the structure of the borderline, there were probably many watchtowers near Paks, served by the soldiers of the Lussonium cohorts. Based on assumptions, besides the military camp, there was also a vicus (a civilian settlement related to the camp) in the Dunakömlő area, and close to Paks and Kömlőd, there were probably other smaller, partially self-sufficient villa-farms and partially Romanised villages of indigenous people. The archaeological excavation of the Dunakömlőd military camp has been in progress for almost 20 years by now. So far, several military and - civilian buildings have been explored. The analysis of the findings and objects suggests that the earliest auxiliary plank camp was built as early as in the 1st century, under the reign of emperor Claudius (41-51), and still had been in use in the 2nd century. The extent and the defence system of the late Roman fortress have also been clarified. The excavations explored the northern ramparts of the fortress, some segments of the 1.3 m wide walls of the fort, the trenches and two southern gate towers. On the inner side of the southern wall there was a building with several rooms, while in the eastern part stood a barrack with a porticus. The building was out of use by the late Roman period (at the end of the 4th century). A few metres north from the southern gate tower, a 10 x 9 m tower (small fortress) was built, and it was still in use even after the surrender of the province, at the beginning of the migration period. In 2003, the southern gate of the fortress, the barracks and the late Roman small fortress were renovated, creating the first Roman ruins garden in Tolna county. Intercisa castellum The best known Pannonian` auxiliary fort - Intercisa castellum – is situated in Dunaújváros. Its name of this settlement – Intercisa – refers to the Roman Empire. The fort was located at the end of the 1stcentury AD, on the riverside well above the water level. This former earth and timber construction was rebuild in stone, during the 80s of the 2nd century. The fort was in use until the beginning of the 5th century. Its excavation lasted nearly 100 years. The corner and gate towers, some of the inner buildings, such as the forum (principia), the house of the commander (praetorium), parts of several barracks and the most

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important main roads: via principalis and the via praetorian, covered with flagstones were discovered. This ancient settlement was repaired and rebuilt several times during its existence. Reconstructed or restored buildings allows to better understand the structure of the castellum. Danube Bike Trail in Hungary The Danube Bike Trail along the Danube cycle path involves four countries. It begins in the town of Donaueschingen in the Black Forest and runs through Budapest until Constanta. The Danube Bike Trail is one of Europe's most popular cycling tours. In particular the section between Passau and Vienna is very popular, but due to the developing cycling infrastructure the BratislavaBudapest section is visited by more and more tourists. The Danube Bike Trail is part of the international Euro Velo 6 bike path that starts in Nantes along the Loire and crosses France, runs to Lake Constance in Switzerland, and then follows the Danube, Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria, arriving in Constanta in Romania, where it reaches the Black Sea. The cycle trail is divided into the following sections: Section I: Donaueschingen-Passau (550 km), Section II: Passau-Vienna (320 km), Section III: Vienna-Budapest (330 km), Section IV: Budapest-Black Sea (1670 km). Water Tourism on the Danube and Possibilities Water tourism includes all the different utilisation possibilities of tourism that use rivers and lakes and tributaries as a transportation route or creates means for active recreation-related activities. These are for instance: a) Non-powered watercraft (rowing boats, canoes, kayaks, keelboats) b) Small boats (yachts, small motor boats) c) Large vessels (cruise, resort and houseboats) After the Danube enters Hungary, we find two popular sections of water tourism routes, namely the Old Danube branch system in Szigetköz and the Moson-Danube. Both are well known and popular among water tourists. The tours organized on the 120 km long Moson-Danube section rival the tours of the Drava, Tisza, and Rába; however, there are problems in terms of nature conservation since the coastal areas of the Moson-Danube are protected. The river water tourists are returning guests: the 5-7 day tours are the most popular ones followed by the 2-4 day and the 8-10 day tours. Most tourists take tours organised by tour leaders and associations. The participants of these river tours use the facilities of sports clubs and other catering units along the river, or they 31

resort to camping in the wild if no other option is available. Unfortunately boat houses, campsites and rest areas as well as the hiring of aquatic vehicles is possible in some places only. One of the biggest problems in the Mohács microregion is the lack of an established, fully equipped campsite. The arbitrary resting places present serious threat to the landscape and the flora and fauna. Camping in the wild can easily lead to increased disturbance of birds nesting in protected areas as well as cutting down trees. There are two distinct versions of small motor boat tourism: sports sailing (boats, water-skiing and jet-ski) and cruising (small yachts and small sailboats). Both versions require well-developed ports and infrastructure. The only difference is that in the case of sailing for sports services can be offered by only one port while cruising (would) require a network of ports. One of the major demands is the possibility of fuel purchase. Tourist associations in the regions Managing tourism destinations is an important part of controlling environmental impacts of tourism. Destination management can include land use planning, business permits and zoning controls, environmental and other regulations, business association initiatives, and other techniques to shape the development and daily operation of tourism-related activities (Kozma-Ashorth 1993; Kozma 1995). The term „destination” refers broadly to an area where tourism is a relatively important activity and where the economy may be significantly influenced by tourism revenues. Destination management is complicated by the fact that a single, recognizable destination may include several municipalities, provinces, or other government entities; in island environments it may be the entire country. Participating governance structures led by local authorities, with the involvement of local NGOs, community and indigenous representatives, academia, and local chambers of commerce, make up what are known as „Destination Management Organizations” (DMOs). Often DMOs take the form of local tourism boards, councils, or development organizations. The network of local tourism businesses (hotels, attractions, transportation services, service providers such as guides and equipment rentals, restaurants, etc.) is also a significant part of a destination. The needs, expectations and anticipated benefits of tourism vary greatly from one destination to another, and there is certainly no „one size fits all” approach to destination management. As local communities living in regions with tourism potential develop a vision of what kind of tourism they want to facilitate, a comprehensive planning framework such as Local Agenda 21 has proved useful and is being used more and more often. Promoting sustainable tourism within Local Agenda 21 processes is a way to strengthen local stewardship of the environment. Tourism Destination Management (TDM)

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means professional organisations dealing with the establishment and management of sustainable tourism solutions in a given region. TDM organisations have been in operation in Hungary since 2009, at local and regional level. The next Figure shows TDM organisations in the Danube area (figure 3).

Figure 3. TDM’s along the Danube Source: own edition

Tourinform network in Hungary includes offices in more than 140 different places all over Hungary. Tourinform's helpdesk employees are pleased to inform you, also in foreign languages, about accommodation, restaurants, transport, programmes, attractions and services in the local, religional or national perspective. Tourinform offices distribute free brochures, sell maps, guidebooks, tourist card, picture postcards, local programmes, accommodation and tickets for a range of different events (figure 4).

Figure 4. Tourinform offices along the Danube Source: own edition

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Conclusion The River Danube provides unmatched opportunities for tourism with attractive landscape and cultural environment, and its varied tourist attractions are outstanding. However, their optimal utilization is limited due to a number of factors such as ecological (rehabilitation of water systems and backwaters, riparian ecological network, riverbanks) and environmental (water quality, land degradation, industrial and residential pollution) damage induced by human activities, as well as the residential standard of living, lack of social capacity, deficiencies in infrastructure for tourism, poor quality of tourism cooperation, and finally the capacity of communities and landscapes. Therefore, its competitiveness and the delicate balance of the natural environment must be ensured by the coordinated development of its diversified functions. With regard to tourism development, the aim is to develop and emphasize a uniformly expressed Danube region which allows for the regional characteristics. It is important to create services specially for different target groups. Without the institutional background of tourism governing bodies – and their close co-operation – no significant successes can be achieved. The co-operation of various levels can be created along with the coordinated development and interests. Division of labour should be developed for businesses, municipalities, both rural and urban, and international partners. Tourism development trends must be adjusted to other economic activities (special local agricultural products, handicrafts, services etc.), in order to increase local multiplication in rural areas. The effect is reflected in the diversification of the economy, the expansion of hotels, retail and catering facilities and services, in reviving local and regional traditions, as well as in sustaining and maintaining natural and cultural awareness. Tourism development must consider the natural assets of the Danube and adapt to other sectors of industry in the region. The basis of tourism development is the improvement of urban infrastructure. The existing housing facilities - in addition to their role of improving the quality of life - form the basis of rural tourism infrastructure. These services are relatively easy to start in Hungary. However, the indicated - backwardness related - problems arise precisely where development could begin on the basis of favourable natural conditions. Therefore, tourism can only be part of an integrated development process. The main mission is to develop the Danube region into the tourist axis of the country where development must result in the integration of comparative advantages, enhanced competitiveness and tourism potentials, reinforced social background, as well as protected environmental values along the Danube in a complex way (A Duna menti turizmus…., 2008).

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References: Baros Z., Dávid L., 2007, Environmentalism and sustainable development from the point of view of tourism, TOURISMOS 2 (2), pp. 141-152. Dávid L., Baros Z., 2007, A possible use of indicators for sustainable development in tourism, Anatolia: An International Journal Of Tourism And Hospitality Research 18 (2), pp. 349-355. Hirschberg A., 2013, A Ripa Pannonica turisztikai hasznosítása Előadás - Limes Tourism Connection Zárókonferencia, Dunakeszi, (25.02.2013). Kozma G., Ashworth G.J., 1993, Projected urban images. A comparison of Groningen and Debrecen, Groningen Studies, Groningen, 55., pp. 32. Kozma G., 1995, A debreceni önkormányzat első lépései a városmarketing területén, Comitatus - Önkormányzati Szemle, 5., 5., pp. 15-21. Tóth G., Dávid L., Bujdosó Z., 2010, A hazai folyók által érintett települések társadalmi-gazdasági vizsgálata, Földrajzi Közlemények 134 (2), pp.189-201. Visy Zs., 2011a, Romans on the Danube, University of Pécs, Pécs. Visy Zs. (ed.), 2011b, A Danube Limes Program régészeti kutatásai, University of Pécs, Pécs. Internet sources: http://www.ripapannonica.hu Letöltés (14.11.2014). A Duna Menti Turizmus Hazai És Nemzetközidimenziói Koncepció, 2008, Nemzeti Fejlesztési És Gazdasági Minisztérium.

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Cultural heritage and its diversification in spa towns in Poland __________________________ Małgorzata Durydiwka1

Introduction At present, there exist 45 statutory spa towns in Poland. A large part of them are localities with a fairly long tradition of spa therapy going back at least to the 19th century, when as a result of the discovery of mineral waters as well as of the identification of their chemical composition and – on this basis – of the determination of the possibilities of their use in the therapy of various ailments, the function of spa therapy had been formed in many towns. It should be noted, however, that the original function of these localities began to change with time and the majority of Poland's spa towns underwent a transformation into recreation and spa centers or else into multifunctional tourist centers. Therefore, their tourist attractiveness is nowadays determined not only by their so-called spa resources, but also by their natural assets, broadly understood, which are of essential importance for recreational tourism and for various forms of active tourism, as well as by their cultural assets, which play an important role in the development of various forms of cultural tourism. The purpose of the present paper is to present the cultural heritage of Polish spa towns, and in particular to show its diversification depending on the stage of their development. According to the official definition adopted by UNESCO in the 1972 World Heritage Convention (Convention Concerning the Protection of 1

University of Warsaw, Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies, ul. Krakowskie Przedmieście 30, 00-927 Warszawa, Poland, [email protected].

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the World Cultural and Natural Heritage), the following is considered cultural heritage (French: patrimoine culturel): − monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; − groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; − sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view. On the other hand, M. K. Smith (2009) distinguished the following seven kinds of heritage sites, which became the object of marked tourist interest in recent years: − built heritage attractions: historic townscapes, architecture, archaeological sites, monuments, historic buildings; − natural heritage attractions: national parks, coastlines, caves, geological features; − cultural heritage attractions: art, crafts, art and historical museums, folklore, festivals, traditional holidays and cultural events; − industrial heritage attractions: mines, factories, mills; − religious sites and attractions: cathedrals, abbeys, shrines, mosques, pilgrimage routes, cities, towns and festivals; − military heritage attractions: castles, battlefields, concentration camps, military museums; − literary or artistic heritage attractions: houses, gardens or landscapes associated with artists and writers. One should realize that cultural heritage is a notion of increasingly wider scope. We can therefore state, after G. Richards (1996), that in the postmodernist era the scope of cultural heritage has been expanded to include the present time, and therefore all forms of human activity are now within the range of tourists' interest. Determinants of the development of spa towns in Poland A spa town is an area where spa therapy is conducted and which has been separated for the purposes of use and protection of natural health resources existing on its area and which, on this basis, has obtained the status of a spa town. Gminas which have been granted the status of a resort (for the entire areas or its

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part) are called spa town gminas (Ustawa z dnia 28 lipca 2005 roku o lecznictwie uzdrowiskowym...). The status of a spa town can be given to an area which satisfies all the following conditions (Ustawa z dnia 28 lipca 2005 roku o lecznictwie uzdrowiskowym...): − has natural healing resources of confirmed therapeutic properties, − has climate of confirmed therapeutic properties, − on its area, there are centers and facilities for spa therapy, prepared to conduct spa therapy, − has the technical infrastructure for water supply and sewage disposal, energy management, mass transport, and which fulfills the environmental protection requirements.

Figure 1. Types of spa towns in Poland in 2013 Source: Author's own elaboration based on www.mz.gov.pl (9.09.2013).

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At present, Poland has 45 statutory spa towns. The largest number of them are in montane and submontane regions (22 towns). This is due, to a large extent, to the greater than elsewhere occurrence of the so-called natural healing resources in these areas, that is of mineral deposit resources (mineral and thermal water springs, salt beds and saline springs, and therapeutic muds), as well as to its their specific microclimate, which is of particular value in spa therapy due to its high degree of stimulus intensity (Mika, Ptaszycka-Jackowska 2007; www.mz.gov.pl, 9.09.2013). Depending on the natural healing resources, spa towns are divided into three groups (www.mz.gov.pl, 9.09.2013):  spa towns with therapeutic waters,  spa towns with therapeutic muds,  mixed resorts, with both therapeutic waters and muds. In Poland, spa towns with therapeutic waters dominate strongly (33); they are situated mainly in the Carpathians, the Sudetes, the Nida Basin, the Kuyavian-Pomeranian anticlinorium, and in seaside areas (Kaczmarska 2010). Five spa towns are strictly spas with therapeutic muds (Augustów, Dąbki, Gołdap, Krasnobród and Supra l), while seven are mixed (Goczałkowice Zdrój, Horyniec Zdrój, Kamień Pomorski, Kołobrzeg, Połczyn Zdrój, Ustka and Wieniec Zdrój). The properties of the climate play an essential role in spa therapy. Although climate spa towns are not treated as separate spa towns in Poland (Rogers 2009), the criteria of assessment of therapeutic properties of climate and of sanitary air condition are established by law (Rozporządzenie Ministra Zdrowia z dnia 13 kwietnia 2006 r. w sprawie...). Spa towns located in the mountains and at the seaside have usually a climate of strong or moderate stimulus intensity, often moderated by well-stocked forests (e.g. Lądek Zdrój, Polanica Zdrój, Szczawno Zdrój, Krynica Zdrój, Muszyna, Piwniczna Zdrój, Wysowa, Iwonicz Zdrój, Polańczyk, Sopot, Ustka, Dąbki or Świnouj cie). Such a climate builds up resistance of the human organism, and has a positive influence on the functioning of the respiratory and circulatory systems. In the case of seaside towns, essential assets of their climate are its large iodine content and its air with high ozone content (e.g. Kołobrzeg), which is of paramount importance for the therapy of the respiratory system diseases and of thyroid disorders. In the remaining areas, the climate has a mild or weak stimulus intensity. An important asset of a spa town climate can be a high saturation of air with essential oils emitted from coniferous trees, in particular from pine-spruce stands (e.g. Augustów, Wieniec Zdrój, Konstancin-Jeziorna, Horyniec Zdrój, Rymanów Zdrój), or else a microclimate determined by saline areas (e.g. Inowrocław) (Lecznictwo uzdrowiskowe w Polsce… 2011). Both essential oils and saline microclimate have a germicidal

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effect, facilitating the therapy of such ailments as asthma, chronic respiratory disease, and COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease). History of the development of spa towns in Poland Spa therapy in Poland has a very long tradition. Most spa towns were founded in the 19th century. A much longer tradition have the spa towns in the Sudetes (15th-17th centuries). There are also spa towns founded recently (e.g. Dąbki, Supra l or Uniejów). Taking into account the importance of spa therapy, development of tourist facilities, growth and diversification of tourist traffic, as well as the dominating tourist functions, five basic stages in the development of spa towns in Poland can be distinguished. Table 1. Stages in the development of spa towns in Poland Stages in the Spa and tourist facilities Characteristics of the offer development  First treatments using I waters, based on folk  First baths traditions  Beginnings of balneotherapy thanks to the introductory identification II  First bath facilities of the chemical composition of the waters  No spa profile determined  Development of the  Diversification of accommodation treatments: new facilities (guest technologies (hydrotherapy, houses) thalassotherapy) and complementary therapies  Development of spa (sheep milk whey, kumis, facilities (bath physical therapy, III facilities, spa park, rehabilitation, pump rooms) electrotherapy)  First concert halls and  First mineral water bottling theaters plants  First sport venues  Arranging concerts and (e.g., tennis courts) excursions in the vicinity  Development of  Use of water, therapeutic accommodation muds and medicinal salts in facilities (trade union the treatment sanatoriums and  Mineral water bottling IV sanatoriums owned by plant industry social insurance  Vacation stays with institutions, vacation opportunities for excursions centers, guest rooms in the vicinity in private quarters)

Tourist category  First few spa clients  Spa clients, mostly aristocrats

 Spa clients  Tourists

 Tourist arriving for recreation  Active tourists  Spa clients

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 Increase in the number of sport venues  Development of cultural and entertainment venues (theaters, concert halls, casinos, cinemas)

V

 Development of accommodation facilities, usually higher-rated hotels  Development of facilities for business tourism  Facilities for new medical services  Spa & wellness facilities

 

    

Opportunities for sport, in particular for winter sports in mountain spa towns Cultural and sport events (e.g. festivals)

Expansion of the range of medical services Development of the spa & wellness offer Recreational stays with opportunities for excursions in the vicinity and for sports Opportunities for participating in cultural and sport events Development of offers for business tourism (mainly to conferences)

 Tourist arriving for recreation  Active tourists  Spa clients, including spa & wellness clients  Business tourists

Source: Durydiwka 2014, pp.106-107.

Stage I: First mentions of therapeutic use of waters Cieplice Zdrój is regarded as the first Polish spa town; the first dated information on the therapeutic use of its waters come from 1137, while in 1281 the Knights Hospitaller from Strzegom were granted permission to use the mineral waters springs in Cieplice and Lądek. This converges with the European-wide tendency to leave water therapy to this religious and military order, associated with the crusades, who brought to Europe the middle-eastern traditions of baths (Rogers 2009). Slapping with twigs and using fresh steam were mostly used as treatments, which positively affected the circulatory system. The Mongol invasions, however, destroyed almost all early medieval spa facilities in Europe. Stage II: Beginnings of water therapy Balneotherapy in Poland had a character o purposeful therapeutic activities only from the 15th-16th centuries on. In the Renaissance, however, spa towns did not have specific profiles, which means that most of the diseases known at that time were treated there. The first bath facilities began to be constructed in the 16th-17th centuries. This was related to the growth of interest in spa cures and to the increasingly numerous works on the medicinal use of waters. Of these works, worth mentioning are: the research of Konrad of Berg of 1498, on the properties and composition of the Lądek waters, as well as the first printed text 42

(1591), on the advantages of water therapy with the Lądek waters, authored by Johann Crato, court physician of the Habsburg (www.ladek.pl, 3.11.2013). Of no less importance was the work by Wojciech Oczko, court physician of King Stephen Báthory and King Sigismund III Vasa, of 1578, entitled Cieplice (Thermal springs), in which the assets of mineral waters were identified, as well as indications and counter-indications for balneotherapy. Thanks to such works, therapeutic properties of waters in such a spa town as Iwonicz were known already in 1578, in Szczawno Zdrój, in 1601, in Kudowa, in 1621, in Połczyn, in 1705, in Krynica, in 1721. (Durydiwka 2005; Rogers 2009; www.szczawnojedlina.pl, 20.10.2013). The growing interest in treatment utilizing water properties resulted in the development of spa town facilities. For instance, in 1570s in Lądek Zdrój, new guest houses started to appear. Also, two bath buildings with heated water tubs were constructed. In 1670s, thanks to the discovery of two new springs, new areas began to be developed. Another bath facility, with a pool, was built, as well as a chapel, new inns and taverns. The last two decades of the 18th century was a time of a harmonious development of the Lądek spa town: it was then that the park was created, the promenades was began to be built and the ballroom was built. Aristocrats and members of the ruling families of Europe were the main guests who visited the spas and underwent cures in that period (Rogers 2009; www.ziemiaklodzka.pl/uzdrowiska/historia-uzdrowiska-ladek-zdroj, 3.11.2013). Stage III: The development of balneotherapy sensu stricte The importance of balneotherapy began to increase in the second half of the 18th century. This was to a large extent influenced by the 1777 anonymous work entitled Public information on spa springs or mineral medicinal waters in Silesia and in the town of Kudowa ..., which presented chemical analyses of mineral waters in Duszniki, Jedlina, Kudowa and Szczawno, as well as attempts to adapt therapeutic profiles to the chemical composition of the waters (Hadzik, Hadzik, Mikrut 2009). Of particular importance for the development of the Carpathian spas was the work by H.J. von Crantz entitled Gesundbrunnen der Österreichischen Monarchie (Medicinal springs of the Austrian Monarchy), published in 1777, in which the chemical composition of over 140 springs was analyzed. These works provided evidence for therapeutic effect of specific types of mineral waters, which resulted in the creation of new centers (e.g. Kudowa, Busko, Wysowa, Duszniki, Ciechocinek and Krynica), as well as in a more dynamical development of the existing ones (e.g., Iwonicz). One should add that in the late 18th century, in many spas the so-called spa regimen was established, that is, a fixed order of the day. The knowledge of the chemical compo-

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sition of the waters and of their use for the treatment of various ailments made it possible to establish appropriate medical profiles, and therefore to move from an uncontrolled use of mineral waters to balneotherapy in the strict sense of this term, supported by expert advice from physicians and professional bath attendants (Rogers 2009). The full development of Polish spa towns, however, occurred in the 19th century, as a result of a better identification of the chemical composition of mineral waters, and thanks to that, of the popularization of balneotherapy, as well as of the growing fashion for travels to “take the waters”. An important role in this respect played Józef Dietl, called the “father of Polish balneology”, author of numerous works on mineral waters, their efficacy and the possibility of their applications, a promoter of physical therapy and of hygienic-dietary treatment. He also initiated the creation of the Balneologic Commission, which in 1858 appointed the National Spa Company (Spółka Zdrojowisk Krajowych). The purpose of this organization was to limit the decrease of the number of spa clients visiting Polish spas (who favored foreign health resorts). Dietl played also a particularly important role in the development of the spa in Krynica. Although the first bath facilities in Krynica were built in 1804, a larger-scale development of spa facilities began in 1790s, thanks to the efforts of the authorities of Austria. In the first decade of the 19th century the following facilities were in operation: three guest houses, a restaurant, a pavilion over the main spring, a bath facility with a spa physician, and Park Zdrojowy (Spa Park) on the hillside of Parkowa Góra (Pieńkowska 1974, quoted in Buczek, QuiriniPopławski 2009). Already then, visitors arrived to Krynica regularly, although not in large numbers. In 1812, the number of visitors to Krynica was 634, but in the following years it did not exceed 200. To a large extent, it was a result of the stopping of subsidies from the Austrian authorities and of political unrests (Warszyńska, Jackowski 1978). It was only in 1856 that that a special commission led by J. Dietl worked out a development plan for the spa. Further guest houses were built, as well as facilities for mineral and mud baths, a roofed pump room, Dom Zdrojowy (Spa House), a theater, a water supply facility, and a railway station (Buczek, Quirini-Popławski 2009; www.krynica.pl/Józef-Dietlc175.html, 5.11.2013). Moreover, according to E. Rogers (2009), the beginnings of capitalism in the mid-19th century caused changes in ownership in spa towns as well as the implementation of economic reasons for the functioning of spa enterprises. "Changed principles of activities and a scientific guarantee of the efficacy of the treatments led to the diversification of therapies, introduction of new technologies (hydrotherapy) and of complementary treatments (treatment with sheep milk whey or with kumis, physical therapy, rehabilitation, electrotherapy)"

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(Rogers 2009, p. 58). Some spa towns (e.g. Kudowa, Krynica, Szczawnica, Szczawno Zdrój) became increasingly popular, thanks to the opening of a mineral water bottling plant and to the export of the water to many countries (Durydiwka 2005)

Photo 1. Mud baths building in Krynica Zdrój (1881) Source: http://fotopolska.eu/Krynica_Zdroj (10.03.2014)

Photo 2. Spa House in Krynica Zdrój (1889) Source: http://fotopolska.eu/Krynica_Zdroj (10.03.2014)

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In the 19th century the importance of the use of sea baths in therapies also increased greatly, which was an impulse for the development of seaside resorts. Particularly intense was the development of the spa function of Sopot. In 1823, the first bath facility was built, and in the following years, Dom Kuracyjny (Spa House), wooden baths with changing rooms, and a park. A wooden pier of length 63 m, the prototype of the present pier, was also constructed; in 1842 – a theater, and in the 1890s, tennis courts and a racecourse (www.sopot.pl, 5.11.2013).

Photo 3. Warm Bad, or the bath facility in Sopot (photo from 1901) Source: www.forum.dawnygdansk.pl (19.09.2014)

Photo 4. Promenade pier for spa clients in Sopot (photo from the end of 19th century) Source: http://histmag.org (19.03.2014)

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At the end of the 19th century, an important factor favoring the development of spa towns was access to the railway. Thanks to this, their spatial accessibility improved, and therefore also the number of spa clients and tourists increased. Such tendencies could be observed, among other places, in Piwniczna, Muszyna and egiestów (from 1876), Rabka, Iwonicz and Rymanów (from 1884), Ustroń (from 1888), in Ciechocinek (from 1876) (Rogers 2009). Also in Krynica, an increase of spa client and tourist influx was observed, thanks to the opening of a railway connection between Tarnów and the nearby Muszyna. For instance, in the 1860s, Krynica had on the average around 1000 arrivals; in 1880s, almost 3000; and in 1890s, over 4500 (Buczek, Quirini-Popławski 2009). A similar situation was noted a few years later in Kudowa. Already in 1900, the town was known as the first cardiac spa in Germany, visited every year by over 4000 people. But the opening in 1905 of a railway connection with Kłodzko and the development of hotel facilities caused the number of visitors to increase to around 8000 yearly (www.kudowa.pl/pl/miasto/historia-miasta, 3.11.20130. The opening of a railway connection with Koszalin in 1870, and later with Berlin, was of essential importance for the development of the spa and seaside resort in Sopot – an originally small center of local importance which within a short time became a modern and elegant spa town. Starting in the mid-19th century, the yearly attendance had risen from 1200 to 12,500 of summer visitors and spa clients in 1900 (www.sopot.pl, 5.11.20130). In the 19th century a spa treatment lasted even as long as ten to twenty weeks. It was therefore necessary to add variety to the visitors' stay, for instance by arranging concerts or excursions in the vicinity. That long a stay in one place necessarily enforced the forming of new, extra-medical functions in spa towns (Durydiwka 2005). Spa towns changed, therefore, their character – the original centers of balneotherapy and leisure for the rich part of the society became transformed into localities with a strong tourist-cultural function. Conducive to that was also the localization of many spa towns in regions with many natural, and often also cultural, attractions. The reputation of Polish spa towns also kept rising, which is evidenced by the structure of the spa client population depending on their place of origin. For instance, in the period 1850-60, around 20% of visitors arriving to Krynica came from Galicia, 20-25% from the Kingdom of Poland, and the remaining ones, from Volhynia and Lithuania. Already then one-third of them stayed in the spa town without using its medical facilities (Buczek, Quirini-Popławski 2009). At the end of the 19th century, also such places as Szczawnica, Iwonicz, spa towns in the Sudetes, Kołobrzeg, Sopot, Ciechocinek, Busko and Swoszowice were well-known spa towns (Kurek 2007).

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Stage IV: The recreational function as a complement of the spa function In the period between the two World Wars not only mineral waters were used in therapy in spa towns, but also other materials, such as: therapeutic muds (Ciechocinek, Inowrocław, Jastrzębie, Krynica, Muszyna, Rabka, Nałęczów, Iwonicz, Rymanów, Ustroń), including moor muds and mud packs for mud wraps (Iwonicz) and medicinal salt (Ciechocinek, Rabka, Iwonicz). Moreover, this was a period of the development of the bottling industry, which consists of the production of bottled mineral and healing water (e.g. Kryniczanka, Zuber, Jan), medicinal salt production (Iwonicz), and therapeutic mud products (Iwonicz) (Rogers 2009). One should add here that in the same period, a marked increase of the recreational and sight-seeing tourist traffic occurred (table 2). In 1921-1938, the attendance in spa towns and summer resorts increased namely from around 90,000 to 650,000 visitors, and the main recreational regions were the Sącz and Silesian Beskids as well as the Podtatrze region (the foothills of the Tatra mountains) (Kurek 2007). Table 2. Number of spa clients in selected Polish spa towns in 1919-1936 Number of spa clients Spa town 1919 1928 Busko 2500 7976 Ciechocinek 9568 16941 Inowrocław 953 5693 Iwonicz 1826 7761 Krynica 9660 35559 Nałęczów 1800 4479 Rabka 5269 15610 Rymanów 2717 Solec 1620 1750 Szczawnica 7967 Source: based on Rogers 2009.

1936 5749 17737 5774 10000 31685 2500 24322 3000 1108 8498

The growth of the tourist traffic in spa towns was an impulse for their further development. Accommodation facilities were built, including – apart from privately-owned accommodation facilities –sanatoriums owned by trade unions and by social insurance institutions. The newly built facilities had high-standard furnishings and services, e.g. Gozdawa, a ZUS (Poland's national social insurance system) sanatorium in Rymanów Zdrój, opened in 1929, the sanatorium of the Poznań social insurance system in Inowrocław (1930), Excelsior in Iwonicz Zdrój, owned by the association of health-insurance funds (Związek Kas Chorych) (1931), a sanatorium for families of railway workers in Rabka (1934), and a vacation house for military officers in Krynica (1938) (Węcławowicz-Bilska

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1990). Sport facilities began to play a growing role in the space of spa towns. For instance, in Krynica, a luge track, an ice rink, and a ski jump were built. Therefore, the spa function sensu stricto was complemented in Krynica by recreational and sport functions, and the number of visitors grew at the end of 1920s to over 35,000 and in 1938, to 40,000. Of importance for the development of the town was the extension of the tourist season: in mid-1920s, the winter attendance was barely 5% of the yearly tourist traffic, while in the 1937/38 season, it was already 25% (Buczek, Quirini-Popławski 2009).

Photo 5. Vacation house for military officers in Krynica-Zdrój (1938) Source: http://fotopolska.eu/Krynica_Zdroj (10.03.2014).

Photo 6. Forest Opera in Sopot (photo from 1910) Source: http://zoppot.fm.interia.pl (19.03.2014).

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In Sopot, in turn, the Forest Opera was opened already in 1909, as well as the third Dom Kuracyjny (Spa House), which housed, apart from hotel rooms, a restaurant, a wine tavern, and a theater. The Sopot casino was opened in 1920, and the Kasino-Hotel (nowadays Grand Hotel) was built in 1927. A year later, the pier was extended to its present length (512 m). At that time, Sopot became a spa town of European renown, as witnessed by the fact that in the summer season of 1928, around 30,000 foreign tourists visited Sopot (www.sopot.pl, 5.11.2013). After World War II, the recreational-vacational and tourist functions were reinforced in spa towns: the period 1950-1980 saw an intense development of accommodation facilities, also for the needs of social and active tourism (e.g., mountain tourism). Originally, the transformations of the spa town space were limited to the rebuilding of facilities damaged during the war, while starting with the 1960s, large-capacity buildings, designed according to the aesthetic standards of those times, went up. In some localities, markedly distinct spa and vacation districts began to appear, for instance in Ustroń: the vacation district in Dolina Jaszowiec as well as the modern pyramid-shaped vacation and health centers and sanatoriums in Zawodzie. Also in Krynica-Zdrój, “... the architectural landscape of the spa town began to change. The styles that have dominated so far – wooden villas and modernist buildings – became dominated by largescale multi-story architecture” (Buczek, Quirini-Popławski, 2009, p. 50). In spa towns situated in the montane and submontane zones, with highly attractive natural environment, the number of tourists grew intensely in 19511980 (e.g., in Krynica from 27,000 to 85,000, in Iwonicz from 4000 to 17,000, in Szczawnica from 4,000 to 25,000), with the number of tourists often exceeding the number of spa clients (Węcławowicz-Bilska 1990; Rogers 2009). Additionally, stays were made more attractive by cultural and sport events of major renown. Stage V: Contemporary transformations of spa towns The changing market realities enforce the introduction of changes in the functional structure of spa towns. This is because balneotherapy in the strict sense of this term is not a very lucrative business. Spa towns attempt therefore to expand the scope of medical services by including beauty improvement services in their offer. A good example is Polanica, where the first Center for Cellulite Therapy in Poland has been opened, as well as the Laser Therapy Center, providing treatment for skin damage. An important element in the development of contemporary spa towns are also spa & wellness facilities, whose offer is based on the philosophy of well-being, with particular emphasis on biological regeneration, beauty, fitness and emotional harmony (Mika, Ptaszycka-

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Jackowska 2007). For instance, in 2009, in Busko, Rabka, Ustka and Polańczyk, almost all balneotherapy facilities and a significant number of hotels offered spa & wellness treatment (Durydiwka, Duda-Gromada 2009). It should be added that the newly built hotels in spa towns are upscale facilities with an extensive spa & wellness offer, a good example of which is Hotel Dr Irena Eris in Kudowa Zdrój, Malinowy Zdrój in Solec Zdrój or Borowinowy Zdrój in Supra l. Spa towns are usually situated in areas with significant natural assets, as a result of which they are visited by various categories of tourists. For that reason, in many localities one can observe the tendency to develop and diversify tourist facilities. Thanks to this, both spa clients and tourist arriving for vacation, sightseeing, sport or cultural purposes will be able to stay there. More and more often, tourist facilities are also adapted to the organization of courses and conferences of various kinds (Durydiwka, Duda-Gromada 2009). Hence, nowadays spa towns often acquire the character of a recreation-and-spa town (e.g. Augustów, Dąbki, Szczawnica, Piwniczna, egiestów Zdrój) or else of a multifunction tourist center (e.g. Sopot, Krynica, Kudowa Zdrój). Cultural heritage of contemporary spa towns in Poland The contemporary Polish spa towns were being founded in various epochs and have a diverse history. Independently of the time when their spa function emerged, most of them are historic towns of various sizes, with their preserved cultural heritage as an important element of the tourist offer. Taking into account the character of the cultural heritage, or – more widely – of the historical and cultural heritage – of the contemporary spa towns, we can divide them into four groups: − towns whose cultural heritage consists mostly of facilities related to the development of their spa function; − towns with unique historic and cultural assets, resulting from the development of non-spa activities and socio-economic functions in the past; − towns related to the life and work of famous people; − towns where cultural events of various kinds (e.g. festivals or theater events) and unusual museums are important elements of their cultural heritage. The most numerous group consists of towns whose cultural heritage is dominated by historical monuments linked to the spa functions of the town. Most spa towns in Poland belong to this group, but the character and architecture of these buildings varies slightly depending in the localization of the town. The centuries-old heritage associated with the spa functions has been particularly well preserved in towns situated in montane and submontane regions. An example of such town is provided, for instance, by Szczawno Zdrój; the medicinal properties of its waters were well know already in the 18th century,

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but its reputation of a modern spa town was acquired in the mid-19th century, thanks to the numerous investments made by the owners of the estate, the von Hochberg family from Książ. Szczawno Zdrój escaped damage during World War II, thanks to which it preserved its urban layout, dating to the 19th century, as well as the majority of its historical monuments, situated mainly in the town center. One of the best-known and best-recognized spa facilities in Szczawno is Dom Zdrojowy (Spa House), built in 1908-1911, until 1945 called "Schlesischer Hof" (Silesian Court) or "Grand Hotel". Between the World Wars it was regarded as the most modern and the largest hotel in Silesia: it had 200 beds in 130 rooms, elevators and central heating. It is still regarded as the most beautiful spa house in Poland, delighting not only with its size and form, but also with the richness and variety of its architectural details, such as the medallion above the main entrance with the bas-relief representing Książ Castle.

Photo 7. Sanatorium „Dom Zdrojowy” in Szczawno Zdrój – garden elevation (photo: M. Durydiwka, June 2014)

One should add that in Szczawno numerous 19th- and 20th-century sanatorium facilities have been preserved as well as villas in architectural styles characteristic for these periods, that is, neoclassical and Art Nouveau. Undoubtedly, two parks: Park Zdrojowy (Spa Park) and Park Szwedzki (Swedish Park) – the latter in English style – are tourist attractions and elements of the cultural heritage of the town. They are among the largest in Lower Silesia and the most beautiful in Poland (www.szczawno-jedlina.pl/pl/podstrona/atrakcje-turystyczne, 20.10.2013). The spa heritage, broadly understood, of Szczawno Zdrój is further complemented by the late-19th century buildings: the pump room and the promenade hall, the building of Zakład Przyrodoleczniczy (Institution for Natural Medicine) whose present neoclassical appearance is due to the makeover of the old Luisenbad (Louise's Bath) building (1938), and Teatr Zdrojowy (Spa Theatre) of 1896 with neoclassical exterior, whose interior, rich in late

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Baroque, Rococo, and Regency decoration, is regarded as one of the most beautiful in Poland (Kułaga 2007).

Photo 8. Medallion above the main entrance to „Dom Zdrojowy” in Szczawno Zdrój (photo: M. Durydiwka, June 2014)

Also in many lowland spa towns one can find well-preserved facilities related to the development of their spa function. An example is Ciechocinek, the largest lowland spa town in Poland. Among the best preserved elements of its cultural heritage, related to the development of the spa, are: Park Zdrojowy (Spa Park) of 1875, neoclassical-eclectic bath building, the pump room, which was originally a roofed promenade gallery, and the popular "Grzybek" (Little Mushroom), or a mushroom-shaped fountain, of not only decorative but also industrial and medicinal function. It houses namely a brine spring, from where brine is pumped to the Ciechocinek graduation towers. It constitutes also a natural inhalatorium, where spa clients can inhale iodine-rich air. But the greatest attraction of Ciechocinek are its graduation towers, built in 1824-1859. These massive wooden constructions are supported by 7000 posts sunk into the ground, and consist of a spruce-and-pine framing filled with blackthorn, on which salt water runs down. They are a unique specimen of its kind in the world. Originally, the towers together with the existing salt-works formed an industrial complex producing salt. As a side effect of the industrial activity, the medicinal properties of brine and the therapeutic effects of the graduation towers were discovered, which contributed to the change in the town's character –

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from industrial to spa (www.uzdrowiskociechocinek.pl/art/10/historia.html, 20.09.2014).

Photo 9. Saline graduation towers in Ciechocinek (poto: M. Przewłocka, July 2012)

Related to the development of the spa function of Ciechocinek was also the construction, in 1891, of Summer Theater (Teatr Letni), designed by Adolf Schimmelpfennig. This wooden building, renovated in 1999, is nowadays one of the very few monuments of this kind in Europe and is an important element of the cultural heritage of the town. Also in seaside spa towns there is no lack of facilities evidencing the development of their spa function in the past epochs, although due to the war damages (e.g. in Kołobrzeg) they are less numerous, or else they are reconstructions, more or less faithful, of the ancient spa facilities. A good example of this is Sopot, which has been officially a spa town since 1999, but its spa function had been fully formed in the second half of the 19th century. According to T. Palmowski (2005), from among 2500 buildings, over 700 are considered historic buildings. Among them are: neoclassical manors, going back to the early 19th century (e.g., Dworek Sierakowskich, Dworek Młynarza) and old fishermen houses. But the buildings that tell of the past glory of the 19th century spa town are: − original housing and pension buildings from the second half of the 19th century, characteristic for the local architecture. These are houses with at most two stories, of simple architectural form, equipped with elaborately decorated verandas and bay windows, as well as roof finials with wooden filigrees. Complexes of such houses, surrounded by gardens, survived in fairly large numbers in Lower Sopot; − lavish residences with villas and parks as well as villas and pensions (from the second half of the 19th century), surrounded by gardens. These are

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grand buildings, with decorative elements – as was the fashion at the time – borrowed from various historical styles, mostly from the Renaissance, but also from Gothic and Baroque, additionally enriched with motives from vernacular architecture. Buildings of this type form the largest group of Sopot architectural monuments, and their style is called Romantic eclecticism. In the early 20th century, eclectic trends in the architecture of Sopot were enriched by elements of Art Nouveau. One should add that these fairly well preserved villas and pensions constitute the largest architectural complex in Poland whose style is characteristic for the European seaside resorts of the turn of the 20th century.

Photo 10. Haffner Center in Sopot – new Dom Zdrojowy (Spa House) (photo: M. Durydiwka)

The Sopot wooden pier, undoubtedly the longest in Europe (511.5 m), is the “calling card” of the town. In 2009, the construction of the Haffner Center nearby was finished (total area 51,000 sq. m.). It includes the 5-star Sheraton Sopot Hotel, Dom Zdrojowy (Spa House) which houses: a shopping center, restaurants, clubs, the largest conference center in the Tricity (capacity 624), spa, a multiplex cinema, as well as the State Art Gallery, a pump room with brine water, and tourist information. Furthermore, the Center includes an apartment complex, a parking for 400 places, an office building and a tunnel under the Monte Casino Street which makes it possible to use the boardwalk to reach the pier. Even though many modern solutions have been used, the architects attempted to preserve the historic form of the Spa House. Also the remaining buildings have been designed so as to form a harmonious whole with the city center and the existing architecture (www.sopotnoclegi.pl/sopot-centrumhaffnera, 20.09.2014).

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The second, much less numerous, group consists of localities whose spa function has been formed recently, but which at the same time have unique historic-cultural assets, resulting from the development of other socio-economic activities and functions. One of such towns is Supra l, situated in the Podlasie region. Although the therapeutic properties of the Supra l climate were known already between the World Wars, the town obtained the status of a spa town only in 2001. The development of Supra l, however, was originally linked to the localization, in 1500, of an Orthodox monastery of the Basilian order, which in 1601 joined the Union of Brest. Therefore, the 16th and 17th centuries are a period of development of this town, associated with the functioning of the monastery. Important elements of the historic-cultural heritage of Supra l from this period are: the monastery buildings from 1755-1764, the wooden building “Stara Poczta” (Old Post Office) from the end of the 18th century (housing, in the past, a post office and an inn), as well as Pałac Opatów (Archimandrites' Palace) from 1635-1655, built in the Renaissance style and expanded in the mid-18th century. It housed a publishing house which published, for the first time in Poland, Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift and Pious Songs by Franciszek Karpiński (which included the Christmas carol Bóg się rodzi, “God is being born”), as well as a famous library, where in 1823 the Codex of Supra l (Codex Suprasliensis) was discovered – the oldest Old Bulgarian manuscript in existence. But the most distinctive element of the historic-cultural heritage of Supra l is its unique fortified Gothic-Byzantine Orthodox Church of the Annunciation. The present building is, however, a reconstruction made in 1980s and 1990s, since the original one, built in the early 16th century, was blown up by the German army in 1944 (Darmochwał 2003). It is worth adding that in 2011 the monastery complex, belonging nowadays to the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church, was named the “Seventh Wonder of Poland” (www.suprasl.pl/strony/historia-suprasla, 23.08.2014). The second important period in the history of Supra l is associated with the textile industry. When after the November Uprising in 1830 a heavy duty was imposed on the export from the Kingdom of Poland to Russia, the industrialists from ódź and its environs moved their textile factories to Podlasie, hence also to Supra l. Among them were: Zachert, Buchholtz, Aunert, Alt, Jansen and Reich. Although the history of the textile mills ended definitively in 1944, remnants of the industrial era can be seen today in the urban space of the town. They are related also to the settlers from Western Europe. These are: two factory buildings (the Zachert factory from the 1830s and the Jansen factory from the mid-19th century), wooden weavers' houses from the mid-19th century, a Roman Catholic church and a Protestant (now Roman Catholic) church, the Buchholtz Palace from 1892-1903, and the tomb chapels at the Protestant cemetery: the neoclassical Zachert chapel and the neo-Gothic Buchholtz chapel. For

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a good reason, then, Supra l is called “a miniature ódź” or “the Promised Land of Podlasie” (Durydiwka, Kociszewski 2013).

Photo 11. Fortified Gothic-Byzantine Orthodox Church of the Annunciation in Supra l (photo: M. Durydiwka, September 2014)

Photo 12. The Buchholtz Palace in Supra l (now housing a visual arts school) (photo: M. Durydiwka, September 2014)

The third group of spa towns, distinguished because of the character of their historic-cultural heritage, consists of towns associated with the life and work of famous people (writers, artists, architects, politicians, etc.). Although famous people stayed – for a shorter or longer time – in most of spa towns in Poland, of particular importance among such towns is Nałęczów, which was the main spa town of the Kingdom of Poland in the late 19th century, and which – thanks to the frequent visits of writers and artists – was called a literary-artistic spa town.

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Here vacationed and worked such writers as B. Prus, H. Sienkiewicz and S. eromski; it was also visited by Z. Nałkowska (writer), S. Przybyszewski (writer, representing the Polish Decadent movement), M.E. Androlli (illustrator and painter of the Romantic era), K. Wierzyński (poet) or I.J. Paderewski (pianist, composer and politician) (Mo cibroda 2005). Their visits to Nałęczów are commemorated by statues (e.g. the B. Prus park bench in Park Zdrojowy) and plaques on houses where they stayed or lived. One should realize, however, that these elements are only an additional part of the historic-cultural heritage of spa towns. Almost every spa town in Poland is associated with a longer or shorter visit of famous people. For instance, King of Prussia Frederick Wilhelm III, King of Saxony Frederick Augustus, German Emperor Wilhelm II and W. Churchill came to Szczawno Zdrój to take a cure, and so did many famous Poles, such as: H. Cegielski (journalist and industrialist from Greater Poland), H. Wieniawski (violinist and composer), L. Zamenhof (creator of Esperanto) and many others. It is worth noting that Szczawno is the birthplace of Gerhart Hauptmann, German dramatist and novelist and Nobel Prize laureate in literature (1912). Among famous people born in Krynica Zdrój are Nikifor (naive painter) and T. omnicki (actor), and its most famous visitor was Jan Kiepura (opera singer). The fourth group of spa towns consists of towns for which various cultural events (e.g. festivals, theater shows) or unusual museums are important elements of their historic-cultural heritage. Of course, cultural events take place in every spa town. But the deciding factor in the competitiveness of spa towns in this respect is the reputation and renown of the event. For that reason, particularly important in this group are towns where musical festivals, often of international renown, are organized periodically. These are, for instance: − Duszniki Zdrój, with its International Chopin Festival, the world's oldest uninterrupted (since 1946) piano festival and its International Festival “Music of the Epochs”; − Kudowa Zdrój, with its famous Moniuszko Festival (since 1962) and its more and more popular A. Hiolski International Vocal Competition; − Polanica Zdrój, with performances of operetta and classical music, as well as rock and ethnic music and of sung poetry, during the International Festival of Spa Music “Music of the World”; − Szczawno Zdrój, with its H. Wieniawski International Festival; − Krynica Zdrój, with one of the most popular music festivals – the European Jan Kiepura Festival, accompanied by meetings with artists and operatic workshops; − Ciechocinek with its International Festival of Romani Song and Culture and the International Opera and Operetta Festival;

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− Sopot, with its international song festivals, taking place in the Forest Opera since 1964 (now Polsat Sopot Festival). One should add that in many cases, the idea of organizing these festivals was connected with the visits of famous artists in these spa towns. In this group of spa towns are also those with unique museums. Undoubtedly, such is the Museum of Icons in Supra l, opened in 2006. It has a collection of over 500 icons , presented with help of multimedia techniques, thanks to which the guided tours combine narration with the sound of Orthodox Church music and with images. More and more people are interested in this museum, as evidenced by its having obtained a certificate with honorable mention in the poll “Polska jest najfajniejsza” (“Poland is awesome”) organized by the National Geographic – thanks to the votes of tourists and residents, and without any significant promotional action (Durydiwka, Kociszewski 2013). These groups of spa towns, distinguished by the character of their historiccultural heritage, are not disjoint. In many of them, cultural heritage combines historic monuments linked to the development of the spa function with places and venues associated with visits of famous writers, painters, architects, or politicians, as well as with cultural events. Summary Cultural heritage is an increasingly important element of the tourist offer in Poland's spa towns, and it can influence the growth of the competitiveness level of the individual localities. It should not be presumed, however, that it will play a deciding role in the shaping of this competitiveness. Nowadays, a growing group of people arriving to spa towns consists of recreation-oriented (including active recreation) tourists, and therefore it is the localization (especially in the mountains or at the seaside) and the related features of the tourist offer that constitute the main factor shaping the competitiveness of spa towns. Next factor is the treatment offer. The elements of historic-cultural heritage, however, are of secondary importance; they serve as a “correction” in the choice of the spa town for a longer stay, whether for tourist or for medical purposes. One should realize, however, that short stays, of a few day's duration, play an increasingly large role in the structure of tourist visits. It seems that in such cases the role of cultural heritage, and especially of cultural events of great renown, may have a key importance in the shaping of the competitiveness of spa towns. References Buczek M., Quirini-Popławski ., 2009, Frekwencja kuracjuszy w Krynicy w Karpatach Zachodnich i Truskawcu w Karpatach Wschodnich (Ukraina), Prace Geograficzne, 121, 39-58. 59

Darmochwał T., 2003, Północne Podlasie, Wschodnie Mazowsze, Agencja „TD”, Warszawa. Durydiwka M., 2005, Zróżnicowanie rozwoju funkcji turystyczno-rekreacyjnych w miejscowościach uzdrowiskowych, [in:] Rydz E. (ed.), Kształtowanie funkcji turystycznych w miejscowościach uzdrowiskowych, Pomorska Akademia Pedagogiczna w Słupsku, Słupsk, 46-59. Durydiwka M., 2014, Etapy i kierunki przekształceń miejscowości uzdrowiskowych w Polsce, [in:] Niezgoda A., Gołembski G. (eds.), Turystyka wobec zmian współczesnego świata. Strategie, marketing, programowanie, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Poznaniu, Poznań, 103117. Durydiwka M., Duda-Gromada K., 2009, SPA i Wellness jako nowe (?) funkcje w miejscowościach uzdrowiskowych, [in:] Boruszczak M. (ed.), Turystyka uzdrowiskowa. Stan i perspektywy, WSTiH, Gdańsk, 245-256. Durydiwka M., Kociszewski P., 2013, Multiculturalism of Podlasie region and the possibility of its use in tourism, Turystyka Kulturowa, 6, 90-113, www.turystykakulturowa.org Hadzik A., Hadzik A., Mikrut G., 2009, Rola i tendencje rozwoju uzdrowisk w Polsce: wybrane zagadnienia, Wydawnictwo Sensus, Kraków. Kaczmarska A., 2010, Uwarunkowania i tendencje zmian rozwoju uzdrowisk w Polsce, [in:] Szromek A.R. (ed.), Uzdrowiska i ich znaczenie w gospodarce turystycznej, Wydawnictwo PROKSENIA, Kraków, 55-76. Konwencja o Ochronie wiatowego Dziedzictwa Kulturowego i Naturalnego z 1972 r. (Dz.U. z 1976 r., nr 32, poz. 190, załącznik). Kułaga K., 2007, Przewodnik po Ziemi Wałbrzyskiej, Wydawnictwo ALKAZAR, Opole. Kurek W., 2007, Historia turystyki w Polsce, [in:] Kurek W. (ed.), Turystyka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 59-65. Lecznictwo uzdrowiskowe w Polsce w latach 2000-2010, 2011, GUS, Kraków. Mika M., Ptaszycka-Jackowska D., 2007, Formy turystyki zdrowotnej, [in:] Kurek W. (ed.), Turystyka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 279-291. Mikos von Rohrscheidt A., 2008, Turystyka kulturowa. Fenomen, potencjał, perspektywy, GWSHM Milenium w Gnieźnie, Gniezno. Mo cibroda J., 2005, Rozwój funkcji turystycznych i rekreacyjnych w uzdrowisku Nałęczów, [in:] Rydz E. (ed.), Kształtowanie funkcji turystycznych w miejscowościach uzdrowiskowych, Pomorska Akademia Pedagogiczna w Słupsku, Słupsk, 22-29.

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Palmowski T., 2005, Funkcje rekreacyjno-turystyczne i uzdrowiskowe Sopotu, [in:] Rydz E. (ed.), Kształtowanie funkcji turystycznych w miejscowościach uzdrowiskowych, Pomorska Akademia Pedagogiczna w Słupsku, Słupsk, 30-37. Pieńkowska H. (ed.), 1974, Materiały i sprawozdania konserwatorskie województwa krakowskiego, Wojewódzki Konserwator Zabytków, Kraków. Richards G., 1996, Cultural tourism In Europe, CAB International, Oxon. Rogers E., 2009, Kierunki przekształceń karpackich uzdrowisk Polski i Słowacji w warunkach gospodarki wolnorynkowej, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków (doctoral dissertation typescript). Rozporządzenie Ministra Zdrowia z dnia 13 kwietnia 2006 r. w sprawie zakresu badań niezbędnych do ustalenia właściwości leczniczych naturalnych surowców leczniczych i właściwości leczniczych klimatu, kryteriów ich oceny oraz wzoru świadectwa potwierdzającego właściwości (Dz. U. z 2006 r., nr 80, poz. 565). Smith M.K., 2009, Issues in Cultural Tourism Studies, Routledge, London-New York. Ustawa z dnia 28 lipca 2005 roku o lecznictwie uzdrowiskowym, uzdrowiskach i obszarach ochrony uzdrowiskowej oraz gminach uzdrowiskowych (tekst jednolity Dz. U. z 2012 r., poz. 651). Warszyńska J., Jackowski A., 1978, Podstawy geografii turyzmu, PWN, Warszawa. Węcławowicz-Bilska E., 1990, Historyczne założenia zdrojowisk w kształtowaniu współczesnych ośrodków balneologicznych w Polsce, Monografia Politechniki Krakowskiej, 104, Kraków. Internet sources http://fotopolska.eu/Krynica_Zdroj (10.03.2014) http://histmag.org (19.03.2014) http://zoppot.fm.interia.pl (19.03.2014) www.forum.dawnygdansk.pl (19.09.2014) www.krynica.pl/Józef-Dietl-c175.html (5.11.2013) www.kudowa.pl/pl/miasto/historia-miasta (3.11.2013) www.ladek.pl (3.11.2013) www.mz.gov.pl (9.09.2013) www.ppkz.pl/portfolio-items/dom-zdrojowy (28.09.2014) www.sopot.net/zabytki.htm (20.09.2014) 61

www.sopotnoclegi.pl/sopot-centrum-haffnera (20.09.2014) www.sopot.pl (5.11.2013) www.suprasl.pl/strony/historia-suprasla (23.08.2014) www.szczawno-jedlina.pl (20.10.2013) www.uzdrowiskociechocinek.pl/art/10/historia.html (20.09.2014) www.ziemiaklodzka.pl/uzdrowiska/historia-uzdrowiska-ladek-zdroj (3.11.2013)

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Role of historical elements in the slogans and logos used by Hungarian places in tourism promotion __________________________ Gábor Kozma1, Klára Czimre2

Introduction The tourists constitute one of the target groups in the place competition which has become sharper in the past decades. The local governments and the entrepreneurs cooperating with them (for example, the accommodation and attraction providers) try various methods to attract them to a given place (Dávid et al. 2008). Researchers claim that this marketing activity may be basically divided into three parts. The first important task is to prepare a theoretical analysis providing as a foundation for the subsequent phases of work; then, relying on the findings of these, to develop the given area, as a product, in an effort to build up a versatile product; finally, the availability of the endowments at hand need to be communicated to the various target groups. One of the most important elements of the third part is the creation of a slogan and a logo which express the advantages of a given place very briefly (Remenyik et al. 2012). The past few decades saw a rapid development of tourism all over the world. According to the UNWTO data, the number of the participants in international tourism increased from 25 million to 1087 million between 1950 and 2013 1

Department of Social Geography and Regional Development Planning, University of Debrecen, Hungary, 4032 Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1., Hungary, [email protected]. 2 Department of Social Geography and Regional Development Planning, University of Debrecen, Hungary, 4032 Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1., Hungary, [email protected].

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(www.2unwto.org), A territorial expansion may be detected in parallel with the growth in the number of tourists: in 1950, almost 100% of the 25 million tourists visited 15 countries, while in 2002 the number of those countries which were visited by more than 1 million tourists exceeded 90. In the spirit of localism being more and more important as opposed to globalism, the historical factor is becoming more and more vital in tourism: it is frequently observed that the various actors try to attract tourists relying on the historical elements of the certain places (e.g. presence of forts, castles, reviving old traditions). This activity, nevertheless, requires sophisticated marketing activity consisting of the creation of a slogan and a logo referring to the historical elements. In the spirit of the above, the aim of the present paper is to study the slogans and logos used during the tourist marketing activities of the Hungarian places from the aspect of history: what particular features the historic elements have in the creation of the slogans and logos. First the general role, characteristics of the slogans and logos are discussed in brief, followed by the general characteristics of the tourist slogans and logos used by the Hungarian places, and finally the study is concluded with the analysis. For the research, the brochures of the “Utazás” International Tourism Exhibition 2014, as well as internet websites have been used, and from these two sources we collected a total of 137 slogans and 66 logos. The use of slogans and logos in the tourism industry The use of slogans in tourism has a long tradition: the publicity materials (leaflets, posters, advertisements) of various resorts used them already in the early twentieth century to suggest the essence of their attractiveness to potential visitors (Ward 1998). With the passage of time, differences between the tourism slogans of various areas could also be observed. American slogans have put much emphasis on the use of impressive – in some cases even somewhat exaggerating – phrases and expressions (e.g. “Atlantic City: America’s Greatest Resort”) (Ward 1998), while the slogans used in Europe were much more “modest” and sparing in words. In the second half of the twentieth century, the differences between the bigger geographical units (e.g. continents) disappeared; the characteristics inherent in the individual geographical units, as well as the different capabilities of the persons creating the slogans and logos, however, continued to be reflected in the quality of these marketing tools. Despite the significance of slogans and symbols used in tourism, few studies have dealt with this issue so far. Klenovsky and Gitelson (1997), relying on the opinion of travel managers, analysed the slogans used by the federal states of the USA, primarily looking for an answer to the following two questions: 64

– Which slogans were chosen by the respondents as the best? – How did the respondents justify their choice of the given slogan? Supphellen and Nygaardsvik (2002) were primarily looking for an answer to the question of how slogans can be tested before wide-scale use, thereby avoiding the use of bad slogans, which could cause more harm than bring benefits. For this reason, they worked out a three-stage normative model, and in addition to the theoretical discussion of his model, they also carried out the testing of the first stage with the use of a Norwegian case study (they tested the slogan used by Norwegian Tourist Board in spring 2001: “Any decent doctor would prescribe Norway”). The federal states of the USA were also in the focus of the study of Lee et al. (2006); however, in addition to the slogans, they also analysed the other elements of the Internet-based advertising activity of the states, such as the design of the websites, the use of various graphic elements, etc. The studies quoted above emphasise that the planning of the slogan and logo altogether requires great attention since possible bad solutions may cause serious problems. The following expectations/conditions may be drafted in connection with these communications tools (Ashworth 2009; Klenovsky, Gitelson 1997; Kotler et al. 1993; Michalkó 2005; Piskóti et al. 2002): – they should express the attraction power of the given place and the characteristics which differentiate them from their rivals; – they should be able to raise enthusiasm and fresh thoughts in relation to the given place; – the slogan and the logo – if both of them are applied – should mutually reinforce each other; – there should be an opportunity for the development of both tools. Slogans and logos used in Hungarian tourism marketing As we mentioned earlier during research a total of 137 slogans and 66 logos were analysed. From among the slogans, 5 related to various regions of tourism (e.g. “South Great Plain – The Region of Delightful Experience”), 12 to individual counties (e.g. “Csongrád county – Treasures under the Sun), 17 to individual micro-regions (e.g. Central Békés – Varied potentials), with the remaining 103 related to settlements. In case of logos 23 attempted to call attention to geographical units larger than individual settlements, with another 43 related to settlements. Analysing the slogans it can be observed that they attempt to call the attention of the potential tourists by means of two methods: on the one hand, they focus attention on the location of the place (e.g. Zamárdi – The heart of Balaton, Zirc – The capital of Bakony mountains). On the other hand they make refer-

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ence to an attribute that provides real uniqueness to the place (e.g. Békés county – Home for nature and waters, Sátoraljaújhely – Capital of the Aszú wine). In case of slogans building upon location there is a clear difference between settlements and larger units (regions, counties, micro-regions). In the latter case, reference to location is very infrequent (only 14.7% of all slogans), while in case of settlements this proportion was 35.9%. The difference is quite obviously due to the fact that the public is by and large aware of the location of regions and counties, while the same may not always be the case for settlements. A more thorough examination of the group of settlements reveals a fundamentally similar pattern (table 1). In case of smaller settlements, the use of individual geographical names is much more common, while in case of bigger settlements, the use of this method is less and less frequent. For example, none of the 13 settlements with a population over 40,000 uses this method. In certain cases, however, the question could be raised whether the geographical reference would be at all useful: with reference to the slogans of “Tiszafüred – The capital of Tisza–lake” and “Lipót – The pearl of Szigetköz,” one could argue that the public at large is generally aware of the location of the Tisza-lake and Szigetköz (the area bordered by the two branches of the Danube in Northwestern Hungary), at the same time, in our opinion, the placement of certain regions on the map would pose some difficulty to many people (e.g. “Putnok - The gate of Gömör” or “Bácsalmás – The gate of Felső-Bácska”). Table 1: The occurrence of geographical names in the slogans of settlements of different sizes (%) Population size Percentage of all settlements Percentage of slogans including geographical names below 10,000 37.9 52.9 10,000 to 25,000 34.7 35.3 over 25,000 27.4 4.2 Source: publications and web pages of the various settlements

In case of slogans highlighting some attractive attribute of the given place, a similar duality may be observed. Only 35.7% of the slogans of places larger than settlements highlighted some specific attractive force of the place (e.g. Velencei Lake – Lake for Anglers), and in other cases the emphasis was on some general feature (e.g. Bács-Kiskun County – Where the sky hits the ground). By contrast, in case of settlements, specific features were mentioned in 47.5% of the slogans (e.g. Harkány – Curing Hug, Szentendre – City of Arts), even though in the majority of the slogans the general features still dominated (e.g. Eger – Your Story, Ózd – More than a Town). The difference in this case can be traced back to the fact that it is much easier to mention a specific attractive feature for settlements that would distinguish that place from others, while

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in case of larger geographical units there is less chance for this due to their inherently more complex nature. Also in connection with the above characteristic features is the grammatical difference in the slogans used by the two types of geographical units. In case of places larger than settlements, only 38.2% used possessive structures, while in case of settlements, this proportion is as high as 53.4%. This difference, in my opinion, is due to the fact that the location of a settlement in geographical space and the mentioning of a specific attribute is almost exclusively possible this way in the Hungarian language, while the possessive is not necessarily important for expressing a general feature. In terms of the frequency of the words used in slogans, it can be observed that the word “város” (town, city) is used more frequently (30 times), which is followed by the words “kapu” (gate, 12 times), “természet” (nature, 10 times), “főváros” (capital, 9 times), “élmény” (delightful experience, 8 times), “gyöngyszem” (pearl) and “szív” (heart) (7-7 times). The order observed in the appearance of the words may be explained by several factors. On the one hand, the fact already mentioned in the previous paragraphs can be highlighted: when referring to specific attributes with a possessive structure, it is almost unavoidable to use the word “town” or “city”. The other important element is the reference to the geographic location of the places which is mostly meant by the possibility of entering somewhere (e.g. Szikszó – The Gate of Abaúj, Velence – The Gate of Velencei Lake). The words capital and heart, as frequently occurring expressions, also refer to the central location of a place but they most often reflect the outstanding role of a settlement within a territorial unit (e.g. Mezőkövesd – The Heart of Matyóföld, Csorna – The Heart of Rábaköz, Karcag – The Capital of Nagykunság). The relatively important role of the word nature occupying the third place can be brought into connection with the will of the people to escape the crowdedness and the urban environment. The analysis of logos (table 2) shows that the most frequently used elements include water (30 occurrences), the Sun (20 occasions) and buildings (18 times), while less frequent are vegetation (15 times), terrain (12 occurrences) and the heart (11 occasions). The first place and the roughly equal appearance of water as a constituent element in the logos of the two levels of territorial units may be explained by the fact that in the tourism regions, counties and micro-regions some natural body of water can be found almost everywhere, and a significant portion of the settlements are located along Lake Balaton (figure 1) or one of the rivers, and therefore they feature water as a real characteristic feature in their symbols (Michalkó 2008). The second place of the Sun is in all likelihood related to the

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endowments of the country; besides, in the case of this element again a balanced use can be detected in relation to the two large territorial units. Table 2: The occurrence of elements used in logos in case of different levels of territorial units (in %) (values above 100% are due to the fact that a logo may contain more than one element) Settlements Units larger than Average settlements Water 50.0 43.5 47.8 Sun 27.3 23.3 32.8 Buildings 38.6 13.0 29.9 Fauna and flora 22.7 39.1 28.4 Terrain 11.4 30.4 17.9 Heart 15.9 17.4 16.4 Source: publications and web pages of the various settlements and other units

Figure 1. The tourism slogan and logo of Gyenesdiás (Resort Village of the West Balaton Region)

One of the most important differences between the two levels – a higher proportion in case of settlements, more specifically – can be observed with respect to the use of buildings. In the background of this result is the fact that it is settlements where there is an effort and indeed a possibility to also feature a characteristic building in their symbols. The opposite may be observed in the cases of the fauna and flora, and the terrain: these elements are less characteristic on the settlements, and therefore they are linked to larger territorial units. The low proportion of references to terrain may be due to the fact of the natural endowments of the country: Hungary predominantly consists of plains and low hills, and therefore few tourism product designers can use terrain as an element in the logos (figure 2).

Figure 2. The logo of Badacsony micro-region

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The often named expectation in the case of the slogans and logos, that is to be supportive of each other, only partially occurs in the case of the Hungarian local governments: out of the 50 cases of common use, this appears only in 24 cases (e.g. figure 3).

Figure 3. The slogan and logo of Zamárdi (The Heart of Lake Balaton)

The role of historical elements in slogans and logos The research concerning the historical characteristics of the use of slogans and logos was carried out basically from two aspects. On the one hand, it was studied whether the towns, which may be regarded historical within the sample, rely on this aspect when creating their slogans and logos. On the other hand, the characteristics of the historical slogans and logos were analysed (during the research the slogans and logos referring to the cultural character were also regarded historical). The definition of the historical towns is very difficult since no objective criteria system has been yet set up in Hungary. Thus, the criteria system was set up during the research on the basis of which those settlements may be regarded historical where the number of inhabitants exceeds 10,000 and the number of historical monuments per one thousand inhabitants is higher than one, or there are at least 30 historical monuments on the settlement regardless the number of inhabitants. Of the settlements using slogans, 30 belong to this category – however, only 14 had a historical slogan (e.g. Pécs – The city of culture). Much better data may be detected in the case of the logos: in the case of 12 historical towns of the 15 had a logo which may be regarded historical (figure 4).

Figure 4. Logo of Gyula (the castle appearing on the logo is the only remaining brick castle in Central Europe)

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There are 13 of the historical towns which have a slogan as well as a logo but both elements are historical only in 7 cases (figure 5), in three cases only the logo may be said to be historical (figure 6), while in three cases the settlement did not rely at all on its historical background when designing the slogan and logo (figure 7).

Figure 5. Slogan and logo of Veszprém (The City of Queen's – the crown of queens can be pieced together from the squares)

Figure 6. Slogan and logo of Keszthely (The Capital of Balaton)

Figure 7. The slogan and logo of Vác (The Heart of Dunakanyar)

Of the 24 slogans which may be regarded historical, 20 are connected to the settlements (that is, 19.4% of the total number of the settlement slogans can be regarded historical), and only four refer to territorial units larger than the settlements (this is 11.8% of the slogans of the total number of territorial units larger than the settlements), which reflects that the settlements are much more likely to use these elements. Mainly two of the expressions used in the slogans should be mentioned here: a person was referred to in seven cases, either a concrete person (e.g. Sárospatak – The Rákóczi's City), or an ethnic group charac-

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terising the given place (e.g. Hajdúböszörmény – capital of the Hayduks). The other significant expression is culture which occurred five times (e.g. Szentendre – City of Arts). Of the 67 logos belonging to the sample 23 may be regarded historical by character (this is 34.3% of the total “stock”), and similarly to the slogans the settlements are much more likely to use this method than the territorial units larger than the settlements (43.2%, and 17.4% respectively). Of the motives used two should be mentioned here: both the church (figure 8) and the castle (e.g. figure 9) occur seven times.

Figure 8. The logo of Szeged

Figure 9. The logo of Sümeg

Conclusion The most important conclusions of the study may be summed up as it follows: – The towns which can be regarded historical rely on their historical traditions much more intensively when creating their logos for tourism marketing than in the case of creating their slogans. – In the case of the logos the emphasis on the historical character of a given place may be much more often observed than in the case of the slogans, and in the case of both marketing elements the settlements are more likely to use these types of tools. – In the case of the slogans mainly the reference to a person can be observed; while in the case of the logos, the role of the castles and churches are the most accentuated.

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References Ashworth G.J., 2009, The instruments of place branding: How it is done, European Spatial Research and Policy, 16, 1, p. 59–74. Dávid L., Bujdosó Z., Tóth G., 2008, Tourism planning in the Hajdú-Bihar – Bihor Euroregion, [in:] Süli-Zakar I. (ed.), Neighbours and partners: On the two sides of the border, Kossuth Egyetemi Kiadó, Debrecen, p. 323–332. Klenovsky D.B., Gitelson, R.E., 1997, Characteristics of Effective Tourism Promotion Slogans, Annals of Tourism Research, 24, 1, p. 235–238. Kotler P., Haider D.H., Rein I., 1993, Marketing Places, The Free Press, New York – Toronto, p. 388. Lee G., Cai L.A., O`Leary J.T., 2006, An analysis of brand-building elements in the US state tourism websites, Tourism Management, 27, p. 815–828. Michalkó G., 2005, A turisztikai miliő földrajzi értelmezése, Tér és Társadalom, 19, 1, p. 43–63. Michalkó G., 2008, A Balaton turisztikai miliője: a magyar tenger sajátos atmoszférájának turizmusorientált vizsgálata, Turizmus Bulletin, 11, 4, p. 13–19. Pénzes J., 2013, The dimensions of peripheral areas and their restructuring in Central Europe, Hungarian Geographical Bulletin, 62, 4, p. 373–386. Remenyik B., Bujdosó Z., Radics Zs., 2012, A turizmus kialakulása és fejlődése a Tisza-tó mentén, [in:] Aubert A., Gyuricza L., Huszti Zs. (eds.), A kultúra turizmusa a turizmus kultúrája, Idresearch Kft. – Publikon Kiadó, Pécs, p. 515–527. Supphellen M., Nygaardsvik I., 2002, Testing country brand slogans: conceptual development and empirical illustration of a simple normative model, Brand Management, 9, 4-5, p. 385–395. Piskóti L., Dankó L., Schupler H., 2002, Régió- és településmarketing, KJK– Kerszöv, Budapest, p. 389. Ward S.W., 1998, Selling places: The marketing and promotion of towns and cities 1850-2000, E & FN Spon, London, p. 269.

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Industrial and technical heritage of Wrocław – wasted potential? __________________________ Krzysztof Kołodziejczyk1

Introduction Wrocław is commonly acknowledged as one of the most important sightseeing centres in Poland (Czerniewicz-Umer, Omilanowska, Majewski 2007; Galla 1999; Maciejewska 2002; Wyrzykowski 1992). The city is famous for its market square (one of the biggest in Europe, second largest in Poland), gothic town hall and various churches, especially those located on the Dome Island (Ostrów Tumski in Polish), and the Centennial Hall, which in 2006 was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Moreover, tourists very often visit Wrocław’s zoological garden and chosen museums, the City Museum in the Royal Palace and the Panorama of Racławice (a huge – 120×15 metre – painting from 1894 depicting one of the most important battles in the Polish history, when in 1794 the Poles defeated the Russians) being the most frequented. Those places are the main “targets” of both Polish and foreign tourists, but – on the other hand – are quite intensively promoted by the local government and the Lower Silesian Tourist Organisation (Dolno ląska Organizacja Turystyczna in Polish). Most of them are quite well accessible and are crucial elements of the general tourist product of Wrocław.

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University of Wrocław, Institute of Geography and Regional Development, Department of Regional and Tourism Geography, Pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50–137 Wrocław, Poland, [email protected]

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However, we cannot forget that Wrocław is also one of the biggest industrial cities of Central Europe (Slenczek 1996). The development of goods manufacturing in the capital of Lower Silesia dates back to the middle ages, when it was connected with guilds and first handicraft workshops. In the 18th century first manufactures appeared and the scale of production became much bigger. Mid18th century is also the moment when sugar-mills (using sugar-cane) were introduced in Wrocław. However, the actual development of industry started at the beginning of 19th century after the demolition of city walls, filling up the inner moat, introduction of railway and the establishment of a regular modern transport on the Odra river. The area covered by industrial buildings became bigger and bigger (not only in the city itself, but also on the outskirts), the number of employees grew systematically (Maciejewska 2002; Sikorski 2012). Throughout that time many constructions were created, which, from today’s perspective, are important witnesses of the technological development, but also an inseparable part of the city’s history (figure 1). Some of the most valuable buildings date back to various moments of the 19th century and were entered in the register of historic monuments (heritage) of the Lower Silesia voivodeship. As a result, they should be specially protected by law, which very often just is not true. They are abandoned, slowly dilapidating, and their huge potential (from the historic, social and tourist point of view) is not utilised. This corresponds with studies by Sikorski (2012), who assessed, that although in Wrocław there are many industrial and post-industrial buildings that could have been successfully revitalised, the revitalisation is not popular. Only few investors started to restore technical infrastructure, but almost none of these plans ended with full success. It is much easier to demolish all old buildings and replace them with new structures, because the most important feature for most of the investors is the attractive localisation of the plot (Sikorski 2012). And we have to remember that some of the factories – due to the development of the city – are now located almost in the city centre. As a result, there are no real, functioning tourist attractions connected with industrial and technical heritage in Wrocław. Wrocław’s industrial buildings can be divided into three categories: 1) regularly operating in conformity with their designated purpose, 2) production ceased and the building is abandoned (forgotten heritage), 3) examples of revitalisation. In this paper, last two categories will be examined.

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Figure 1. Industrial and technical heritage of Wrocław (selected objects): A – “Piast” Brewery, B – “Na Grobli” Water Tower, C – intermediate pumping station “Świątniki”, D – city’s slaughterhouse, E – sugar-factory in Klecina, F – sugar-factory in Sołtysowice, G – “Sułkowice” Mill, H – old tram depot in Legnicka street, I – water-tower in Sudecka street; J – Bourgeois Brewery (Browar Mieszczański), K – Open Museum of the Odra River, L – main train station, M – former station of the Upper Silesian Railway, N – two water power-plants Source: prepared by the author

Forgotten heritage Most of the industrial and technical heritage of Wrocław, from the tourist perspective, is just forgotten. Although it exists in the city’s landscape, it is not significant to inhabitants of Wrocław and tourists. One of the most important objects of this type is the “Piast” Brewery (photo 1), situated in the northeastern part of the city centre. A brewery in this location started to operate in 1893, but the company was established already in 1880’s (the first malt-house and brewery owned by the company were located just near the main market square). After the Second World War the factory was nationalised, but continued the production using the same methods and infrastructure. In 1995 the company was bought by Ryszard Varisella and in 2001 – by the Dutch company Carlsberg, which soon, in 2004, suspended the production (Leksykon... 2011). From this date on, the beer that has “Wrocław” in its name is manufactured in Okocim in a different voivodship (sic!). In 2007 an American investor bought 75

the area with a plan to revitalise it and to create an unusual housing estate with services and offices. Some buildings were demolished (photo 1c), but fortunately those most valuable, entered in the register of monuments, survived. Unexpectedly the paste of the investment run down dramatically in 2008 and from that time the “Piast” Brewery is an example of an unsuccessful and relinquished investment (Sikorski 2012). However, it is still the biggest factory built of red bricks in this part of the city. The whole complex represents style corresponding to the north renaissance, typical of industrial architecture of the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The existing buildings within the complex include: 1) seasoning-house from 1890’s with a tower added in 1911 (photo 1a), 2) stable, coach-house and repair shop from 1911 (even in 1934 the brewery possessed 110 horses), 3) edifice of the malt-house management from 1894, formed like a villa (photo 1b), 4) building of the brewery management with the owner’s flat, also from 1894 (photo 1a, b, d). The “Piast” Brewery could have been changed into a tourist attraction with beer production being not the main marketing target, but a part of a bigger tourist product based on the industrial heritage (now mainly demolished or destroyed, but some elements fortunately were preserved and should be reused in new constructions). Taking into account other historic breweries opened to the public (Tychy2 or ywiec3 in Poland, Českě Budějovice, Český Krumlov, Plzeň or Dobruška in the Czech Republic) this is quite a profitable way of reorganising or revitalising such factories. A brewery tourist product can be combined of several elements: historic exhibition, trip to the production section, degustation and other catering facilities (especially restaurant, usually serving traditional, local cuisine), factory shop, souvenirs and other attractions, sometimes quite loosely connected with the beer topic, like amusement parks. It is also worth mentioning that in most of the above listed cases, the history of companies is similar to the “Piast” Brewery – a primarily private company was nationalised after the Second World War and after the political transformation became once again a regular capital company, sometimes owned by big concerns. Fortunately, the production was continued and, additionally, a varied offer for tourists was prepared.

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In Tychy tourists can visit the biggest exhibition about brewing industry in Poland, a 3D cinema, a pub and a gift shop. Also a tour through the production section (both historic and modern parts) and a free degustation of beer is possible. There are special guided tours by night, in the Silesian dialect or presented from the perspective of ecotourism. 3 In the ywiec Brewery there is the Brewery Museum showing 150 years of the company’s history using both archival materials and multimedia, a gift shop and a restaurant serving traditional cuisine. In this case also a tour through the production section is possible (including historic brew kettles and a huge modern filter tank).

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Photo 1. “Piast” Brewery: a) a general view from the south-east with the former seasoning-house (in the centre) and the tower of the building of the brewery management (to the right); b) seasoning-house (to the left), edifice of the brewery management (in the centre) and the building of the malt-house management (to the right); c) view from the east at the demolished part of the brewery; d) building of the brewery management (photo: K. Kołodziejczyk)

In this category we can also mention the water-supply works in Na Niskich ąkach street. Although the complex is in very good condition (still partly used accordingly to the designated purpose) and is mentioned in many guidebooks and papers concerning technical heritage (Barszcz, Kurowska-Ciechańska, Ciechański 2008; Dylewski 2004; Leksykon... 2011), it is not known to many citizens of Wrocław and it is not popular among tourists. The reason is very simple – it is closed for general public. Only organised groups by appointment can visit the complex of water-supply works. Making it more accessible would be a great idea regarding its history, technical and artistic value. The most important elements of the historic complex are: the “Na Grobli” Water Tower (photo 2) and the intermediate pumping station “Świątniki”, located a few kilometres to the south-east. Both structures were built as a result of Wrocław’s problems with water supply, which started in 1840’s. In 1863 the Town Council decided to create a modern water-supply works that would use steam engines.

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The construction started in 1867 according to a project by an English hydrotechnician John Moore; it was completed in 1871. The monumental water-tower was built in 1871, but equipped with modern steam pomp in 1879. Laid out on an unusual square plan, neo-gothic in style, the tower has two water reservoirs and is still to this day mechanically efficient (although not used). The building is often compared to the Berlin Library designed by the famous architect Karl F. Schinkel or even to the main part of the Malbork Castle. However, the most interesting is the interior of the tower with rich architectonical decoration and open-work, spiral staircase with various floral ornaments (mainly of water plants). There are plans to use the tower as an element of the Wrocław Scientific Centre (Wrocławskie Centrum Nauki in Polish); now from time to time special theatre performances are given there. The intermediate pumping station “Świątniki” was built in 1901–1904 in the Secession style and preserved its original form and most of the equipment to the present day (Barszcz, Kurowska-Ciechańska, Ciechański 2008; Leksykon... 2011).

Photo 2. The “Na Grobli” Water Tower seen from the south (a) and south-east with one of two side-wings with boilers room (b) (photo: K. Kołodziejczyk)

Among many objects that were completely demolished is the city’s slaughterhouse built in 1892–1896 in – in that time – the western suburbs of Wrocław. The whole complex was enlarged in 1902–1920 and in the 1930’s and finally covered the area of almost 51 ha. It was combined of three parts: 1) administrative buildings, 2) animal market with shops, enclosures and balances, and finally 3) actual slaughterhouses with slaughtering halls, warehouses and cold storage plants (photo 3a). At the begging of the 20th century it was one of the most modern slaughterhouses in Europe. The whole complex was almost totally

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destroyed during the Second World War, but the most important (and valuable) buildings were rebuilt using the original layout and architectural elements. Although being very modern at the time of creation and representing style typical for industrial architecture of the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, all buildings were totally demolished in 1999–2000 (Leksykon... 2011), partly without the knowledge of the regional conservator of monuments. It is more surprising when we confront this with the fact, that the last elements of the slaughter complex were not rebuilt (after the destructions of the Second World War) until mid-1990’s. Now the spot is occupied by a huge shopping centre “Magnolia Park”, opened in 2007. The form of modern buildings – although quite appreciated by architects (Leksykon... 2011) – only to a small degree corresponds with the historic edifices (photo 3b).

Photo 3. a) Part of the city’s slaughterhouse (cattle round-up hall) in 1999 (Source: Leksykon... 2011), b) the “Magnolia Park” shopping centre located on the place of the demolished slaughterhouse complex (photo: K. Kołodziejczyk)

Similar situation happened in case of the sugar-factory in Klecina, founded already in 1839 by Gustav and Adolph Liebich and M. Hikkel. By the end of the 19th century it was the most modern factory of that type in Germany. In some of the buildings, ceilings were supported by cast-iron columns (Leksykon... 2011). Almost the entire factory was demolished at the beginning of the 21st century in order to make space for the development of shopping complex connected with the crossing of several main roads (including the A4 highway) south of Wrocław (the village of Bielany Wrocławskie), however – because of the economic crisis – the investment was put off and to the present day no new structures appeared. The only remainders of the factory are two administrative buildings, one with a clock-tower, and an adjoining small caretaker’s lodge. The sugar-factory in Sołtysowice was also completely demolished in 2011–2012, while the nearby “Sułkowice” Mill (Leksykon... 2011; Sikorski

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2012) – at the beginning of 2014. Both industrial complexes dated back to 1890. In all described examples, almost nothing remained of the historic structures (as well as the equipment) that were not revitalised or reused for different purposes4, not even commemorated after the demolition. And we have to consider, that they represented not only typical styles of the industrial architecture of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, but they also contained examples of crucial technical solutions and technologies, allowing them to be – in some time of the history – most modern factories in Europe. In Wrocław there are about 50 historic tramcars, but only seven of them are mechanically efficient, restored and used for tourist purposes (seasonal tourist lines, occasional lines, private hires). The most famous among them is the tram named “Ja and Małgosia”, combined of two coaches of the “Neue Berolina” type from 1901 and 1902. There are also two trams from 1929 representing the “Standard” type, while other were constructed after the Second World War. In recent years the Club of Municipal Transport Lovers (Klub Sympatyków Transportu Miejskiego in Polish) restored the Konstal 4N1 type tram constructed in 1960 in Chorzów. But still more than 40 historic tram-cars, in most cases officially protected by law as a technical heritage and owned by the city (sic!), are neglected at the yard of the former tram depot in Legnicka street, their metal elements are rusting while their wooden parts decay (photo 4). Most of them were produced after 1948, but there are also coaches from the beginning of the 20th century and from the 1920’s, some of them absolutely unique. Some of the trams were mechanically efficient even a few years ago, but after translocation to the old depot most of the metal parts (especially made from copper) were stolen. In the middle of 2013, a decision was made to transfer all the historic trams into a building (most probably, it will be the tram depot “Dąbie” near the Centennial Hall), but till June 2014 such operation was not conducted (although funds are secured). It is worth mentioning that a public transport museum was organised in Wrocław in the 1990’s, but due to legal and financial problems it was never opened. After that moment the situation of the historic rolling-stock became much worse. The present state and perspectives for the development of tourist utilisation of the heritage of Wrocław’s tramway transport were presented earlier by the author (Kołodziejczyk 2011).

Potential ideas for reusing such technical heritage are housing, services, trade or even tourist purposes (Liszewski 1992). In the last case there are examples from different parts of the world of creating accommodation facilities, museums or amusement parks in old industrial building. The best examples might be the Tate Modern in London, situated in 2000 in a former power-plant, or the Musée d’Orsay in Paris, located in 1986 in a former train station. 4

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Photo 4. Neglected historic tram-cars at the yard of the former tram depot in Legnicka street: a) German “Standard” type tram-car from about 1926, b) a “Standard” type tram-car from about 1929 (to the left) and Polish Konstal 4N1 coach from 1962 (to the right) (photo: K. Kołodziejczyk)

Examples of revitalised heritage There is probably only one example of a fully successful revitalisation of technical and industrial heritage in Wrocław. That is the water-tower in Sudecka street (photo 5a) in the southern, residential district of Wrocław. Built in 1903– 1904 as a part of the city’s water-supply system, it was operating till 1985, when it was abandoned, but finally in recent years it was transformed into a restaurant (high-standard restaurant, bistro-café and separate rooms for private parties, in summer a garden-restaurant is also organised around the tower). The tower represents eclectic style with elements of the neo-Romanesque style (and various other reminiscences of the Middle Ages) and Secession. The form of the vault in the middle section of the tower (below the former water reservoir) resembles gothic vaults typical of many churches in Wrocław and Lower Silesia (photo 5b). The whole construction is quite light, but on the other hand monumental – this effect was possible thanks to the high pillars and bays (gaps) between them introduced to the project (Leksykon... 2011). All those elements define the architectonic value of the water-tower in Sudecka street. It is also worth mentioning, that the 63 metre high tower from the beginning served as a view tower with a nice panorama of Ślęża Massif and Sudety Mountains to the south. Unfortunately, the viewing terrace is now closed to general public (opened only for special guests). Another example of revitalisation of industrial heritage is the Bourgeois Brewery (Browar Mieszczański) in Hubska street (photo 6), close to the main train station. It developed from a small brewery with a beer-garden owned by Robert Hein. The present complex of buildings in Hubska street was constructed mainly in 1894–1897 and is composed of: digester-house, fermentation-house, seasoning-house, refrigeration plant, boiler-house and the engine

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room. In 1901–1912 some smaller technological buildings such as a bottling plant, barrel manufacture, filtration plant and stables were added. Although the whole complex is not imposing from the technical and architectonical point of view, it represents a typical factory architecture from the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Interesting in the artistic form of most edifices are the various small details, such as cornices, door and window heads, flush panels and pinnacles. Beer production continued till 1997 when the factory was bought by the Carlsberg company, which transformed it into a distribution centre. Since that time the whole complex became more and more dilapidated, but finally all the devastated buildings were bought by Krzysztof Wojtas, who started to organise a cultural centre in them (Leksykon... 2011). Today the whole complex is opened to the public, there are a few galleries and ateliers, conference centre and show-rooms where from time to time theatre spectacles are given. There are open-air and in-room concerts, festivals and other events organised. Although the whole complex is once again “living”, it makes an impression of being not well planned and still quite neglected, this especially applies to pavements on the yards. On the other hand that might be a purposeful decision of the owner, in order to emphasise the artistic, spontaneous development of the complex. Some of the technical structures of the former brewery survived and are exhibited in some parts of the centre, for example in the newly modernised conference room (the so called club). Unfortunately, almost no information about the history of the brewery is offered.

Photo 5. Water-tower in Sudecka street: a) general view from the south, b) the middle part of the tower with gargoyles and a characteristic vault (photo: K. Kołodziejczyk)

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Photo 6. Bourgeois Brewery (Browar Mieszczański) in Hubska street: a) the entrance part, b) the main yard (photo: K. Kołodziejczyk)

The Open Technical Museum Foundation (Fundacja Otwartego Muzeum Techniki in Polish) was established in cooperation with most of Wrocław’s industrial facilities in 1992, that is in the moment of political transformation and – as a result – organisational transformations of the state-owned industry sector. The main aim of the foundation is to preserve industrial heritage and make it accessible to the general public in places where it originally operated (Barszcz, Kurowska-Ciechańska, Ciechański 2008). Sincethat time the organisation established two museums: the Open Museum of the Odra River in Wrocław and the Technical Museum of the Sowie Mountains (part of the Sudety Mountains). Unfortunately, in recent years both museums have been almost permanently closed, only the first one can be visited by appointment, which is an inconvenient option for tourists. The organisation does not have enough money to restore the possessed historic infrastructure. As a result, it is hard to say if the heritage is properly maintained and if it will be accessible to the public in the future. The problem of the foundation was the ineffective promotion of attractions and focusing only on a specific group of industry orientated tourists. Considering all elements of a tourist product (Kaczmarek, Stasiak, Włodarczyk 2005), in case of the Open Technical Museum only the core of the product was available and there was no additional offer focused on families or children. And looking at many similar tourist attractions in Europe (for example in Great Britain) this supplementary part of a tourist product is sometimes the most important one. Three watercrafts are collected in the Open Museum of the Odra River (photo 8): 1) the steam tug boat “Nadbór” made in the Netherlands in 1949 (this is the only inland steam ship in Poland with the steam engine and the hull preserved in good condition), 2) the floating crane “Wróblin” constructed in Germany in 1938–1939 (the only watercraft of that type on the Odra river), 3) the tank barge “Irena” manufactured in 1936 in Bydgoszcz. Those three ships can be now observed from the Odra bank opposite the Technical University of Wrocław, but it

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is almost impossible to walk on deck and see their inside. There is no information about the heritage available, so a typical tourist (not technically educated) will not even pay attention to the historic watercraft; and a person who would come here purposefully will gain no data and will not be able to appreciate the visit. As a part of preparations for the football championships Euro 2012, Wrocław’s main train station – being neglected and a negative symbol of the city for many years – was completely restored in the years 2010-2012 and is now acknowledged as one of the most beautiful buildings of that kind in Poland. The station was constructed between 1855 and 1857 in an English (Tudor) neogothic style, but soon after, between 1899 and 1904, it was rebuilt and enlarged. From the first period remain the impressive front-building, 200 metre long, reminding 19th century palaces, and the glazed main hall of the same length, where originally platforms were located. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries all the tracks were relocated to a 5 metre high trestle bridge, a new, bigger hall with platforms was added, while the old one housed ticket offices, information, restaurant and other services. Vaults of both halls are supported by steel, riveted columns (Czerwiński 1993; Dylewski 2005; Leksykon... 2011). In that time it was the biggest German railway station, one of the most modern in Europe. It is worth mentioning that near the main train station one can see a much smaller former station of the Upper Silesian Railway, the first railway in Poland (considering today’s borders, back then this railway was located in Prussia). Several buildings (main hall, manager’s office, clerk offices, engine-house, wagon-house, repair shops, warehouses) were constructed in 1841–1842. After the opening of the main train station in 1857 the old one started to fulfil only administrative and technical functions, some of the buildings were even demolished (Leksykon... 2011). Those that remained till now are in quite good condition, used by various railway companies. Behind the former main hall there is the original platform, from where the first train from Wrocław to Oława started its journey on May 21st, 1842 (Czerwiński 1993; Jerczyński, Koziarski 1992). Unfortunately, this information is known only to a small group of specialists, the fact is not commemorated by any information displayed in the place and the historic platform is not accessible to the general public, so the old train station cannot be acknowledged as a tourist attraction.

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Photo 7. Exhibits of the Open Museum of the Odra River: a) the steam tug boat “Nadbór” (with the “Na Grobli” Water Tower in the background, to the right), b) the floating crane “Wróblin” (to the left) (photo: K. Kołodziejczyk)

In Wrocław, the Odra river flows in several channels (natural and artificial). along which various water engineering objects were constructed (11 weirs, 10 canal locks, many culverts, flood-gates, polders, 47 bridges). Most of the constructions date back to the 2nd half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, mainly after the big flood in 1903 (Czerwiński 1993). In recent years, some elements of this complex – an unusual type of technical heritage – have been restored and modernised, but none of them has been opened to the public. However, during the works some buildings were exposed (some even illuminated) and new recreation areas in the green space along the river were created. Connected with the water engineering objects are two water powerplants, located just near the city centre, opposite the main building of the University of Wrocław. The older one was built in 1921–1924 (photo 8a), the second one – in 1924–1925 (photo 8b). They are very important in terms of the history of architecture, because they are the first representatives of a new style called Neues Bauen in Wrocław (and among the earliest examples in Germany). Both were designed by a famous architect Max Berg5 with the second one being his last creation (Leksykon... 2011). The newer power-plant was restored in 2013, works in the older one started in the same time and will continue throughout 2014. Unfortunately, both buildings will not be opened to the public

Max Paul Eduard Berg (1870–1947) – architect, in 1900–1909 architectural inspector in Frankfurt on Main, in 1909–1924 the main architect of Wrocław. In that time he cooperated with Hans Poelzig. Among many buildings in Wrocław constructed according to his design are: the Centennial Hall and various other buildings in its vicinity (Ilkosz 1998), city baths, a chapel in the Osobowice cemetery, two water power-plants. He prepared a draft for creating the Great Berlin (1910), rebuilding of Wrocław (1910, 1919–1922) and a project of the first in Silesia garden-city in Sobótka (all not carried out). In 1924 he moved to Berlin and started theoretical studies about architecture (Leksykon... 2011). 5

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and up till now their role in the history of architecture (and history of infrastructure) has not been commemorated and exposed properly.

Photo 8. Both water power-plants located on the Odra river near the city centre: a) the older one (from 1921–1924, with St. Elisabeth church in the background) and b) the newer one (from 1924– 1925) (photo: K. Kołodziejczyk)

Conclusion As shown by the above mentioned examples, Wrocław has a great potential for the development of cultural tourism connected with industrial and technical heritage, but it is utilized only to a very small degree. Only few structures were revitalized, while many historic industrial complexes – valuable because of their architectural style, technical solutions and their role in the history of industry – are abandoned, dilapidating, or simply demolished, even though they are (were) protected by law as a part of the national heritage. In only two cases the old infrastructure was transformed to serve purposes somehow connected with tourism (the restaurant in a water-tower and the cultural centre in a brewery). Very often the important heritage that few years ago (in the moment of suspending of production) could have been easily changed into a tourist attraction, is now – because of inappropriate decisions – almost completely destroyed. On the other hand, many objects in good condition are not equipped with informational panels providing tourists with the most important information concerning their value and uniqueness among other structures. Answering the question in the title, it is easy to assess that the industrial and technical heritage of Wrocław is being wasted, especially when we compare it with other monuments, such as gothic and baroque churches or city palaces, which are well maintained, efficiently promoted and provided with suitable information. The presented situation is typical not only of Wrocław, but generally of Lower Silesia, where the pre-war German heritage was not appreciated by the communistic government. As a confirmation of this thesis we can name Konary,

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a village near Wołów, about 50 km north-west from Wrocław. In 1799 the entire village was bought by a chemist and physicist Franz Carl Achard, who planned to establish there a sugar-beet plantation and a factory, which used his pioneer technology to extract sugar from beets (contrary to the previous method based on sugar-cane). The first sugar-mill of that type in the world started the production of brown sugar in Konary in 1802. Although it was destroyed in 1807 by a fire, it was rebuilt in 1812 thanks to the financial help of the emperor, Friedrich Wilhelm III (also a sugar industry school was opened at that time). The historic building survived untill the Second World War (however it was used as a granary), but it was almost completely destroyed soon after (Barszcz, Kurowska-Ciechańska, Ciechański 2008; Czerwiński 2009; Pilch 2005). Today F. C. Achard and his work – a crucial landmark in the history of industry – is commemorated only by a simple monument. There is no museum or even a small exhibition, which would be much appreciated concerning the historic status of the place. It is impossible to attain any more precise information about the heritage of the place. Unfortunately, the demolition of historic industrial monuments continues also nowadays. At the beginning of 2014, a private owner completely destroyed a massive complex of a mechanical flax spinning factory in Mysłakowice near the Giant Mountains (Karkonosze in Polish), which dated back to the mid18th century (Czerwiński 2009). Although the building was an architecture monument protected by law (entered in the monument register of the Lower Silesia voivodeship), the owner was sentenced only to a fine, which was approximately 20 times smaller than the value of cast-iron gainedfrom the structure, not mentioning other elements, such as the historic machines. Similar stories can be told about other significant factories in such Lower Silesian cities like Wałbrzych (the Museum of Industry and Technique in Wałbrzych is now being reorganised; it should be opened in December 2014), Boguszów-Gorce (Wójcik 2012), Pieszyce, Bielawa or Walim – they were demolished or abandoned and each year become more and more dilapidated. Similar problems are also typical of other Polish cities with industrial history, especially ódź (Wycichowska 2012). As a contrast to the pessimistic situation in Wrocław, it is worth to mention some positive examples of utilization of post-industrial and technical heritage from Central Europe. Even in Lower Silesia, there are some interesting and frequented post-industrial tourist attractions, such as the baroque wooden papermill in Duszniki Zdrój, the gold mine in Złoty Stok, the pit-coal mine in Nowa Ruda and the uranium mine in Kowary. We cannot forget about the Industrial Monuments Route (Szlak Zabytków Techniki in Polish) in the Upper Silesia voivodeship which includes 36 objects connected with mining, railway engineering, power industry, brewing industry, glass-making, textile industry and even matches manufacturing (http://www.zabytkitechniki.pl/, 11.06.2014).

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However only some of these factories have regular opening hours (in some cases only on selected days in a week), others can be visited by appointment. Worth mentioning is also the city of Ostrava in the Czech Republic, where many valuable industrial structures were restored and used for other purposes. There are several old mines and factories serving as tourist attractions. The Michael Mine (Důl Michal in Czech), the OKD Mining Museum, the industrial complex in Dolní Vítkovice and the “Ostravar” Brewery have regular opening hours while the Alexander Mine (Důl Alexander in Czech) and the hoist tower “Jind ich” can be observed from outside. In many cases transforming an old mine or factory into a tourist attraction (Liszewski 1992) is not only a way to maintain the heritage properly (or even enable it to survive), but also to create a quite profitable business, as is shown by examples from Germany, the Czech Republic or Great Britain. References Barszcz M., Kurowska-Ciechańska J., Ciechański A., 2008, Technika, Carta Blanca, Warsaw. Czerniewicz-Umer T., Omilanowska M., Majewski J. S., 2007, Poland, Dorling Kindersley Limited, London. Czerwiński J., 1993, Wrocław. Przewodnik, Wydawnictwo Leopoldinum, Wrocław. Czerwiński J., 2009, Dolny ląsk. Przewodnik, Wydawnictwo Kartograficzne Eko-graf, Wrocław. Dylewski A., 2005, Niezwykły świat techniki, Świat Książki, Bertelsmann Media, Warsaw. Galla A., 1999, Cultural Heritage of Wrocław in the Context of German Tourism, [in:] Wyrzykowski J. (ed.), Conditions of the Foreign Tourism Development in Central and Eastern Europe, Vol. 5, Alternative Tourism as an Important Factor of Incoming Tourism Development in Central and Eastern Europe, Wrocław University, Wrocław, 53–55. Ilkosz J., 1998, The Centenary Hall and the 1913 Wrocław Centennial Exhibition. Creation of Max Berg and Hans Poelzig, [in:] Czerner O., Małachowicz E., Lose S. (eds.), That Wonderful Wrocław Modern Movement, Wydawnictwo VIA, Wrocław, 41–71. Jerczyński M., Koziarski S., 1992, 150 lat kolei na ląsku, Instytut Śląski w Opolu, Opole – Wrocław. Kaczmarek J., Stasiak A., Włodarczyk B., 2005, Produkt turystyczny. Pomysł – Organizacja – Zarządzanie, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa.

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Kołodziejczyk K., 2011, Historia, stan i perspektywy wykorzystania w turystyce dziedzictwa wrocławskiej komunikacji tramwajowej, [in:] Widawski K. (ed.), Turystyka kulturowa na Dolnym ląsku – wybrane aspekty. Tom 2, Instytut Geografii i Rozwoju Regionalnego, Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Wrocław, 119–150. Leksykon architektury Wrocławia, 2011, eds. Eysymont R., Ilkosz J., Tomaszewicz A., Urbanik J., Wydawnictwo Via Nova, Wrocław. Liszewski S., 1992, The Industrial City as a Tourist Centre. The example of ódź, Turyzm, 2, 1, 9–24. Maciejewska B., 2002, Wrocław. History of the city, Wydawnictwo Dolno ląskie, Wrocław. Pilch J., 2005, Leksykon zabytków architektury Dolnego ląska, Wydawnictwo „Ardady”, Warsaw. Sikorski D., 2012, Zmiany funkcjonalne terenów przemysłowych i poprzemysłowych we Wrocławiu po 1989 roku [in:] Namy lak B., Szmytkie R. (eds.), Przekształcenia przestrzeni miejskiej Wrocławia. Ujęcie geograficzne – vol. 1, Rozprawy Naukowe Instytutu Geografii i Rozwoju Regionalnego 24, Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Wrocław, 33–53. Slenczek M., 1996, Miasto Wrocław jako ośrodek przemysłowy, Acta Universitatis Wrarislaviensis, Prace Instytutu Geograficznego, Geografia Społeczna i Ekonomiczna 14, 84–95. Wójcik J., 2012, Stan, wykorzystanie i zagospodarowanie obiektów poprzemysłowych w Wałbrzychu i Boguszowie-Gorcach, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem budynków i budowli pogórniczych, [in:] Widawski K. (ed.), Turystyka kulturowa na Dolnym ląsku – wybrane aspekty. Tom 2, Instytut Geografii i Rozwoju Regionalnego, Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Wrocław, 97–117. Wycichowska B., 2010, Zanikający krajobraz odzi przemysłowej w XXI wieku, [in:] Chylińska D., ach J. (eds.), Studia krajobrazowe a ginące krajobrazy, Instytut Geografii i Rozwoju Regionalnego, Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Wrocław, 127–136. Wyrzykowski J., 1992, Wrocław as a Large Sightseeing Center, Turyzm, 2, 1, 49–60. http://www.zabytkitechniki.pl/, 11.06.2014.

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Small towns in the Polish Carpathians – the coexistence of heritage and tourism __________________________ Magdalena Kubal1, Robert Pawlusiński2

Introduction Small towns are a special type of municipal units in the Polish settlement network. For ages, small towns were centres of administrative, educational, religious and cultural life to nearby rural areas, where the agriculture sector employed a large part of their population (see Heffner 2000, 2008; Bagiński 1998). Nowadays, as a result of economy transformations, the conditions for the functioning of small towns in Poland have fundamentally changed. Development opportunities of small towns are influenced by geographical location. In the case of towns adjacent to large urban areas, the agglomeration provides jobs for residents of small towns. Lower cost of land and labour attract new industrial and commercial investments, and slower lifestyle contributes to the influx of permanent residents from nearby towns and cities. In contrast, peripheral towns function in different developmental conditions, characterized by mostly low local entrepreneurships, a relatively small supply of jobs and a strong depopulation trends. These towns must seek development opportunities in their own resources (Hewison 1997; Małek 2003; Durydiwka 2011; Murzyn-Kupisz 2013). Cultural heritage, landscape and natural environment seem to be an increasingly important asset for the small towns. All this creates a potential op1

Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland, [email protected] 2 Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland, [email protected]

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portunity for the development of the tourism sector (Kosiński 2000; Durydiwka 2011; Pawlusiński 2012). The purpose of this article is to determine the possibility of tourism development in small towns of the Polish Carpathians (STPC), based on the local cultural heritage. The authors try to capture the relationship and dependencies between cultural heritage of the Carpathian` towns and their tourism development. Small towns in the settlement structure of the Polish Carpathians The settlement network in the Polish Carpathians consists of nearly 100 settlements of urban character (Górka 1995). This number includes both centres, which have the legal status of the city (city rights) and centres, which in the past had city rights, but lost them and have not recovered them to this day (the socalled degraded towns). There are also villages that resemble an urban village, but never had the legal status of the city (e.g. Kozy). At present in the Polish Carpathians, there are 56 towns that have municipal rights and 39 degraded towns. In recent years, there was an attempt of some of the villages to recover or obtain city status , mainly because of the prestige associated with it. At the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, 9 of the villages in the Polish Carpathians received municipal rights, and in most cases those were the degraded towns. Cities in the Polish Carpathians are inhabited in total by 860 thousand residents, representing 24.6% of the total population of the region. Considering the number of people and functions that a particular urban centre fulfils in the Carpathians, three groups of urban settlements can be distinguished. These are: - regional centres (3 cities): Bielsko-Biala (175 thous. inhabitants), Nowy Sącz (85 thous. inhabitants) and Krosno (47 thous. inhabitants). These cities, during 70-90 years of the twentieth century, were the capitals of provinces, places of concentration of industrial activities and services, which negatively impacted smaller cities; now all of them are townships; - sub-regional centres (10 towns) - cities with a population of above 18 thousand residents of supra-local social and economic importance, performing predominantly administrative functions (county seat). This group of cities includes: Andrychów, Cieszyn, Gorlice, Jasło, My lenice, Nowy Targ, Sanok, Wadowice, Zakopane, ywiec. These cities are characterized by well-developed (based on the region) industrial activities and services, which differentiate their urban functions. - small towns (43 cities) - local centres of less than 18 thousand residents3, In Poland, the small town category is defined by the number of inhabitants – 20 thous. In this study, due to the nature and character of the region and the diversification of the economic functions performed by the town, the authors decided to deliberately reduce this limit to 18 thousand 3

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linked economically and culturally with neighbouring areas; most of them are the seats of municipalities, and in some cases, of county authorities. The overall population in these towns is 265 thousand, i.e. approx. 1/3 of the urban population of the Carpathians. Most small towns have less than 10 thousand residents, and 16 of them have less than 5 thousand residents. Larger cities in this group, by population, are: Ustroń (15.9 thous.), Limanowa (15.1 thous.), Skoczów (14.9 thous.), Rabka-Zdroj (13.3 thous.). Basic socio-economic data characterizing the Carpathian towns are presented in the table 1. Table 1. Small towns in the Polish Carpathians. Basic socio-economic data (2013) Number of Number of Number of Town beds beds in business budget hotels and in hotels Area Population entities per revenue similar Town and simi2 1,000 [thous.] [km ] per capita lar facilifacilities inhabitants per 100 2013 ties in (2013) inhabitants 2013 1

Biecz

17.7

4.7

761

2789

2 3

Błażowa

4.2

2.2

946

2731

0

-

Bobowa

7.2

3.0

705

3522

90

3.01

4

Brzostek

8.8

2.6

802

3212

0

-

5

Brzozów

11.5

7.7

1061

2937

136

1.77

6

Ciężkowice

10.0

2.5

930

3058

147

5.88

7

Czchów

14.1

2.4

1023

3476

56

2.33

8

Dobczyce

13.0

6.4

1256

3634

164

2.56

9

Dukla

5.5

2.2

1037

2945

40

1.82

10 Dynów

24.6

6.2

716

2890

0

-

11 Grybów

17.0

6.3

749

2896

121

1.92

5.9

1.9

1371

2838

1337

70.37

13 Jedlicze

10.6

5.8

772

2387

10

0.17

14 Jordanów

21.0

5.3

1132

2858

132

2.49

5.5

4.6

1966

2685

479

10.41

7.6

3.2

807

2614

0

-

12 Iwonicz-Zdrój

15

Kalwaria Zebrzydowska

16 Kańczuga

24

0.51

residents, recognizing that this will allow distinguishing all these towns, which have broader character as well as a complex functional structure.

93

17 Kołaczyce

7.2

1.5

712

3083

0

-

18 Krynica-Zdrój

39.7

11.4

1452

4275

6439

59.48

19 Lesko

15.3

5.8

1304

2962

341

5.88

20 Limanowa

18.7

15.1

1131

3564

222

1.48

20.1

6.1

1347

2483

176

2.89

22 Mszana Dolna

27.1

7.8

988

3190

407

5.22

23 Muszyna

24.4

5.1

996

4958

621

12.18

5.0

2.8

987

2877

0

-

38.3

6.0

926

3539

1045

17.41

21

Maków Podhalański

24 Nowy Wi nicz 25 Piwniczna-Zdrój 26 Pruchnik

19.9

3.7

421

3062

10

0.27

27 Rabka-Zdrój

36.3

13.3

1089

2649

1398

10.51

28 Rymanów

12.4

3.7

1088

3002

58

1.57

29 Skoczów

9.9

14.9

1083

2562

94

0.63

30 Stary Sącz

15.0

9.1

971

2948

140

1.54

31 Strzyżów

13.9

8.9

878

2860

25

0.28

32 Sucha Beskidzka

27.7

9.6

1371

2755

303

3.16

33 Sułkowice

16.5

6.5

873

3153

0

-

34 Szczawnica

32.9

6.0

1222

3277

2834

47.23

35 Szczyrk

39.1

5.8

1704

3544

2307

39.78

4.4

2.3

1441

3182

0

-

37 Tuchów

18.2

6.7

818

2831

60

0.90

38 Tyczyn

9.7

3.5

989

2712

0

-

39 Ustroń

59.0

15.9

1488

3618

5793

36.43

40 Ustrzyki Dolne

16.8

9.6

1109

3184

373

3.89

41 Wisła

110.2

11.3

1546

3705

5092

45.06

42 Zagórz

22.4

5.1

730

3458

63

1.24

4.0

1.6

559

2967

0

-

848.3

266.1

-

-

30.537

-

36 Świątniki Górne

43 Zakliczyn In total

Source: own study based on Local Data Bank (Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013) [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS].

The cultural heritage of small towns in the Polish Carpathians Small towns in the Polish Carpathians have mostly medieval origins. The oldest of them are: Biecz (1257/1363), Stary Sącz (city rights before 1273 r.),

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Skoczów (1327), Czchów (1333), Bobowa (1339), Tuchów (1340), Muszyna (1340), Ciężkowice (1348), Piwniczna Zdrój (1348), Kołaczyce (1354). The development of medieval towns in the Carpathians was associated with the location of centres of royal power, the establishment of magnates and ecclesiastical institutions. Their development was aided by their location alongside trade routes leading from north to south through the passes of the Carpathians (salt route from Kraków across Orava to Hungary, wine trail from Hungary to Małopolska) and from west to east (the trail of the northern rim of the Carpathians from Krakow to Russia). Local resources played an important role in their development. Craft was a basic indicator for development of Nowy Targ, Nowy Sącz (metals), drapery and linen manufacture - Biecz (cloth), Gorlice, Jasło, Krosno (weaving). Cities and towns acquired the right to host the weekly fairs and Christmas markets. Till now, some fair traditions survived in the Carpathians. Traditions of indulgences on holidays are still vividly cherished. Only till 1500, the settlement network of the Carpathians had grown to 50 towns, mostly formed under German-Magdeburg law (Przybo 1995). To this day, many of these towns survived with their characteristic medieval urban layout, which is visible in the landscape of the town and is the main element of the cultural and tourist potential of the town. Biecz is one of the most important towns among the settlements of medieval origin, with a large number of monuments. Until the first half of the sixteenth century, it was one of the largest and most important urban settlement in Poland. Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, the network of settlements in the Carpathians developed much more slowly. New locations, established during this period include: Jordanów (1564), Limanowa (1565), Zakliczyn (1558), Nowy Wi nicz (1616), Kalwaria Zebrzydowska (1617), Błażowa (1770). An interesting example is Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, which developed around Calvary and the monastery founded by Nicholas Zebrzydowski; at present it is one of the most important religious centres in the Polish Carpathians. In the nineteenth century, the construction of railway lines and the accompanying industrial development were an important stimulus for many towns. Industrial plants were established in cities with access to rail network and local raw material, which in turn contributed to the influx of population and increased their business potential. Not all of the cities developed regularly. Cities located outside the railway network have not developed industrial activities on a larger scale and, as a consequence, lost their urban character for agriculture. This caused the degradation of many cities in the first half of the twentieth century (more than 40 towns in the Carpathians have lost their city rights). These cities, however, stand out to this day due to their specific small-town character, which is manifested both in the architecture of the city, as well as the traditional lifestyle of their inhabitants. Many authors call them the Galician towns (Kosiński 95

2000). Their distinguishing features are: the preserved medieval urban layout, with a four-sided market, from which the streets take their beginning (from the corners of the market), the multiplicity of sacred objects (a Catholic church or monastery, often adjacent to a Jewish synagogue) and compact buildings around market, often with wooden arcades. A reconstructed example of a small town building is presented in the Open Air Museum in Nowy Sącz, where there is a separate exhibition dedicated to the Galician town; the exhibit is similar to former buildings of Stary Sącz (unfortunately the original was burned in the fire). Small towns that preserved their nineteenth century original character (sometimes only partially) also include: Pruchnik, Zakliczyn, Ciężkowice, Czchów or the village of Lanckorona (degraded town). These are specific architectural and urban pearls with great potential for tourism development. At the end of the nineteenth century, along with the discovery of mineral springs, urban settlements of new typewere established - spas. They were characterized by distinct urban planning. The town centre was a physiotherapy complex, complemented with a complex of buildings with representative and entertainment functions: concert halls, casinos, restaurants. Spa houses, of pseudopalace nature, were localized in parks or park-forests, where each year new sanatoriums and B&Bs were placed. The architecture of the Carpathian spas (Krynica, Szczawnica, Rymanów, Rabka) alluded to the architecture of Western European spas. Many of these complexes have survived to this day and, nowadays, they are an important advantage of the architecture of those towns. The development of the spas and summer resorts in the Carpathians became an important factor of towns’ development. Already in 1889, municipal rights were granted to Krynica - one of the most popular spas in the nineteenth century. Due to tourism development in the twentieth century, the following towns: Ustroń, Szczawnica, Wisła, Iwonicz Zdrój, Szczyrk, and Zakopane (already in 1933) received civic rights. The last one – Zakopane, is now the most important tourist town in the Polish Carpathians. The Carpathian towns are also distinguished by a complex ethnic and religious heritage. The Carpathians were inhabited for centuries by different religious groups. The population was predominantly Roman Catholic, but a significant share of the population was Orthodox (east of the Dunajec), Greek Catholic (Uniate; among the Lemkos) and of Jewish origin. Political changes in the twentieth century disturbed the former ethno-religious structure of the Carpathians and now some signs of ethno-religious groups are possible to observe only through the remains of material culture and preserved traditions. The monuments of religious architecture are dominated by the objects associated with Catholicism - churches, monasteries, and also small wooden church architecture (chapels, crosses, etc.). Many of these objects till now are used as places of religious practice and devotion. Since the Middle Ages, a network of Christian 96

pilgrimage centres developed. The oldest are: Stary Sącz (associated with the cult of the Blessed Kinga - since the thirteenth century), Dukla (the cult of Bl. John of Dukla - since the fifteenth century) and Rymanów (the cult of the Virgin Mary). At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the cult of the Passion of Christ appeared - which is now best developed in Kalwaria Zebrzydowska. In the eighteenth century, 160 centres of pilgrimage operated in the Carpathians, mostly at local level (Jackowski 1995). Currently, the number is comparable, though dominated by the cult of the Virgin Mary (75% of objects). Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, Stary Sącz, Tuchów and Dukla are these small towns, which nowadays play a regional or even national role among Polish pilgrimage centres. Wadowice (in the group of medium-sized towns) gained the importance among Carpathian towns as the birthplace of Pope John Paul II, where the main tourist destination is a biographical museum located in the home of the Pope. Churches - mainly Greek Orthodox and Orthodox were preserved also in the eastern part of the Polish Carpathians. Wooden churches located in rural areas of the Beskid Niski, due to their rare character have been included in the UNESCO list. A lot of objects related to Jewish culture have also been preserved. Before World War II, Jews constituted a significant proportion of the inhabitants of the Carpathian towns, in some cases, up to 70% of the population. Objects related to Jewish culture include synagogues, ritual baths and cemeteries. The condition of these facilities, however, is varied, in many cases they are much destroyed, often they perform completely different functions not related to religious ones. In recent years, first actions for the renovation and reconstruction of Jewish monuments have started. The Chasidic movement was also popular in this part of Poland. Since the end of the eighteenth century, in the Carpathian Mountains there were pilgrimages to places of religious Hasidim, and to the residence of their leaders -Tzadikim. Important Hasidic centres in the Carpathians were: Dynów, Rymanów, Stary Sącz, Bobowa. As a result of the extermination of the Jews during World War II, those centres do not function anymore. Currently, many Hasidic minorities organize pilgrimages to those places, as part of sentimental tourism. In reference to the Jewish tradition, many local cultural events are organized, for example: staging a Jewish wedding (Bobowa), holiday LAG BA-OMER in honour of Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai, author of the cabbalistic book "Zohar" (Dynów), Days of Remembrance of the Jewish community in Rymanów. Small towns of the Carpathians are strongly associated with the surrounding rural regions. These strong ties are rooted in the history of the region, when the organization of the economic life of the Carpathians developed. Towns reflect the complexity of the rural culture of the Carpathians, which has developed as a result of mixing of the Vlach settlement (pastoral) with Polish settlement. Mix97

ture of these influences has resulted in the cultural heritage of the Carpathians, which consists of: huts economy, pastoral right, organization and habits of grazing (parades), sheep's milk processing technology, tools and equipment production, rich nomenclature, beliefs and magical practices, dresses, characteristic music and dance, design: wood carving, painting on glass, arts and crafts, wrought-iron, lace, rituals or secular ceremonies, for example weddings. The culture of the Carpathian towns clearly reflects the diversity of the ethnographic area of the Carpathians. Folk culture is still cherished, reflected in a number of folk music groups in the Carpathian region. Only in small towns, there are approx. 280 ensembles (about 5.5 thousand members), including the 66 folk music bands, which consist of more than 1.1 thousand members of different age groups (Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013 [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS]). Folk bands are involved not only in the promotion of the unique culture of the Carpathian, but they also cherish and sustain the ever so important among the inhabitants of the Carpathians intergenerational ties. Piwniczna Zdrój is home to 5 folk bands, other towns: Iwonicz Zdrój, Strzyżów, Zakopane - 4 bands, Brzozów, Bobowa, Dobczyce, Kańczuga, Sucha Beskidzka – 3 bands (Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013 [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS]). Cultural events and festivals are devoted to the presentation of cultural heritage. Overall, all the small towns in the Polish Carpathians (STPC) annually host over 3 thousand cultural events, organized by local governments, visited by 940 thousand participants (Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013). The number of these events and the number of visitors demonstrate their popularity and potential for development. Szczyrk, Wisła, Rabka Zdrój, Tyczyn, Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, Limanowa are the most active towns, in which local governments engage and co-organize cultural events. The group of the most important folk events, next to the International Festival of Mountain Regions, held in Zakopane, includes: "The Beskids Culture Week (TKB) " (in Wisła, Szczyrk, Maków Podhalański),"The Carpathian Festival of Regional Children Bands" in Rabka-Zdrój, The Provincial Review of Rural Vocal Groups in Tyczyn, The Carpathian Cultural Crucible, The Carpathian Feast (Stary Sącz), The Midsummer Night in Muszyna, The "Limanowska Słaza" in Limanowa, The Carpathian Tourism Fair in Ustrzyki Dolne, the spa picnic "Country, shanties and highlanders", The Suski Folk Meetings in Sucha Beskidzka, The Carpathian Redyk - TRANSHUMANCE 2013 (whose route passes by Szczawnica, Mszana Dolna) and the International Festival of Bobbin Lace in Bobowa. STPCs are also a place of presentation of local products, especially agricultural ones, for example: The Bean Feast in Zakliczyn, The Bread Festival in Ustrzyki Dolne. Referring to local traditions, internationally re-

98

nowned events are also organized, such as The Festival of John Kiepury in Krynica-Zdrój. Cultural potential of STPCs can be analysed on the basis of quantitative and qualitative data. In all the STPCs there are objects or groups of objects entered in the register of monuments. These are not only sacred buildings and old buildings, but also entire complexes of downtown buildings. In about 60% of small towns there are from 1 to 9 such monuments, the rest of the towns account for 60% of the total number of monuments listed in the register. Most of them are located in Krynica and in Stary Sącz. In addition to the typical Carpathian architectural monuments of secular and sacred character, historical places associated with the battles of the First and Second World War may be also interesting for tourists. Especially noteworthy are war cemeteries from World War I, especially in the Beskid Niski, places associated with the execution of the Jewish people during the Second World War, as well as military remains, such as the shelter complex of World War II in Strzyżów. In more than half of STPCs, there is at least one museum or gallery. These are institutions of various types presenting regional collections. There are also parish museums, local chambers of memory, and more. Overall in all the STPCs, there are 28 museums and exhibition galleries. The most visited museums are located in Nowy Wi nicz, Krynica Zdrój, Ustrzyki Dolne, Wisła, Stary Sącz. In case of galleries, the undisputed leader is the Art Gallery at the Cultural Centre in Krynica-Zdrój, presenting works of Nikifor Krynicki, Polish painter of Lemko origin, a representative of the primitivism (over 25 thousand visitors per year). Table 2. Museums and cultural events in small towns of the Polish Carpathians (2013) Cultural events The Incl.: NumIncl.: Num- Visiorganimembers members Particiber of ber of tors folk zed by Town of artistic of the Artistic pants muse- (thou band local ensemensemfolk (thous.) s governums s.) bles bles bands ments (number) 1 Biecz 1 16.1 3 58 30 6.9 2

Błażowa

-

-

10

2

183

27

71

33.6

3 4

Bobowa

-

-

7

3

170

55

71

21.9

Brzostek

-

-

3

1

38

20

35

6.3

5

Brzozów

1

4.6

14

3

216

25

25

24.6

99

6

Ciężkowice

7

Czchów

8

Dobczyce

9

Dukla

1

12.0

1

-

55

-

21

15.8

-

-

5

2

127

1

17.2

9

3

541

60

57

22.8

77

100

23.7

1

15.2

3

1

55

17

40

17.1

10 Dynów

-

-

6

1

220

10

20

17.4

11 Grybów

-

-

3

-

26

-

23

4.4

IwoniczZdrój

-

-

8

4

91

45

106

6.6

13 Jedlicze

-

-

5

2

100

31

72

21.3

14 Jordanów

-

-

-

-

-

-

22

3.9

Kalwaria 15 Zebrzydowska

-

-

13

2

271

24

264

49.3

16 Kańczuga

-

-

14

3

264

78

57

16.6

17 Kołaczyce

-

-

-

-

-

-

4

0.5

Krynica18 Zdrój

2

30.6

10

-

235

-

30

36.5

19 Lesko

1

no data.

6

-

165

-

47

21.1

20 Limanowa

1

4.7

4

1

102

42

162

25.8

1

0.2

5

2

101

54

36

2.4

-

-

6

2

124

12

14

7.1

-

-

12

1

161

6

23

6.2

1

46.3

6

1

109

7

29

2.7

1

0.4

10

5

242

140

115

31.2

-

-

4

1

50

7

45

11.0

1

11.4

B

b

b

B

213

73.7

28 Rymanów

-

-

14

2

189

23

87

18.6

29 Skoczów

1

2.6

13

1

190

15

145

14.9

30 Stary Sącz

2

16.8

16

-

20

-

40

7.5

31 Strzyżów

1

.

11

4

190

62

134

28.4

Sucha 32 Beskidzka

1

15.4

8

3

126

50

63

11.6

33 Sułkowice

-

-

9

2

286

46

22

2.3

12

Maków Podhalański Mszana 22 Dolna 21

23 Muszyna Nowy 24 Wi nicz Piwniczna25 Zdrój 26 Pruchnik 27

RabkaZdrój

100

34 Szczawnica

2

8.2

5

2

110

60

78

17.4

35 Szczyrk

-

-

6

4

160

70

210

142.0

Świątniki 36 Górne

1

0.8

7

-

289

-

24

3.8

37 Tuchów

-

-

6

-

69

-

51

20.4

38 Tyczyn

1

.

7

2

157

20

246

18.7

39 Ustroń

3

11.7

12

-

144

-

85

24.7

1

22.2

6

2

98

17

27

7.3

2

18.6

2

2

25

25

57

17.1

40

Ustrzyki Dolne

41 Wisła 42 Zagórz

-

2

-

22

-

35

8.5

43 Zakliczyn

-

-

2

2

60

60

10

3.1

28

255

293

66

5839

1185

3046

856.7

In total

Source: own study based on Local Data Bank (Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013) (Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS).

The state of tourism development The Carpathians belong to the most important Polish tourist regions, with long tourism traditions (dating back to the nineteenth century) and relatively well-developed tourist industry (Groch et al. 2000). The region attracts approx. 11% of the total tourist traffic in Poland (Faracik et al. 2014). Tourism in the Carpathians, was from the beginning connected with the natural resources; this led to the development of holiday stays, agritourism, hiking, spa & wellness and ski–tourism (Warszyńska 1985, 1995). So far, cultural heritage was not often used in the construction of tourism offers. Also, most of the STPCs did not play a significant role in the reception of tourists. Tourism was concentrated in a few spa-resorts and towns, located in the vicinity of mountain ranges, which were the base for the ‘close to nature’ tourism, especially hiking tours. The share of other small towns in the reception of tourism in the Carpathians is still small. STPCs concentrate approx. 30% of accommodation facilities of the Polish Carpathians. In 2013, there were almost 440 accommodation facilities, with 30.5 thousand of beds (Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013 [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS]). Accommodation services are very diverse in terms of standard and quality, many buildings still are of low standard, which is reflected in low competitiveness of their offer. Only 1/3 of beds are located in hotels. Other accommodation facilities are: common guest rooms, private homes and farmhouses. Approx. 80% of beds in hotels and similar facilities are concentrated in 10 towns (see table 2). These are towns, which have tourism traditions, for example: Krynica (6.4 thousand of visitors), Ustroń (5.8

101

thousand of visitors) and Wisła (5.1 thousand of visitors) (Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013 [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS]). In other towns, there are - on average - from 50 to 150 beds for tourists. But as many as 10 towns have no accommodation facilities at all. Lack of accommodation facilities is currently one of the fundamental problems of further tourism development. On the one hand, tourists do not have a place to stay and even if they find it, they just mostly omit a particular town, on the other - the lack of people improving their material situation as an effect of engaging in tourism in the village does not encourage people to take up economic activities in this field. There is a lack of role models, but even the idea that tourists can bring money is difficult to grasp for the local population. Therefore, there are two patterns of tourism development in the STPCs - in those places, where tourism was developing since the nineteenth century - residents are more likely to take up an activity in the area of tourism, they are not afraid of the risk, and in case of failure in one tourism branch, they are ready to try to find work in another. Still, in towns without tourist traditions, mental barriers are significant. Usually in these cases, it is an external investor or public entities, or even the local authorities who become the driving force for tourism development. Overall, STPCs concentrate approx. 27% of total tourism traffic in the Carpathians. In 2013, 837 thousand persons were registered in accommodation facilities, in that number 31.5 thousands were foreign guests. In 2013 approx. 4 million overnight stays were accounted for, but only with 100 thousand foreigners (Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013 [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS]). Tourists, arriving for recreational purposes and in connection with a sports activity, are the most common for this region. Cultural tourism is still not very popular. Museums and visiting historical monuments are popular among relatively lower number of tourists (table 2). Cultural events, taking place in the towns, are mostly attended by the residents of neighbouring areas. The dominance of resorts and spas is clearly seen in tourism development of the Carpathian towns. The most popular tourist city destinations are: Wisła, Szczyrk, Ustroń, Rabka-Zdrój, Krynica-Zdrój, Piwniczna, Szczawnica, Muszyna, Rymanów, Iwonicz-Zdrój. Every year these 10 towns are visited by more than 680 thousand tourists (80% of all tourists, registered in all STPCs) and 3.4 million overnight stays are recorded by accommodation facilities, including only 90 thousand foreign tourists (Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013 [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS]). As already mentioned, the main factors for development of these towns were mineral water resources and the natural environment of adjacent areas. Currently, they are popular as winter sports centres or spa & wellness complexes. These towns: Wisła, Szczyrk and

102

Ustroń form an interesting tourism agglomeration – they are located in close proximity to each other and together offer 157 accommodation facilities with 13.2 thousand beds. They provided services for 435 thousand of tourists, including 18 thousand of foreigners. In 2013, 1.7 million overnight stays were sold, including 65 thousand to foreign guests (Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013 [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS]). These towns are developing new forms of tourism, such as ski-tourism, congress tourism, spa & wellness, seeking to maintain a dominant position as centres of active tourism for the population of the Silesian agglomeration. Krynica-Zdrój is an interesting example of a nineteenth century tourist STPC, with expanded facilities of spa treatment, ski and recreational infrastructure. In recent years this town has gained importance as a congress centre - every year it hosts the very famous business meeting: Krynica Economic Forum, which brings together the world business people and politicians from Central and Eastern Europe. Cultural heritage and tourism development in small towns The problem of the relationship between cultural heritage and tourism in relation to the small towns in the Polish Carpathians is extremely complex and can be addressed on many levels. Without a doubt, it must be assumed that cultural heritage is a major part of tourism potential of STPCs. But so far, cultural heritage has not been the driving force of tourism development in these destinations. Cultural heritage was used rather as a complementary tourism offer, and it was mostly concentrated around rural traditions. Small importance of cultural elements in local development policy was associated with a common belief that, for many years, culture or cultural heritage were not an economic category and couldn’t be used as a factor of local development. The socialist times influenced largely the specific perception of the role of cultural heritage in local development. On the one hand, it was associated with the perception of historical monuments as national treasures with a higher function and no utilitarian meaning. Another issue was that the majority of cultural heritage was passed into the hands of the state and the state managed them. As public property, without a specific owner, these objects were quickly destroyed, especially those of foreign origins or not culturally associated with the ideological function of the socialist state. The state did not have sufficient funds for their protection and preservation, and transferring these objects to private hands was not an option for ideological reasons. On the other hand, the typical attitude of the authorities during the communist period was indifference, and sometimes even negative attitude to the past and the associated heritage. The past and its traces (material and spiritual) were often treated in terms of backwardness, in contrast to the socialist ideology. All

103

this meant that cultural heritage, historic preservation of small towns and their facilities did not receive much attention in local policy. In other words, there was a clear disproportion in relation to the area of the Polish Carpathians between the fairly restrictive approach to the protection of nature and the relatively mild (liberal) approach to the perseveration of the historic spatial systems or even individual objects. Nowadays, the attitude of the local social system to heritage has significantly changed. It is widely recognized that heritage need to be nurtured and cultural diversity can become a major developmental asset. The philosophy of the approach to the historic buildings of towns has significantly changed. They are no longer public goods, on which the local communities are not allowed to make money. Under this new approach to the management of culture and cultural heritage resources, activities should not only help to preserve the status quo, but also generate an impulse for local development. The economic dimension of cultural heritage should embody the cooperation of the local government sector - the owner of historic buildings – with the business sector, which will lead to economization of the heritage (by rational management). The assignment of new functions to the historic objects can not only significantly improve the quality of life of residents, but can also contribute to tourism revival. In recent years, a growing relationship between tourism and the intensification of protection and conservation of cultural heritage has been observed. Tourism and related economic benefits for local communities became the most influential factors in the efforts to improve the state of cultural conservation and activation of cultural sphere. Analysis of records of local planning documents (prepared at the request of local authorities, and based on consultation with residents) pointed out that in the case of STPCs, there is a general agreement on the intensification of actions to protect the cultural heritage and its use in the process of local development, especially in conjunction with development of the local tourism sector. All of the 42 analyzed STPCs in their local development strategies highlighted the need to increase activities, related to cultural heritage. The strategies pointed out not only the activities related to the protection and preservation of the local cultural heritage, but also the benefits for local development. Noteworthy is the fact that in 75% of the analyzed towns, problems of cultural heritage were included mainly in parts of these documents devoted to the development of the tourism sector. Analysing the relationship between local development based on tourism and cultural heritage it should be noted that STPCs are characterized by various factors in this matter. Generally, two groups of towns with relatively different relationships in the area of culture – tourism can be distinguished. But, for both

104

of them, two separate strategies in the field of cultural heritage – tourism need to be proposed. The first group consists of towns with developed spa or wellness functions, where tourism over the years became an essential element of the local economy, and in the past it was the main factor driving the development of the town. These centres operate on a massive scale and are popular in the country. These towns offer well-developed accommodation services and a large part of their population is dependent on work in the tourism sector. These places can be called the spiritus movens of the Carpathian tourism. Because of the concentration of tourism in the entire region, they create the greatest potential to achieve the economic effects of the links between cultural heritage and tourism. These towns skilfully diversified their tourist offer by adding elements of cultural heritage, including: a wide range of cultural events, organization of museum exhibitions, and presentations of folk culture. But it should be remembered that the consumption of culture by tourists takes place somewhere along the way. Tourists in the mountains or spa guests, as well as those actively spending time (e.g. skiers) are interested in cultural elements only in their spare time, whether it's exploring the sights, or participation in a cultural event (festival, etc.). Treating culture as complementary tourist offer, however, leads in a simple way to commercialization of that heritage. It is often not the local cultural elements that are exposed to tourists but rather those elements of culture, which are borrowed from other cultures, regions and even countries. It is due to one reason - they better sell to tourists. It is not that the place of cultural heritage has to be discovered by tourists, but that culture is ‘brought’ to them. That is why these places cannot be called cultural tourism centres. Even if their cultural offer stands out in the whole region, its importance for the local tourism economy is complementary. In these towns, it is accepted that the cultural heritage-tourism nexus should be based on increasing the share of cultural offer in a standard package of tourist stay, but with an assumption, that the offer must refer to the local cultural heritage. Skilful encapsulation of recreational offer with elements related to regional and local culture can not only dramatically increase the competitive strength of the village on the national tourism market, but can maintain the status-quo of tourism development. It should also be noted that these tourist centres are often first places, where tourists are in contact with the cultural heritage of the Carpathians. Thus, exposing the cultural elements of the Carpathians is an important opportunity to stimulate interest in places, where this heritage may be more widely recognized. Therefore, efforts should be made to develop cultural tourism in reference to the idea of tourism diffusion, which assumes deconcentration of tourism traffic to places rarely visited by tourists (Pawlusiński 2009). These resorts, the most

105

important in the scale of the Polish Carpathians, may simultaneously become centres for cultural tourism, from where tourists will set off to become familiar with the cultural heritage of the neighbouring towns and villages. The second group of towns consists of locations that are in the initial stage of tourism development. Tourism in their case has little economic importance, or has not developed at all. Tourism potential of these places almost entirely relies on their cultural resources. Most of these towns have been rather neglected over the years; their historic fabric was significantly distorted. The key question is then: what is the rank of their resources and, associated with it - an attractive tourism force? The Carpathians as a traditional Polish holiday region are characterized by very large share of domestic tourists. Foreign tourists account for only 10% of the total number of visitors. The domestic traffic is dominated by short-term stays, mostly for weekends, but rather frequent. While tourists coming to small towns for recreational purposes demonstrate their interest in the heritage, the phenomenon of arrivals directly for the purpose of exploring the local heritage is not observed. Can the cultural heritage of the Polish Carpathians be of interest to a) foreign tourists, b) domestic tourists or c) only residents of the adjacent agglomerations in the region? Kosiński (2000) reports that in Poland, in contrast to Germany, Austria or even Slovenia, a trend of visiting small towns is still not present. Small towns in Poland are treated rather in the category of settlements, somewhere at the end of the world, often with a specific social climate, very traditional, where people travel rather out of necessity, not for pleasure. Is it possible to change the picture in the case of these STPCs, and if yes - how to change it? One shouldn’t be pessimistic in this regard. It can be assumed that the Polish market largely adopts and accepts Western trends, but with some delay. Probably in the relatively near future, the interest in the local heritage and its cultural specificity among Poles will increase; this will be followed by the popularity of small towns, if they present a relatively interesting cultural offer. Currently, the lack of a leading tourist attraction seems to be the barrier for tourism development in small towns. It cannot only be a monument, or urban landscape of high aesthetic value that may attract tourists. This should be accompanied by a catering facility, offering regional products or interesting events. Nowadays it is often the case that the importance of tourism in particular towns is growing only because they were the scene of action for popular TV shows or movies. If these towns have some tourist facilities, tourists may stop there for a while. But it has to be remembered that the impact of the Carpathian towns will have, however, mostly local and regional relevance. Cultural activities of these centres are mainly attractive to residents of the region and neigh-

106

bouring urban areas of Kraków, Rzeszów and Silesia Region. The importance of these centres can only grow on the basis of the attractiveness of their tourist offer and the relationships of these towns with Slovak, Hungarian and Ukrainian towns (through the common Carpathian cultural products). Activation of tourism in the STPCs, however, is an extremely complicated matter, and largely depends on the social factor. Local residents usually constitute one of the barriers for tourism development. The first challenge for the town in the process of tourism activation is to convince residents that their town is attractive, and its heritage so interesting that it may be of interest to tourists. The socialist period associated with the ill-intrusive construction projects in historic urban systems significantly disturbed the aesthetic qualities of towns. Also, existing transportation solutions, allowing the traffic to go through the city centres without an effective ring-road significantly reduced the comfort and quality of life. Therefore, attempts are made to restore the historic character of the historic parts of these towns with particular emphasis on the area of the town market square - as the core of the historic town. In recent years, due to the possibility of obtaining financial resources from the EU funds, many of the Carpathian towns begun the implementation of projects related to the revitalization of their centres. Most of them are successful ventures. Currently, many towns have renovated historic market squares and decorated them with greenery and recreational elements. However, the problem of link between the architectural form and surroundings is still unresolved. The lack of interest in history and architectural heritage of the population is still visible. The decisive factor in the investment process of individuals and entrepreneurs is an economic factor – will the investment pay off? Therefore the aesthetic considerations are not particularly taken into account. New investments often storm the local urban structure. Also in the case of investment in historic buildings, the aesthetic and historical assets are often not taken into account. People want to live in a pleasant environment, reminiscent of the heritage, but do not want to incur the economic costs associated with it. Since the 1990s, local authorities have been trying to raise the attractiveness of the area through various social activities, including competitions for the most aesthetic space of the balcony, adorned houses, etc.. There were also towns, which began to co-finance the renovation of private buildings in the historic centre, provided that the developer would retain the specific external character of the building or meet other requirements as to the aesthetics of the object. Although many positive examples in improving the aesthetics of the historic Carpathian towns were seen, still there are too many unsolved problems in this regard. This is associated mainly with economic factors. Shortages of funds mean that these problems are not given enough priority. In a comparison to

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historical towns on the Slovak side of the Carpathians, Polish towns are still characterized by lower values in terms of the aesthetics of historical space. Another issue is the presentation of the existing heritage in the form of museum exhibitions (tangible heritage) and cultural events. Currently, two trends are observed: 1) organization of events and their use in the promotion of towns, as well as 2) the desire to open a museum in order to make the heritage more attractive and accessible. It should be noted that, in many cases, their effectiveness is negligible. Events have often local character and their importance in attracting tourists is negligible. Also, many of the museums have very modest budgets, which does not allow for the preparation of interesting and powerful exhibitions. The negligible impact on the influx of tourists may be due to the local nature of these projects and small impact of their promotion to the outside world, and the so called - cannibalization of the product - many similar events in different localities which result in these offers being not noticeable on the tourist market at all. Neighboring towns at the same time compete with each other by organizing similar events. In summary it should be noted that the involvement of the authorities in actions for the presentation of cultural heritage should be assessed positively, but it does not have much impact on tourism. The idea of cultural routes should be mentioned in relation to attractive historic towns in the Carpathians developing dynamically in recent years. Currently, in the Polish Carpathians there are already several dozen cultural routes and trails that connect the cultural heritage of towns and rural areas. Many small towns have been caught up in a network of trails and now are centres of an overriding character, providing accommodation and catering facilities for tourists. Examples are presented in table 3. Despite of the strong involvement of different societies in the development of routes, limited interest from tourists is still visible. The Western example can demonstrate that the popularity of this offer will grow, but requires promotional actions and creation of service facilities for people travelling along the trail. Table 3. Cultural trails and router in the Polish Carpathians Cultural route Towns on the route The Gothic Architecture Route Stary Sącz, Czchów Bobowa, Ciężkowice, Czchów, Dobczyce, The Trail of the Medieval Villages of Nowy Wi nicz, Stary Sącz, Tuchów, Wojnicz, Małopolska Zakliczyn The Renaissance Route in Malopolska Sucha Beskidzka Muszyna, Krynica, Piwniczna, Iwonicz, Trail of the Carpathian` Spa Resorts Szczawnica, Rymanów In the footsteps of the Jews of Małopolska Bobowa, Nowy Wi nicz

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The Intercultural Tourist Route of the Polish-Slovak Borderland The Route of Lemko Orthodox Monasteries The Małopolska Craft Trail The Chassidic Route

Stary Sącz, Muszyna, Krynica, Grybów Krynica-Zdrój, Tylicz* Bobowa, Jordanów, Limanowa, Maków Podhalański, Piwniczna, Rabka, Szczawnica, Wadowice Dynów, Rymanów, Lesko, Ustrzyki Dolne

Source: own study based on http://szlakimalopolski.mik.krakow.pl/ (*) – a degraded town, currently a village.

Cultural routes may become an interesting proposition for cultural tourism in Central and Eastern Europe, but for them to become a drive of development of the Carpathian towns, they should be somehow incorporated into the brand of the Carpathian tourist towns. The fundamental question is what are the building blocks of the brand of the historic tourist small towns in the Carpathians? This task seems to be crucial to the success of these places. Conclusion Analyzing future directions of socio-economic development of the Carpathian cities one has to point to the interest of local communities in tourism as a potential way of the economic revival of the region. This confirms the fact that close relations between cultural heritage and tourism are a complex factor of local development. However, not all of the small towns in the Polish Carpathians have the opportunity to become tourist centres. In today's tourism market and highly developed competitive reality, a small town must seek new competitive advantages. This task is very difficult, but not unattainable. The scale and scope of tourism and its importance to the local socio-economic development will depend on many factors, such as: the attractiveness of the environment, tourism facilities, transport accessibility, as well as the image of the town on the tourist market and the activity of local authorities to support the development of tourism based on cultural heritage. Most of the small towns in the Carpathians are in the initial phase of activation of tourism based on cultural heritage. Apart from the traditional tourist centres, only some of the small towns can be seen as successful in this area; nevertheless these initial successes are still lacking a clear economic dimension. It should be noted that not all historical towns in the Carpathians have the potential to be internationally famous and known, or to compete in external markets. This classic way of development is achievable only for some of them. Other small towns, if they want to use their cultural potential in conjunction with the tourism sector, should strive to create a product associated with their

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natural environment and rural attractions. It seems that in the case of the Polish Carpathians the chance for development lies in the creation of several new tourism centres as well as in the agritourism and countryside recreation drawing on the heritage and cultural offer of a nearby small town. References Bagiński E., 1998, Małe miasta w sieci osiedleńczej Polski, Politechnika Wrocławska, Wrocław. Durydiwka M., 2011, Dziedzictwo kulturowe jako czynnik rozwoju funkcji turystycznej – na przykładzie gmin bieszczadzkich, Prace Geograficzne Instytutu Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej UJ, 125, 37-61. Faracik R., Kubal M., Kurek W., Pawlusiński R., 2014, The transformation of tourism model in the Polish Carpathians – Reporting on the last 20 years of experience, Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Szczecińskiego nr 808, Ekonomiczne Problemy Turystyki nr 28 (in printing). Groch J., Kurek W., Warszyńska J., 2000, Tourist Regions in the Polish Carpathians, Universitas, Kraków. Górka Z., 1995, Osadnictwo, [in:] Warszyńska J. (ed.), Karpaty Polskie. Przyroda, człowiek i jego działalność, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Kraków. Heffner K., 2000, Problemy sieci osadniczej a kształtowanie się lokalnych centrów rozwoju, [in:] Kłodziński M., Rosner A. (eds.), Rozwój przedsiębiorczości na terenach wiejskich wschodniego i zachodniego pogranicza (społeczne, ekonomiczne i instytucjonalne uwarunkowania, Instytut Rozwoju Wsi i Rolnictwa PAN, Warszawa, 103-118. Heffner K., 2008, Funkcjonowanie miast małych w systemie osadniczym Polski w perspektywie 2033 r., Akademia Ekonomiczna w Katowicach, Instytut Rozwoju Wsi i Rolnictwa PAN w Warszawie, Raport https://www.mir.gov.pl/rozwoj_regionalny/ poziom_krajowy/ polska_ polityka_przestrzenna/ prace_nad_KPZK_2008_2033/Documents/ Heffner.pdf Hewison R., 1989, Heritage and interpretation, [in:] Uzzell D.I. (ed.), Heritage interpretation. The natural and built environment, London. Jackowski A., 1995, Ośrodki kultu religijnego, [in:] Warszyńska J. (ed.), Karpaty Polskie. Przyroda, człowiek i jego działalność, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Kraków. Kosiński W., 2000, Aktywizacja turystyczna małych miast. Aspekty architektoniczno-krajobrazowe, Politechnika Krakowska, Kraków. Małek J., 2003, Turystyka kulturowa jako czynnik rozwoju lokalnego, Prace i Studia Geograficzne, Wyd. UW, Warszawa, 32, 13–34.

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Murzyn-Kupisz M., 2013, Dziedzictwo kulturowe a rozwój lokalny, UEK, Kraków. Pawlusiński R., 2009, Turystyka w województwie podkarpackim, Folia Geographica, XXXIII, 119-136. Pawlusiński R., 2012, Turystyka w miastach przygranicznych Polskich Karpat w świetle współczesnych kierunków rozwoju, [in:] Sadowski P. (ed.), Rozwój turystyki kulturowej i przyrodniczej na pograniczu polskosłowackim, PPWSZ, Nowy Targ, 31-38. Przybo K., 1995, Dzieje Karpat Polskich, [in:] Warszyńska J. (ed.), Karpaty Polskie. Przyroda, człowiek i jego działalność, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Kraków. Warszyńska J., 1985, Funkcja turystyczna Karpat Polskich, Folia Geogr., Ser. Geogr.-Oecon., 18. Warszyńska J. (ed.), 1995, Karpaty Polskie. Przyroda, człowiek i jego działalność, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Kraków. Internet sources: Szlaki Małopolski, http://szlakimalopolski.mik.krakow.pl/, (17.10.2014). Local Data Bank, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 2013 [Bank Danych Lokalnych GUS], http://stat.gov.pl/, www.stat.gov.pl, (17.10.2014).

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Historical and morphological determinants of the cities in Lower Silesia __________________________ Wojciech Kurda1, Katarzyna Pukowiec2

Introduction Each city has its own unique character formed since its foundation in the successive phases of development. The formation of the urban tissue was influenced by many factors. The most important of these include: historical considerations, the physicogeographical location, cultural and social influences, the level of civilisation advancement and adopted urban patterns. The differences in the formation of the cities of Lower Silesia were reflected in the architecture, spatial layout, but also in the directions of modern development. The choice of the area was dictated by the rich history of the region of Lower Silesia and by the fact that it was one of the first areas of Poland in which cities were founded according to the adopted western patterns. This allows us to highlight the impact of historical and cultural factors on the genesis and morphology of cities in this region. Lower Silesian cities denote urban centres located in the present Lower Silesian Voivodship (according to the administrative division of 1st January 1999). According to the geographical and historical division of the area of Poland (Krzysztofik 2005), Lower Silesian cities belong to the cities of the Silesian region. In physicogeographical terms, those cities lie in three large physicogeographical units, namely: Bohemian Massif (the Sudetes) 1

Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland, [email protected]. 2 University of Silesia, Faculty of Earth Sciences, ul. Będzińska 60, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland, [email protected].

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and the following lowlands: Saxon-Lusatian Lowlands and Central Polish Lowlands (Silesian Lowlands). The primary goal of this study is to explain the origin and determinants of the urban development in Lower Silesia and to define morphology, location layouts of the cities and the factors and determinants of the development in the historical perspective. The study also aims to identify the characteristics of the cities in Lower Silesia. The time range of the study spans the period from the Middle Ages to modern times. Historical determinants of the Lower Silesian cities According to the Central Statistical Office data, in 2004, there were 90 cities in the Lower Silesian Voivodship, and the level of urbanization was 71%. This undoubtedly indicates a high density of the settlement network and a high level of city-creating functions in this area. While describing the formation, size and diversity of cities in the region of Lower Silesia, it is worth to mention the history of the region in the introduction. Quite an early formation of cities in this area was related to the influence of the neighbouring countries — the Czech Republic and Germany. The region of Lower Silesia as the first among contemporary Polish lands belonged to a state organisation: Great Moravian Empire. Since the time of Mieszko I, Silesia belonged to the Piast state. During this period, the first bishopric was established in Wrocław and the city formation process was started. The region was located within Poland's borders until 1335 — the year of waiving the rights to Silesia for the benefit of Bohemia by King Casimir the Great. In medieval times, Lower Silesia was split into districts. Population was increased and cities were founded under Magdeburg law. Silesia was under the rule of Bohemia until 1526, when it came under the reign of the Habsburgs. The new supremacy caused a partial downfall of the region and the trade routes lost their importance. The Thirty Years' War had a major impact on the region, causing the downfall of many cities and devastation of the area. Since 1741, Lower Silesia belonged to Prussia. Initially, the region did not develop economically. This was caused by strong anti-Polish actions of Prussian rulers. The situation changed after the Spring of Nations. In Silesia, mainly due to the presence of natural resources, industry began to develop. Until 1945, those lands did not belong to Poland. The changes of borders resulted in population movements. The German population was displaced, and in its place arrived the Polish population mainly from the areas of the Second Polish Republic that were incorporated into the USSR after World War II. These resettlements caused a decline in population of Lower Silesia (Siuchniński 1965).

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The cities of Lower Silesia are among the oldest Polish cities. The first cities of the region date back to the 10th century. Their genesis was related to trade routes running through those areas. The cities were characterised by a large functional diversity, from defence functions, to craft, to trade or mining functions (castellan fortified settlements, the seat of a bishopric) (Siuchniński 1965). A breakthrough period for the urban development of the region was the thirteenth century, in which settlements were granted city rights according to the model of western cities (Magdeburg Law). Those were the earliest city charters on the territory of Poland, they involved a rapid development of the district during the reign of Silesian dukes. Starting in 1211, when the first municipal rights were granted to Złotoryja, for the entire century city charters were granted to the existing settlements and cities were chartered "on the raw root". The fast growth in the number of settlers caused an increase in population and a rise in the number of cities. As early as in the Middle Ages, a dense network of cities was shaped. As a result of unfavourable historical factors, the process of urban development was inhibited in the region. Settlement crisis mainly affected small towns with no raw materials or developed industry. However, due to a great wealth of raw materials, many cities did not lose their position, and in addition, between the 16th and 18th centuries, many cities were founded based on the emergent mining industry. In the subsequent centuries, the newly established cities were linked with health resort functions. Major changes occurred after World War II. The impact of the war destruction and activation of industrial sites changed the settlement network in the region. Many cities that were not leading economic centres lost their city rights. New settlement forms were created: settlements with city rights. The result is that the region of Lower Silesia is characterised by a high level of urbanisation and a developed settlement network (Siuchniński 1965; Czapliński 2008). Chartering of cities and urban layouts In the area of Lower Silesia, some of the first pre-charter layouts were created. Different spatial forms ensued. Out of all regions of Poland, Lower Silesia was the most susceptible to the effects of Western European patterns (including such innovations as the chartering of cities) (Kulesza 2001). Most Silesian cities have pre-charter origin, the cities chartered in cruda radice (e.g. Środa Śląska, Paczków, Ole nica, Głogów) represent a minority. The first charters were granted under the Magdeburg Law already at the beginning of the thirteenth century (Złotoryja 1211, Lwówek Śląski 1217, Środa Śląska 1235, Wrocław 1242) (Miasta Polskie w tysiącleciu… 1965). These layouts were often carried out in the model — geometrical — way, however, frequently as a result of adaptation to the local topography of the area or matching

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to the pre-charter elements of the city, they were modified in various ways. In Lower Silesia, the characteristic model of a chartered city developed under the law known as ius sredense (from the name of the town of Środa Śląska). It became the organizational and legal pattern for the chartering of many cities in Poland. Under this law 115 cities were chartered, and along with villages — around 1000 localities, mainly in Greater Poland and northern Lesser Poland (Study of the history of... 1990). An interesting example of urban layout is Środa Śląska (figure 2). It is the type of a city established on the raw root, yet the traces of earlier settlement were found there. City rights were granted by Henry the Bearded. Originally, the city was granted its charter under the Flemish Law in the early 13th century, then again under the Magdeburg Law (1235). Adapting the Fleming layout to the Magdeburg layout led to the recognition of the law known as ius sredense. The current urban layout can be called fusiform, although archaeological studies prove that it was originally a belt-shaped layout (frontages of the market square were parallel to one another). The main axis of the layout was a wide "fusiform" street fulfilling the role of the market square with a centrally located city hall. To the north and to the south, perpendicular streets ran out of the resultant square, which divided the city area into building plots. A little later two streets were marked out perpendicularly to the market square. On the western side, St. Andrew Church was built. St. Mary Hospital Church also dates back to this period, and on the eastern side of the city, St. Cross Church dates from 15th century. In the Middle Ages, a castellan's castle was situated in the northwestern corner of the city. The city is surrounded by the city wall with four gates. The whole structure was similar to the square shape and occupied approximately 16 ha (Study of the history of... 1990). The urban layout of Środa Śląska, with small exceptions (disturbed quarters at the foot of the walls), survived to modern times (figure 1). The urban tissue within the Old City is compact. The buildings are in the frontage development, usually of three and four storeys. The panorama of the Old Town is clearly dominated by the silhouettes of St. Andrew and St. Cross churches and the building of the town hall. Formerly, Środa Śląska mainly fulfilled a commercial function, as confirmed by its German name Neumarkt. Since 1945, the city has had its current name. Today, it fulfils mostly an administrative function — the seat of Środa Śląska county, which consists of the following municipalities: Środa Śląska, Kostomoły, Malczyce, Miękinia and Udanin. A subzone of Legnica Special Economic Zone (16.4017 ha) is located in the city.

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Figure 1. The contemporary urban layout of the Old Town in Środa Śląska Source: the author`s records.

Figure 2. The contemporary urban layout of the Old Town in Świdnica Source: the author`s records.

Fig. 3. The contemporary urban layout of the Old Town in Złotoryja Source: the author`s records.

An example of a city established in the place of an older settlement is Świdnica. Originally, the centre of agricultural settlement was located directly at the Bystrzyca River. In the 11th century, the settlement transformed into a fair settlement. The new character of the settlement caused a change in its location. It was clearly "pushed" away from the river, and its centre was "moved" into the 117

area of St. Stanisław and Wacław Church. The pre-charter settlement was absorbed inside the borders of the charter city that probably received Magdeburg city rights around 1250. It is clear that Świdnica, during its transformation, gradually "moved away" from the river, "moving along" the main trade route in the north-western direction. The post-charter city represents a spatial layout typical of Silesian cities. The market square, originally extended along the EastWest axis, later shortened (by a quarter between the present market square and Środkowa Street), had a regular ""chessboard" layout of streets, yet disturbed from the eastern side by the absorbed pre-charted settlement. The city was fortified by robust city walls. Outside the current old city, the following suburbs developed: Piotrowe i Strzegomskie (in the north and north-west side of the city) (Korta 1995). According to the composition square concept of the medieval cities, churches and monasteries were built in the north-west and south-east part of the city. In the north-west part of the city, Minorites' church and monastery are situated, St. Stanisław and Wacław church was built on the south-east side, and on the south side — Dominican monastery. A ducal castle was built in the western part of the city. The market square is located centrally in relation to the city. At present, it has seven exits, but originally it represented an eight-exit layout (the number of the exits was reduced through the construction of the aforementioned quarter) (Książek 1992). The middle part of the market square was occupied by the city hall. The expansion of the city hall, the construction of the city stalls and of the city scales caused the formation of a quarter in the middle of the market square, which marked off a small marketplace on each side of the market square. At the end of the Middle Ages, it was a powerful city, one of the largest cities in the present territory of Poland. In the 18th century, Świdnica became an important fortress (the structures of the fortress were much larger than the area of the city). A fortress significantly influences the growth of a city making its spatial expansion impossible. This caused a stagnation in development of the city. It was not until the 1990s that the situation changed. Since the demolition of the fortress, spatial development of the city has been taking place in all directions, creating the ring of building development surrounding the Old Town. The urban layout of Świdnica has been preserved in a very good condition and has not undergone major modifications in centuries (figure 2.). Building development of the Old Town and of the ring of the 19th century tenement houses around it is typical of a big city. The Old Town is characterized by tall, stately tenements, usually of four and five storeys in the frontage development. Most of them are buildings from the 18th and 19th century. Built while retaining the earlier foundations and internal divisions. The height of the building development was additionally forced by the city's space limitations (caused by powerful structures of the fortress surrounding the old town). After the demolition of the fortress, stately tenements were built around the old town, with his-

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toricist forms, eclectic and Art Nouveau, also in the frontage development. The panorama of the old town boasts one predominant height feature in the form of St. Stanisław and Wacław Cathedral. On the north side of the Old Town, but outside its borders, a distinctive silhouette of the 17th century Church of Peace emerges. Renewed development of the city is based on the industry development. In functional terms, the following facilities are opening: metal-machine industry plants and electronic industry facilities, including Świdnica industrial equipment factory, measuring apparatus factory "Pafal", carriage factory, automotive plants. At present, there many medium-sized and small enterprises in the city. In addition, Świdnica is the county seat and an important rail and road hub, which is a strong incentive for development. Another characteristic city of this region is Złotoryja. This city is the oldest chartered city in Lower Silesia and in Poland. It was granted the city rights as early as in 1211 under Magdeburg Law. It was established on the basis of an earlier settlement called Kopacz. It was a mining-oriented settlement. However, over time it became a suburb of the chartered city. The actual city was then mainly engaged in farming and craft, and the mining function was fulfilled by the suburb of Kopacz. The city received a "chessboard" layout of streets. The central part of the whole set-up was occupied by the rectangular extended market with seven exits. The town hall was built in the middle, and a number of stalls and tenements were added at a later stage, which resulted in the formation of a mid-market block which separated the existing market into two parts: the Upper and Lower market. St. Mary Church was located in the south frontage, and in the 13th century St. Jadwiga Church was founded in the north-east part. A very important feature of this layout is the fact that the pairs of parallel streets do not converge at the gates, which indicates a very early city establishment, because in case of cities that were established later the streets converged at the gates. At a later period, the city was surrounded by the city walls (Gładkiewicz 1997). A number of small settlements also existed outside the charter city. Significant spatial development of Złotoryja did not take place until the 20th century, after the construction of housing estates south of the Old Town. The spatial layout of the charter city has been preserved in very good condition and has not changed significantly (figure 3). The building development of the city is typical of cities in Lower Silesia. The buildings are in compact development, in places disturbed as a result of introducing modern solutions such as apartment blocks. Along the main streets, the building development is based on frontages, usually made up of three and four storeys, mostly dating back to the 19th and 20th century, often on the foundations of earlier buildings. The panorama of the Old Town is dominated by the Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which is situated almost in the centre of the Old Town. The silhouette of the post-Franciscan church and monastery also stands out. Formerly, the mining

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function of Złotoryja was related mainly to extracting gold and copper (until half of the 20th century). At present, there are chemical industry plants, glass factories, and construction and mineral facilities there. One of the industrial plants is Kopalnie Surowców Skalnych SA ("Mines of Rock Raw Materials"), a company dealing with the mining of basalt. In addition, Złotoryja also fulfils administrative functions as the seat of the municipality and county.

Photo 1. Old town in Złotoryja Source: the author`s records.

A distinctive type of urban planning layout is the Old Town in Kłodzko. It is a city established under Magdeburg Law probably between 1258 and 1278. However, its spatial layout was adapted to the contemporary topographic conditions, and modified. All the streets and the market square are tilted toward the river, some of the small streets assume the form of stairs. The existence of the pre-charter settlement was confirmed — unfortunately, its location is not known. The charter city has quite an irregular layout. The Nysa Kłodzka flows through the centre of the city. The Old Town, which also includes an island on the Nysa, is located in the left bank part of Kłodzko. The six-exit market has the shape similar to a rectangle. The town hall is located in the centre of the market. Morphologically, the city is very diverse. The surrounding area of the market is dominated by high historic buildings with four or even five storeys in the frontage development. Some of the historic buildings on the market were not preserved, and stylized modern blocks were added. The part of the city situated on the island is characterized by significantly lower buildings. The landscape of the city is dominated by Kłodzko Fortress located to the north of the market square (the Main Fortress) and to the north-east of the Old Town on the other

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side of the Nysa Kłodzka (Owcza Góra Fortress). Churches and a powerful town hall with a tower are other dominant features. Impressive building development for a city this size was in part forced by spatial limitation of the city (fortress). Both parts of the old city centre are separated by the Młynówka (a branch of the Nysa), joined together by bridges, of which one — St. John bridge dates from the 14th century.

Photo 2. Old town in Kłodzko Source: the author`s records.


Historical features of the Lower Silesian cities While characterising the cities of the Lower Silesian region, one can notice certain unique characteristics of physiognomy, morphology, architecture or functional differentiation. The Lower Silesian cities developed the earliest of all the cities in Poland, which was caused by their location on the major trade routes and the fastest diffusion of the Western cultural models. The develop-

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ment of the Lowers Silesian city network was influenced by a favourable social and political situation of the region in medieval times. This network has survived in almost unchanged shape until the present times. Development of the cities was inhibited in the 16th century as a result of unfavourable historical circumstances as well as social and political ones, but it revived in the 19th and 20th century. In addition to the existing trade, craft and defence functions, there was a further development of mining (in existence earlier), industry or health resort function and the related tourism.


The Lower Silesian cities are the most varied in terms of genesis and morphology in Poland. They were usually established in the place of or near an older settlement. However, cities were also established on the so-called raw root (In cruda radice). Those cities were usually granted Magdeburg Rights, and a certain variant of the Magdeburg Law was also created — ius sredense (Środa Śląska Law), which was later used in about a thousand localities in Poland. Nearly all the cities established under Magdeburg Rights had a "chessboard" layout, certain deviations from the rule resulted primarily from the topography or from pre-charter settlements absorbed by the city. There were also cities similar in their layout to the cities established under Flemish Law (elongated oval shape) — they were called new marketplaces. A distinctive feature of Lower Silesian cities is the monumental building development, especially from medieval times. In these cities, there are multi-storey tenements and mighty temples and town hall buildings. The building development is mostly compact based on frontages.

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The reason for the unique development of the cities in Lower Silesia was the exploitation of raw materials since the Middle Ages. Moreover, distinct German, Czech and Polish influence was present in Lower Silesia. Importantly, from the 13th century to the mid-20th century Lower Silesia did not belong to the Polish State. The cities in Lower Silesia were owned by the state, they were public. The settlement network in Lower Silesia is dense. It is also a highly urbanized region — it has one of the highest urbanization rates in Poland (71%). The Lower Silesian cities described in this paper, due to their historical heritage reflected in the unique morphology of the cities, have great tourism potential. The identifying, marking and describing of the exceptional urban layouts should be the basis for improved tourist attractiveness of the cities in question. However, functional changes are necessary. It is recommended that revitalization activities should be carried out in order to revive those parts of the cities, which today are often degraded. Creation of higher standard accommodation facilities (hotels, suites), restaurants, cultural institutions or museums is being promoted in relation to the historic tenements. It is also important that the city planning documents at the municipality level contain provisions addressing the need to preserve the historical heritage of the cities, including their unique urban layouts and the development of tourist and cultural services there. The tourism form, which should develop in the analysed urban centres to the greatest extent, is cultural tourism. References Bogacik T., Sakwerda J., 1998, Czasy nowożytne XVI–XVIII w. Przestrzenne oblicze miasta, charakter zabudowy,[in:] R. Gładkiewicz (ed.), Kłodzko, dzieje miasta, Muzeum Ziemi Kłodzkiej, Kłodzko. Czapliński M. (red.), 2008, Historia ląska, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, Wrocław. Gorzkowski R., 1997, Lokacyjne miasto średniowieczne (XIII–XV w.), [in:] Gładkiewicz R. (ed.), Dzieje Złotoryi, Towarzystwo Miłośników Ziemi Złotoryjskiej, Złotoryja – Wrocław. Kotełko S., 1995, W średniowieczu – od początków miasta do 1526 r., [in:] Korta W. (ed.), widnica – zarys monografii miasta, DTSK Silesia, Wrocław – Świdnica. Krzysztofik R., 2005, Proces kształtowania się sieci miejskiej w Polsce w okresie od XIII do XX wieku, Czasopismo geograficzne, 76, 4, 383-398. Książek M., 1992, Zarys budowy miast średniowiecznych do końca XV w., Politechnika Krakowska, Kraków.

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Kulesza D., 2001, Morfogeneza miast na obszarze Polski rodkowej w okresie przedrozbiorowym, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu ódzkiego, ódź. Leciejewicz L., 1979, Początki miast polskich i archeologiczne metody ich badania, [in:]. Gediga B. (ed.), Kształtowanie się kultury wczesnopolskiej na Opolszczyźnie, Instytut Historii Kultury Materialnej PAN, Wydział Kultury i sztuki Urzędu Wojewódzkiego w Opolu, Opole Miasta Polskie w tysiącleciu v. I, II, 1965, Siuchniński M.(ed.), 1965, Ossolineum, Wrocław. Statistical Yearbook of the regions Poland, 2013, Central Statistical Office, Warsaw. Study of the history of roda ląska, 1990, Acta Universitalis Wratislaviensis, Wrocław. Tabaczyński S., 1987, Archeologia średniowieczna. Problemy. ródła. Metody. Cele badawcze, Wyd. Ossolineum, Wrocław. Weczerka H., 1977, Handbuch der historischen Staedten. Schlesien, Kroener, Stuttgart.

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Cultural heritage of the Romanian historical cities and the perspectives of sustainable tourism development in the early 21st century __________________________ Elena Matei1, Daniela Nicolaie2

Introduction The cultural heritage of the human settlements turned into tourist destinations in the late 19th century, when religious sights were much appreciated on the tourism market. Later on, during the inter-war period, the cultural-historical sights and the religious monuments were turned to account, and the phenomeon continued to intensify in the second half of the 20th century, during the communist period (Ciangă 2008), when the accent fell on domestic tourism. However, after 1990 international tourism has seen a growing attention. The Romanian anthropogenic tourist heritage is the quintessence of the historical-political and cultural evolution of the Romanian people. Lying either in urban or rural environments, the sights that are of interest for cultural tourism include Geto-Dacian ancient remains known as „davas”, the ruins of the Greek settlements lying in the southeast of the country (Tomis-Constanţa, Histria, Callatis-Mangalia, from the 7th century B.C.), the Roman fortresses (106-275 A.D.), preserved within the ancient cities Napoca, Apullum, Potaissa, Drobeta etc. It is also worth mentioning the Turkish influence of the medieval period, 1 Bucharest University, Faculty of Geography, Human and Economic Department, 1, N. Balcescu Avenue, Bucharest, Romania. 2 Bucharest University, Faculty of Geography, Human and Economic Department, 1, N. Balcescu Avenue, Bucharest, Romania.

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which is preserved in the religious and commercial edifices of Dobrudja, Wallachia and, to a lesser extent, Transylvania and Moldavia. But on this territory and in various historical circumstances also emerged worldwide-recognized indigenous architectural masterpieces, such as the Moldavian traditional monasteries built between the 14th and 18th centuries and the Byzantine and Brancovenian monuments, with baroque elements, that are found in Wallachia. As far as Transylvania is concerned, its tourist heritage bears the imprint of the historical events, starting with the antiquity, when urban centers were spread all over the place. Subsequently, the area was impregnated with cultural and architectural elements belonging to the Hungarian, Turkish and Habsburg empires (Klimaszewski et al. 2012), as well as with Gothic and Baroque elements, which can be seen in Sibiu, Oradea, Targu-Mureş, Timişoara etc. In fact, the acculturation phenomenon is testified by the diversity of architectural styles in Romania: classical, neoclassical, Renaissance, baroque, rococo, eclectic, secession, and Art Nouveau (Teodorescu 2009). The historical tourist cities are not the same with the large cities, considered from demographic or economic standpoint (Maitland and Newman, 2009), but they account for many of the anthropogenic tourist sights of a country. Thus, although Romania has 20 cities exceeding 100,000 inhabitants, of which eight with more than 200,000 people and one exceeding one million (Bucharest, 1.8 million inhabitants at the Census of 2011), the most relevant settlements for the cultural tourism are Sighisoara, Alba Iulia, Târgovişte and Tg. Jiu (with less than 100,000 people), the large medieval cities of Timişoara, Iasi, Arad, Suceava, Braşov, Sibiu, Bucharest, Oradea, Tg. Mureş and Craiova, as well as the ancient localities Cluj-Napoca and Constanţa, which are the object of the present study.

The legal background and the development strategies of cultural tourism Given the value of the items that make the national heritage, the Ministry of Culture, which was set up in 1862 and received several names after 1990, as the main stakeholder in managing the Romanian cultural heritage, has campaigned for the inclusion of anthropogenic heritage on the list of tourist attractions. The policy pursued over the last centuries has preserved many anthropogenic elements, which are now remarkable tourist sights. An important moment was the establishment of the Commission of Historical Monuments in 1892, which until 1977 made considerable efforts to restore the important monuments. Later on, it was abolished by the communist regime, but was reopened in 1990 within the Ministry of Culture and Cults.

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As a decision-making body, the Ministry of Culture carries out activities focused on regulations, monitoring, development and public access. In this regard, Romania has aligned itself with the European policy by ratifying the Granada Convention (1985) for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe (enforced by Law 157/1997) and the European Landscape Convention, adopted in Florence in 2000 (enforced by Law 451/2002). Also, at international level, Romania has established protection measures for the historical monuments that are on the World Heritage List (Law 564/2001) and regulated the system for their monitoring (Government Decission 493/2004). At the same time, Romania has harmonized its national legislation with the European one and adopted a new set of national rules and regulations. An important legal document was Law 5/2000 on the Spatial Planning of National Territory. Subsequently, the Ministry focused on the protection of historical monuments (Law 422 of 2001 and 2006) and in 2003 issued Ministerial Order 2684 by which empowered the Historical Monuments Directorate within the Ministry of Culture and Cults, the National Institute of Historical Monuments and the county and Bucharest City directorates of culture, cults and heritage (Article 1) to propose landmarks for the use of historical monuments. Moreover, a national commission for museums and collections was created by Ministerial Order 2112/2002 (figure1).

Figure 1. The management structure of the national cultural heritage

The Ministry also established the powers of the commission dealing with historical monuments (Ministerial Order 2435/2006) and issued the Methodological Norms for Classification and Inventory of Historical Monuments (Ministerial Order 2260/2008). In terms of tourism, the cultural heritage is an important product for the tourism industry managed at national level by the Ministry of Tourism, through the National Tourism Authority (NTA). In fact, it is wide recognized that “apart from the fact that it is a new emerging and growing market, a further advantage

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is that the relationship between culture and tourism is widely regarded as mutually beneficial” (Hugess and Allen 2005). After 1990, tourism activities have been reorganized and the mid-term development strategies of the Ministry of Tourism have been focused on important objectives, which led to structural changes (Busuioc 2008). Between 1990 and 1996, the Ministry aimed at changing the ownership and at establishing tourism companies, between 1996 and 2000, it initiated restructuring reforms and only between 2000 and 2004 focused on the development of new forms of tourism, as it is the case of cultural tourism. In this period, but also between 2004 and 2008, new legislative changes occurred, meant to make the new structure functional and to align it with the European policies, especially after 2007, when Romania became a member of the EU. An important gain for cultural tourism was the designation of Sibiu as European Capital of Culture in 2007, as well as the step by step following of the national tourism Master Plans for the period 2007-2013 and 2013-2026, respectively (Busuioc 2008). Based on these, the National Tourism Authority started the development of cultural tourism tours, in which are also included the historical cities, as is the case of the "Religious pilgrimage route dedicated to the Holy Virgin Mary" and the “Cultural Tourism in Banat” or the integration of certain cultural attractions into the European route of the Roman Emperors (figure 1). Cultural heritage of historical cities as an asset for cultural tourism The tourism product known as the European Capital of Culture, based on Article 167 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, which stipulates that the EU “shall contribute to the flowering of the cultures of the Member States, while respecting their national and regional diversity and at the same time bringing the common cultural heritage to the fore”3 is a strong acquisition for cultural tourism. The conditions that should be met during the preliminary stage of title awarding are a great opportunity for urban rejuvenation, fostering long-lasting effects in the cultural, social and economic fields, which ultimately will increase visibility on a global scale. As a first European Capital of Culture, Sibiu City put to account its movable heritage of national value, consisting of 101 I and II A-type historical monuments, 5 A-type sites and 8 I and II A-type architectural ensembles, of which the medieval fortifications of the city from the 12th to the 17th centuries stand out. But there are also items of local value, as for instance the 94 B-type monuments, the 2 II B-type sites, the 42 places of worship and the 13 museums. With Article 167 of the consolidated version of the Treaty on the European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

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money from the EU and the Ministry of Culture, Sibiu local authorities were able to restore the facades of the historical monuments and semi-public buildings, which have been included in the tourist attractions of the historical core of the city (http://www.sibiu.ro/ro2/urbanism.php). At the same time, the Ministry submitted the necessary documentation in order to add the city to the UNESCO World Heritage List (2005). In 2007, between one and five cultural events took place every day, which meant a monthly average of 55 cultural events. Some of them were superimposed on the existing ones (the International Jazz Festival, the International Theatre Festival etc), which have become permanent. The success of this product is economically mirrored by the investments made in the city. If we only look at the accommodation establishments, we see that their tourist carrying capacity grew from 1,932 bed places in 2006, to 2,345 in 2007 and 3,326 in 2013. Likewise, an unprecedented development of tourist flows occurred, from 121,425 in 2001, to 186,530 in 2007 and 222,793 in 2013 (NIS, 2014). The number of people who visited the museums and collections, which in 2006 was 297,360, doubled in 2007 (643,212) and continued to grow until 2013, reaching 978,138 visitors (NIS, 2014). Starting from this example, other cities like Craiova, Timişoara, Arad, ClujNapoca, Bucharest and Iaşi have entered the competition for the 2021 European Capital of Culture. Each of them relies on an exquisite immovable cultural heritage (table 1), on the movable heritage that is found in museums and collections, but also on the immaterial heritage. Table 1. The main cultural attractions of the candidate cities for the title of 2021 European Capital of Culture Architectural Historical monuCandidate cities for Sites ments ensembles the title of 2021 European Capital of A B A B A B Culture IA IIA IB IIB IA IIA IB IIB IA IIA IB IIB Cluj Napoca 24 29 249 11 2 1 11 Craiova 10 263 2 Iasi 46 10 403 1 8 2 9 6 9 Arad 3 9 117 2 3 1 Bucharest 39 141 92 1841 7 2 40 18 30 58 Timisoara 34 35 1 1 9 17 Source: The List of Historical Monuments in Romania. The Order of the Culture Minister No. 2361/2010.

Another concept that may boost cultural tourism is the European Youth Capital. In this category falls the Cluj-Napoca City, which in 2015 will become

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the seventh city to receive this title (www.monitorulcj.ro). The effects of this opportunity can be seen in the promotion of more than 1,000 cultural activities and in those activities meant to improve the image of the city on the tourist market. There are positive expectations regarding the economy, which will benefit from accommodation and catering services, while the spiritual and social activities will aim at raising the people’s awareness on the cultural values of the city. The historical cities become tourist assets especially due to their immovable historical heritage. It is the case of the large historical cities, such as Constanţa (with the archeological site of the ancient Tomis City), Alba Iulia (ancient Apullum), Piatra Neamţ (the fortress from the 2nd century B.C. and 1st century A. D.) and Cluj-Napoca (the antic and medieval city). The medieval fortresses represent the most valuable tourist assets for 12 historical cities. For instance, Tîrgovişte, former capital of Wallachia, is known and appreciated primarily for its medieval fortifications, consisting of seven bastions and three gates belonging to the 17th – 19th centuries. Most of the centers offering this type of tourist product are sheltered by Transylvania. One of them is Braşov City, known for the ruins of Brassovia Fortress, belonging to the 13th century. Its remnants include Weavers’ Bastion, Blacksmiths’ Bastion, Butchers’ Bastion, Red Tanners’ Bastion, Rope Manufactures’ Bastion, Graft Bastion, Students’ Tower, Glovers’ Tower, Procurators’ Tower, Schei Gate, Ecaterina Gate, from the 14th to 17th centuries, etc. Other cities of this kind are Sibiu (the fortifications of the medieval city, 12th to 17th centuries), Baia Mare (fortress, 11th to 15th centuries, the “Stephen’s Tower” complex of 1 347 etc.), Arad (fortress built in the 18th century), Oradea (medieval fortress, 12th to 15th centuries) and Târgu Mureş (five architectural ensembles, 17th to 19th centuries, and the medieval fortress,15th to 17th centuries). Outside the Carpathian Arc, the most important historical cities are Timişoara (Timişoara fortress, 18th century), Suceava (with the remarkable Royal Court Complex, 14th to 19th centuries), Craiova (the historical core of the city, 15th century, 18th century, 19th century) and Bucharest (the medieval fortress of which the best preserved is the Royal Court built in the 15th century). The medieval fortress of Sighişoara, built in the 12th century, is on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1999, although it is still inhabited. The exceptional value of this tourist attraction, explains why half of the tourist flows of the neighboring Târgu Mureş City are oriented towards this area. The religious ensembles like the Episcopal Church or the Argeş Monastery of the 16th century, together with the remnants of the Royal Court, presumably established in the 13th century, including the Royal Church, the oldest in the southern part of the country, are other values of cultural tourism. It is the same

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with the Stephen the Great’s Royal Court complex in Piatra Neamţ, where lies the Royal Church erected between 1497 and 1498. In its turn, Iaşi City is present on the tourist market with its numerous monasteries and churches (49), built starting with the medieval period (Trei Ierarhi Church, Golia Monastery etc.). The historical religious ensembles may be primary (Braşov, the Black Church, 14th-15th centuries) or secondary attractions, but what is certain is that these religious buildings enrich the cultural landscapes of human settlements (figure 2).

Figure 2. Fortresses, churches, castles, palaces and counties included in tourist routes. Digital mapping using CIMEC and NTA Data, 2014.

For a number of cities, medieval castles are the main tourist assets, which sometimes represent the very image of the settlement. It is the case of Hunyads Castle (15th century) in Hunedoara, Hunyade Castle (15th century) in Timişoara, Nopcea Castle in Arad, and the modern buildings like The Palace of Culture in Iaşi, built in flamboyant Neo-Gothic style, Peleş Castle in Sinaia, Jean Mihail Palace in Craiova, Ţepeş Vodă Castle in Bucharest etc.

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As most historical monuments are concentrated in specific areas of the city and belong to different periods of time, the protection measures envisage extensive areas. In Romania, there are 81 urban centers that are currently protected. With the exception of Hunedoara, all these centers lie in the large historical cities and, therefore, tourist-planning programs must take them into account (Master Plan 2013-2026 www.mdlpl.ro). An important role in cultural tourism is played by the museums and the museum collections. Romania has 663 museums and public museum collections, which in 2012 attracted 10,076,330 visitors (NIS, 2014). Of these, 178 are hosted by the historical cities and in 2012, they accounted for 50% of the people who engaged in cultural tourism, which highlights their cultural value (figure 2). Bucharest City records the highest percentage of museum visitors (27%), followed by Sibiu and Braşov (table 2). Table 2. The percentage of museum and collection visitors and the number of tourist arrivals in the investigated historical cities 2005 2007 2012 City Tourists Visitors Tourists Visitors Tourists Visitors Tg. Jiu 0,3 1,1 0,2 1,3 0,3 1,2 Oradea 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,9 0,3 2,7 Curtea de Arges 1,7 0,5 1,1 0,7 0,6 0,5 Arad 1,0 3,8 0,7 3,3 0,9 3,2 P. Neamt 2,5 4,1 2,7 4,4 1,0 3,5 Alba Iulia 0,9 1,2 1,0 0,8 1,3 0,8 Hunedoara 1,1 0,2 1,0 0,3 2,1 0,2 Craiova 18,1 1,4 17,6 1,6 2,5 1,4 Baia Mare 1,9 2,0 1,8 2,0 2,7 1,5 Targoviste 1,1 0,6 1,6 0,6 2,8 0,6 Suceava 2,4 2,4 2,9 2,2 3,0 1,8 Timisoara 7,3 5,6 4,1 6,5 3,0 5,4 Sighisoara 2,1 1,2 3,6 1,1 3,3 1,5 Tg Mures 4,4 2,5 2,7 2,4 3,9 2,9 Iasi 6,8 4,3 9,5 4,1 5,0 3,9 Cluj Napoca 3,4 7,7 2,8 7,4 6,4 5,7 Constanta 8,8 13,3 7,3 12,7 6,7 11,0 Brasov 5,5 15,6 5,7 15,7 9,4 17,6 Sibiu 6,0 4,8 11,2 5,3 18,0 4,8 Bucharest 22,1 25,7 20,9 25,71 27,0 29,8 Source: Processing of NIS statistical data, 2014.

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Cultural tourism draws its visitors from the tourists coming for other purposes (business tourism, medical tourism, scientific tourism). More than half of the tourist arrivals (54.4%) of Romania are recorded by the 20 cities, having an exquisite cultural heritage, of which Bucharest accounts for one fourth, being followed by Braşov and Constanţa. Besides, tourist services have adapted their offer to these increasing demands and, consequently, the number of bed places has grown in 2012 in comparison with 2007 by 7,000 places in Bucharest, 3,500 in Braşov, 2,000 in Cluj-Napoca, 1,000 in Sibiu and Oradea etc.

Figure 3. Museums and visitor numbers in 2012. Digital mapping using NIS data.

Economic effects of the cultural tourism development The rehabilitation programs of some cultural attractions in Romania, as was for instance the UNDP “Beautiful Romania Program”, promoted by the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs, led in 2003 to the restoration of historical sites in cities like Alba Iulia, Constanţa, Iaşi, Sibiu, Sighişoara and Târgovişte

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(Turnock 2006). Likewise, the historical square in Baia Mare and the Arad fortress benefited from such programs. Besides, a World Bank loan allowed the rehabilitation of Brancusi’s sculptures in Targu Jiu (Turnock 2006), which has brought significant benefits as the number of tourists has grown. It is added to these, the contribution of local and national authorities, and especially of the Ministry of Culture, which supported the restoration of the historical centers in Sibiu and Piatra Neamţ and still supports the rehabilitation of the historical cores of Craiova, Constanţa and Suceava. The rejuvenation works have created jobs and have boosted the industries involved in building and street restorations. The completion and reorganization of a number of cultural assets has led to the creation of new direct jobs in cultural institutions, museums, archives, bookstores or in other activities, respectively in the distribution of goods and services related to the heritage (Cercleaux et al. 2012). Moreover, the boom of tourist infrastructure of these cities has meant new jobs in accommodation and leisure industry and even at institutional level, as new structures involved in the management of cultural and tourism heritage have emerged. The economic benefits of preserving the heritage are multiple: home comfort, leisure and inheritance (Ruijgrok 2006, quoted by Cerclaux et al. 2012). These affect not only the abandoned historical centers, abusively occupied by various social groups, but also the decommissioned economic production units, which more often than not have been turned into attractive commercial units and, sometimes, into architectural industrial sites (Timişoara). Malfunctions and conflicts affecting cultural heritage The ownership changes that occurred after 1990 generated situations that impacted the cultural heritage. Building restitutions, for instance, led to the disappearance of several institutions (like the Museum of Romanian Literature in Bucharest), to changes in the use of some buildings lying in the historical center of Timişoara, and to the decline of the number of people visiting the historical monuments (Peleş Castle in Sinaia). These changes entailed malfunctions in the management of those cultural attractions located in the historical centers that have either become private property or remained unclaimed. Many of them have been left to decay on purpose, so that to be demolished and replaced by real estate projects. But in the mean time, they have become a menace for tourists and population. Some of these buildings have been affected by fires, the most outstanding case being the Assan Mill in Bucharest (www.patr.presidency.ro). Often, one can see a conflict between the preserved heritage elements and the real estate market, which generates a chain of aesthetic disjunctions between the historical landscape and the

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postmodern edifices, which are either scattered among the old buildings or are found in their vicinity; occasionally, they are built above them or on their ground floor (photo 1).

Photo 1. The mixture between new and old architecture in Bucharest’s historical center (photo: E. Matei).

Many times, the construction of new edifices in the historical perimeters of the cities has resulted in an increase of building density, which suffocates the urban landscape (Bucharest, Sinaia, and Constanţa). Likewise, a number of buildings have been rehabilitated by the companies having their headquarters on the groundfloor. Consequently, despite the legal provisions, the original materials have been replaced with new ones, the entrances and windows being the most affected Sometimes, building demolition in Bucharest has been supported by legislative levers, especially in the case of the buildings affected by earthquakes (www. patr.presidency.ro). The lack of control over historical areas has led to visual pollution with graffiti and advertisements (photo 2). Often, the delays in financing the rehabilitation projects has resulted in long working periods or in the abandonment of works. Sustainable development requirements of cultural tourism in the Romanian historical cities Due to the fact that the main asset of historical cities is their immovable heritage, urgent measures are needed for turning them to account, without changing their architectural design. The Horizon 2020 Programme places great emphasis

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on cultural projects, so the authorities directly involved in the management of these assets should intensify their efforts in order to attract money from the EU. Likewise, they should take actions to stop the degradation of monuments and to control the actions of real estate stakeholders that overcrowd or damage the cultural landscape. Moreover, the authorities will have to create information centers, install signpost for tourists and monitor tourist demand. In this respect, the mentality and practices of the personnel working in the cultural institutions that are tourist attractions must change, following the new technological and multilingual trend.

Photo 2. Pollution and defacement on buildings in Bucharest’s historical center (photo: E. Matei).

As far as the immaterial elements are concerned, the authorities should support the genuine cultural values and eliminate the kitsch. On the other hand, they should manage properly the large groups of visitors, as well as the booking system, so that to discourage overcrowding and illegal transactions during the events. In order to capitalize the cultural heritage of historical cities, the authorities need to create easy access City Break routes, tied in some areas by the public transport means. Each of these routes should be promoted based on a local image, in which the main stakeholders are the local authorities (Mika 2012) and a „wider range of participants from various social sectors in a democratic dialogue” (Kenva 2011). The involvement of local communities requires a program for the development of the commercial units selling genuine souvenirs consisting in works of folk art or art in general, thus enabling the capitalization of the Romanian folk

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and artistic genius. At the same time, the interactive staging of historical traditions would create jobs and would give substance to the cultural performance. The cultural heritage hosted by the large cities should be included in conservation and protection programs aiming to ensure the quality of the environment by reducing vehicle pollution, by preventing acid rain occurrence, by diminishing noise pollution, which damages the buildings through vibrations, and by managing properly the rainwaters menacing to flood the streets. Romania must also focus on the development of access infrastructure, as the total length of motorways is small, the quality of transportation routes in some areas is low (Suceava and Dâmboviţa counties), and the parkings near the historical centers are lacking. Sustainable development requires permanent advertising of the cultural heritage of historical cities in mass media. Likewise, the cultural and education institutions have to organize various events in order to raise the civic awareness of local communities. The national authorities in the field of tourism and culture need to pay greater attention to these objectives when elaborate the development policies, so that to include as many elements of cultural heritage as possible in the funding axes and programs for the period 2014-2020. Conclusions With the break-up of the Soviet Union and following the end of the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s, the Balkans rapidly regained popularity with tourists (Sawyer 2013). This has led to profound changes in the ownership of tourist structures and to the borrowing of a number of practices from the developed countries in the field of tourism. Cultural tourism has gained quite a lot due to the restoration of many cultural attractions, the flourishing of some events that have become permanent, and the support received through legal and organizational measures. Yet, it has also faced negative problems generated by the legislative void or inappropriate management. The historical cities of Romania are the main tourist spots of the country, attracting more than 50% of the total tourist arrivals. In this respect, the cultural landscape of these cities needs support and attention on behalf of the Romanian development policy, in general, and the development of tourism industry, in particular. The cultural landscape of historical cities requires a multidisciplinary approach, from marketing to environmental protection, and the long-term effect can only be achieved through the involvement of various stakeholders and local communities. Tourism remains the main form by which cultural heritage generates incomes. Therefore, it needs partnerships that can ensure proper monitoring and maintenance, integrated conservation and protection plans, accountability and education, planning and promotion, as well as cooperation programs among

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the country regions and within the EU, while reducing city pollution and stopping the interests of the small groups operating on the real estate market. References Busuioc A. M., 2008, Strategii de dezvoltare si promovare a turismului cultural in Romania, Universitara Publishing House, Bucharest. Cercleux A.L.., Merciu F.C., Merciu G., 2012, Models of technical and industrial heritage reuse in Romania, Procedia Environmental Sciences, 14, 216 – 225. Ciangă N., 2008, România. Geografia turismului, Presa Universitara Clujeană Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca. Kaneva N, Popescu D., 2011, National identity lite. Nation branding in postCommunist Romania and Bulgaria, International Journal of Cultural Studies, 14 (2): 191–207. Klimaszewski C., Bader G. E., Nyce M.J., 2012, Studying up (and down) the cultural heritage preservation agenda: Observations from Romania, European Journal of Cultural Studies15 (4) 479–495. Hughes H., Allen D., 2005, Cultural tourism in Central and Eastern Europe: the views of induced image formation agents’, Tourism Management 26, 173–183. Maitland R., Newman P., 2009, World Tourism Cities: developing tourism off the beaten track. Routledge, London. Mika M., 2012, Competitiveness of tourist destination as a research problem in the geography of tourism - analytical assumptions behind the research model, Prace Geograficzne, 130, 91-105. Sawyer A., 2013, National Museums in Southeast Europe: (En)countering Balkanism?, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society,27, 1, 115-127. Teodorescu C, 2009, Turism cultural, transversal Publishing House, Bucharest. Turnock D, 2006, Alternative Tourisms in Romania: The Role of Culture and Ecology, Geographica Pannonica, No 10. Pp 56-72. Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on Functioning of the European Union, 2010. C 83/01, at http://www.presidency.ro/sta-tic/Versiunea_consolidata.pdf, accessed in May 2014. Government Decision 493/2004 for approving the Methodology on monitoring of historical monuments inscribed in the World Heritage List and methodology framework for the design and content of management

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plans and protection of historical monuments inscribed in the World Heritage List. Law 157/1997, on ratification of the Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage Europe adopted at the Granada 10/03/1985 and signed by Romania on 06/22/1996, Official Gazette, No. 274/10/13/1997 Law 5/2000, for approving the National Spatial Plan - Section III - protected areas, Official Gazette No.152/12 /04/2000. Law 422/2001, regarding the protection of historical monuments, republished in 20/11/2006, Official Gazette, No. 938/20/10 2006. Law 564/2001 approving the Government Ordinance no. 47/2000 on the establishment of measures to protect historical monuments that are part of the World Heritage List, Official Gazette, No. 938/20/10/2006. Law 451/2002, to ratify the European Landscape Convention was adopted in Florence at 20/10/2000, Official Hazette, No. 536/ 23/07/2002 National Tourism Development Master Plan for 2007 – 2026 at www.mdlpl.ro, accessed in March 2014. National Institute of Statistic, Tempo-on-line data for Tourism and Culture at http://www.insse.ro, accessed in May, 2014. Order of the Minister of Culture and Cults, No. 2112/2002 approving the Regulation on organization and operation of the National Commission for Museums and Collections. Order of the Minister of Culture No. 2260/18/04/2008, regarding the approval of historical monuments methodological norms on their classification and inventory, Official Gazette, No. 540. Part 1, 17/07/2008. Order of the Minister of Culture and Cults No. 2435/25/10/2006, approving Rules of Organization and Operation of the National Commission of Historical Monuments local commissions and historical monuments, www.cultura.ro, accessed in March 2014. Order of the Culture Minister, No. 2361/2010, for the amending of the Annex. 1 to the Minister of Culture and Cults, No. 2314/2004 approving the list of historical monuments, updated and Historical Monuments List missing, Official Gazette No. 670 bis, 2010. The Presidential Commission Report at http://patr.presidency.ro/upload/Masuri_ Prioritare_16_septembrie.pdf, accessed in May, 2014

www.monitorulcj.ro/actualitate/35890-cluj-napoca-semneaza-astazi-acorduloficial-asupra-titlului-de-capitala-europeana-atineretului#sthash.zYpn2Sbr.dpuf, accessed in May, 2014.

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The use and stimulation of culinary tourism in learning about local and regional cultural peculiarities and historical heritage __________________________ Kvetoslava Matlovičová1, Jana Kolesárová2, René Matlovič3

Introduction The fate of a nation depends on the way that they eat. (Brillat-Savarin 2012) Gastronomy or food consumption in its the most general sense has been one of the integral constituents of the human’s life since its existence. Eating habits or preferences were formed over the centuries. This process was accompanied by a number of natural and cultural factors that influenced the customs and traditions preserved to these days. Spatial differences formed in such way have become a very valuable differentiating feature of local cultures. What is more, they form not only the basis for the development of tourist activities, but also constitute an interesting research problem. Food and its regional and local specifics related to the preparation methods and ways of consumption are an interesting way of learning about the cultural heritage of an area. Unlike the other forms of tourism, especially the passive ones connected with the presentation of historical heritage, this way of learning is kind of welcoming variation associated with pleasant tasting experiences.

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University of Presov in Presov, ul. 17. Novembra 1, 081 16 Presov, Slovakia. University of Presov in Presov, ul. 17. Novembra 1, 081 16 Presov, Slovakia. 3 University of Presov in Presov, ul. 17. Novembra 1, 081 16 Presov, Slovakia. 2

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Food consumption is the essential and very important condition of all forms of tourism. According to some experts, the food expenses may exceed even one third of the total tourist expenditures (Quan, Wang 2004; Hall, Sharples 2003), which makes the gastronomy and food consumption (including the consumption of basic food and food products) an important factor influencing the quality of the offered products in relevant tourist destination as well as the final tourist experiences. In this respect, however, the constantly expanding globalization can be seen as certain problem. The complexity of the food products offer and the constantly growing possibilities, with the whole complex of economic, social, cultural, and other determinants, significantly affect the ongoing changes in the way of life worldwide. The quality, variety, and way of eating are largely conditioned by the amount of money that an individual can and also is willing to invest in it. In this respect, the majority of people is forced to act very rationally, mainly due to economic factors. The increasing standard of living, social welfare, constantly expanding consume, increasing income of individuals, and expanding cosmopolitan way of life lead to the formation of the group called culinary hedonists. This group of people is eager to travel and visit remote destinations to meet their very specific needs in terms of boarding. It is a segment of tourists who are willing to spend considerable financial resources on the quality food, dishes, as well as transport to enjoy them. For that reason, it is potentially very interesting segment of tourists for the development of so-called gourmet, gastronomic or culinary tourism (Matlovičová, Pompura 2013). Current trends and changes in way of life, especially the increasing rate of individualization as a manifestation of postmodern lifestyle, fundamentally modify the traditional eating rituals. The originally common family eating gradually loses its importance. However, its absence may cause the demand for another form of social food consumption in order to share the experiences related to gastronomy. It is, therefore, another of the factors influencing the demand for culinary tourism (Hjalager, Richards 2002). In this respect, according to some studies (Warde, Martens 2000), the importance of the social aspect impact on the overall experience of eating is more important than its quantity and quality. Definition of culinary tourism One of the privileges of the human race is to drink without thirst and the present-day cook knows how to make us eat without hunger. (Brillat-Savarin 2012) If we consider tourism as a demand-oriented concept, then food tourism, based on actual data published in the Global Report on Food Tourism by WTO, is one of the most dynamic segments within the tourism market (UNWTO

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2012). The report further states, that the gastronomy and related forms of food tourism, represent not only an opportunity to revitalize and diversify the tourist offer in a destination, but also represent a new opportunity to support a recovery of the primary economic sector. Within the supply chains, this sector is closely linked to other economic sectors represented mainly by various producers, traders, cooks, etc. (UNWTO 2012; Smith, Xiao 2008). The simplified idea, which identifies culinary tourism with a visit to a restaurant or with food or meal consumption mostly away from home in a way which breaks the stereotypes of our everyday eating, is very inaccurate. The main reason of inaccuracy is that the stated simplification considers some activities to be tourist activities, even though, they do not have such character. Moreover, it makes it impossible to distinct culinary tourism from other or all the other forms of tourism, where gastronomy is an inevitable part of a journey, but it is not its primary goal. Therefore, from the point of view of the definition of culinary tourism, it is essential to differentiate (Matlovičová, Pompura 2013): – tourists who see the food consumption as an inevitable part of a traveller’s experience and, – tourists who choose a destination and related traveller’s activities based on the food and the goal to enjoy the expected culinary experience. Therefore, while creating a tourist product and marketing strategy of a tourist destination, it is possible to approach the food consumption and related activities (Matlovičová, Pompura 2013): – as a means or an inevitable part of a tourist journey, or – as a goal of a tourist journey. The core and relevance of the distinguishing culinary tourism from the other forms of tourism can be seen in a way of satisfying the demand for rest, recreation or entertainment by the means of activities which are connected primarily or secondarily to food or gastronomy. Reflecting the stated facts, it is possible to consider the culinary tourism (or food tourism4) a form of adventure or cognitive tourism. The main or important motive of this form of tourism is a visit to places which offer an opportunity to taste gourmet or food products. It is not crucial whether there are primary or In finding a suitable Slovak semantic equivalent to the English term Food Tourism, we face a problem. The reason is that the existing attributes in Slovak language either narrow the content of this form of tourism or have inappropriate connotations (e.g. alimentárny turizmus, potravinový turizmus, reštauračný turizmus, etc.). Perhaps this is the reason of some terminological inconsistencies that we encounter in literature. Sometimes, even terms such as culinary, gastronomic, or gourmet tourism are considered as synonyms by some authors (Kurek et al. 2007). In further parts, we will try to point at the semantic differences in above terms, since in the course of food tourism development, those differences also become a source of differentiation of individualspecific variants of this form of tourism.

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secondary producers, because (Hall, Sharples 2003) the recreation, entertainment, and learning about the culture of visited places are the main aims, which are somehow connected with food and food degustation. The term culinary tourism refers to all individually or collectively organized trips to the places of specific type of food production for the purpose of their consumption, which is seen as a means of recreation and experiencing the pleasure of eating. However, this does not mean that each visit of a local restaurant or market can be considered a culinary tourism. The main motivating factor of culinary journeys is the desire to experience the taste of specific foods or gourmet products that are exceptional in some ways or are characterized by some regional and local specificities. For example, it may be wine, cheese or even tasting of various dishes prepared by well-known and recognized chefs and served in expensive and exclusive restaurants. On the other hand, this form of tourism can also include a tasting of local specialities, which cannot be eaten in another location because of their endemic nature. From the point of view of the definition of this form of tourism, the degustation of food and culinary products is considered a superior aim of the journey, which influences the behavior of tourists and their decisions. For example, the decisions about the direction, time of travelling, a way of spending time during the tour, etc. Culinary tourism can be characterized as a form of tourism with specialized interests, where the consumption of food or tasting of food and beverages is an important element of related leisure time activities (Kurek et al. 2007). Meaning of culinary tourism can be seen in both the expected economic benefits for the destination, as well as its social potential, which is viewed in terms of deepening awareness of culinary diversity. Culinary tourism enables another way of local culture perception, encourages better understanding of regional food traditions and related cultural values, and enables better understanding of the visited communities. Forms of culinary tourism Food or culinary tourism includes a variety of activities ranging from degustations, visits to the restaurants for the purpose of pleasure from food, cooking shows and demonstrations, to farmers markets, gastronomic festivals, food fairs or similar events (Hall, Sharples 2008). It reflects a certain kind of national cultural heritage, which stimulates the interest of potential tourists to discover the history of the territory through the customs and traditions in gastronomy. Therefore, food tourism is considered a subset of heritage or cultural tourism. In terms of the place of realization, it can be classified as both urban and rural tourism. In some ways, both environments determine the possible variants of its forms, whether towards agro-tourism, festival tourism, or even other forms.

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Depending on the intensity and the extent of the influence of food as a motivator for undergoing a tourist journey, we distinguish: a) forms of tourism where food is a primary motive of a tourist journey: – gourmet tourism, – gastronomic tourism, – cuisine tourism, b) forms of tourism where food is a secondary motive of a tourist journey: – culinary tourism, c) and the other forms of tourism where the interest in food and food degustation is subordinated to other traveller’s interests (Hall et al. 2004) (figure 1).

Figure 1. Forms of tourism according to the rate of the interest in food degustation and culinary products Source: Hall et al. 2004.

In terms of culinary tourism, the food products consumption and degustation as a motivation for travelling can be the primary or secondary goal. As it has already been mentioned in the introduction, the current global homogenisation tendencies and spreading cosmopolitanism cause a constant expanding of an offer. Such processes can be observed also in the field of culinary tourism,

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where three specific forms have been shaped: gourmet tourism, gastronomic tourism, and cuisine tourism (figure 2).

Figure 2. Forms of culinary tourism

a) Gourmet tourism By the share of tourists, the gourmet tourism is the “smallest” one. In this case, the extent of interest in food and gourmet products degustation is the largest one and represents the main motive for undergoing a journey by tourists. The term gourmet5 itself comes from French where it named a specialist in wine

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According to some sources, the term gourme, which is of uncertain origin, first appeared already in the 13th century. In general, it referred to a young man at that time. Later on, it was found in Old French. In the early 19th century, it was transformed into gourmet and it referred to a wine broker or wine-taster employed by a wine dealer. Explicitly, we come across this term in the work of Brillat-Savarin Physiologie du goût (1825), where it is mentioned in relation to the wine as well as grape quality assessment (Brillat-Savarin 2012). The word “gourmet” as an adjective started to be used at the beginning of the 20th century. In the late 15th century, the other similar term gourmand carried the additional connotation of a man who simply enjoys food in great quantities. In the 18th century, in terms of French, its meaning began to move rather to the people loving good food. Brillat-Savarin used to refer by this term to the food expert. In fact, both expressions were originally semantically different. While the gourmet referred to an expert in the field of quality food and wine, the gourmand carried more quantitative connotations meaning a person who enjoys food in great quantities. Today, both French expressions have more or less similar meaning, which corresponds to its Old French form denoting a man, who has refined sense of taste assessment (of food and beverages - especially wine). However, it has still remained a small semantic difference in English. Since the term gourmet is used to refer to food and beverage expert in a more positive sense, the gourmand refers to eater or glutton with rather negative connotations.

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quality assessing. Its further expansion to all kinds of delicacies and culinary specialities, whose consumption was not primarily related to sustenance as an inevitable part of a man’s needs to survive, is used until now. Products of gourmet tourism are, therefore, focused on gourmets, i.e. people with a sophisticated sense of assessing the food taste, who look for high-quality luxury food and food specialities, and are willing to travel because of them. Gourmet tourism is considered a subvariant of culinary tourism focused on gourmets - experts on food and beverages. In other words, we talk about people with deep knowledge of gastronomy and refined sense of taste assessment, who seek for high quality, luxury food and specialities. b) Gastronomic tourism Similarly, also in the case of gastronomic tourism, the interest in culinary products degustation is of primary importance; however, its participants are willing to accept a wider range of gastronomic products with the emphasis on quality, status, and prestige. Thus, in this case, the target market of tourists is greater than in the case of previous form. In addition to experts in gastronomy, here are also involved laymen who are actually less demanding tourists than those in case of gourmet tourism. For the above-mentioned reasons, gastronomic tourism can be considered a form of food tourism, which is primarily focused on visiting the quality restaurants and gourmet product consumption, while the emphasis is placed on quality, status and prestige (e.g. restaurants on the list of Michelin Guide). In addition to the gastronomy experts, also laymen, who accept a wider range of culinary products than gourmets, build the target markets. Constantly expanding phenomenon of pop-culture associated with a trend to attend stylish and exclusive restaurants or other special events connected with food and beverage tasting can be considered as one of the important factors that contributed to the formation of so-called gastronomic tourists. This trend in In Slovak, the term gourmet refers to the expert on food and lover of fine food and drinks (especially wine). In other words, we talk about someone who has deep knowledge of gastronomy and that is why, he has high expectations in this respect. He also has refined sense of taste and puts an emphasis on pleasure associated with food. In addition to taste itself, for gourmet as an expert, very important are also aspects such as the way of serving, the environment in which the food is served, as well as the variety of others especially visual attributes of the served dishes. Some reservations, in terms of accuracy, exist with a synonym sweet tooth, which can refer to the eating in great quantities. The correct understanding of the person addressed as gourmet, therefore, requires putting the emphasis on the deep knowledge in gastronomy and required high quality food and beverages (Elias 2011).

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spending leisure time of middle and upper-middle class together with gastronomic globalization contribute to the creation of new culinary products based on the mixing of different cultures of the world. The key attribute is the release or complete absence of strict rules. A contemporary modern cuisine generates new forms and flavours, and thus, it brings a constant product differentiation, which subsequently influences decision-making processes of tourists and attracts them to such destination to enjoy offered gourmet experiences. To simplify the message within the marketing communication strategy, there are often used so-called personal associations based on the personality of one of the world renowned chefs. The unique qualities of the personality (of the creator of flavour styles and culinary trends) form the basis for the culinary products which are often transferred to a broader area and they are usually put together in associations. c) Cuisine tourism Tourism of local cuisines is carried out in urban as well as rural environments. However, a key factor in the development of this form of culinary tourism is rural areas, especially those that focus on the production of certain agricultural products or some traditional culinary specialties. Food tasting is often associated with a food purchase and is run on the place, which is adapted for tourists. It can be a certain farmstead, food plant, or town centre in case of some culinary festivals, markets or fairs. The primary motive of cuisine tourism is tasting and learning about the traditional local culinary specialties. Formally, it may be a different farmers markets, fairs, gastronomic festivals, and other events focused on area-specific food products and gastronomy. In some cases, this form of culinary tourism, because of its nature and close link to the local agricultural production, can be considered as part of rural tourism as well as agro tourism. While talking about rural tourism, agro tourism, and cuisine tourism, it is the cuisine tourism, that is characterized by the highest level of culinary or food authenticity reflecting the local culture and culinary traditions. In this case, food and gastronomic homogenization are perceived in a rather negative way, since they reduce the attractiveness of tourist products. This is one of the examples which confirm rather ambivalent nature of tourism activities in the gastronomic globalization. On the one hand, mass tourism contributes directly by increasing demand to uniformity in the local gastronomic offer (McDonaldisation, pizza), but on the other hand, culinary tourism creates a demand for in situ production, i.e. special local culinary products (food, dishes, and drinks). Their consumption at the place of production is accompanied by

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the inimitable genius loci and is considered an important differentiating feature of the local cuisines tourism product. An important attribute, in terms of the cuisine tourism realisation, is a culinary event that is organised regularly. In this case, a periodicity is an important condition for introducing a sustainable tourism product and attracting potential tourists. Festivals and public events have always been more or less related to the food, even if their main function was different. In addition to various kinds of religious festivals, the oldest types of festivals include various forms of events celebrating the harvest (harvest festival). The tradition of the oldest one dates back to the pre-Christian times. For example, The Bacchanalia were Roman festivals of Bacchus, the Roman god of wine (in ancient Greek mythology, he was also known as Dionysus). This festival was held annually in the middle of March, but later on, it was organized even five times a year. Christian traditions and celebrations usually followed those in the pre-Christian times, but many of them have been replaced or at least, there were some attempts to replace them. Countries or regions with a tradition of winemaking are often associated with the most various celebrations of wine. Other celebrations could have a religious motive, but even in these cases, the wine was presented. Interesting is that various stages of the wine production cycle (e.g. the growing of the first buds, growing of the first grape berries, beginning of grape berries ripening (fr. Veraison) or final-vintage, the harvest of the grapes served as a reason for organising festivals and other similar events. Nowadays, the meaning of the celebrations associated with wine was semantically shifted to a more secular level. Nevertheless, in many countries (e.g. Spain and Italy) the link between wine and culinary festivals and religious feasts is still very common. It is nothing exceptional if culinary festivals are considered a national or regional holiday and thus, these days can also be public holidays. For example, The Thanksgiving Day celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States and on the second Monday of October in Canada, is sometimes colloquially called Turkey Day. On this day, there is in both countries a holiday. During this day, people meet with the close family or friends and symbolically give their thanks for the harvest (Hall, Mitchell 2008; Barkin, James 1994; Hall, Sharples 2008). According to the importance and size of the territorial impact in terms of ability to attract tourists, we distinguish (Hall, Sharples 2008): – local events (festivals), – regional events (festivals), – national events (festivals), – international events (festivals) of the local cuisines.

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In terms of the food event (festival) orientation, we can distinguish (adapted by Hall, Sharples 2008): – general events – focus is placed on the local food products and local cuisine in general (Exeter food festival, Tasmania Taste Festival, Regional Farmers Market in Banská Štiavnica, etc.), – cross-thematic events - focused on the selected categories or groups of products (New Zealand Mendocino Crab and Wine Days, Spiš Wine and Honey Festival Via regia, etc.), – mono-thematic events - focused only on one group of products (e.g. Niagara Icewine Festival), – mono-product events - specialized on just one food product or a gourmet specialty (Oregon Truffle Festival, Potato Festival in Stiavnica Mines, Days of Cabbage in Stupavské and others). Despite the permanently high popularity of similar events, intensifying competition stimulates product innovations. Innovations can be observed in terms of the expansion of offered traditional dishes, specialties, and other products, as well as in term of the listed events of all types. In order to attract as many visitors as possible, some of the traditional events are moving towards the category of general festivals. During these events, in addition to traditional specialties, also well-known restaurants can present and offer their gourmet specialties and gourmet dishes from other regions or other parts of the world. Applied elements of interactivity to culinary products can be considered an interesting diversification. In such case, tourists can be engaged in the process of preparing food or drinks. A very common and favorite is various courses for public, e.g. course of cooking or bartender, sommelier or barista training courses etc. Stimulation of culinary tourism through guidebooks – case study of the Michelin Red Guide Publishing of guidebooks for the best restaurants and other catering establishments is one of possibilities for stimulating culinary tourism. One of the oldest and most famous guidebooks for quality restaurants in the world is the Michelin Guide, sometimes also referred to as the Michelin Red Guide. Its origin is linked to the production of tires. Actually the main reason for its release was the boom in the car industry and the efforts to increase and publicize driving, which also required the improvements in terms of the experience of travelling. The idea to publish a guide, which will provide cyclists and motorists with useful information on location of petrol stations, garages, and establishments with good food and recreation opportunities, was brought by André Michelin. In August 1900, the first publication of the red guide – the Michelin Guide France

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with 35 000 copies was printed. The release of this guide was accompanied by Michelin brothers’ great ambitions, as they stated that: This guide was born with the century and will last as long as the century does. In 1904, the Guide went international and the publication of the Michelin Guide Belgium was launched. In 1911, also The Britain Guide started. In 1908, because of the high demand, The Bureau of Itineraries was created. Its main task was to provide motorists with free assistance when arranging their itinerary. The great interest in this service is evidenced by the statistics: in 1921, the agency has equipped 19 000 requests and in 1925, it was already 155 000. In 1910, the information in the guide was more detailed. The guide included also cartographic materials in the form of road maps in scale 1:200 000 (Michelin History 2013).

Figure 3. Mascot Bibendrum and Michelin red guide Main Cities of Europe 2014

The initial strategy of free distribution ensured that the guide was quickly well-known among motorists. However, over time, it began to lose its seriousness. In an effort to improve its reputation, the Michelin Company has decided to charge this guide since 1920. Commercialization was justified by the story saying that Andre Michelin, while passing the service workshop, saw the Michelin Guide being used to prop up an uneven desk. After this, he decided together with his brother Edouard that it cannot be for free, because people don’t appreciate what they don’t have to pay for. Initial price was set at 7 francs and at the same time, the advertising of the guide was launched. This was a reasonable decision preceded by, among other things, an increase in popularity of the guide. Especially popular were parts paying attention to the restaurants (Michelin History 2013). Michelin Company, encouraged by the great interest of the public, put together a team of anonymous inspectors, who started to evaluate restaurants according to the specific criteria. In 1926, places offering good quality food were starred for the first time. Later on, in 1931, the rating system was revised and restaurants were awarded not only one but up to three stars. The criteria for awarding stars were defined in 1936 and after small modifications; they are still used even today (Michelin T&L 2013).

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In 1931, the guide’s blue cover was changed to red one. Nowadays, the red color is well-known and significant visual attribute of the brand Michelin Guide and the guide is often referred to as Red Guide (Michelin T&L 2013). Although, the publishing of the guides was stopped during the both World War I and World War II, they played an important role during this period. Especially important were maps that, despite their initial thematic focus on travel related services, became very useful to the army. Maps were quite detailed and in fact, at that time they were basically the best cartographic materials for the French army. On request of the French Ministry of war, the Michelin Company called its cartographers and prepared a special edition extended with neighboring countries and Norway, which were not included in earlier editions. A similar request for the assistance was also received from the Nazi Germany, which occupied France at that time. However, the Michelin Company refused to cooperate. In a way, a curious was the edition of 1939, published only six months before the war. In the spring of 1944, based on the request of commanders of Allied Force, which were being organized in Britain to invade the Normandy, the Michelin Guide 1939 was adapted and printed in 1944 in the USA. The cover of this new guide was in lighter red than the original edition and there was a note on the cover stating for official use only. This limited edition was prepared for American troops, who expected orientation problems in the wardevastated areas without marking system. The new special edition of the Michelin guide was extended with hundreds of detailed and up-to-date French city maps. In June 1944, Allied troops armed with, inter alia, a special edition of the Michelin guide, landed on the coast of Normandy. The purpose, for which the guide was intended, indicates that most of the copies were destroyed in the war or taken back home to USA by American soldiers. Nowadays, this edition has a great collecting value. The guide can be sold for as much as 2000 USD, while the original price was only 30 francs (7 USD) for one piece (Lottman 2003, ViaMichelin 2009). One week after the World War II had been ended (16 May 1945), the publishing of the guides was renewed. The first post-war edition contained a note on the cover: This edition, prepared during the war, cannot be as complete and precise as our pre-war publications. Nevertheless, it should be useful (Michelin 1939; ViaMichelin 2009; Lottman 2003). Major change in the labeling of restaurants came up in 1955 when a new category, in addition to the 1-3 stars, was introduced: – coins indicate restaurants that serve an affordable fixed-price menu (starter + entrée + dessert) depending on the local monetary standard. For example, today, the maximum permitted coin price in the USA is $25.

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– Bib Gourmand – the symbol of Bib gourmand was introduced in 1997. It indicates a restaurant offering good value for money. Today, the company presents its meaning as Inspectors’ Favourites for Good Value (figures 4, 5) (ViaMichelin 2009, Michelin Dictionary 2013).

Figure 4. Michelin Bib Gourmand restaurants according to Red Guide 2014 Source: www.viamichelin.com/web/Restaurants.

Because of growing competition in the field of publishing of similar guides and continuously wider penetration of the Internet into our daily lives, Michelin guide management approached to certain changes that reflect new trends. As a result, the on-line guides have been published on the website ViaMichelin.com since 2001. For example, the Japanese cities of Tokyo, Yokohama, Shonan, Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe, Nara can be found at Michelin Japan (2013). Basic on-line search is available on an interactive map at: http://www.viamichelin.com/web. The website provides, inter alia, a number of other useful information for motorists in eight languages. The year 2005 experienced the beginning of spatial expansion in terms of visited and evaluated places. It all started with the New York City publication (in the first New York City publication, there were 39 Michelin starred restaurants). In 2006, the edition was extended also by San Francisco with 28 restaurants. The year 2007 brought the first edition of the Bonne Petites Tables France and first Michelin Guide from the Asia. In terms of Asian cities, Tokyo was 153

chosen as first in 2007 and one year later, also Hong Kong and Macao Guides were launched (Michelin Dictionary 2013). In 2009, the first iPhone application was introduced and the 100th anniversary edition of Michelin guide France was published. In the same year, it also came out for the first time a guide Bib Gourmand of Benelux and Buenas mesas for Spain (Michelin Dictionary 2013).

Figure 5. Total number of restaurants rated by the Michelin Red Guide 2014 Source: www.viamichelin.com/web/Restaurants

In 2011, the Red Guide was published with 23 rated restaurants in Chicago. Tokyo was extended in that year by the edition Bonnes Petites Tables Tokyo and from the territorial point of view; the guide covered also Yokohama and Kamakura. Another new publication was launched for Kyoto, Osaka, and Kobe. Following year, the Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe guide included also Nara and the Tokyo-Yokohama-Kamakura guide was extended by Shonan. In 2012, it was also published a new guide for Hokkaido (Michelin Dictionary 2013). In 2015, it will be published the first edition of the Red Guide for the territory of South America (perhaps also due to relatively frequent criticism). Thus, in March 2015, we can expect the first Brazilian edition – The Michelin Guide Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo (Michelin Gide 2012, Michelin South Africa 2014).

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By the end of 2015, the Michelin Red Guides will cover 24 countries on 4 continents and more than 45,000 evaluated establishments from Sao Paulo via New York to Hong Kong. Nowadays, the territory of Europe is considered to be the best covered. European print versions of the Michelin Red Guides 2014 include: – Main Cities of Europe Michelin Guide 2014, – France Michelin Guide 2014, – Paris Michelin Guide 2014, – Germany Michelin Guide 2014, – London Michelin Guide 2014, – Great Britain & Ireland 2014 Michelin Guide, – Eating Out In Pubs (Great Britain and Ireland) Michelin Guide 2014, – Italy Michelin Guide 2014, – Great Britain & Ireland Michelin Guide 2014, – Spain & Portugal Michelin Guide 2014, – Belgique, Luxembourg Michelin Guide 2014, – Nederland Michelin Guide 2014, – Suisse Michelin Guide 2014, – Bib Gourmand Benelux Michelin Guide 2014, – Bonnes petites tables du guide France Michelin Guide 2014. Asian print versions of the Michelin Red Guides 2014 include: – Gide Hong Kong & Macau Michelin Guide 2014, – Michelin Guide Kansai (Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe, Nara) 2014, – Michelin Guide Tokyo, Yokohama & Shonan 2014, – Bib Gourmands in the 2014 Michelin Guide to Tokyo Yokohama Shonan. American print versions of the Michelin Red Guides 2014 include: – Chicago Michelin Guide 2014 – San Francisco Michelin Guide 2014 – New York City Michelin Guide 2014 The first ever Michelin Guide to Brazil will be published in 2015: – Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo Michelin Guide 2015. The red guides are published in different countries usually from September to March (i.e. already four months before the beginning of the year), both in printed and electronic versions. In recent years, the application for iPhones is also available. Links to online shops, where it is possible to buy guides, can be found on the website: http://www.michelintravel.com/michelin-guides. For example, the price of the latest version of the MICHELIN Guide Main Cities of Europe 2014 (in June 2014) was 30 € (Michelin Guides 2014).

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Figure 6. Overview of countries according to the number of restaurants that received a Michelin star during the period 2007–2013. Source: adapted on the basis of the data from Zadrozny 2013.

Figure 7. Overview of countries according to the number of restaurants that received the highest rating - 3 Michelin Stars during the period 2000–2013. . Source: adapted on the basis of the data from Zadrozny 2013.

Evaluation of establishments is conducted by inspectors who are certified experts in the field of gastronomy. Moreover, all of the inspectors have to pass a 156

demanding selection process, which is followed by 6 months long training led by another instructor. The evaluation is carried out anonymously, i.e. workers in selected establishments do not know that they are tested. Inspectors usually do not visit the same restaurant twice and the selected district is visited only once every ten years. According to the recent information, the inspectors may (or needn’t) disclose their identity and also ask for additional information (Michelin Dictionary 2013). After each meal, stay or visit, they prepare a report, which is sent for further processing to the headquarters in Paris. Unlike other similar guides, inspectors are employees of the Michelin company or the company that publishes the Michelin guides in the country. Restaurant cuisine evaluation by awarding stars (see above), which was introduced in 1926-1936, remained unchanged up to present days. Getting a Michelin star, according to the Michelin company, is a reward of know-how, demonstration of the certain kind of creativity as well as unfailing quality offered over time. Evaluation criteria are uniform for all rated establishments worldwide. In case the rating of the establishment is not good enough for awarding a star, it is not included in the guide (note: however, there are same exceptions - see below) (Michelin Guide 2012). It is important to note, that the star rating applies solely to the quality in terms of cuisine served. It means, the evaluation reflects only what is on the plate and only what is on the plate. Thus, the award of stars does not take into considerations the restaurant’s décor, the price of the ingredients or the quality of services. Published criteria used by inspectors are as follows (Michelin Guide 2012; Michelin Dictionary 2013): 1. Quality of the ingredients (It is not necessary to use the most expensive ingredients such as caviar or foie gras to earn a star. The most important is the quality of the selected products.). 2. Flair and skill in preparing ingredients and combining flavours . 3. Chef’s personality as revealed through the cuisine. 4. Value for money. 5. Consistency of culinary standards (it is important to keep quality standards permanently). Based on the assessments of the above criteria, the stars are awarded as follows: – One star indicates a good place to stop on your journey. It is awarded to a very good restaurant in its category, offering cuisine prepared to a consistently high standard. – Two stars indicate a place worth a detour. They denote excellent cuisine, skillfully and carefully crafted dishes of outstanding quality.

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– Three stars are awarded to a place worth a special journey. Such reward indicates exceptional cuisine where diners eat extremely well, often superbly. Distinctive dishes are precisely prepared, using the ingredients of the highest quality (Michelin Gide 2012, Red Guide Use 2014) (figures 8, 9, 10).

Figure 8. Michelin-starred (one star) restaurants according to Red Guide 2014 Source: based on www.viamichelin.com/web/Restaurants.

In addition to quality cuisine, also the atmosphere of the restaurant is the subject to evaluation. It means that even a restaurant, which does not obtain a star, can be included in the prestigious guide. The level of comfort, decor and service is described by one to five crossed knives and forks – known as couvert. If the pictogram of couvert is of the red color, it indicates the superior evaluation (i.e. a pleasant environment) and the black is for basic. Description of ranking is as follows: – 1 couvert – quite comfortable restaurant, – 2 couverts – comfortable restaurant, – 3 couverts – very comfortable restaurant, – 4 couverts – top class comfortable restaurant, – 5 couverts – luxurious restaurant in the traditional style. Small plates receive restaurants which adopted the small plate concept.

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Figure 9. Michelin-starred (two stars) restaurants according to Red Guide 2014 Source: based on www.viamichelin.com/web/Restaurants.

Figure 10. Michelin-starred (three stars) restaurants according to Red Guide 2014 Source: based on www.viamichelin.com/web/Restaurants.

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The small plate concept is based on the serving of a number of smaller dishes, instead of two or three larger ones. This concept was created around the year 2000 in response to efforts to healthy eating that avoids weight gaining. In the next period, this concept was developed in the USA where it is known as the Small Plate Movement (Michelin Dictionary 2013, Red Guide Use 2014, Smallplate 2013). Other evaluation also focuses on the average price of served dishes and other related services (wine list, valet parking, brunch, late dinner, etc.). The guide also includes the evaluation of the hotels and their services (Red Guide Use 2014, Michelin Dictionary 2013). Today, we can say with certainty that more than a century-long story of brand building Michelin has been successful. Although, originally it was not the main purpose of the Michelin Company, their brand is currently strongly associated with gastronomy, through the evaluations of the quality restaurants, which are published annually in the Michelin Red Guides. Nowadays, Earning of a Michelin star is considered one of the most prestigious awards that a chef can get. The strength of the Michelin brand in the field of gastronomy is evidenced by perhaps the best known affair (2003) of French chef Bernard Loiseau. When he had learned that he was about to lose one of the three stars, he had committed suicide before the Michelin Guide was published. Perhaps the saddest aspect of the whole incident is that the Michelin Guide published after his death kept him all three stars. Of course, this situation immediately sparked a debate on the methods of evaluation and awarding stars (Labanc 2013; Anonymous 2012a, 2012b). Hunting for obtaining Michelin label and also a challenge to keep Michelin label create enormous psychological pressure on chefs. Also the necessities of using the most quality ingredients and sophisticated practices in food preparation place a financial burden on the budget of establishments. Many of chefs criticize the evaluation criteria, which, according to their opinion, are not clear. In fact, the Michelin Company did not publicize details of the procedures that are used for nearly 100 years. The debates became even more intensive in 2004, when the controversial book L'inspecteur se met a table was brought out. Pascal Rémy, the former inspector, describes here the work of anonymous reviewers, their enormous work load, high performance pressure, low financial reward, and many other behind the scenes details on evaluation procedures. What is more, he is not moderate in criticism of the Michelin Guide (Labanc 2013). The most frequently reported complaints are also related to the fact that the French cuisine serves as a reference frame for evaluation and thus, it does not respect local cultural peculiarities. At the same time, there are some complaints by chefs from countries that have not yet been visited by inspectors. In this re-

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spect, it has been medialized the issue of how to send already work loaded inspectors to these countries. Anyway, in general, there is a rule that the visited country should have a sufficiently large tourist market and in case of cities, there is a minimum size of 500 thousand inhabitants to be included on the list of planned visits. Of course, there exist also some exceptions, notably in case of France and Great Britain, which are grist for critics who consider the selection unfair. On the one hand, evaluated are small countries and towns, while countries such as Canada, Australia or Mexico are still ignored. In case of Slovakia, thus it can be raised the question whether the proximity of Bratislava to Vienna could not be used in order to succeed. In this respect, critics also point at Japan and Hong Kong, where the stars are awarded to restaurants that actually even did not expect such award and according to Pascal Rémy they did not meet as demanding conditions as it is in case of restaurants in other parts of the world. This is confirmed also by probably the world’s cheapest Michelin starred restaurant in Hong Kong – Tim Ho Wan, where diners can enjoy gourmet meals for as little as 40 HD, which is less than 4 EUR (Ho Wan 2014; Labanc 2013; Anonymous 2012a, 2012b). Reservations in relation to the evaluation were also raised after Juliane Caspar (originally from Germany) became the editor of the Paris Michelin Guide. It is hard to say, if in this case played a role fact that the leader editor became someone without French roots for the first time. However, critics also noticed that after she came, there was a significant rise of Micheline stars in Germany, which was attributable to her influence (Labanc 2013). Nowadays, it is rather difficult to say to what extend are above statements true or if they were raised only as a result of the competitive environment. On the other hand, it is certain that a good marketing, built on the strong media coverage, plays a key role in efforts to gain recognition not only by the Michelin Guide, but mainly by all gourmets and tourist, who promoted good food and drinks to the purpose of travelling. In this regard, the media can be really helpful. There are many well-known cases when the persistent work of journalists, who e.g. promoted Danish cuisine for a long time, achieved placement on the Michelin red map. Being part of such a prestigious guide means for the country a great assistance in promoting tourism. Conclusion Nowadays, the dynamics of changes in culinary products is significant, which points at the high flexibility and viability of this stream of tourism. However, on the other hand, it makes the attempts to classify this form of tourism more difficult. It is therefore necessary to see the definition of individual options not only as temporary, but also as mutually overlapping.

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From this point of view, culinary tourism can be considered as the umbrella concept, denoting the above mentioned forms, but also tours where the activities associated with food tasting are of the secondary importance. In addition to the above mentioned activities, they can include also different festivals, demonstrations or shows focused on food and gastronomy. Degustation and tasting of culinary specialties on holiday are in many cases of the same importance as the visits of historical sites, museums, etc. (Hjalager, Richards 2002). References Anonymus, 2012a, Michelin a jeho hvězda. Strategie. cz. Mladá fronta a. s., http://strategie.e15.cz/zurnal/michelin-a-jeho-hvezda-768104 (30.04.2014). Anonymus, 2012b, Michelin opäť hľadal najlepšie európske reštaurácie a hotely, Slovensko zatiaľ neobjavil. Petit Press, a. s., Reštaurácie.SME.sk, http://restauracie.sme.sk/clanok/michelin-opat-hladal-najlepsieeuropske-restauracie-a-hotely-slovensko-zatial-neobjavil (2.06.2014) Barkin C., James E., 1994, The Holiday Handbook, Clarion Books, New York. Brillant-Savarin J. A., 2012, Umenie vychutnať si život alebo Fyziológia chuti, Úvahy o chuti, o pôžitku z jedla a iných blízkych pôžitkoch, SPN Mladé letá, Bratislava. Bučeková I., Otrubová E., 2001, Vybrané spôsoby získavania informácií v geografii cestovného ruchu, Geografia, 9, 1, 27-29. Crompton, J. L., 1979, Motivations of pleasure vacation, Annals of Tourism Research, 6, 408–424. Cudny W., 2013, Festival Tourism – The Concept, Key Functions and Dysfunctions in The Context of Tourism, Geography Studies, Geografický Časopis/Geographical Journal, 65, 2, 105–118. de Blij, H.J., 1983, Wine: A Geographic Appreciation, Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, Lanham. Elias M., 2011, The Meaning of Gourmet, in Gourmet Live, http://www.gourmet.com/food/gourmetlive/2011/092111/meaning-ofgourmet (12.01.2014). Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/sources.php (12.11.2013) Hall M. et al. (eds.), 2004, Wine Tourism Around the World. Development, management and markets, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Hall M., Mitchell R., 2002, Tourism as a force for gastronomic globalization and localization, [in:] Hjalager A.M., Richards G. (eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy, Routledge, Miejsce wydania, London, 71–87. 162

Hall C. M., Sharples L., 2003, The consumption of experiences or the experience of consumption? An introduction to the tourism of taste, in Food tourism around the world, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1– 24. Hall C.M., Mitchell R.D., 2008, Wine Marketing: A Practical Approach. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Hall C. M., Sharples L., 2008, Food and Wine Festivals and Events Around the World Development, Management and Markets, Routledge, London. Hjalager A.M., Richards G. (eds.), 2002, Tourism and Gastronomy, Routledge. London. Ilies A., Ilies D.C., Josan I., Grama V., Gozner M., 2008, Romanian Rural Tourism Between Authentic/Traditional and Modern/Contemporary. The Case of Crisana and Maramures Areas, GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 2, 2, 140–148. Kurek W. (red.), 2007, Turystyka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa. Labanc M., 2013, Lesk a bieda michelinovských hviezd. Ako fungujú presné pravidlá pri udeľovaní michelinovských hviezdičiek je stále jednou veľkou záhadou, TREND Holding, http://restauracie.etrend.sk/restauracie-aktuality/lesk-a-bieda michelinovskych-hviezd.html (2.06.2014). Librairie Trois Plumes, 2011, [on-line], Physiologie du goût de Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, Paris, A Sautelet & Cie, 1826. 2 volumes., In-8, XIV+390pp & 442pp, Edition originale de ce célèbre ouvrage, tirée à 500 exemplaires et publiée sans nom d'auteur, très peu de temps avant la mort de celui-ci, qui n'aura jamais bénéficié de la notoriété de cet ouvrage. http://librairie-trois-plumes.blogspot.sk/2011/09/eo-de-laphysiologie-du-gout-brillat.html (2.06.2014). Lottman H., 2003, The Michelin Men: Driving an Empire, I.B.Tauris, London. Matlovičová K., Pompura M., 2013, The Culinary Tourism in Slovakia Case Study of the Traditional Local Sheep's Milk Products in the regions of Orava and Liptov, GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 2, 12, 129– 144. Michelin, 1939, Guide du pneu. Michelin, 2014, http://www.michelin.com (18.2.2014). Michelin Dictionary, 2013, Michelin guide Dictionary, http://www. michelintravel. com/_uploads/Red-Guide-ABCs.pdf (10.4.2014). Michelin Guide, 2012, Michelin guide Dictionary, Michelin Newsroom http://michelinmedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/MichelinGuide-Fact-Sheet.pdf (16.04.2014). 163

Michelin Guides, 2014, Michelin Travel & Lifestyle. http://www.michelintravel.com/guides-cat/red-guides/ (6.06.2014). Michelin History, 2013, Michelin. History 1829–2012, http://www.michelin.com/corporate/EN/group/history (4.04.2014). Michelin Japan, 2013, Michelin Guide - Restaurant, Ryokan, Hotel (Tokyo, Yokohama, Shonan, Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe, Nara), http://gm.gnavi.co.jp/ home (18.04.2014). Michelin South Africa, 2014, The MICHELIN guide is coming to Brazil in March 2015, Michelin South Africa, http://www.michelin. co.za/Home/News-Promotions/News/The-MICHELIN-guide-is-omingto- Brazil-in-March-2015 (6.06.2014). Michelin T&L, 2013, Oficiálne stránky spoločnosti Michelin. A Brief History of Michelin Travel & Lifestyle 1898-2012, http://www.michelintravel. com/about/ (5.04.2014). Small-plate, 2013, Macmillan Dictionary, http://www.macmillandictionary. com/buzzword/entries/small-plate.html (2.06.2014). Smith S. L. J., Xiao H., 2008, Culinary Tourism Supply Chains: A Preliminary Examination, Journal of Travel Research, 46, 289–299. Ho Wan T., 2014, http://www.openrice.com/english/restaurant/ (2.06.2014). UNWTO, 2012, Global Report on Food Tourism, Madrid. Quan S., Wang N., 2004, Towards a structural model of the tourist experience: An illustration from food experiences in tourism, Tourism Management, 25, 3, 297–305. Yoon Y., Uysal M., 2005, An examination of the effects of motivation and satisfaction on destination loyalty: a structural model, Tourism Management, 26, 45–56. ViaMichelin, 2009, The MICHELIN Guide: 100editions and over a century of history. l’Association des collectionneurs de guides et de cartes Michelin, http://www.viamichelin.co.uk/tpl/mag6/art200903/htm/tour-sagamichelin.html (6.04.2014). Warde A., Martens L., 2000, Eating Out: Social differentiation, consumption and pleasure, Cambridge University Press, New York. Zadrozny B., 2013, Where Are the World’s Best Restaurants? A Look at the Changing Landscape of Michelin Star Winners, http://gm.gnavi. co.jp/home (18.04.2014).

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Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie as places of development of creative industries in tourism and culture sector in Kraków __________________________ Aneta Pawłowska1

Introduction Kraków as a historic city offers a diverse tourism and cultural offer to its visitors. The areas where tourism is especially concentrated are Stare Miasto (Old Town) and Kazimierz (Old Jewish Quarter), situated in District I Stare Miasto (Old Town). A new tourism space, increasingly important in the recent years, is the area of right-bank Vistula River in District XIII Podgórze. Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie are the most attractive areas of the District XIII Podgórze in terms of tourism, culture and architecture. The name Stare Podgórze (Old Podgórze) is equated with the former Free City of the same name. Within its boundaries, around Rynek Podgórski square, Lasota Hill and Limanowskiego, Zamoyskiego and Kalwaryjska streets, historic residential, services as well as sacral architecture is situated. Zabłocie, the eastern part of the district with its numerous postindustrial areas is undergoing intensive revitalisation process. In the last few years, numerous projects have been implemented in order to enliven this part of the city. There are not only interesting historic monuments but also areas and real estate able to be developed for the broadly understood tourism, culture and leisure sector. The Local Revitalisation Programme of 1


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Zabłocie introduced in 2008 must also be mentioned. Within the accepted guidelines, the areas and post-industrial real estate become places where new museums and residential and service investments are founded. It is an example of a city area, which only a few years ago was outside the main tourist routes of Kraków, outside the Stare Miasto (Old Town) and Kazimierz (Old Jewish Quarter) and was not considered an interesting place for tourists to spend their time. At present, Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie are an example of dynamically developing urban area. In this case it is not only tourism-oriented development but also real estate development, cultural event organisation, revitalisation of postindustrial areas, the development of services, including gastronomy, music clubs, walking routes and street art. In 2010 a footwalk for pedestrians and cyclists over Vistula River was opened, improving transportation accessibility of the right-bank part of the city for tourists and visitors. In years 2010 and 2011 two museums were opened in Zabłocie: the Schindler’s Factory Museum, and the Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków MOCAK. Another example is Cricoteka, the Centre for the Documentation of the Art of Tadeusz Kantor, a modern building, serving not only as a museum but also as a place where culture is created, situated in the former municipal power plant. Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie become a location where cultural events and open-air exhibitions are held and where street art is created. The artists participating in Art Boom Festival chose Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie as the site to realise their creative projects in 2013. The aim of this article is to present the development of tourism and cultural offer in District XII Podgórze as exemplified by Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie, with the inclusion of projects that are corresponding to the guidelines of creative industries. An outline of historical development of Podgórze as a Free City and later as a district of Kraków, and the most important tourist attractions are also elaborated upon. Afterwards, a number of chosen examples of tourism developments, artistic and cultural projects, and revitalisation of post-industrial urban space that are contributing to the development of creative industries are reviewed. Outline of the history of Free Royal City of Podgórze Free Royal City of Podgórze (Wolne Królewskie Miasto Podgórze) existed until 1915. Afterwards this area was incorporated into an administrative district of Kraków called Podgórze which lasted from 1915 to 1991. During another territorial division of Kraków, the administrative district Podgórze was divided into municipal districts: VIII Dębniki, IX agiewniki-Borek Fałęcki, X Swoszowice, XI Podgórze Duchackie, XII Bieżanów-Prokocim and XIII Pod-

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górze. The former Free City with Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie is situated in the area of the last of these districts. In mediaeval times in the area of right-bank Vistula River building materials for Kraków were excavated, and first settlements were founded. In the 2nd half of 17th century, after the second partition of Poland in 1772 and the beginning of occupation of Kraków by the Austrian army, the Holy Roman Emperor Josef II, Free Royal City of Podgórze was founded. The city of Podgórze was founded on geographically favourable area: on the bank of Vistula River and crossing trade routes of the time. Additionally, Emperor Joseph II granted the city privileges in terms of personal liberties and conducting business. In the 19th century the first industrial businesses were founded: Bernard Liban’s cement works in Podgórze-Bonarka, stone quarries, brickyards and building depots (Salwiński 2004). The territorial affiliation of Podgórze was undergoing changes in the first half of the 19th century. Initially Podgórze was incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw together with Kraków. The cities were briefly joined together. Free Royal City of Podgórze, however, retained its administrative independence. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Podgórze came again under the Austrian rule. The construction of fortifications as part of Kraków Fortress began in the middle of 19th century. In Podgórze a number of fortifications were built: fort Krakus (dismantled in 1950s) and a moat around Krakus Mound, two Maximilian towers in Krzemionki: fort Krzemionki (dismantled in 1960s during the construction of television broadcasting centre) and fort St. Benedict on Lasota Hill (preserved) (Salwiński 2004). Podgórze and Kraków were definitively joined in 1915. The liberation of Kraków from Austrian occupation in 1918 started in the area of the former Free City. During the World War II, from 1941 to 1943, a Jewish ghetto was established in Podgórze, and in 1943, also a work camp for Jews and Poles in Płaszów, which was later converted into a concentration camp. After World War II the development of Podgórze was halted. In the southern parts of the administrative district, housing estates consisting of blocks of flats, as well as single-family buildings were constructed. Since the end of 1990s changes in the development and usage of urban space have been systematically introduced. New investments engender changes in the urban space of this district, however, not in industry and commerce, which in the past were the basis of the city’s development. Contemporarily the development occurs first and foremost in services, tourism and culture and creative industries. During the 6th edition of Art Boom Festival in 2013, Stare Podgórze was chosen as the leitmotif for creative activities and street art held in urban space. In the revitalised space new museum investments were realised. The-

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matically diverse tourist routes were marked: both historical and referring to contemporary art and street art. Another issue are the cultural events organised in urban space. Creative industries: Theoretical introduction The creative industries were started to be classified as a sector of the economy in 1990s. The best stimulus for the development of culture industries is culture in the traditional sense of the word (Głowacki 2013). In the United Kingdom, a cross-sector Creative Industries Taskforce was created in 1997. The taskforce defined creative industries as “those activities which have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and which have a potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property” (Głowacki 2013). The growing importance of creative industries stems from the need to satisfy the constantly changing needs of consumers to partake in the broadly understood culture (Mackiewicz et al. 2009). The creative industries comprise four components: creative services, creative content, creative experiences and creative individuals (Mackiewicz et al. 2009). The basis for the development of the creative industries is the creation and functioning of the socalled creative class consisting of individuals working in fields classified as creative, such as: scientists, engineers, designers, musicians and artists (Florida 2010). For the development of creative industries, the key qualities are: creativity and innovation, being the basis for both creators and employees work, together with their knowledge and skills (Hołda et al. 2012). In the Creative Industries Taskforce’s report, the creative industries involve activities in thirteen business sectors: advertising, film and video, architecture, music, art and antique market, performance arts, computer and video games, publishing market, crafts, software, design, radio and television, and fashion design. Creative industries provide cultural, artistic and entertainment goods and services. Examples of such products are books, magazines, works of visual arts (paintings, sculptures), dramatic art including theatrical plays, operas, concerts and dance, records, film productions for cinemas and television, fashion, toys and computer games (Caves 2002). According to the Central Statistics Office of Poland’s list, creative industries comprise architecture and interior design, publishing, national heritage, libraries and archives, art education, fashion and industrial design, cinema and television production, radio and music production, software programming, advertising and related activities, handicraft, performance arts, and visual arts. This list is similar to the one proposed by cross-sector Creative Industries Taskforce in the United Kingdom. Creative and innovative activities defined as creative industries are a relatively new phenomenon in Poland. The contemporary development opportuni-

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ties of cities have their basis in digital industry, knowledge economy and creative industries, artistic creativity, and broadly understood design (SanetraSzteliga 2013). One can speak of spatial concentration of creative industries in cities which is connected with access to jobs and place of residence of the creative class, defined by Richard Florida (Stryjakiewicz, Męczyński, Stachowiak 2009). The two basic types of space, in which the creative class can perform their activities and in consequence take part in the development of creative industries, are: new industrial space and metropolitan regions. This is where creative spaces or districts come into being. Districts, or smaller spatial units within their boundaries, which become the place of development of creative industries, are characterised by interesting architecture and accessibility of public space, cultural and entertainment infrastructure, and recreational areas. Moreover, the localisation of the so-called cultural industries (film industry, publishing and radio-television broadcasting) in these places is of crucial importance (Stryjakiewicz, Męczyński, Stachowiak 2009). The factors positively influencing the development of creative industries in cities are divided into hard and soft ones. The hard development factors are, among others, the size of the city, transportation accessibility and the level of remuneration in the region. Conversely, the soft factors of development are: the accessibility and quality of accommodation, the attractiveness of natural environment, security, atmosphere of tolerance (Stryjakiewicz, Męczyński, Stachowiak 2009). Furthermore, the broadly defined environment, consisting of the following: geographic and environmental conditions, socio-economic conditions (population distribution and density, job market, situation of economic entities, population, unemployment), cultural and artistic conditions (institutional and personal base), local government authorities, education sector (higher education and academic circles), has a profound significance for the development of creative sector (Hołda et al. 2012). The conditions of the development of creative sector concern the local, regional and supraregional levels. On the local level the entities working in four different sectors are of high importance. These sectors are: financial environment (banking and financial institutions), business environment (advertising agencies, public relations agencies, economic chambers and associations, agencies for enterprise development, non-governmental organisations), mass media (traditional and Internet media, press services) and specialised consumption areas (malls, fashion houses, hotels, cultural institutions) (Hołda et al. 2012). On the other hand, on the regional and supra-regional levels, the crucial factors for the development of creative sector are those connected with legal regulations, including enterprise taxation. For the creative businesses, the regional and supra-regional institutional environment, in which institutions offer support for enterprises, is also not without significance. This support can concern financing 169

creative businesses, as well as knowledge and good practices transfer, counselling, and creating clusters and other forms of cooperation in this sector of the economy (Hołda et al. 2012). Recapitulating, it should be noted that the success of the projects realised in the creative sector depends not only on the business ideas themselves and the methods of their implementation, but also on marketing activities including unconventional solutions. In the case of creative projects’ promotion, importance can be put on word-of-mouth marketing, especially involving the image and opinions of public figures, actors but also celebrities, using traditional models or designs for e.g. utilitarian articles such as furniture in new form or interpretation, references to history and national tradition, and utilisation of information and communication technologies (Szlachta 2014). Effective development of creative industries, however, requires properly scheduled actions and cooperation in terms of partnership and networking, both form private, public and social entities working in this line of business (Hołda et al. 2012). Connection between historic cities and creative industries Creative industries can be a prospective direction of development for historic cities, especially in the tourism and culture sectors. In the context of the aforementioned features of urban space, which can become attractive for the development of creative industries (Stryjakiewicz, Męczyński, Stachowiak 2009), the District XII Podgórze in Kraków, combining revitalised post-industrial areas and historic areas under the care of conservation office, constitutes a good example. In the report by Małopolska Economic Observatory it was stated that for the creative industries to develop, it is vital to utilise the already existing cultural base for economic gain (Gałka et al. 2012). The processes of creative arrangement and adaptation of urban space, sometimes to new functions, contributes to new forms of entertainment coming into existence. Some examples of this process are: visiting cultural heritage sites or participation in events, performances, exhibitions, concerts and festivals. The activities conducted in this matter are indirectly linked to the development of tourism sector through new investments or modernisation of infrastructure, accommodation and catering (Gałka et al. 2012). For historic cities, having a functioning and recognisable tourist business district in urban space, which, in the case of Kraków is the Stare Miasto (Old Town) and Kazimierz (Old Jewish Quarter), the development of creative industries can allow for the redirection of tourist interest outside the inner, historic centre of the city. The District XII Podgórze contains two areas, constituted by two housing estates which, in the recent years, gained significant importance in the prospect

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of the development of culture industries. These districts are Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie, undergoing intensive revitalisation. The infrastructure investments becoming an inherent element of the development premise of creative industries are accompanied by image-building and marketing activities, the subject of which is the district itself. Furthermore, investments in developing accommodation and catering base are in progress. The basis for the development of creative industries, as was mentioned earlier, is the broadly defined culture of the area itself, taking into account both its history as well as the present day. It should be emphasised that the activities constituting the premises of creative industries in this district alluding to the history and tradition of the district, take place in historic and characteristic places and areas. Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie: Creative industries create new places on tourist and cultural map of Kraków The Table 1 below contains a list of objects and places which are either historical, interesting due to their architecture, history, or those the original purpose of which is being changed in accordance with the guidelines of development of creative industries. These places can easily be found in urban space. Tourist information boards facilitate getting acquainted with the history, former functions and contemporary purpose of such places. Furthermore, the possibilities of exploring the District XIII Podgórze were expanded by the establishment of thematic routes. Four tourist routes were marked: Podgórze Historical Route, Industrial Monuments Route (Piłsudski Bridge, Podgórze Power Plant, Schindler’s Factory), Kraków Ghetto Route 1941-43 (e.g. buildings which housed Jewish Council, Jewish House for the Elderly and Isolation Hospital), and Kraków Mural Route. The creative activities encompass art projects in urban space, musical and cultural events, film projections, modern museums, as well as demonstrations or even continuation of handicraft and craftwork, alluding to craft and industry of Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie in the past. In recent years new museums have been opened: Schindler’s Factory Museum, Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków MOCAK, Glass and Ceramics Centre, Cricoteka: the Centre for the Documentation of the Art of Tadeusz Kantor. These museums are a good example of implementation of multimedia and interactive solutions in museum narratives, making cultural heritage available in an innovative way, an incentive for a wide audience to get with the museums’ collections. It should be noted, however, that the projects aimed at tourism development and extending the cultural offer are indirectly linked to the development of creative industries sector. The basis for these projects in the recent years was the display of the broadly-defined cultural heritage and other interesting places,

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supplying tourist information on those places, and promotional activities. Urban space prepared in such a way can become a place for the realisation of further projects, this time aimed at the development of creative sector in a historic city. Examples are given in Table 1. Table 1. List of chosen objects and places of interest in Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie Projects contributing to the develPlace: object Description of object or area opment of the creative sector or area

Rynek Podgórski square

St. Joseph’s Church

Redemptorists’ Church Fort 31 St. Benedict

St. Benedict’s Church

Old Cemetery of Podgórze

Cultural heritage and architectural monuments The square is situated in the centre of the Fountain development project district, its surface is triangular; during the awarded in Fresh Zone contest Free City of Podgórze period it was the Main Square; it is surrounded by 18th and 19th century tenement houses, in the former city hall the Department of Architecture and Urban Planning of the City Hall of Kraków is located Neo-gothic church built in the beginning Pipe organ concerts in summer of 20th century, designed by Jan SasZubrzycki, inside there are historic main and side altars, pulpit and pipe organ; white and grey colours of the interior impart a monumental and cathedral-like character to the church Neo-Romanesque church built in the Classical music concerts beginning of 20th century, designed by Jan Sas-Zubrzycki Tower fort, a part of Fortress Kraków Letni Projektor Filmowy (open-air built midway through 19th century, an summer cinema) example of defensive architecture in the approaches between Kraków and Free City of Podgórze and Lwów Road Romanesque church with Gothic vault on Lasota Hill, the smallest church in Kraków, open twice a year: on St. Benedict’s day (March 21) and on Easter Tuesday (Rękawka holiday) Memorial sites Cemetery created near the end of 19th century, lies on the European Cultural Route, it was a municipal cemetery and later a place of burial of distinguished families of Free City of Podgórze, among them Edward Dembowski (early 19th century politician), Wojciech Bednarski

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Heroes of the Ghetto square (Plac Bohaterów Getta)

Wojciech Bednarski Park

Schindler’s Factory, Historical Museum of the City of Kraków Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków MOCAK

Eagle Pharmacy

Cricoteka Centre for the Documentation of the Art of Tadeusz Kantor Zucker Synagogue

(principal of Podgórze school, community activist), Franciszek Maryjewski (last president of Podgórze) Market square in Free City of Podgórze, Open-air thematic expositions also called Small square (Mały Rynek) to connected with the Kraków Ghetto distinguish it from Rynek Podgórski and World War II square, before the World War II it housed a bus station “Karpaty”, in the period of Kraków Ghetto it was a place from which Jews were taken to work camps and concentration camps, and later it was a place of execution of people living in the ghetto Places of recreation and leisure A man-made park landscape in the neo- Open-air concerts, project of classicist and modernist style created in arrangement of a concrete kiosk former limestone quarry, the park was the awarded in the Fresh Zone contest initiative of Wojciech Bednarski, the principal of Podgórze school and community worker Cultural institutions and museums Former factory of enamelware and mili- Museum with exhibitions concerntary equipment, operating form 1939- ing the history of Kraków Jews, 1944 owned by Oskar Schindler, stage of Kraków under occupation and the “Schindler’s List” by Steven Spielberg, factory itself presently houses a museum Former “Rekord” and later Schindler’s Museum of international art of the enamelware and tinware factory, presently two last decades in the context of houses a museum of contemporary art the post-war avant-garde and conceptual art, education and research center, library and bookstore Former pharmacy of Kraków Ghetto, Museum with interactive exhibiduring German occupation the pharmacy tions about the history of the was a contact and supply point for Jews ghetto, the former Concentration living in the ghetto, presently houses a Camp Płaszów, Podgórze, the museum employees and the operation of the pharmacy Cultural institution created in the build- Museum of art of Tadeusz Kantor ings of the former Free City of Podgórze (painter, assemblage artist, set power plant; the construction and interior designer and theatre director redesign was realised since 2009 and the nowned for his revolutionary opening took place in 2014 theatrical performances) and contemporary art, education and research centre Former Jewish Zucker’s house of prayer Gallery of modern art established and Study House of Hasidim built in 18th in 1989 by a couple of art historicentury, presently reconstructed syna- ans from Krakow: Teresa and

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“Kładka Ojca Bernatka footbridge”

Krakus Mound

Salt Warehouse building

gogue houses a gallery of modern art Characteristic places Footbridge for pedestrians and cyclists over Vistula River joining the district of Kazimierz (Old Jewish Quarter) with Stare Podgórze, opened for traffic in 2010

Barrow from 7–9th century thought to be the tumulus of legendary king Krakus, until 1950s Fort 33 Krakus existed in vicinity, a beauty spot surrounded by recreational area

Andrzej Starmach The footbridge is illuminated with LED lights at night; its construction caused a cultural and tourism revival of Stare Podgórze and Vistula River boulevards on both sides of the footbridge; it is a “lover’s bridge” - padlocks are hung on the railings by couples The traditional holiday of Rękawka, based on pre-Christian pagan traditions, during the event historical reconstructions are held, along with traditional craft demonstrations and historical talks

Post-industrial areas The two-storied building form 18th century, former salt warehouse, for the port of loading of salt from Wieliczka mines in Zabłocie-Podgórze, in the 19th century it was converted into barracks

The edifice of the building is covered by a mural entitled “Poetry Warehouse” (Skład Poezji) with quotations from Polish and Icelandic poetry, inside there are art studios and art galleries, and also contains storage space and offices of some service businesses; the creation of Creative Industries Cluster in the building is being planned Liban quarry Limestone quarry established by Bernard Liban in late 19th century, during the World War II converted into work camp for Poles and Ukrainians; in 1993 a film set was built here for Steven Spielberg’s “Schindler’s List” (fragments of the set are preserved) Zabłocie Post-industrial areas and buildings which Schindler’s Factory Museum and were constructed and operated in the 19th Museum of Contemporary Art in and 20th century; presently undergoing Kraków MOCAK (former “Reextensive revitalisation and converted into kord” and later Schindler’s enamcultural institutions, museums, clubs and elware and tinware factory) Glass coffee houses and Ceramics Centre Lipowa 3 (former match factory “Znicz” and Kraków Glassworks); Fabryka Club (former cosmetic products factory Miraculum) Source: own elaboration.

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The street art and applied art in Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie Visual arts, street art and applied art belong in our times to the factors influencing the enlivening of urban space and arousing interest of people in nonstandard projects in public space. Art Boom Festival is an event devoted to visual arts. During the Festival projects and events presenting widely understood modern art directly in urban space are realised. The aim of the festival is not only the development of urban space, in an unconventional way, but also its enlivening through the realisation of artistic projects classified as street art, such as murals, installation art, exhibitions and open-air concerts. In 2012 the leitmotif of the festival was in fact Stare Podgórze. The art projects under common theme: Podgórze – invert the perspective (Podgórze – odwróć perspektywę) found their place in urban space also after the festival had concluded. The artists designed their projects to fit into the character of the district, its functional and historic features alluding to the history of chosen locations in public space. The art projects awarded in Fresh Zone contest find application in the urban space of Podgórze. Such projects are an unconventional way of enlivening the urban space in the vein of creative industries’ guidelines. The aim of Michał Mioduszewski, the author of project Revolutions Begin in Coffee Houses (Rewolucje powstają w kawiarniach), was to create a place for meetings for the inhabitants of the district. A former antique shop in Józefińska street was converted into a coffee shop (Cafe Fińska) in which instead of currency, barter trade is used. The clients can barter for meals and drinks, and, according to the aim of the project, use the coffee shop as a place for discussion, exchange of opinions, work on various art projects, making new acquaintances and organise meetings and events. In the project entitled Watch your step (Patrz pod nogi) by Agnieszka Rola and Paulina Pasek, the stairs adjacent to the buildings in Tatrzańska street were colourfully painted. Afterwards, quotations by important figures of culture, politics and literature as well as literary characters were painted on the stairs. The quotes have one thing in common: they are characterised by positive but sometimes also distanced and ironic attitude towards life. The colourful stairs serve to enliven the urban space in an unconventional way. The project entitled Glorieta by Agnieszka Motyka was concerned with revitalisation of a kiosk made of reinforced concrete constructed in Wojciech Bednarski’s Park during the interwar period. According to the project, the kiosk and its surroundings can become a place for organisation of cultural events, such as chamber music concerts, a meeting place for inhabitants, or culture information point. The project entitled A Fountain or not a fountain (Fontanna albo nie fontanna) was designed by Barbara Lorenz. This project’s objective was the change in the function of the fountain on Rynek Podgórski square through constructing a lover’s bench and a place of meeting and leisure for the

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inhabitants. Currently Rynek Podgórski is undergoing revitalisation works, therefore the project was not yet implemented. Another interesting solution in the urban space of Stare Podgórze are murals. Murals can be defined as large-format wall paintings. Such paintings are created mainly on the walls of buildings. Their subject matter is diverse, like advertising and promotion or it can be an artist’s rendition of a chosen topic. The murals in Kraków are connected into Kraków Routes of Street Art. The impulse to create the Kraków Routes of Street Art was the Mall Wall Art Contest organised in 2012 by the board of directors of Galeria Krakowska mall. Its aim was to design a mural for one of the walls of Galeria Krakowska nearby the Main Railway Station in Kraków as a modern showpiece of the city. Kraków Routes of Street Art came into existence as a consequence of recognition of street art’s potential for enlivening urban space and raising interest in untypical projects in public space. The Route contains murals by artists from Poland, the USA, Israel and Italy. The murals in Podgórze which are a part of the Route (six murals) are concentrated on the following subjects: literature, history and social phenomena. Modern look at cultural heritage and art in post-industrial space: Schindler’s Factory, MOCAK, Glass and Ceramics Centre and Cricoteka The operation of cultural institutions which also include museums can be classified as one of the branches of culture industries. Modern showrooms, multimedia and interactive solutions, shows and expositions organised according to narrative museum principles, create new possibilities to present the past of people and places: cultural heritage, history, biographies and also the broadlydefied contemporary art. The post-industrial space of Zabłocie is the location where innovative revitalisation and infrastructural projects were realised. The objective of these projects was to create new space for culture and creative industries to develop. Since 2005, the area and buildings of the former enamelware and tinware factory are managed by Kraków municipality. On the grounds of the former factory two cultural institutions were created: Schindler’s Factory Museum (in the administrative building) and Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków MOCAK (in former workshops). In the case of these buildings, their function was adapted according to contemporary trends in the development of postindustrial districts. The first one, Schindler’s Factory is a branch of Historical Museum of the City of Kraków. It houses exhibitions presenting the history of the city and its citizens under German occupation from 1939 to 1945, including Jews living in Kraków and the owner of the factory, Oscar Schindler. The museum also offers thematic workshops. Another example of a museum created in

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Zabłocie is the Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków MOCAK. The museum was opened to visitors in 2011. The exposition includes the latest art, international, domestic and avantgarde, sometimes controversial in form and content. Apart from its museum function, MOCAK also realises educational activities, conducts research and is a publisher.Another example is the Glass and Ceramics Centre created in the former Kraków Glassworks by the Institute of Ceramics and Building Materials. Its museum function is complemented by its manufacturing activity, referring to the building’s housing glassworks in the past. The Centre holds exhibitions and organises educational activities. The leitmotif in this case is history and technology of glass manufacturing, presented as a permanent exhibition in Galeria Lipowa 3, which is a part of the Centre. During the recurring exhibitions, works by contemporary Polish artists are presented. Furthermore, the Centre offers demonstration of manual glass forming for the visitors and also manufactures its own products. Hand-made coloured and decorative glass created by glassworking artists can be purchased. The currently produced items are short runs of building materials, ceramic materials and artistic glass. Students of AGH University of Science and Technology and the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków can participate in laboratory classes connected with glass production in the Centre. Cricoteka, the Centre for the Documentation of the Art of Tadeusz Kantor, a director, stage designer and a visual artist, Cricoteka has been functioning since the 1980s in a number of locations in the Stare Miasto (Old Town) of Kraków. The Centre consists of Cricoteka Offices, Cricoteka Archive, Room-Studio of Tadeusz Kantor and collection warehouses. For the new location of the Centre, allowing for the combination of the scattered offices and museum expositions of Cricoteka, the buildings of the former Podgórze Power Plant were chosen. The construction and interior design was realised since 2009. The opening took place in 2014. The new Cricoteka functions not only as a place of documentation of Tadeusz Kantor’s art. The revitalisation project of Podgórze Power Plant and the adaptation of its interior to suit the Cricoteka were aimed at creating a place for the citizens of Kraków and tourists to spend their free time. This modern cultural institution provides an offer of educational programmes, lectures and museum lessons. The space of the new Cricoteka combines a museum with multimedia and interactive exhibitions (Museum of Kantor), art gallery (permanent and temporary exhibitions), theatre (guest performances and production of own plays) and cinema (documentaries and recorded performances). Creation of a research centre is planned.

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Conclusion Historic cities are characterised by diverse cultural heritage shaped throughout the ages. The old city districts provide a rich tourism and cultural offer which includes sightseeing, leisure and participation in cultural events. In the case of Kraków, tourism is concentrated mainly in the Stare Miasto (Old Town) and Kazimierz (Old Jewish Quarter). However, in recent years, a new, attractive tourism space has appeared on the tourist and cultural map of Kraków in District XII Podgórze on the other side of the Vistula River, mainly in the area of Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie. The realised revitalisation and tourism development investments, as well as cultural and artistic projects contribute to the enlivening of this fragment of urban space. This case can be described as a gradual development of creative industries. The directions of development, using the projects realised in the area of Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie as an example, are as follows. Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie constitute a new place on tourist and cultural map of Kraków. In the relatively small area in District XIII Podgórze there are monuments of architecture and cultural heritage, museums, places of recreation and leisure, green areas and places where contemporary artists realise their projects. Infrastructural investments are concentrated on tourism development and the improvement of transportation accessibility. Footwalk for pedestrians and cyclists over Vistula River serves as an example. Investments aiming to revitalise post-industrial areas were realised. The projects and investments in Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie can be viewed in terms of the development of creative industries. Urban spaces, both those containing cultural heritage and historic monuments, and those with postindustrial areas or housing estates can become places that receive tourism, where cultural institutions are created and where people spend their free time, if such space is arranged in a creative and innovative way. On the grounds of the former enamelware factory, institutions operating in the culture sector and creative industries sector were created as modern museums: the Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków MOCAK, and the Schindler’s Factory Museum, also conducting educational and publishing activities. The Glass and Ceramics Centre in the former glassworks operates as a museum, conducts educational activities and also manufactures artistic glass items. This group also includes a new cultural institution: Cricoteka, the Centre for the Documentation of the Art of Tadeusz Kantor which has been created in former power plant, a place combining the functions of a museum, art gallery, cinema, theatre and a place of educational meetings. In the urban space of Stare Podgórze and Zabłocie, new artistic projects are constantly realised: murals, art installations and development projects of various

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parts of the district. The places and objects attractive on the account of their architecture, cultural heritage or history are easily accessible for the visitors, important is also the content and the availability of tourist information both in the urban space through the marking of thematic routes, as well as in print and digital publications. The development of creative industries in historic cities should be conducted in a consistent way, referring to history of a given place but simultaneously allowing for the development of new functions in urban space, thus it requires a defined plan of action. Creative industries should enhance the attractiveness and the image of a city, enliven urban space, create possibilities for the artists and creators to cooperate and create places attractive for tourists, citizens, businesspeople and people involved in creating culture. References Caves R. E., 2000, Creative Industries: Contracts between art and commerce, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Florida R., 2010, Narodziny klasy kreatywnej, Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa. Gałka J., Grodny S., Olszewska D., Tompolska A., 2012, Potencjał małopolskich przemysłów kreatywnych, Małopolskie Obserwatorium Gospodarki, Urząd Marszałkowski Województwa Małopolskiego, Departament Polityki Regionalnej, Kraków. Głowacki J., 2013, Przemysły kreatywne i ich wpływ na gospodarkę, [in:] Hausner J, Karwińska A., Purchla J. (eds.), Kultura a rozwój, Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa, 435–454. Hołda J., Zarębska-Denysiuk P., Celiński P., Kawa M., Hunkiewicz C., Sobczuk Z., 2012, Wsparcie przemysłów kreatywnych w Lublinie. Analiza potencjału i kierunki rozwoju, Lubelskie Towarzystwo Zachęty Sztuk Pięknych, Lublin. Mackiewicz M., Michorowska B., Śliwka A., Grochowski M., 2009, Analiza potrzeb i rozwoju przemysłów kreatywnych. Raport końcowy, Ecorys Research and Consulting, Warszawa. Sanetra-Szteliga J., 2013, Sektor kultury a rozwój gospodarczy miasta, [in:] Hausner J., Karwińska A., Purchla J. (eds.), Kultura a rozwój, Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa, 413-434. Salwiński J., 2004, Podgórze. Przewodnik po prawobrzeżnej części Krakowa, Vis-a-vis Etiuda, Kraków. Szlachta P., 2014, Co decyduje - przykłady sukcesu w branżach kreatywnych w Polsce, [in:] Szultka S. (ed.), Kreatywny łańcuch. Powiązania sektora

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kultury i kreatywnego w Polsce, Instytut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową, Gdańsk, 63-66. Stryjakiewicz T., Męczyński M., Stachowiak K., 2009, Sektor kreatywny w poznańskiej gospodarce, Instytut Geografii Społeczno-Ekonomicznej i Gospodarki Przestrzennej, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Poznań.

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The growing challenge of accessibility for disabled people in selected historical European cities __________________________ Marcin Popiel1

Introduction Tourism is a rapidly growing industry in Europe and people with disabilities – or even the elderly – are now becoming a growing group of consumers that are oriented toward travelling, sports and other services and products related to recreation and leisure. However, despite its development, tourism for disabled is still – to some extent – rare. This is mainly due to the lack of knowledge on the market of tourists with special needs, the lack of dialogue, coordination and exchange of information between different levels of government, businesses and tourism industry. People with disabilities have the right and desire to undertake the act of travelling just like the rest of the society (Darcy, Daruwalla 1999). During travelling, every visitor encounters tourism related barriers and it was noticed that the barriers are especially affecting the tourists with special needs, i.e. disabled ones. Not only do they have the right to participate in the actions of travelling and leisure, but also have the same needs and motives to take up tourism as their healthy and able counterparts (Popiel 2013). In spite of that – and despite a variety of actions taken by the EU – the experiencing of travel by disabled tourists 1


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is still being described from the perspective of the barriers they need to face. These mostly concern the limitations of transport, unadapted accommodation facilities, places of tourist attraction or insufficient tourist information and lack of personnel trained well enough to deal with the social group in question. Since the early 1990s, the European Commission has taken an active interest in promoting social sustainability in all areas of live and activity of different business and sectors in member states. Jacques Delors, who was the President of the European Commission in 1993, called for being more socially responsive and to fight social exclusion, as it is contrary to civic liberty and freedom (Nicolae 2008). The same words were repeated in Lisbon in March 2000, when the European Council called for a bigger empathy and more sustainable approach and implementing best practices for lifelong learning, work organization, equal opportunities, social inclusion and sustainable development (Nicolae 2008). After that, as a result of the debate and as a contribution to this panel, in 2011 a document titled "A Sustainable Europe for a Better World: A European Union Strategy for Sustainable Development" was published (European Commission 2011). There are many spheres of life that require sustainable development and the fight against exclusion. Certainly one of them is tourism, but above all, the priority is the daily life in an environment in which we live and travel. Most Europeans live in urban areas, in cities, therefore, customization and adaptation of goods and services for different demands of people with different limitations should start right there. "Accessibility means that people with disabilities have access – on an equal footing with other people – to the physical environment, transportation, and information and communication technologies, as well as to other facilities and services. Accessibility is a pre-condition for participation in society and in the economy. That is why accessibility is at the heart of the European Disability Strategy for 2010–2020" (European Commission 2012, p. 3). Ensuring accessibility often is a hard job, but nowadays people in Europe and also all over the world need more accessible cities, infrastructure and communication technologies. Accessibility should not be treated as a burden: there is a strong social and economic case for it. Accessible goods, services and cities should be the norm, rather than it is now – the exception (European Commission 2012). "In a rapidly changing world, Europe’s historical cities are being increasingly recognized and valued for their contribution to the quality of life of their citizens and those who come to experience them as visitors, from near and far" (Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras, Orejas 2013, p. 3). The aim of the study is the presentation of the efforts of selected historic European cities in their way of making them more accessible to people with dis-

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abilities. This article want to share the good practice, commitment and also innovation that have been shown by the cities in order to break the barriers in the daily environment of the city and to promote the participation of people with disabilities not only – in a narrow sense – in tourism but also in social life in general. The main and overall purpose is to provide information about accessibility and inclusive tourism disability. The study provides information about a number of inspiring best practices in the fields of the environments of life, work and tourism with no barriers in different European cities. The discussed topics will include the availability of transport, accommodation, availability of tourist places, attractions and other. Disability and accessibility According to the World Health Organization, which has adopted and announced the International Classification of Damage, Disabilities and Handicaps, disability is a biological concept which can have three dimensions:  damage (impairment) - means any lack or abnormality of organs, their anatomical structure and also lack or dysfunction of the body's physical or psychological functions,  functional disability (disability) – means any restriction or lack, resulting from damage of the ability to perform activities in the manner and the range considered as a normal for a human being,  social impairment or disability (handicap) – means less privileged or less favorable situation of a person, resulting from damage and functional disability that limits or prevents the fulfillment of roles related to age, gender or social and cultural situation. Possibilities and limitations of people with disabilities with various types and degrees of disability define for example types of tourism and level of access that they can have. These conditions depend on disability, which can be divided into four types:  people with sensory disabilities,  people with physical disabilities,  people with mental disabilities,  people with disabilities complex, affected by more than one type of disability. Limitations of people with disabilities are varied depending on the type and degree of disability. So they are different for example for people with vision, movement, thinking, remembering, learning, communicating, hearing, mental health or even social relationships type of disability. Therefore, each of these groups has specific type of capabilities and limitations in their lives or tourism 183

activity. However, awareness of their presence and their needs allows to adapt their daily environment and also tourism products and services, so that disability will no longer be an obstacle in tourism activity and fulfilling their social roles. Accessibility depends on the kind of disability and definitely exceeds the physical type. According to Darcy (1998) accessibility can be characterized by three main measures:  physical accessibility, which applies to people with physical disability, frequently requiring the use of wheelchairs or walking aids and often demanding other conveniences such as railings, ramps, lifts, etc,  sensory accessibility, which applies to people with impaired sight or hearing or other similar impairments. Such people require special services such as tactile signs, visual signs, labels, audio-visual systems, warning sounds for lifts and crossings, etc,  communication accessibility, which applies to people with communication impairments, e.g. having difficulties to read, write, hear or speak, as well as people coming from different cultural backgrounds who require some explanation or additional information. Designing and accessible for all in the light of international legislation International legislation places special emphasis on the aspects of countering social exclusion due to disability and to make up for opportunities and equal treatment of people with disabilities. Important for the dissemination of these ideas was the adoption of the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities. It was held on December 20, 1993 during the 48 session of the UN General Assembly. These principles have been drawn up on the basis of the experience gained during the Decade of Disabled Persons, organized under the aegis of the United Nations (1983–92) (Wysocki 2009). The UN Standard Rules is another legislation document. Despite the fact that this document is not legally binding, it became the primary document and customary law, used when creating policies of many organizations, countries and local authorities on the issue of disability. The rules relate to the basic actions that should be taken by the authorities at various levels of government in order to improve the lives and activities of people with disabilities. The main goal of the Standard Rules is equality of opportunity, as a basic human right. However, it should be noted that people with disabilities sometimes need more support from the public and the society in order to be able to achieve the same goals in their life as healthy persons. So the support for people with disabilities should not be perceived as a privilege but as a right. Standard Rules comprise 22 rules, which establish guidelines for disability policy and proposals for concrete actions. Rules mentioned in this document

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need to raise awareness in society about the rights, needs and strengths of people with disabilities and their ability to contribute to the social life. This is an important message to the decision makers shaping the local social policy, to their actions to promote the ideas of integration, understanding the needs and rights of persons with disabilities and to be responsible for the evolution of public space. The basic principle relating to the physical environment and, in particular, the public space is the principle 5, of accessibility, which states: Countries (organizations, local authorities) should be aware of the enormous importance of the issue of accessibility in the process of equalization of opportunities in all spheres of social life. To those affected by any form of disability, countries should:  initiate action programs designed to make the physical environment more accessible,  introduce solutions to facilitate access to information and means of communication between human beings (United Nations 1993). The primacy of availability requires local governments and other operators of public space to take action in order to eliminate barriers to access for people with disabilities to public space and the information on it. Standard Rules apply not only to the situation at the national level, but because they are so versatile, they can be used to create local management and strategy in the direct management of institutions and enterprises. Precious initiative based on the Standard Rules, was the adoption of the Barcelona Declaration by 56 representatives of European cities during the Conference "the City and the Disabled" in 1995. To the present day the Declaration was signed by more than 400 cities. The Barcelona Declaration as well as the Standard Rules are documents indicating universal policy objectives of local authorities, and they are based on the fundamental human rights, equal use of all aspects of public life, including the right to independent participation in all events of local communities. The aim of the Barcelona Declaration is to encourage local authorities to implement the legislation in the local entries for integration of people with disabilities in the society, which they represent. This project provides an opportunity to create the city development policy by the representatives of the local authorities in consultation with organizations of people with disabilities. In brief, the obligations of local authorities can be defined as the active promotion of the principle of universal access in the process of shaping public policy based on equality of opportunities for people with disabilities to participate in the economic, social and cultural life of the city.

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Universal design Universal design is an often used slogan which exactly is "an approach to the design of all products and environments to be useable by everyone, to the greatest extent possible, regardless of age, ability or situation. It serves people who are young and old, with excellent or limited abilities, in ideal or difficult circumstances. Universal Design (UD) benefits everyone by accommodating limitations" (Tourism Center, University of Minnesota 2008). When designing any product or environment you must involve the consideration of many factors including aesthetics, engineering options, environmental issues, or even safety concerns, and cost (Intarapasan 2009). The concept of "Universal Design" is often called interchangeably "Inclusive Design", "Barrier-Free-Design", "Design-For-All" (Donelly 2003) – those are used as synonyms. Most of people, when they hear the term "Universal Design", they think that this is something related to making buildings more accessible, but in fact, it is not only this. "It is not a design style but an orientation to any design process that starts with a responsibility to the experience of the users" (Intarapasan 2009, p. 83). There are 7 Principles of Universal Design, which allow to learn how the process of customization should be done properly (Mace, Hardie, Place 1991) (table 1). Table 1. The Universal Design Principles Universal Design Principles Principles One: Equitable Use Guidelines The design is useful and marketable to people 1a. Provide the same means of use for all with diverse abilities. users: identical whenever possible; equivalent when not. 1b. Avoid segregating or stigmatizing and users. 1c. Provisions for privacy, security, and safety should be equally available to all users. 1d. Make the design appealing to all users. Principle Two: Flexibility in Use Guidelines The design accommodations a wide range of 2a. Provide choice in methods of use. individual preferences and abilities. 2b. Accommodate right – or left – handed access and use 2c. Facilitate the user's accuracy and precision. 2d. Provide adaptability to the user's pace Principle Three: Simple and Intuitive Use Guidelines Use of the design is easy to understand, re3a. Eliminate unnecessary complexity. gardless of the user's experience, knowledge, 3b. Be consistent with user expectations and language skills, or current concentration level. intuition. 3c. Accommodate a wide range of literacy and language skills.

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Principle Four: Perceptible Information The design communicates necessary information effectively to the user, regardless of ambient conditions or the user's sensory abilities.

Principle Five: Tolerance for Error The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of accidental or unintended actions

Principle Six: Low Physical Effort The design can be used efficiently and comfortably and with a minimum of fatigue

Principle Seven: Size and Space for Approach and Use Appropriate size and space is provided for approach, reach, manipulation, and use regardless of user's body size, p[posture, or mobility.

3d. Arrange information consistent with its importance. 3e. Provide effective prompting and feedback during and after task completion. Guidelines 4a. Use different modes (pictorial, verbal, tactile) for redundant presentation of essential information. 4b. Provide adequate contrast between essential information and its surroundings. 4c. Maximize "legibility" of essential information. 4d. Differentiate elements in ways that can be describe (i.e., make it easy to give instructions or directions) 4e. Provide compatibility with a variety of techniques or devices used by people with sensory limitations Guidelines 5a. Arrange elements to minimize hazards and errors: most used elements, most accessible; hazardous elements eliminated, isolated, or shielded. 5b. Provide warnings of hazards and error. 5c. Provide fail safe features. 5d. Discourage unconscious actions in task that require vigilance. Guidelines 6a. Allow users to maintain a neutral body position. 6b. Use reasonable operating forces. 6c. Minimize repetitive actions. 6d. Minimize sustained physical effort. Guidelines

7a. Provide a clear line of sight to important elements for any seated or standing user. 7b. Make reach to all components comfortable for any seated of standing users. 7c. Accommodate variations in hand and grip size. 7d. Provide adequate space for the use of assistive devices or personal assistance Source: Intarapasan B., 2009, Cultural Heritage across Borders: Inclusive Tourism And BarrierFree Design In The Greater Mekong Sub-Region, A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy. Silpakorn University, Bangkok, 84–86.

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Disability, accessibility and historical cities European cities and also many large towns are often characterized by their unique history, which often goes back many centuries and even millennia. Their rich legacy as a remnant of ancestors ofmany generations has clearly shaped the cities where now many of us have our families, live and work (Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras, Orejas 2013). Public spaces or even urban environments are often the areas of meetings, work, and recreation. There are spaces where people move from their workplaces to their homes or the other way round (Wysocki 2009). These urban areas provide vibrant settings with a variety of both physical and cultural components like streets, bridges, monuments, historical, educational, religious buildings, green spaces, market squares and sites where often many age-old ceremonies and festivals take place, especially in historical cities (Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras, Orejas 2013). Such components of a city like a square, a marketplace, boulevard or street are the places where tourists can mingle with locals. They often become areas of interaction and actions leading to the integration of the local communities. Public space in the urban area seems to be the "heart of the city" which should be full of life, connect the citizens and create the field for initiatives, stimulate imagination and development. Urban environment should be friendly for everyone, available to all and, regardless of their disability, movement limitations or cognitive abilities, offer its users a full social integration and become a place where interpersonal bonds are tightened and society develops. Many European cities are a great tourist destinations for both European and overseas tourists, and even despite economic trends, these cities just enjoyed increased average growth rates in tourism. "A notable finding in a recent EUROBAROMETER survey on tourism shows that the main attractions for tourists in 2011 were: the environment (32%); cultural heritage (27%); and entertainment (14%)" (Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras, Orejas 2013, p. 3). As the number of travelers increases year by year there is a great challenge for European cities to make themselves more accessible to everybody in order to being an effective driver of economic growth and inclusive development for communities. While historical cities are representing important and also picturesque elements of the history and culture of Europe, many tourists still have limited access to this heritage. The main problem is the insufficient access to information or such services like transport, accommodation and inadequate services, restricting the freedom of movement of people with different disabilities, which prevent or – in the best case – severely limit their enjoyment of these destinations (Deichmann 2004).

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According to the United Nation convention on the Rights of Persons with disabilities, around 15 per cent of the world’s population, or 650 million people, live with some type of disability and they are the world’s largest minority (Mahmoudi, Fanaei 2010). However people with limited mobility have their special needs regarding participation in tourism, but also they have the same motivation of traveling. "Due to social and demographic changes there is an increase of people with disabilities in Europe (more than 80 million in Europe) and also an increase in the proportion of older people [...]. To meet this market demand, those responsible for managing and preserving historical cities are faced with the challenge of improving the accessibility of city streets, monuments and buildings while safeguarding their cultural heritage" (Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras, Orejas 2013, p. 3). Making historical cities more accessible to citizens and tourists is a winning strategy for the efficient long-term sustainability of heritage sites. By improving accessibility, greater sustainability is brought to the business community and, at the same time, it contributes to an improved quality of life for residents and tourists alike. There are many various projects run by historical cities in Europe, which have the same aim. One of them is the League of Historical and Accessible Cities. The aim of this project as well as others is to improve the accessibility of historical towns and at the same time to promote sustainable tourism development and to protect cultural heritage. In brief the most important assumptions of the project are:  putting forward innovative accessibility solutions which will allow disabled to fully enjoy cultural and historical heritage,  fostering tourism and the social development of the town,  developing pilot projects which can be an inspiration for other foundations, local authorities or stakeholders,  serving as a hub for exchange of best practices in the area of accessibility and know-how processes,  leading by example, raise awareness, stimulate ideas and invite others to take action (www.wakeupcall.eu/best-practice/league-of-accessible-and-historcal-cities). The project involves a holistic conception of customization and accessibility, which will entail improvements in four main areas:  the built of environment and public spaces,  transport and transport related infrastructures,  information and communication as well as the connected infrastructure and technologies,  public facilities and services (www.wakeupcall.eu/best-practice/league-

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of-accessible-and-historical-cities). The project is being simultaneously implemented by 11 foundations in 5 different countries across Europe, each of them in partnership with the local authorities of the 6 historical towns involved:  Avil (Spain) – Fundación ONCE;  Lucca (Italy) – Fondazione Banca Monte di Lucca;  Mulhouse (France) – Fondation Réunica, Fondation de France, Centre Français des Fonds et Fondations;  Torino (Italy) – Fondazione CRT;  Viborg (Denmark) – Realdania Foundation, Bevica Foundation, the Danish Disability Foundation and the Labour Market Holiday Fund;  Sozopol (Bulgaria) – Sozopol Foundation. Aside these cities mentioned above, which are in the project, many more historical towns are taking the challenge of making themselves more accessible. The case study of historical European cities This chapter will present examples of good practices of selected historical European cities in terms of adjusting public space for people with disabilities. The analysis will include both cities that have joined the League of Historical and Accessible Cities (LHAC) – that will be the city of Ávila and Sozopol – and also Krakow, which is not in the League. Ávila (Spain) Ávila is a World Heritage monument and it is one of the oldest and the most beautiful cities in Spain. Its world famous medieval walls stand guard over the centuries-old artistic and cultural heritage found inside. Ávila is situated in the center of the Iberian Peninsula and is located 118 km from Madrid, the capital of Spain. The city was founded in the 11th century. The aim was to protect the Spanish territories from the Muslims. Ávila is known all over the world as a city with the highest number of Romanesque and Gothic churches per capita in Spain. Additionally it is also one of the finest and preserved in great shape examples of a completely walled medieval town in Europe and an excellent example of medieval architecture. "Ávila is one of the leading accessible tourist destinations in Spain. Much work has been carried out in recent years to build an inclusive offer in which everyone can live and enjoy life in the town with equal opportunities. Accessibility and inclusion have become the Town Hall's motto and has helped the walled town become a reference thanks to the work that has been carried out on options for accessibility, as shown by the many awards that have been received,

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including the CERMI, the Queen Sofia Award and the declaration of the town as a European Access in 2011" (www.avilaturismo.com) (photo 1). It means that Ávila is ready to invite all tourists regardless of their health condition and disability.

Photo 1. A plaque on the wall of the City Office in Ávila Source: www.avilaturismo, 11.09.2014.

Since 2002, Fundación ONCE engaged with Ávila Municipality "to make a city from all and for all". Following these achievements, Ávila joined the League of Historical and Accessible Cities in 2010 to lead by example on the issue of universal accessibility and in order to learn from other experts in the field. A specific plan for accessibility in Ávila was developed in 2011 based on the LHAC methodology. This methodology involves cataloguing the different buildings and accessible itineraries by using codes to indicate the needs for improvement in four main areas: mobility, perception, localization and communication. "Ávila’s City Council also improved accessibility in public spaces, historical buildings and transport services like taxis as well as the railway station and accessible parking spaces. These actions were carried out with a mixture of public and private sources of financing. As a result of this effort, in 2011 the city was awarded with the European Commission Award for Accessible Cities as a pioneer in introducing the analysis of accessibility in artistic and historical heritage sites" (Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras, Orejas 2013, p. 18). In Ávila concrete actions have been taken in order to make the public facilities and services more accessible:  Collective agreement with the Castile-León Federation for the Deaf in order to make a Sign Language Interpreter service available. 191

 Grants to programmes encouraging the employment of people with disabilities.  Grants to associations of people with disabilities to afford working space and housing (Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras, Orejas 2013).  There are also some innovations in the area of technology and devices development, like for example:  Installation of traffic lights with audible alert and Cyber-pass system (sound alert system on demand by Bluetooth).  Geo-location system in Ávila’s accessibility plan to detect accessibility gaps on an interactive map (GISEMAC).  Universally designed audio guides in nine languages, (including Spanish sign language and the international sign system) and adapted screenplay for young audiences (Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras, Orejas 2013).  Visitors can also download the guide to the town's accessible resources, which is fundamental publication containing information's about accommodation, restaurants, monuments and cultural areas which are disabled friendly. Sozopol (Bulgaria) The city of Sozopol is located in a bay along the southern Bulgarian coast and it is about 35km away from Burgas. Today this town is one of the major seaside destinations for visitors from all over the world and well known resorts in the country. Archeological research in this city indicates that the town has a cultural tradition that is about 7,000 years old. The original name of the city is attested as Antheia, but later on it was renamed to Apollonia. At various times, Apollonia was also known as Apollonia Pontica, named after Greek colony. Two of Sozopol’s most known and attractive tourist destinations are the city’s archeological museum and art gallery. Every year many tourists choose Sozopol as their holiday destination, that is why tourism is the main source of income for the local population. In this group of visitors there are also disabled travelers, so improving the conditions for all tourists was one of the main objectives and motivations behind the Sozopol Foundation and Sozopol Municipality participating in the League of Historical and Accessible Cities. Therefore, a number of projects were developed. Some of the projects had been implemented before the foundation joined the LHAC Project; others are currently on going or forthcoming after 2013. According to Ambrose, Balmas, Barragán Iturriaga, Medina Higueras and Orejas (2013, p. 24) the projects include activities that are related to:

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 "terrain study and conservation of archaeological structures, and where possible reconstruction; adaptation of these structures to the modern living environment by constructing accessible environments in order to turn them into active tourist destinations showing the history and cultural heritage of urban civilization throughout different historical periods,  creation of Cultural Centre of Sozopol and small visitors’ centers for the archaeological sites,  organization of training courses for guides,  activities aiming to maintain the cultural sites and improve the environment and infrastructure,  development of a plan for preservation and management of the archaeological reserve ancient town of Apollonia". The most important key fact of all projects and city transformation process is the fact that accessibility is integrated into the cityscape and it does not require any changes in its appearance and identity and at the same time it does not damage cultural sites. Now the city is providing access for all visitor groups, enabling all people with disabilities, as well as their family and friends, to enjoy the city.

Figure 1. Old town of Sozopol Source: www.sozopol-foundation.com, 6.12.2014)

The Sozopol Foundation has significant experience in the field of developing and implementing projects related to providing access to people with disabilities

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to cultural heritage and natural landmarks. Selected projects are mentioned below:  creation and promotion of cultural tourist product in Sozopol through restoration of the southern fortress wall and tower and construction of public tourist infrastructure for people with disabilities,  provision of accessible environment for people with disabilities to Ethnographic Museum and Museum Complex Southern Fortress Wall and Tower in Architectural-Historic Reserve Ancient Town of Sozopol,  provision of accessible environment for people with disabilities from Southern Panoramic Alley to the tourist pier in Sozopol (Photo 2),  provision of accessible environment for people with disabilities to the Orthodox Church St. St. Cyril and Methodius.

Photo 2. Lift for people with disabilities, providing access from the seaside alley to the tourist pier Source: www.sozopol-foundation.com, 6.12.2014.

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The implementation of these projects and also others not mentioned above has provided a great infrastructure for people with disabilities to Archaeological Reserve of the old town of Sozopol. "Enabling the socialization of the sites with and the opportunity for these equal Bulgarian and foreign citizens to visit them and to actually participate in cultural tourism, combined with exercise and recreation. The total route with granted access for people with disabilities is 1553 meter" (www.sozopol-foundation.com/en) (figure 1, photo 2). Krakow (Poland) Krakow is Poland's second largest city. It is also one of the oldest cities of the country. It was founded in 7th century. Krakow is also one of the most popular tourist destinations in Poland for tourist from all over the world. In the past the city used to be the capital of Poland and also the residence of Polish kings. Architectural and urban complex of Krakow is among the most important group of heritage sites and that is why the historical city centre has been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Krakow is not involved in the League of Historical and Accessible Cities project but despite this fact, Krakow has raised a number of projects in order to make the city more accessible and disabled friendly. Krakow accepted the challenge of accessible heritage, and here is the list of selected projects in Krakow:  the city offers a map of the Old Town for blind and visually impaired along with the ‘Krakow on the Fork’ guide to accessible restaurants,  the National Museum has also embraced the accessible tourism project, offering highly trained guides for persons with disabilities, plus a range of Braille books and signs for the visually impaired,  most notable project is s the Royal Road route, featuring 12 architectural models of famous local buildings for visually impaired persons. Audio text and GPS coordinates have been created to describe this route in several languages (photo 3),  the city has improved its outdated infrastructure and passengerinformation systems. Now almost all buses and trams have accessible low floor and voice stop announcements (photo 4),  the city promotes accessible construction in the ‘Krakow without barriers’ architectural competition. Over four years it received applications for more than 100 city buildings in four categories: public utility, residential, public space, and heritage buildings and spaces. This resulted in accessible awards and commemorations being granted to over 30 venues, ranging from a sports centre to the National Museum in the Cloth Hall (European Commission 2012).

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Photo 3. Standing mock-up (St. Mary's Basilica) (photo: M. Popiel)

Photo 4. Low floor trams and elevated platforms at bus stops to help getting in (photo: M. Popiel)

Conclusions Nowadays the issue of the availability of the various elements of the environment and also services for people with disabilities are very important. People with disabilities have the same rights and willingness to undertake the act of travelling just like the rest of the society. Not only they do have the same rights to participate in the whole actions connected with travelling and leisure, but also they have the same needs and motivations as their healthy companions. That is why many of the environment elements must be tailored to the needs of different people. As presented in the article Universal Design is not a simple thing, but it is also not impossible. Adjusting urban space for disabled people – so they would be able to fully participate in tourism and society – requires sustainable development of tourism 196

and cultural heritage. Innovative projects and technologies can be a solution, which will help in this process of customization, while respecting the monuments, especially important in the case of historical cities. As shown on the examples of selected European historical cities this is possible to achieve. Modern solutions and the increasing availability of historical cities to the needs of disabled tourists hopefully can be an impulse for other cities in Europe.

References Ambrose I., Balmas S., Barragán Iturriaga A., Medina Higueras M., Orejas M., 2013, Accessible Routes in Historical Cities – A best practice guide for the planning, design, implementation and marketing accessible routes in historical urban environments, European Foundation Centre, ASBL, Brussels. Darcy S., Daruwalla P.S., 1999, The trouble with Travel: People with disabilities and Tourism, Social Alternatives, 18 (1), 41–46. Deichmann J., 2004, Accessible urban spaces – a challenge for urban designers, The Fifth International Conference on Walking in the 21st Century, June 9–11 2004, Copenhagen, Denmark, www.walk21.com/papers, 11.09.2014. Donnelly J., 2003, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, Cornell University Press, New York. European Commission, 2011, European Commission’s proposal to the Gothenburg European Council: A Sustainable Europe for a Better World: A European Union Strategy for Sustainable Development, COM (2001) 264 final, Brussels. European Commission, 2012, Access – City Award 2012: Rewarding and inspiring accessible cities across the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxemburg. Intarapasan B., 2009, Cultural Heritage across Borders: Inclusive Tourism And Barrier-Free Design In The Greater Mekong Sub-Region, A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy. Silpakorn University, Bangkok. Mace R., Hardie G., Place J., 1991, Toward Universal Design [in:] Preiser W., Vischer J., White E. (eds.), Design Intervention. Toward a More Humane Architecture, Van Nostrand Reinold, New York, 155–175. Mahmoudi A., Fanaei K., 2010, Revision of urban spaces to make it accessible for disabled people in order to achieve the aim of city for all [in:] Schrenk M., Popovich V.V., Zeile P. (eds.), Cities for everyone – Live-

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able, Healthy, Prosperous, CORP – Competence Center of Urban and Regional Planning, 1217–1222. Nicolae I., 2008, Corporate Social Responsibility and Human Rights in the Context of the European Union, The Canadian Centre for German and European Studies, Working Paper Series, 16. Popiel M., 2013, Turystyka osób niepełnosprawnych w gospodarce opartej na wiedzy [in:] Ziolo Z., Rachwał T. (eds.) Prace Komisji Geografii Przemysłu Polskiego Towarzystwa Geograficznego, 23, 119-134. Tourism Center, University of Minnesota, Design and travel with Disabilities, http://www.tourism.umn.edu/about/news/design.html, 7.09.2014. United Nations, 1993, The Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, United Nations, New York, http://www.un.org/esa/socdev /enable/dissre00.htm, 7.09.2014. Wysocki M., 2009, Dostępna przestrzeń publiczna. Samorząd równych szans, Fundacja Instytut Rozwoju Regionalnego, Kraków. Internet sources: www.wakeupcall.eu/best-practice/league-of-accessible-and-historical-cities, 10.09.2014. www.avilaturismo.com/en/avila-and-accessibility,10.09.2014. www.sozopol-foundation.com/en, 6.12.2014.

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Military and historical cultural heritage and its development for the tourism and recreation purposes exemplified by the Cracow Fortress __________________________ Elżbieta Stach1

Cracow and its defensive function in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Since its inception, Cracow performed defensive functions, which was due partly to its location, political and social situation. Over time, in its landscape appeared solid, brick towers, forts, walls and moats. Today, one of the military constructions of the city, erected for the defensive purposes, is the Cracow Fortress. Built at the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph behest, it is one of the largest ring fortresses from the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The history of the Fortress began in 1846, when the Austrian army occupied Cracow. A year later, places for fortifications and accompanying roads were charted . Although the official decision to build the facility was made before April 12, 1850, the works at one of its components – the Krakus Fort were already almost completed (Janczykowski 2002). Thus began the process of transforming the city into one of the most powerful defensive complexes in Europe and the biggest one in Poland. Shortly before the outbreak of World War I the centre of Cracow was surrounded by defensive structures already located in three previously determined districts ( ukasik, Turowicz 2001). The first one so-called inner ring, surrounded by a core (centre) of the Fortress, which was the Wawel Castle and 1

Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland, [email protected].

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comprised of only six forts, of which four have remained to this day. Located about two kilometers away, the second ring initially formed ramparts which were converted into different types of forts in the course of time. Only three of them remained almost intact to this day. The third ring of forts was created on the outskirts of the city. It was built in several periods and consisted of thirtytwo forts, the vast majority of which remained to this day. In the final years of the construction of the Fortress, the so called fortress groups were created consisting of one main fort and several smaller forts and several trenches (Brzoskwinia, Wielgus 1991). In this way, eight autonomous defensive sectors were formed. The last investment, made as part of the expansion of the Fortress, was the airport, built in the years 1916-1917. For its needs representative company air barracks were built in Rakowice, and the whole architectural complex of palace layout and modern garden composition referred to the famous ‘Garden for the Airmen’ (Bogdanowski 1983). History of the Austrian Fortress left behind not only forts, but also ramparts, teams, barracks, military roads, as well as bridges. Today, after they served their function, they are an expression of the then art, engineering and architecture, presenting a variety of architectural schools characteristic for the defensive art (Brzoskwinia, Janczykowski 1988). During World War I, some of them gained fame in the battles to defend the city, and during World War II they witnessed the tragic fate of the Poles. Therefore, the Fortress is also an important part of the history, fight, and martyrdom. Military and historical cultural heritage in the contemporary landscape of the city Most of the Cracow forts were built on the hills surrounding the city and then, for their effective defence, camouflaged by greenery. Today, their location and the surrounding landscape increases their historic value, which significantly affects tourist attractiveness of the city. In the literature on defensive architecture, the complex of fortifications of the Cracow Fortress, which consists of consciously selected defensive masterpieces and military infrastructure designed to resist attacks, as well as shape and cover of the terrain around them, is called fortified landscape (Myczkowski et al. 2008; Wielgus 2008). However, more often the concept of cultural landscape is used with reference to this type of fortress complexes. The landscape, as established in the Law on the protection and care of monuments, is a space historically shaped by human activities, including products of civilization and the elements of nature (Dz.U. z 2003 r., nr 162, poz. 1568). In this way the Cracow Fortress, which has high and documented historical, architectural and landscape values, has been

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raised to the status of a monument, which in turn enables its classification as the cultural heritage of the society. For the purposes of tourism development, cultural heritage is of great importance because it is one of the most important factors determining the attractiveness of tourist space, especially in cities with rich and long history. Under the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972 cultural heritage encompasses (Dz. U z 1976 r., nr 32, poz. 190):  monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science;  groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science;  sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view. For the last two years, the initial documentation has been being prepared which will enable entering the Cracow Fortress in the European Programme related to the great fortresses of the nineteenth century ‘Forte Cultura’ and including it in the UNESCO list (Wielgus 2008). Both the Fortress and the city will benefit – it will increase Cracow`s cultural potential and show the city in the new perspective attractive to tourists. The Fortress, seen as a world-class monument, constitutes a tourist attraction. Therefore, it requires an appropriate policy of local authorities and special care of its managers, and all reasonable and sensible actions on its behalf in the field of its protection and proper promotion can contribute to the enhancement of the cultural offer of the city and its role as a centre of cultural tourism (Broński, Purchla, Zuziak 1997). The Cracow Fortress due to the state of its preservation, originality and uniqueness of the forts on the European scale should be popularized as a tourist attraction of high historic rank. The fact that it belongs to the national cultural heritage obliges us to seek optimal solutions for its development, as well as for tourism and recreation purposes (Zeidler 2009). Previous Polish and European experiences show that the best solution to achieve this objective is to adapt the forts as open air fortified museums or to create on their territory cultural parks and hiking trails (Chylińska 2006; Jędrysiak, Mikos von Rohrscheidt 2011; Molski 2008; Różańska, Kaczyńska 2011).

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Current status of the facilities on the Cracow Fortress Trail and their legal protection The inventory of cultural resources for the development of The Study of Conditions and Directions of Spatial Development of the City of Cracow showed 184 facilities associated with the Fortress (Studium ... 2003). The most important of them are located on the 110 km long pedestrian and cycling trail of the Cracow Fortress created in 1999, consisting of two sections: north and south, and the unmarked route connecting them (figure 1).

Figure 1. Developed forts of Krakow Fortress on Krakow Fortress Trail Source: autor’s own study

47 places associated with former fortifications have been marked on the trail. However, in case of 14, there are only charts informing that in the past there were facilities which belonged to the Fortress. In other places there are 33 forts or their relics preserved to various degrees, 29 of which have already been entered in the register of monuments (as of December 2013) (Zespoły ... 2013). Tonie Fort, due to the well-preserved defence facilities (including the ammunition shelter, fortress bridge and a network of internal roads with masking greenery), was entered into the register of monuments together with the entire infrastructure as a complex of cultural landscape. In turn, Kosciuszko Fort with

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formed in the years 1820-1823 Kosciuszko Mound and the Chapel of Blessed Bronislava 1861 were entered as a complex of facilities. Along with the forts situated on the trail, other historic buildings of the Fortress, such as trenches, barracks or fortress warehouses were entered into the register. The former command post of the Cracow Fortress, which now houses the Army Museum, was also entered into the register. The process of entering monuments into the register is ongoing and ultimately it is supposed to contain the entire infrastructure of the Cracow Fortress. The Municipality of Cracow is the owner of twelve forts, three forts belong to the commune Zielonki, nine to State Treasury, and two to the Military Property Agency. In case of the fort Mogiła there are difficulties with the regulation of its legal status, since the facility itself belongs to the Treasury, and the plot on which it is located to ArcelorMittal Poland. The other six forts are owned by private individuals and various companies and organizations. Current development of the facilities on the Cracow Fortress Trail for the needs of tourism and recreation purposes Over the years, fortifications of the Cracow Fortress underwent degradation processes resulting mainly from the passage of time and lack of interest in them. But now in case of some forts the situation has greatly improved, and they have become the focus of tourists and residents of Cracow. Out of the 33 facilities on the Cracow Fortress Trail, 15 are developed and currently perform different functions (Table 1). Three of them are used for educational purposes: Kosocice OST, Skała and Skotniki Północ, while four forts Bronowice, Kosocice WEST, Luneta Warszawska and Węgrzce are used for utilitarian purposes. Eight forts have been adapted for tourism and recreation: Grębałów, Kleparz, Kosciuszko, Krzesławice, Olszanica, Swoszowice OST, Tonie and Zielonka (some of the rooms of Kleparz and Kosciuszko forts perform also other utilitarian functions). An important action aimed at the development of the Cracow Fortress was, The Study of Conditions and Directions of Spatial Development, developed in 2003, in which it was planned to establish eight cultural parks in its area (Studium ... 2003). Within these parks there would be 16 well-preserved forts, 4 relics and a large area of the former fortress airport – the place of stationing of the observation balloons of Austro-Hungarian Army. At the moment, the most advanced project is the Aviation Cultural Park emerging in Błonia Rakowickie. The idea behind its creation was restoration of the historical landscape of aviation through its adaptation to the museum and open-air museum function and organization of aviation events.

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Table 1. Forts located on Cracow Fortress Trail and their legal status, development, and tourist and recreation offer (as of July 2014) Name of the fort Owner User Function Tourist and recreation offer Bronowice* Polish Army Polish Army, Printing house, – Printing house warehouse Grębałów ‘Fort GręThe AssociaHorse-riding Horse-riding bałów’ Fountion for the school lessons, permanent exhibition of the dation Promotion of museum, organiSport and Physical Activzation of live ity ‘Przyjaciel history lessons for Konika’ school children and teenagers Kleparz Private comPrivate compa- Wine bottling Events and music pany nies plant, Music concerts Club ‘FORTY KLEPARZ’ Kosciuszko Cracow muThe Committee Wax Museum, Vantage point nicipality of the KosciThe Museum of (Kosciuszko uszko Mound, Kosciuszko, Mound), InteracFoundation Conference and tive exhibition, ‘Urban Park, Exhibition permanent exhibiZoo’ radio Centre, radio tion of wax figures station station (and other temporary exhibitions), organization of conferences Kosocice OST Cracow muVoivodeship Training centre – nicipality office Kosocice WEST Private person Private person Warehouse – Krzesławice Cracow muYouth Culture Cultural, eduArt exhibitions, nicipality Centre cational and organization of recreational cultural events and concerts, educaactivities of Youth Culture tional workshops Centre for children and teenagers, activities of interest clubs, next to the fort there is a mass grave and a monument to honour the victims of Nazi terror Luneta WarPrivate comPrivate compa- Motorcycle Plans to establish a szawska** pany nies shop, coffee branch of the roasting plant National Army Museum

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Olszanica

Cracow municipality

Youth Culture Centre, Polish Scouting Association

Skała

State Treasury

Skotniki Północ**

State Treasury

Jagiellonian Uviversity Pedagogical University of Cracow

Swoszowice OST

State Treasury

Gloria Fortibus Foundation

Museum of Military Affairs

Tonie

State Treasury

Foundation for Active Protection of Monuments and Cultural Heritage ‘Janus’ Private companies Private investor

Open-air museum (partially open to the public for groups)

Węgrzce

Equestrian tourism club, hippotherapy center, Chamber Scouts, Youth hostel Astronomical observatory The Archives of Documentation, Deportations, Expulsions and Resettlement

Horse-riding lessons, place for scout rallies and bonfires, accommodation services, cafe – In the course of construction: Museum of Documentation, Deportations, Expulsions and Resettlement Permanent exhibition of the museum Marked and labelled tour route, nature trail, the premises host temporary historical exhibitions –

Private comOffices pany Zielonki Zielonki comTwierdza’ Accommodation, mune Hotel restaurant Planned development of the fort for the tourism and recreation purposes apianka** Cracow mu– – In the course of nicipality construction: Museum of the Scout Movement Mistrzejowice* Cracow mu– – In the course of nicipality the lease of land for the ‘Association of the Historical Reenactment – September 39’ (for the needs of the organization on its area historical events as part of the live history lesson) *Sale tender has been announced (it is being planned for sale); **Planned development of the fort for the tourism and recreation purposes Source: autor’s own study

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In this context, Molski’s (2007) opinion that tourist potential itself does not guarantee tourism development and associated with it functions seems like the right thing. The development is determined by the "quality of a tourist product" defined by the comfort of the access to the site, but also the level of services for tourists, transfer of knowledge about cultural values and tourist information. Taken measures must guarantee that the forts of Cracow Fortress are treated comprehensively. Due to the fact that they have different owners, and their suitability for performing contemporary functions is varied we should remember primarily about maintaining its authenticity (form and meaning), while developing the cultural heritage for tourism and recreation purposes. The future of the Cracow Fortress – discussion The results of the conducted inventory of the fortified facilities on the Cracow Fortress Trail indicate that the best solution to save their state is their development for tourism and recreation. It should be remembered that a defensive masterpiece is an integral part of the fortified landscape and cannot be treated separately. From the point of view of tourism and its development, the aspect of space and landscape together with cultural values constitute an integral part of tourist space (Liszewski 1995). Therefore, the main course of actions for the development of tourism, especially military cultural tourism, based on the existing fortifications of the Cracow Fortress are:  comprehensive regulation of the legal status of the forts;  basic cleaning work in the fortress areas, protection against further devastation, designation of the tour route to the facilities and on their areas;  execution of revaluation work taking into account the need to protect the area of monuments, tourists and residents – in line with the principle of sustainable development;  support of activities aimed at the development of military cultural tourism, including measures to enrich the tourist offer and promotion of the facilities and activities undertaken by the associations and lovers of fortifications by the managers of such facilities;  establishing cooperation between local authorities and tourist businesses and city tourist guides;  creation of tour programmes for the thematic excursions (individual and group ones) and the organization of regular events;  introduction of promotional activities covering not only individual forts but the entire Cracow Fortress and the support of these activities by the national tourist organizations;

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 the need to prepare appropriate legal tools, including the urgent development of spatial plans for areas where there are forts to enable their tourist and recreational development. In the development of modern cultural tourism, based on historical values – values that Cracow forts undoubtedly have – historical truth and originality, which together form the basis of the value of the monument, play an important role. Authenticity and uniqueness of the adapted facilities are the features that can indirectly promote the entire Cracow Fortress, and not just its individual facilities. Therefore, it is worth noting that meeting the expectations of visitors and ensuring that they will see something old and unique may increase the interest in this type of facilities among potential visitors. In other words, for this historical and architectural monument to be an attraction, it is important to adapt it not only to tourist function but also to tourist purposes, preserving at the same time as much as possible of its authenticity. Summary Fortifications of the Cracow Fortress – once powerful – have already lost forever their military importance. Given the potential, now they should perform functions which may positively affect the area in which they are located. Cracow is an important centre of cultural tourism and the remains of the Fortress should be used as first in order to diversify the tourist offer of the city. They should be developed in such a way as to become primarily an interesting tourist attraction. For this purpose, the facilities of the Fortress must become part of the tourist space of the city. However, it will take place only if the fortifications will be first subjected to revaluation, and then properly developed and made available for tourism and recreation. The classification of the Cracow Fortress as a national cultural treasure obliges the society, but primarily the managers and local authorities, to take appropriate measures in this regard, taking into account and respecting the principles of sustainable development. Tourist development of the forts of the Cracow Fortress will be of benefit to the facilities themselves and their managers, and in addition, to the city by generating increased tourist traffic. To achieve this, it seems reasonable to provide them with accommodation services, museums, cultural and recreation centres, and create on their base military and historical trails. The above mentioned examples of successful development of the facilities of the Cracow Fortress can constitute a model example for other now abandoned facilities of this type not only in Cracow, but in the entire Poland. They should encourage local authorities and local governments, on whose territories military

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