Assessment of the Environmental, Hydrological and

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF BASRAH COLLEGE OF SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

Assessment of the Environmental, Hydrological and Hydrogeological changes of the Main Drain, Iraq A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF BASRAH IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE IN GEOLOGY (ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY) BY

INASS ABDALRAZAQ AL- MALLAH M.Sc.2001

Supervised by As. Prof. Dr. Adel A. Albadran

Prof. Dr. Qusay A. Al-Suhail

December

2014

Superviso.r CeJtifications

We certiff that this

dissertation t'Assessment

of

the

enyironmental, hydrological and hydrogeological changes of the Main

Drain, Iraq" has been prepared under our supervision at requirements for

the degree

of Doctor of Philosophy in

Geology (Environmental

Hydrology). Supervisor

Supervisor Signature:

/7,4

&

FGS Title: Retired Asst. Prof., Geology Dept

Name: Dr.Adel Albadran University of Basrah. Iraq

Address: Environment AgencY, Geoscientist:Technical Specialist, Grotrndwater and Contaminated Land (Devon and Cornwall).Manley House Exeter EX2 7LQ, UK

Date:

7 1912014

signature:

Name: Dr.Qusay Al-Suhail Title: Professor Address: Geology Dept.College Science, University of Basrah

I

forward this dissertation

fordebate by the examining committee. Signature:

Name: Dr. Badir N. Albadran

Title: Professor of Sedimentology Address: Head of Geology Dept. College of Science '{University of

Date:

13 / 11 12014

of

Date: 1 1912014

In view of the available recommendations,

Basrah

erqANN

Tr-ernining Cmmittse Certificrfion We certift that we have read the thesis entitled rrAsscssment of the envimnmental, hydreIogicat

and hydrogeologrcal changes of the Mein Drain Jraq". We the Examining Committee examined the student "lnass AHalrazaq Almallah" in its content and in our opinion the above thesis is adequate for the award for the degree of Philosophy of Doctorate of Science in @nvironmental

Hvfgf ogr).

Name: Dr. BadirN.Albadran@ead)

A_ Stt^ iuW* NamerDr.Sabbar A. Al-Qaisy(Member)

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Title: Pmfessor

srgtratune: Professor

signature:

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Address: Geolory Dept., College University

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Addrcss:Geolory Dept., College

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water

Brine water

Chapter four

> 100,000

Page 111

Hydrochemistry & Hydrogeochemistry

35000

Low flow conditions

High flow conditions

30000

TDS (ppm)

25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Main drain stations

Figure (4.1): Total dissolved solids concentrations of the Main drain stations in the study area.

4.5.4 Electrical Conductivity (EC) Conductivity measures an aqueous solution's ability to conduct or carry an electric current. Conductivity measurements approximate the total dissolved solids in a sample (APHA, 2005). So, it is good indicator in determining the validity of the irrigation water because of its importance in physiological changes in the growth and crop productivity (Al-Sabah, 2007). Mean concentrations of EC values of the surface water samples are 16890 µs/cm and 11236 µs/cm for the low and high flow periods respectively, (Figure 4.2) shows the distribution of EC of the Main Drain downstream direction. The increasing of discharge and the dilution process by precipitation in high flow conditions will decrease the electrical conductivity due to decreasing of the TDS value of the Main Drains. The variation of EC values of the Main Drain stations has a distribution pattern similar to that of TDS. According to (Detay, 1997), the water of the

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Main Drain is excessively mineralized water. (Table 4.4) indicates that this water is unsuitable, in general, for drinking or irrigation purposes. Low flow conditions

50000


40000 30000 20000 10000 0


Main drain stations

Figure (4.2): EC concentrations of the Main Drain stations in the study area. Table (4.4): Relation of Water Conductivity with the Mineralization grade (Detay, 1997). EC (µs/cm) 1000

Excessively mineralized water

4.5.5 Total Hardness (T.H) The total hardness of the water samples of the low and high-flow conditions are very hard according to Manahan (1994), Boyd (2000), and Todd (2007) (Table 4.5). Figure (4.3) shows that the hardness concentrates in the Dalmaj and Basrah stations of Chapter four

Page 113


the study area were higher than the remaining stations indicating that these areas are highly affected by the human activities. Table (4.5): Different classification of water hardness. Water class

Manahan, 1994

Boyed, 2000

Todd, 2007

0 – 75

≤50

0-60

Moderately hard

75 – 150

50 – 150

60 – 120

Hard

150 – 300

150 – 300

120 – 180

> 300

> 300

> 180

Soft

Very hard

Low flow conditions

12000


10000

T.H.(ppm) as

8000 6000 4000 2000 0


Main drain stations

Figure (4.3): Total Hardness concentrations of the Main Drain stations in the study area.

4.5.6 Turbidity Turbidity measures the clarity, not the color, of a water sample. It is caused by suspended and colloidal matter such as, clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, and microscopic organisms. Turbidity is determined by the ability to travel through a sample without being scattered or absorbed (Standard method, 1995). Chapter four

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Figure (4.4) shows that the values of turbidity increase downstream direction as a result of increasing discharges of the Drain. R6 station shows the highest value which may be due to the existence of suspended matter such as clay and silt, resulting from increasing of the erosion processes in the Main Drain Canal caused by discharge increasing, Low flow conditions


250 200 150 100 50 0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Main drain stations

Figure (4.4): Turbidity of the Main Drain stations of the study area.

4.6 Major Ions: 4.6.1 Calcium (Ca2+) The major sources of calcium in the water are plagioclase, feldspar, and pyroxene depending on the solubility of calcium carbonate, sulfide, and rarely chloride (Pradhhan and Pirasteh, 2011). The mean concentration of calcium of the two study periods are shown in (Table 4.2). Mean concentration at low flow condition is found to be higher as compared with the high flow condition. There is an increasing in calcium concentrations in the middle

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and southern stations as compared with other stations, Figures (4.5) and (4.6) due to the dissolution of the gypsum and soil salts that occur in the above parts of the study area. Ca(ppm)

2990

Mg(ppm)

Na(ppm)

K(ppm)

Cations (ppm)

2490 1990 1490 990 490 -10


Main drain stations

Figure (4.5): Cations concentrations of the Main Drain stations at Low flow condition. 2990

Ca(ppm)

Mg(ppm)

Na(ppm)

K(ppm)

Cation (ppm)

2490 1990 1490 990 490 -10


Main drain stations

Figure (4.6): Cations concentrations of the Main Drain stations at high flow condition.

4.6.2 Magnesium (Mg2+) Ferromagnetic minerals (olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and mica) are the most natural sources of Mg2+, and as products from weathering processes of chlorite and cerbentene (Manii, 2003). It is used in the agriculture, and chemical construction industries (Ibrahim, 2009). Chapter four

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Environmental problems related to increasing of magnesium in water are caused by applying softeners. Hardness is partially caused by magnesium with calcium which negatively influences, the power of detergents, because these form nearly insoluble salts with soap (GCDWQ, 2007). The mean concentration value of the low flow condition is found to be higher as compared with high flow condition (Table 4.2). Magnesium has a distribution pattern similar to that of calcium Figures (4.5) and (4.6).

4.6.3 Sodium (Na+) Halite is the main source of sodium in the water because of high solubility in water as well as clay minerals which released sodium by the ionic exchange (AlBassam and Al-Bedary, 1997). The weathering of feldspar, evaporates and the industrial wastes rich with sodium are additional sources of sodium in the water (AlSaady, 2008). The mean concentration values of sodium of the two study periods are shown in (Table 4.2), where the mean concentration of low flow condition is found to be higher as compared with high flow condition. And there is an increase in the sodium concentration with flow direction of the Main Drain Figures (4.5) and (4.6), due to the extensive application of irrigation downstream direction and increasing of saline lands in this direction.

4.6.4 Potassium (K+) Clay minerals, potash feldspar, and evaporates rocks in sabkhas are the main sources of potassium (Al-Bassam and Al-Bedary, 1997). The mean concentrations values of potassium of this study tend to be higher at low flow as compared with high flow conditions (Table 4.2). The middle and southern stations of the study area have the highest values as compared with the remaining stations Figures (4.5) and (4.6). Increasing of wastewater and uses of fertilizers are the main reasons for the increasing pattern. Chapter four

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4.7 Major anions 4.7.1 Chloride (Cl-) Chloride in water originates from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluent, urban runoff containing de-icing salt and salt intrusions (WHO, 2006). It is a toxic element when adsorbed by agricultural plants causing a serious damage (Sundaray et al., 2009). Table (4.2) shows that the mean concentration values of chloride at the low flow are higher than that of the high flow conditions. There is an increasing in its concentrations downstream direction of the Drain Figures (4.7) and (4.8), due to the increasing of discharge of industrial and domestic sewage.

12000

CL(ppm)

11000

SO4(ppm)

HCO3(ppm)

10000

Anion concentration

9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0


Main drain stations

Figure (4.7): Anions concentrations of the Main Drain stations at low flow condition.

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7000

CL(ppm)

SO4(ppm)

HCO3(ppm)

6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0


Main drain stations

Figure (4.8): Anions concentrations of the Main Drain stations at high flow condition.

4.7.2 Sulfate (SO42-) The natural and artificial sources of SO42- are the dissolution of evaporate rocks, chemical fertilizers, detergents, and pesticides (WHO, 2006). The presence of sulfate in drinking water can cause noticeable taste, and a very high level might cause a laxative effect in unaccustomed consumers (Al-Manmi, 2008). Sulfate has a mean concentration value at the low flow condition higher than that of high flow condition, (Table 4.2), and it has the same distribution pattern behaviour as chloride Figures (4.7) and (4.8).

4.7.3 Bicarbonate (HCO3-) An increase of the temperature or decrease of the air pressure causes reduction in the solubility of carbone dioxide in water (Ibrahim, 2009). The mean concentration values of bicarbonate of the low flow conditions are higher when compared with high flow condition as shown in (Table 4.2), and there is no systematic change in the distribution of bicarbonate with flow direction, Figures (4.7) and (4.8).

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4.8 Minor Elements: 4.8.1 Nitrate (NO3-)and Nitrite (NO2-) Nitrite is an intermediate product in the interaction of oxidization of ammonia by the organisms with availability of oxygen or in nitrate reduction under anaerobic conditions (Al-Manmi, 2002). Mean concentration values of nitrate of the present study samples of the low flow condition are all higher as compared with the high flow condition, (Table 4.2). Decreasing trend of nitrate concentration with flow direction was also noticed (Figure 4.9). Mean concentration values of nitrite of the low flow condition are lower than the high flow condition. There is an increasing trend in the northern and central part stations of the study area of both nitrate and nitrite at the high flow condition, while there is no systematic variation at low flow conditions, because of the increasing of the high drainage from the agricultural lands in the northern and middle parts of the study area (Figure 4.9).

4.8.2 Phosphate (PO42-) Phosphate may occur in the surface and groundwater as a result of domestic sewage, agricultural effluents with fertilizers and industrial waste water (Patil and Patil, 2010). The mean concentration values of PO42- of the two study periods are presented in (Table 4.2), in which the values of low flow conditions are higher than that of the high 2-

flow conditions. Also, there are no systematic changes in PO4 distribution with flow direction which can be observed. This pattern of variation is linked with the nature of the anthropogenic effects variations along the Main Drain course (Figure 4.10).

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Nitrate concentration(ppm)

10

Low flow condition

A

High flow condition

8 6 4 2 0 R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

R8

R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Main drain stations

Nitrite concentration(ppm)

0.8

Low flow conditions

B

0.7


0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

R8

R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Main drain stations

Figure (4.9): Nitrate (A) and Nitrite (B) values of the Main Drain stations in the study area.

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Phosphate concentration(ppm)


Low flow condition

1.2

High flow condition

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Main drain stations

Figure (4.10): Phosphate concentrations of the Main Drain stations in the study area.

4.8.3 Dissolved silica (Si4+) The mean concentration values of silica are 7.2(ppm) and 7.8(ppm) for the low and high flow conditions respectively, (Table 4.2). There is a decreasing pattern of the Main Drain stations at the high flow conditions as compared with the low flow conditions (Figure 4.11). Low flow condition

Si concentration (ppm)

20

High flow condition

15 10 5 0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Main drain stations

Figure (4.11): Si concentration of the Main Drain stations in the study area. Chapter four

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4.9 Biological indicators 4.9.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Dissolved oxygen of water is an evidence of the state of water body and the extent of organization of the dynamic reactions of the aquatic organisms groups (Abowei and Hassan, 1990). The lowest limit of dissolved oxygen which supports all life forms is 5ppm (U.S.EPA, 2005), (Table 4.6). Values of the study periods samples are presented in (Table 4.2), where they show a decreasing of the dissolved oxygen downstream direction at the low flow conditions, while there is an increasing pattern at the high flow conditions, (Figure 4.12). The decreasing in the dissolved oxygen values are thought to be, due to the anthropogenic effects resulting in an increasing of the microorganisms which, in turn, deplete the available oxygen. Table (4.6): Ranges of the dissolved oxygen for different life forms According to U.S.EPA (2005). Ranges of dissolved oxygen in (mg/L)

Chapter four

0–2

Not enough oxygen to support most animals

2–4

Only a few kinds of fish and insects can survive

7 - 11

Very good for most stream fish

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Hydrochemistry & Hydrogeochemistry 14

Low flow conditions


12 10 8 6 4 2 0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21 Main drain station

Figure (4.12): Dissolved oxygen concentrations of the Main Drain stations in the study area.

4.9.2 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) It is the measure of dissolved oxygen required by living organisms for its metabolic activities of the organic substances decomposition found in the water body (Al-Saady, 2008). High BOD values indicate high abundance of organic matter in water (Manahan, 2002) that leads to depletion of oxygen and death of fish (Rahman, 2006). Figure (4.13) show that BOD concentrations have extreme increase in the southern stations of the Main Drain at the low flow conditions, while there is a slight increasing of BOD concentrations at the high flow conditions due to the increasing of organic matter coming mainly from the sewage wastes. BOD concentrations of the Drain samples of the two periods are within the acceptable limits according to (Abowei and Hassan, 1990), (Table 4.7), except for (R18, R19, R20 and R21). Generally, the southern sampling stations were characterized by the increasing of BOD as compared with the northern sampling stations of the Drain due to increasing of sewage released to the Drain at these stations, as previously mentioned. According to table (4.7), Main Drain is classified as bad water body.

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120

Low flow conditions


100

BOD(ppm)

80 60 40 20 0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Main drain stations

Figure (4.13): BOD concentrations of the Main Drain stations in the study area.

Table (4.7): Rivers classification according to BOD concentration (Abawei and Hassan, 1990). River class

BOD concentration in (mg/l)

Very clean

1

Clean

2

Almost clean

3

Questionable cleanliness

5

Bad

>10

4.9.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) It is defined as the amount of a particular oxidant that reacts with the sample under controlled conditions by strong chemical oxidant; COD is often used as a measurement of the pollutant in the wastewater and natural waters (Standard method, 1997). Figure (4.14), shows a significant increasing trend of COD values downstream direction at low flow period due to increasing of organic matter which required more oxygen to its decomposition by the organisms. At the high flow conditions, a slightly Chapter four

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increasing in COD concentration with the flow direction was noticed. The southern Main Drain station reveals that it is highly polluted water body at these stations especially at the low flow conditions. 700

Low flow conditions

600


COD(ppm)

500 400 300 200 100 0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Main drain stations

Figure (4.14): COD concentrations of the Main Drain stations in the study area.

4.10 Trace elements Trace elements occur in natural water at concentration of less than 1mg/l. Like the major elements, trace elements are released in the aquatic environment in different ways and the accumulation of these elements is dependent on the concentrations, the type of aquatic animals, and the exposure period (Canil et al., 2005). The basic natural processes contributing trace elements to the water are the chemical weathering of the rocks and soil leaching. Both processes may also be largely controlled by biological and microbiological factors. The anthropogenic sources of trace elements in waters are associated mainly with mining of coal and mineral ores and with manufacturing and municipal wastewater (Kabata, 2012). Appendix (17 and 18) show the trace element concentration of the surface water samples in two periods, while (Table 4.8) shows the statistical parameters of trace elements concentrations of the Main Drain samples of both low and high flow Chapter four

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conditions. While Figures (4.15) to (4.18) show the variation of these samples of the above two conditions along the flow direction. Table (4.8): Range, mean, and standard deviation of the trace elements of the Main Drain samples for the two study period (2012-2013), and the comparisons with the previous studies and IQS (2009) and WHO (2008) standards Parameters

Low flow conditions


IQS,

WHO

Range

Mean

St. D

Range

Mean

St. D

2009

, 2008

Al (ppm)

0.0-0.40

0.04

0.09

0.0-0.80

0.04

0.17

0.1

0.2

Fe (ppm)

0.0-0.60

0.08

0.14

0.016-0.31

0.10

0.07

0.3

Ca2+ > K+ and the order of anions is Cl- > SO42- > HCO3- except for the samples R1, R2, R3 at the low flow conditions and R1,R2 at high flow conditions which have Na-SO4 with the cations order of : Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K+ and the order of anions are SO42- > Cl- > HCO3-. Sample R9 has Mg-Cl water type with the order: Mg2+ > Na+ > Ca2+ > K+ and Cl- > SO42- > HCO3-. In the present study, various cations and anions compositions of many samples are represented by drawing Piper trilinar diagram (Piper, 1944). This method is able to provide sufficient information on the chemical quality of water, particularly the origin (Kumar, 2013). Through applying this classification on the study area, all water samples fall in the upper half of the diamond shaped which indicates that the waters which have secondary Chapter four

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salinity (i-e the alkaline earth (Ca2+ and Mg2+) are more than those weak acids (HCO3and CO32-), and equal to those strong acids (Cl- and SO42-). By noting cations triangle, Figures (4.30) and (4.31) the approximate Na+ and K+ ratios for all water samples increase while Ca2+ and Mg2+ ratios decrease. Anions triangle shows increasing of Cl- with SO42- ratios while HCO3- ratio decrease.

A

B

Figure (4.30): Piper diagram of surface water samples in A- low flow conditions B- High flow condition. Chapter four

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Figure (4.31): Piper diagram of groundwater samples in the study area.

4.16 Surface and groundwater suitability for different purposes The chemical composition of surface and groundwater is very important as water availability for different uses depends on the standards of the acceptable limits for those uses. Main outfall drain water has been used for some purposes previously, therefore, it is necessary to determine their suitability and re-evaluate it for different uses.

4.16.1 Surface and groundwater suitability for human drinking purposes According to WHO, 2008 and IQS, 2009 standards, all the Main Drain samples for the two periods are unsuitable for drinking water based on the major ions, TDS and T.H. All the groundwater samples are also unsuitable for drinking water except for the water of W1 (Baghdad), which is suitable for drinking water with reference to the major ions concentrations, Tables (4.2) and (4.9 ).

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4.16.2 Surface and groundwater suitability for livestock purposes According to Altoviski (1962), (Table 4.11), all the Main Drain and groundwater samples of the low and high flow conditions are good to permissible for livestock. W1 is very good for animal drinking, W2 is within good to permissible limits, W3 is within the permissible limits of SO42- and the maximum limit of Ca2+, but it exceeds the maximum limit for the other parameters. W4 is good to a permissible limit for animals; W5 exceeds the limit of Cl- and TDS. W6, W7 and W8 are exceeding the maximum limits of most parameters. Table (4.11): Water quality parameters (ppm) limits for the livestock uses (Altoviski, 1962) Parameters Very good

Good

Permissible

Can be used

(ppm)

Maximum limit

Na+

800

1500

2000

2500

4000

Ca2+

350

700

800

900

1000

Mg2+

150

350

500

600

700

Cl-

900

2000

3000

4000

6000

SO42-

1000

2500

3000

4000

6000

TDS

3000

5000

7000

10000

15000

T.H

1500

3200

4000

4700

54000

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4.16.3 Surface and groundwater suitability for building purpose According to Altoviski (1962), the northern water stations (R1, R2 and R3) of the Main Drain of the two periods are suitable for construction purposes, while the central and southern water stations (R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, R10, R11, R12, R13, R14, R15, R16, R17, R18, R19, R20 and R21) are unsuitable for the above purposes because they exceed the most permissible limits of the standards (Table 4.12). Groundwater samples are unsuitable for building purposes; they exceed the permissible limits of the standard, except for sample W1 which is good for building purposes. Table (4.12): Water quality standard for building uses (Altoviski, 1962) Parameters

Permissible

(ppm)

limit

Average concentration(ppm) Surface water samples Low flow

High flow

condition

condition

Groundwater samples

Na+

271

1811

1340

6434

Ca2+

1160

373

329

716

Mg2+

437

557

438

1237

Cl-

2187

3518

2425

12868

SO42-

1460

2003

1942

3111

HCO3-

350

47

217

188

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4.16.4 Surface and groundwater suitability for industrial purposes All the Main Drain samples of the two periods are unsuitable for all kinds of industries according to Hem (1991) classification, (Table 4.13), because their characteristics exceed all the ions standard limits. Groundwater samples are unsuitable for industrial purposes except for W1 which could be used for some industrial uses.

Ca2+

20

20

Mg2+

12

12

HCO3-

100

80

75

0

50

36

30

0

250

SO4

0

100

250

NO32-

0

5

10

Cu

0.01 100

100

TDS

25

900

100

1000

pH

6-10

6-10

2.5-10.5

6.5-8

Cl-

200

200

0

500

350

6.5-8.3

manufacture

Hydraulic cement

Leather tanning

Soft drinks bottling 100

2-

T.H

vegetable

frozen fruits and

Canned, dried,

products

Textile

Bleached

Unbleached

Parameters

and paper

Petroleum

Wood chemicals

Chemical

Synthetic rubber

Table (4.13): Water quality standards for the industrial uses according to (Hem, 1991)

350

250

1000

500

6-9

6.5-8.5

300

250

500

250

250

Soft 600

500

6-8

6.5-8.5

250

250

*All units are in ppm

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4.16.5 Surface and groundwater suitability for irrigation There are many classifications to determine the suitability of the water for irrigation purposes. Ayers and Westcot (1985) and Don (1995) classifications are used for evaluating the surface and groundwater samples of this study. Ayers and Westcot (1985) classification depends on five groups representing the hydrochemical changes like salinity, infiltration, specific ion toxicity, trace elements, and miscellaneous effects. Don (1995) classification is dependent on (EC, pH, SAR, and Na %). SAR is calculated by the following equation (Todd, 1980 and 2007):-

√(

)

--------- (4-2)

Where: SAR: Sodium Adsorption Ratio rNa+, rCa2+, rMg2+ : concentrations of the ions in epm units. Increasing of sodium ion in irrigation water will be dangerous on soil since it leads to decreasing their porosities as a result of the ionic exchange with the calcium and magnesium. Ordinarily, either type of sodium – saturated soil will support little or no plant growth (Al- Azzawi, 2004). (Todd, 2007) equation calculates the Na% values: * 100

--------- (4.3)

Where all the ionic concentrations are expressed by (epm) units.

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Values of Na% for the surface and groundwater samples are presented in (Table 4.14). According to Todd (2007) (Table 4.15), all the Main Drain samples are within the permissible to doubtful limits at the low flow condition except for the samples (R7 and R9)which have good Na% value. The Main Drain samples of the high flow condition are within the permissible limits, while the groundwater samples W1, W2, W4, and W5 are in the permissible limits, and the samples W3, W6, and W7 are in the doubtful field. The sample W8 is shown to be unsuitable sample. Table (4.14): Values of Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) and (Na %) of the Main Drain and groundwater samples of the study area. Main Drain Low flow condition High flow condition sample no. R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21 Range Chapter four

Groundwater

SAR

Na%

SAR

Na%

Well no.

SAR

Na%

7.51 7.16 7.93

54.29 53.03 54.19

6.48 4.60 11.93 7.30 19.22 8.86

48.89 37.94 48.10 26.75 49.27 47.49

3.16 12.48 41.62 9.67 19.14 38.32 110.75 58.91

41.80 58.54 68.84 44.27 59.47 72.01 90.25 70.89

3.16-110.75

41.80-90.25

45.39 54.92 41.44 50.12 48.13 47.34 58.23 66.12 63.84

48.31 51.35 50.95 45.15 52.03 48.11 50.60 44.05 51.32 53.29 55.39 63.67 56.56 52.13 54.49 56.52 53.29 47.34 63.35 57.81 54.25

w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 w7 w8 Range

7.66 10.97 7.47 9.99 8.18 11.11 22.67 31.84 28.24

8.89 7.59 7.30 6.16 9.59 7.98 7.54 10.36 13.16 14.29 10.46 14.06 11.52 9.50 11.01 11.46 10.30 9.18 18.06 19.67 17.32

4.6-31.84

26.75-66.12

6.16-19.67

44.05-63.67

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Table (4.15): Classification of the irrigation water according to Na% (Todd, 2007) Grade

Na% value

Excellent

< 20

Good

20 – 40

Permissible

40 – 60

Doubtful

60 – 80

Unsuitable

>80

The primary effect of high EC values on the crop productivity is the inability of the plant to compete with ions in the soil solution for water (Ali, 2012). According to Ayers and Westcot (1985) classification of the salinity and the combined effect of SAR and EC, all the Main Drain and groundwater samples will leave sever effects except for the well W1 which has slight to moderate effects. Na% value of the Main Drain samples of the low flow conditions lie within "doubtful" field except of the samples R7 and R9 which fall in the "good" field. All the high flow conditions Main Drain samples are within the permissible limits of the Na%. Groundwater samples are within permissible limits at the wells W1, W2, W4, and W5, whereas Na% ratio has a doubtful effect in the wells W3, W6 and W7 and unsuitable for the well W8 (Table 4.16). All the water samples will have severe effects according to Cl - concentration except for the well W1 which has slight to moderate effects. The Main Drain and groundwater samples will have no effects in regards to the trace elements, but they have slight to moderate effects according to NO3- except for surface water samples (R3, R6, R7, R11, R13, R14, R15, R16, R17, and R18) and (R15, R16, R17, R18, R19, R20, and R21)of the low and high flow conditions respectively. The wells (W3, W4, and W5) have severe effects because of high concentration of NO3-. All of the Main Drain and Chapter four

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groundwater samples have slight to moderate effects according to HCO 3- concentration except for well W1 which has no effect (Table 4.16).

Table (4.16): Water classification for irrigation suggested by Ayers and Wetscot (1985)

Potential irrigation problems

Degree of restriction on use Slight to moderate Sever Non

1- Salinity EC (µS/cm) TDS(ppm0

700 3000 >2000

SAR= 0-3 3-6 6 – 12 12 – 20 20 – 40

Ec5000

2- Infiltration

3- Specific ion toxicity Na+(as SAR) 9 Cl (epm) 10 B(ppm) 0.7 4- Trace elements (Maximum Recommended Concentration(ppm)) Cu2+ 0.2 Fe2+ 5 2+ Zn 2 2+ Pb 5 5- Miscellaneous effects NO3-(ppm) 30 HCO3 (epm) 8.5 pH Normal range 6.5 – 8.4

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According to Don (1995) classification, (Table 4.17), pH values for all samples are doubtful for the two periods except for the samples R8, R10 and R17 at high flow conditions, which is considered unsuitable for irrigation purposes. Na% values are good for irrigation for the samples R7 and R8 as compared with the other samples in the low flow condition, which are considered permissible (all the other samples) to doubtful in W20 and W21. All the Main Drain samples of the high flow conditions are considered as permissible, doubtful, and unsuitable for W1, W2, W4 and W5, W3, W6 and W7, and W8 respectively. SAR values show that all the Main Drain samples of the two study periods are permissible for irrigation except for R19, R20, and R21 of both low and high flow conditions which are unsuitable. W1 is considered as good, W4 is permissible, whereas the sample of W2, W5 and W3, W6, W7, W8 are considered as doubtful and unsuitable for irrigation respectively. Based on TDS and EC values, all the Main Drain and groundwater samples are unsuitable for irrigation, except for the sample W1 which is considered as permissible for irrigation. Table (4.17): Don Classification (1995) of irrigation water ECµs/cm

TDS(ppm)

SAR

Na%

pH

Water quality

250 250-750 750-2000 2000-3000 >3000

175 175-525 525-1400 1400-2100 >2100

3 3-5 5-10 10-15 >15

20 20-40 40-60 60-80 >80

6.5 6.5-6.8 6.8-7.0 7-8 >8

Excellent Good Permissible Doubtful Unsuitable

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4.17 Compatibility of the Main Drain water with Oil Formation Water Water flooding is one of the most important methods used to enhance the oil production in an attempt to increase the production of the oil from the main pay reservoir and maintains the reservoir pressure by achieving better water injection plan. Water flooding projects were implemented from 1980 up to now, through multi stages of completion along the field life. Problems appeared at the beginning of the water flooding projects like unstable water injection flow rate, decreasing of formation ability to receive the injected water quantity with the time, diminished and lack in the amount of water injected to the producing layers ...etc. (Jreou, 2012). An important factor in the success of a water flood project is the quality of the water required for injection into the reservoir rock and mineralogy as one of the main factors that affect this project. The mineralogy problem is usually caused by chemical reaction of the injected water with the sensitive clays, which swell or become dislodged and pack off the reservoir pores. Water quality can be affect by several types of contaminants including suspended solids, scale, bacteria, corrosion products, and marine organisms. Chemical and biological analyses can give useful indication of future incompatibility, corrosion, and bacterial problems (Mitchell and Bowyer, 1982). Precipitation of the minerals scales in the pores of pores media causes many problems in the oil and gas production operations such as formation damage, production losses, increased work overs in producers and injectors, poor injection water quality, and equipment failures due to under deposit corrosion. Therefore, the water should be treated and conditioned before the injection. This treatment should solve problems associated with the individual injection waters, including suspended matter, corrosively of water scale deposition, and microbiological fouling and corrosion (Merdhah and Yassin, 2008).

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The total dissolved solids and pH affect the permeability of the main reservoir. Generally, low salinity concentration will decrease the permeability. Clay minerals are considered as the main reasons which cause oil formation damage. They could affect negatively on the formation characteristics through its dispersion and swelling due to the changes of chemical characteristics of the contact water (Sheaman and Bergersem, 1990). The clay minerals types will vary in their influence on the permeability of the formation depending on the basic silica structure which varies from mineral to another. Wilson et al. (2014) pointed that montmorellonite and kaolinite are the main groups that cause the highest damage throughout its swelling mechanism happened on the clay mineral surface through adsorption or/and through the osmotic swelling inside the internal layer of the clay mineral.

4.17.1 The chemical composition of the Main Drain and formation waters In order to evaluate the hydrochemical quality of the Main Drain water, five surface samples were taken (three samples at Nassriya Governorate and two samples at Basra Governorate (Figure 4.32). They are analyzed for their characteristics including pH, TDS, EC, TSS, DO, and major cations and anions. The suspended matters of these samples were then analyzed for their clay minerals content which have been determined by X-ray analyses. Table (4.18) shows the analyses results of the Main Drain samples compared with the water formation quality of Yammama and Mishrif reservoirs taken from the records of the South Oil Company.

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Figure (4.32): Main Drain water samples for comparison with formation water of the study area. All the drain samples tend to be alkaline with pH range at of 7.8- 8.1. The TDS concentration has ranged between 7800-8468 ppm, while the range values of the total Suspended Solids (TSS) is 5.2 - 21ppm. Drain samples1, 2 and 3 of Nassriyah have the highest suspended solid values in comparison with other samples. In regards to the cations concentrations, sodium is the highest in all of the Drain samples with concentration range of 2200 to 2700ppm, while chloride is the main anion and has the highest concentration in all the samples with a range of concentration of 2375 - 2898 ppm. Chapter four

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Table (4.18): Hydrochemical analyses of the Main Drain samples compared with Yamama and

Samples Identification

1

2

3

4

Range

5

Mean

Yamama

Mishrif

Formation

Formation

(WQ-203)

(WQ-60) (2557.5-2563m)

Sampling Date

01-02.2014

31.01.2012

08.01.1985

Specific gravity

pH

1.102

1.1523

company Standard

Sample No.

Iraq South Oil

Mishrif formation waters.

at 20°C/60°F pH at 75°F

7.9

8

8

8

8.1

7.8-8.1

8

6.8

6.62

TDS (ppm)

8088

8306

8468

7860

7800

7800-8468

8104

148392

222890

TSS (ppm)

15.4

19

21

7.8

5.2

5.2-21

14

1064

---

EC (µs/cm)

11000

11200

11400

10500

10430

11000-11500

10906

DO(ppm)

11

10

11

11

10

10-11

10.5

7-8

2

0.02

Cations(ppm) Calcium(Ca2+)

296

296

296

252

178

178-296

264

9734

10000

Magnesium

387

396

387

334

405

334-405

382

781

3159

Sodium (Na+)

2500

2600

2700

2400

2200

2200-2700

2480

45672

83512.5

Potassium(K+)

20

20

22

18

21

18-22

20

351

460

739

662.6

2+

(Mg )

Strontium 2+

(Sr ) Anions(ppm) Chloride(Cl-)

2803

2708

2898

2518

2375

2375-2898

2660

90305

156200

Sulfate (SO42-)

1400

1700

1500

1300

1300

1300-1700

1440

451

590

Bicarbonate

222

209

204

204

213

204-222

210

357

344

-

(HCO3 )

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4.17.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses Suspended sediment samples of the Main Drain are subjected to X-ray analyses to test their compatibility with the formation water. Clay and non-clay minerals are identified for these samples after the treatment and then preparing of three slides, normal, glycolated, and heated to 550°C according to Grim (1968) and Carver (1971).

Results of X-ray are shown in Figures (4.33), (4.34) and (4.35). Table (4.19) shows the percentages of the clay and non-clay minerals of these samples.

Figure (4.33): X-ray diffractograms for (A) Suspended sediment Sample (SRS.1) (B) Suspended Sediment Sample (SRS.2). Where M=Montemorillonite K=Kaolinite P=Palegorscite I=Illite Q=Quartz C= Calcite F=Feldspare D=Dolomite G= Gypsum H=Halite An=Anhydrite.

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Figure (4.34): X-Ray diffractograms for (A) Suspended River Sample (SRS.3) (B) Suspended Sediment Sample (SRS.4).

Figure (4.35): X-ray diffractograms for Suspended River Sample (SRS.5). Where M=Montemorillonite K=Kaolinite Q=Quartz G= Gypsum H=Halite. Chapter four

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X-ray diffraction patterns of the present clay samples show the presence of kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, palygorskite, and chlorite. Kaolinite and Montmorelonite are the predominant clay minerals in all the suspended sediment samples with percentages ranged from (2.47%-22.82%) and (2.70%-14.73%), respectively. Chlorite, illite, and palegorsite appear in all suspended sediment samples except of SRS.5, (Table 4.19). Gypsum and halite are the main non-clay minerals with percentages ranges of (23.06%-61.62%), and (12.86%-28.64%) respectively. Anhydrite appears in the sample SRS.2, while calcite appears in the samples SRS. (2, 3, and 4).

Kaolinite %

Chlorite %

Montmorelonite %

Palygorskite %

Illite %

Calcite %

Quartz %

Gypsum %

Feldspar %

Halite %

Anhydrite %

Table (4.19): Percentages of the clay and non-clay minerals in suspended river samples of the study area.

SRS.1

22.82

9.537

3.065

7.493

8.515

---

0.886

30.654

1.022

16.008

---

SRS.2

2.473

1.767

14.134

4.947

1.413

3.18

0.707

38.869

1.767

28.622

2.12

SRS.3

20.399

12.195

8.647

7.761

10.2

1.996

2.217

23.06

0.665

12.86

---

SRS.4

5.728

5.319

14.73

4.91

7.119

4.91

1.637

29.051

---

26.596

---

SRS.5

3.784

---

2.703

---

---

---

3.243

61.622

---

28.649

---

Sample No.

According to the above mentioned results, the Main Drain water is accepted as far as pH, TDS, and other major ions values concerned, whereas the TSS and DO values are shown to be above the permissible limits as suggested by South Oil Company for the compatibility with the Mishrif and Yamama formation waters. This indicates that the Drain water need to recirculate by an appropriate program of the pumping stations installed on the Main Drain. Additionally, the suspended sediments Chapter four

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need to be settled, filtered and treated before conducting the injection process to avoid the possible formation damage. The present clay samples show a presence of kaolinite, montmorellonite, chlorite, illite, and palygorskite and as the swelling minerals exist in significant percentages which can lead to significant reduction of in-situ permeability and subsequently may be susceptible to de-flocculation effects. Bridging, blocking, and plugging of pores as a result of clay de-flocculation can occur. Accordingly, detailed clay sampling scheme of the drain water is needed to determine the exact percentages of the swelling clay minerals in these waters before the injection process. However, the water of the Main Drain can be used for injection purposes after applying some sort of treatments like using the adequate filter to separate the non-desirable clays, specifically the filters less than four microns to assure maximum reservoir protection.

4.18 Temporal distribution of some hydrochemical parameters To evaluate the trend and fluctuation patterns of some hydrochemical parameters of the Main Drain, monthly analyses of TDS, T.H, pH, NO3-, PO43-, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, and SO42- concentrations recorded by the Ministry of Environment for five monitoring stations along the Drain were used. Table (4.20) shows the location of these Drain stations. Table (4.20): Location of the monthly monitoring stations of the Main Drain. Station No. St.1 St.4 St.5 St.7 St.9 Chapter four

Location Baghdad (Abu Graib) Hilla (Shomally) Dewaniya (Somar cityDagara) Entrance of Nassiriya Basra (Al-zubair Bridge) Page 165


The purpose of this work is to identify the nature of the temporal fluctuation patterns of the chemical characteristics over specific time periods, and to compare the series of the different parameters of each station. The figures from (4.36) to (4.44)show the monthly trends of some chemical characteristics of the St.1 for the period (2009-2013), St. 4 and St. 5 for the period (2010-2013), and St. 7, St. 9 for the period (2008-2013).

4.18.1 Total Dissolved Solids Trends Figure 4.36 explains the TDS values of the selected stations. Noticeable decrease of stations 4, 5, and 7 can be observed, whereas stations 1 and 7 show general increasing trend. The increasing trends indicate a misuse of the Main Drain where effluent is discharged to the drain causing this increasing trend, as in the case at station 7 (Nassriya), the two drains of Eastern Gharaf and Western Euphrates are discharging their polluted and saline water to the Main Drain Canal. It is assumed that the salinity should be decreased with the time as the soil washing process continues here. The decreasing trend behaviour seems to be good and reflect normal operation or use of the Main Drain.

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Figure (4.36): Trends of Total dissolved solids variation of the selected stations.

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4.18.2 pH trends All of the selected stations show slight increasing trend. This is still reflecting normal behaviour as most of Iraqi surface water and groundwater shown to be alkaline or slightly alkaline waters, (Figure 4.37).

Figure (4.37): Trends of pH variation of the selected stations. Chapter four

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4.18.3 Total hardness trends All selected stations except of station 7, show slight decreasing trends, (Figure 4.38). Nassriya station shows increasing trends due to the influence of Eastern Gharaf and Western Euphrates Drains of the higher saline and hard water as compared with the Main Drain characteristics.

Figure (4.38): Trends of Total hardness variation of the selected stations. Chapter four

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4.18.4 Ca2+ and Mg2+trends Similar patterns of trends for both Ca2+ and Mg2+for all the stations, except of station 4 were noticed, Figures (4.39) and (4.40). These trends pattern are related to the nature of irrigation water patterns resulting in a variation in the around of washing the salts and sediments containing these elements.

Figure (4.39): Trends of Ca2+ variation of the selected stations. Chapter four

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Figure (4.40): Trends of Mg2+ variation of the selected stations. Chapter four

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4.18.5 SO42- and Cl- trends Stations 4 and 7 show an increasing trend whereas stations 5 and 9 show a decreasing trend for SO42- (Figure 4.41). In regards to the Cl- trends, all stations except station 7, show decreasing trends, (Figure 4.42). The Main Drain is dependent upon the water drained from the soils which, in turn, depend on the amount of the applied irrigation water; therefor, the fluctuation of irrigation water is reflected in the nature of the drain water chemistry.

Figure (4.41): Trends of SO42- variation of the selected stations. Chapter four

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Figure (4.42): Trends of Cl- variation of the selected stations.

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4.18.6 PO4 3-and NO3- trends The entire present stations show decreasing trends pattern of PO4 3-, (Figure 4.43). This decreasing pattern reveals a decreasing of P-based fertilizers uses because of contraction and increasing of neglected agricultural lands around the Main Drain Canal at some areas. Concerning NO3- behaviour, all the selected stations except of station 7, show increasing trends, thus in turn reflects the continuous use of N-based fertilizers at the above station, (Figure 4.44). Additional source of NO3- released by the growing human activities significantly increases the trends of both stations 4 and 9.

Figure (4.43): Trends of PO43- variation of the selected stations. Chapter four

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Figure (4.44): Trends of NO3- variation of the selected stations. Chapter four

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Chapter five Monitoring and Environmental changes by Remote Sensing

Monitoring &Environmental changes

5.1 Preface Image classification is one of the most important steps in processing remote sensing imagery and provides important input data for Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The main purpose of satellite imagery classification is the recognition of objects on the Earth’s surface and presenting them in the form of thematic maps (Richards and Jia, 1999). From the Satellite Images, it is easy to recognize some ground features like rivers, streets, buildings, etc, but sometimes there is a need to calculate the size of these features, which is impossible to be identified by naked eyes. The new remote sensing software is, ERDAS Imagine, which provides good digital ability to read the value of every pixel in the image, and so it can classify every range of light values as spatial category (Al-Helaly, 2012). The physical and chemical properties of the materials define their spectral reflectance and emittance spectra that can be used to identify them. Then, the spectral reflectance refers to the ratio of radiant energy reflected to that incident on a body. So, the identification of many earth surface features is primarily the function of the spectral response of these features (Sabin, 1987).

5.2 Preparation of Landsat Satellite Data Landsat satellite images were prepared for three periods, these are; Landsat type Thematic Mapper (TM-1990), Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+-2001), and Landsate8 Operational Land Image (OLI8-2013) with spatial resolution of 30m. These images were downloaded from the American Satellite Images USGS webpage (http://www://glovis.usgs.gov). The details of TM, ETM+ and OLI8 images description are shown in Table (5.1). All these images were georeferenced to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) / World Geodetic System-84 (WGS-84) coordinate system zone 38N. Layer stack, Images subset Chapter five

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and mosaic for these images of the study periods are prepared and exhibited by Figures (5.1), (5.2), and (5.3). However, it is worth mentioning that although these images were taken for different acquisition dates, all these images are free from cloud and dust effects, therefore they are regarded suitable for processing and change detection purposes.

B2

168/38

(Green)

166/38

B3

TM 5

167/39

(Red)

1990

166/39

B4

30 (m)

TM/WGS84

September- 1990

30(m)

TM/WGS84

March- 2001

0.52-0.60

0.63-0.69

0.76-0.90

(NIR) B5

Date

167/38

Acquisition

(Blue)

Ellipsoid

168/37

Earth

0.45-0.52

Projection/

Wave length

B1

Resolution

Bands

169/37

Sensor

Row/Path

(micrometers)

Table (5.1): Detailed information of the used remote sensing data of the present study.

1.55-1.75

(SWIR1) B7

2.08-2.35

(SWIR2) 169/37

B1

168/37

(Blue)

167/38

B2

168/38

(Green)

166/38

B3

ETM+

167/39

(Red)

2001

166/39

B4

0.45-0.52

0.52-0.60

0.63-0.69

0.77-0.90

(NIR) B5

1.55-1,75

(SWIR1)

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Monitoring &Environmental changes B7

2.09-2.35

(SWIR2)

(Blue)

167/38

B3

Landsat

168/38

(Green)

OLI

166/38

B4

2013

167/39

(Red) B5

0.53-0.59

0.64-0.67

0.85-0.88

(NIR) B6

1.57-1.65

Febrewary- 2013

168/37

0.45-0.51

TM/WGS84

B2

30(m)

169/37

(SWIR1) B7

2.11-2.29

(SWIR2) Landsat OLI-2014

Chapter five

166/39

May2014

Page 179


7

Figure (5.1): Satellite TM-1990 image RGB 742 used in the pre sent study.

Chapter five

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7

Figure (5.2): Satellite ETM+-2001 image RGB 742 used in the present study.

Chapter five

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7

Figure (5.3): Satellite OLI8-2013 image RGB 742 used in the present study.

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5.3 Land Cover and land use Classification Land cover characteristics are utilized to assess the environmental impact resulting from the development of energy resources, also to manage wildlife resources and minimize man- wildlife ecosystem conflicts, in addition to preparing the current environmental influence statements and predict future impacts on environment. The land cover and land use monitoring is the registration process variables that occurred over long-time period. This monitoring represents the important factors required for natural resources management and development operations manager of any area (Mehmood, 1990)

5.4Classification analyses of the study area Anderson et al. (1976) developed a global classification system of the land use and land cover with the use of remote sensor data. The classification system includes two levels, whereas the third level is left to the researcher to create this level depending on the nature of every area of study. This system which is shown in table (5.2), and figures (5.4) to (5.7), identifies the distribution of the main classes in the study area according to that classification system, where these images will be used later to classify and detect the main environmental changes in the area.

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Table (5.2): Land use and land cover classification system for use with

Urban or Built- up

1

Lands

Residential

11

Commercial and Services

12

Industrial

13

Transportation,

14

symbol

Level-2

symbol

Level-1

symbol

remote sensor data (after Anderson et al., 1976).

Level-3

Communications, and Utilities Industrial and Commercial

15

Complexes

Agricultural Lands

2

Mixed Urban or Built-up Land

16

Other Urban or Built-up Land

17

Cropland and Pasture

21

Orchards, Groves, Vineyards,

22

Orchards

222

Natural, lakes and

244

Nurseries, and Ornamental Horticultural Areas Confined Feeding Operations

23

Other Agricultural Land

24

Marshes Vegetation

Rangeland

Forest Land

3

4

Herbaceous Rangeland

31

Shrub and Brush Rangeland

32

Mixed Rangeland

33

Deciduous Forest Land

41

Evergreen Forest Land

42

Mixed Forest Land

43

Streams and Canals

51

Shrub and Brush

322

Tigris , Euphrates , Main

511

Drain, Secondary Drains Water

5

Lakes

52

Lakes, Marshes and Al-

522

Nasis Salinas Reservoirs

53

Dalmage

lake,

Fish

33

Farms Bays and Estuaries

Chapter five

54

Page 184

Monitoring &Environmental changes Forest Wetland Wetland

6

7

Marshes and natural

611

leves Non-forested Wetland

62

Dry Salt Flats

71

Beaches

72

Sandy Barren Land

61

Areas

other

than

73

Sabkhas

711

Sand dunes, Sand Sheets

733

Barren Areas

777

Beaches Bare Exposed Rock Strip

Mines

Quarries,

74 and

75

Gravel Pits

Tundra

Perennial Snow or Ice

8

9

Transitional Areas

76

Mixed Barren Land

77

Shrub and Brush Tundra

81

Herbaceous Tundra

82

Bare Ground Tundra

83

Wet Tundra

84

Mixed Tundra

85

Perennial Snowfields

91

Glaciers

92

Continue to table (5.1)

Chapter five

Page 185


7

Figure (5.4): Satellite image OLI8-2013 for the Dalmaj Lake and the surrounding area. Chapter five

Page 186


Figure (5.5): Classes of various phenomena in the present study area. Chapter five

Page 187


7

Figure (5.6): Satellite image OLI8-2013 for Al-Hammar marsh and Al- Khamissiya. Chapter five

Page 188


Figure (5.7): Classes of various phenomena in the present study area. Chapter five

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5.5 Change detection of the study area The change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by monitoring that object at different times (Singh, 1989). It involves the ability to quantify temporal effects using multi-temporal data-sets (Khairy, 2007). Remote sensing has the capability of capturing such changes, where extracting the change information from satellite data requires effective and automated change detection techniques (Roy et al., 2002). Change detection methods of the study area have been achieved by using many historical satellite images. These images have been treated by using the specialized softwares, such as ERDAS V. 11.1 and ARC GIS-10 for classifying the images and plotting the final maps of the land cover categories.

5.6 Image digital indices: Indices are used to create output image by mathematically combining the DN (Digital Number of each pixel) values for different bands (Al-Saady et al., 2013). The following indices are applied in the present study, which can be regarded as the most indices applied in the environmental studies worldwide.

5.6.1 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) Vegetation indices derived from the satellite data are one of the primary sources of information for the operational monitoring of the earth vegetation cover (Gilabert et al., 2002). Vegetation indices combine reflectance measurements from different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum to provide information about vegetation cover on ground (Campbell, 1996). The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) can be represented by dividing the difference between infrared and red reflectance measurements by Chapter five

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their sum, which provides the effects measure of the photosynthetic active biomass (Lunetta et al., 2006). This is an effective indicator to show the surface coverage conditions of the vegetation, which can be computed by:

NDVI =

------------ (5-1)

Where NIR= near infrared band (band 4 in TM) and R= red band (band 3 in TM, ETM+ data, and band 4 in OLI8). The images of three periods (Landsat TM-1990, ETM+ -2001, and OLI8-2013) data are used in this study for assessing the changes in the vegetated lands in the study area. The raster map resulting from NDVI model running is divided by using a threshold, and then all raster data of NDVI are then converted to vector data. The distribution of vegetation covers, which is extracted from NDVI of the above three images, are shown of Figures (5.8) to (5.10). Table (5.3) shows the calculated area covered by vegetation by the three acquisition dates. The results show that the vegetation cover is decreased in ETM+-2001 (9002.25km2) as compared with TM1990 (14338.38km2), and then tend to increase in the year 2013 (9635.87km2), (Figure 5.10). This slight increase of the NDVI reflects local increasing of the vegetation in the southern marshes area due to available water. Table (5.3): Image indices of TM-1990, ETM+-2001, and OLI8-2013. Date Images Indices

TM1990 image

ETM+ 2001 image

OLI8 2013 image

2

Area (km )

NDVI

14338.38

9002.25

9635.87

NDWI

4357.40

1036.15

6394.29

SI

2754.85

14031.91

18760.23

Chapter five

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Figure (5.8): Vector of the NDVI in TM-1990. Chapter five

Page 192


Figure (5.9): Vector of the NDVI in ETM+-2001.

Chapter five

Page 193


Figure (5.10): Vector of the NDVI in OLI8- 2013.

Chapter five

Page 194


5.6.2 Normalized Differential Water index (NDWI) Normalized Differential Water Index (NDWI) is used to oversee the situation of water in the map area. Water index was computed by the average of summing the NIR and SWIR bands (Al-Jaf and Al-Saady, 2009) as shown in the equation below:

NDWI =

------- (5.2)

Where SWIR indicating short wave infrared band The idea of the NDWI is based on the nature of the very high contrast between water and land. The low reflections of SWIR and NIR bands of the water allow for their detection (Othman et al., 2013). Equation (5.2) was applied on the presently used three satellite images for the same three periods; and the results of the water index distribution of the three periods are shown in Figures (5.11) to (5.13).The NDWI of the study area shows the same pattern as that for NDVI results where there is a decrease of the water area from (4357.40km2) in TM-1990 to (1036.15Km2) in ETM+-2001 while there is an increasing in water index area about (6394.29km2) in OLI8-2013 image, Figure(5.14), (5.15). The most increasing of the water area is concentrated in the southern parts as a result of marshes re-flooding and increasing of the water logging around the Main Drain specifically in the central parts.

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Figure (5.11): Vector of the NDWI in TM-1990.

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Figure (5.12): Vector of the NDWI in ETM+-2001.

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Figure (5.13): Vector of the NDWI in OLI8- 2013. Chapter five

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15000

NDVI 14338.38

Area km2

10000

9002.25

9635.87

5000 0 TM1990

ETM+2001

OLI82013

(Years)

Figure (5.14): Variation of NDVI of the three study periods.

NDWI

8000

6394.29

Area km2

6000 4000

4357.4

2000 1036.15 0

TM1990

ETM+2001

OLI82013

(Years)

Figure (5.15): Variation of NDWI area of the three study periods.

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5.6.3 Salinity index (SI) Salinity Index of soil can be determined by measuring the TDS of the solution extracted from water-saturated soil paste whereas in the remote sensing application, it can be computed by making use of the green and red bands, as follows:

SI =

------ (5.3)

Where the high reflections of the green and red bands of the salts and saline soil allow for their detection (Othman et al., 2013) . Salinity index of equation (5.3) is applied on the three period's images, where the high reflection represents high saline soil. All raster data of SI were converted to vector data. The SI of the three selected images as vector are presented by figures (5.16), (5.17), and (5.18). Salinity index areas of the three study periods show significant increasing in its value from 2754.85 km2 to 18760.23 km2 in TM-1990 to OLI8-2013 images respectively, Figure (5.19).

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Figure (5.16): Vector of SI of TM-1990 for the study area.

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Figure (5.17): Vector of SI of ETM+-2001 for the study area. Chapter five

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Figure (5.18): Vector of SI of Oli8-2013 for the study area.

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SI

20000

18760.23

15000

14031.91

Area km2

10000 5000 2754.85 0

TM1990

ETM+2001 (Years)

OLI82013

Figure (5.19): Variation in SI area of three present study periods.

5.7Change detection results The temporal variation of the NDVI indices show that vegetation cover has been decreased since the first ten years, and also that the NDWI is decreased (Table 5.4), because of the deficit in the water resources in the area due to the decreasing of the incoming water from the upper basins of both Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, (Figure 2.17), drought conditions, in addition to the deliberate actions of drying the southern marshes. Those factors have left negative impacts on the study area. During the second eleven years up to year 2013, there has been an increasing in NDVI and NDWI indices, especially at the southern parts of the study area due to re-flooding the marshes after year 2003, and the expansion of Dalmaj Lake. The Salinity Index of the three study periods shows significant increase of its value primarily due to the land salinization, water logging of soil, increasing of sand dunes and sand storms which are caused by dry/semi-dry weather and hot dry winds with the north-west directions (Figure 2.14). The mismanagement and Chapter five

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misuse of some secondary drain canals are due to different purposes; and using of saline water for farmlands irrigating especially near Dalmaj Lake area leaving these lands vulnerable to wind erosion, then to be barren areas. These factors altogether have led to continuous desertification in the study area. Table (5.4): Change detection results of the three studied periods. Area (km2) Class name

TM1990 –ETM+2001

ETM+2001-OLI8 2013

TM1990-OLI8 2013

NDVI

-5336.13

+633.62

-4702.51

NDWI

-3321.25

+5358.14

+2036.89

SI

+11277.0

+4728.32

+16005.38

+ Refers to an increase in the class area, - Refers to a decrease in the class area

The general decrease of rainfall quantity and surface water discharges as presented by their trends (chapters 2 and 4) exhibit bad impacts on the study area with variable grade effects. The highest effects were concentrated in the southern parts of the study area as well as the additional effects resulted from the increase of human activities and, sometimes, the un-appropriate operation of some secondary drains.

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Chapter six Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Summery, Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1 Summary and Conclusions: 1. The soils derived from the Quaternary sediments of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers underlie the study area. They are of complex and alternating sequences of sand, silt, and clay. The sediments change significantly in both horizontal and lateral directions. 2. The selected climatic elements for the two study periods show significant spatial and temporal changes. The presence of some phenomena such as Delmaj Lake and Southern Marshes plays an important role in influencing the distribution of these elements. 3. The trend analyses of rainfall and temperature for four stations: Baghdad, Dewanniya, Nassriya, and Basrah show significant increase in temperature at these stations. Whereas, the rainfall trend indicates general decreasing patterns. This is likely related to the global climatic changes, in addition to regional changes resulted from both natural and anthropogenic effects. 4. Monitoring of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers discharge at selected stations, and the discharge of the Main Drain, reveal general decreasing trends of these discharges. This is due to the decreasing of the incoming water quantities from the riparian countries caused by natural climatic condition changes, controlling the river discharge by establishing the new dams and hydraulic projects and then the rise of water used for the agricultural projects at the riparian countries. 5. Significant variation in the textural contents of the soils is observed. This is confirmed by using the United States Department of Agriculture Soil Classification System. The northern and southern parts of the study area are characterized by silt predominance, whereas in the central parts, sand is prevailing. This is due to the extensive spreading of Aeolian deposits, mostly represented by different types of sand dunes. 6. The mineralogical analysis explains wide variations in the heavy minerals distribution. These minerals are derived from different origins but the riverine Chapter six

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sediments through the study area transport them. Opaque minerals group is the highest percentages compared with the remaining groups. Pyroxene, hornblend, chlorite, and garnet from igneous, metamorphic and old sedimentary source rocks are also present in significant percentages along the study area. All of the heavy minerals nearly have the same distribution patterns. 7. Calcite and quarts are the main non-clay minerals, whereas montmorellonite, kaolinite, and chlorite are the key clay minerals in the soils. The present study soil samples show the same distribution patterns of the above minerals and that they are detrital of clastic sources characterized by low-grade diagnoses processes. 8. Most of the trace element concentrations of the soils are within the natural background with few exceptions at specific sites (below the threshold values), indicating leaching process of these elements from the top soils. At Nassriya and Al-Hammar locationds, positive anomalous values of some elements are observed revealing clear signs of anthropogenic effects. 9. The geochemical association along with textural contents is the main responsible factor on data variability as evidenced by correlation coefficients calculation results. Salinity and Cation Exchange Capacity have significant correlation with other geochemical variables, whereas there is no significant correlation between the organic matter content and the remaining variables. 10. The grouping results of the present surface and subsurface soils obtained by cluster analysis explain wide variations and appearance of five and six groups along the study area. This, in turn, reflects the great variations of the sedimentary environments thought to be responsible for distributing these soils groups. 11. Sand contents and salinity are the most important discriminating variables among other geochemical variables. The discriminant analysis is carried out on the surface soil samples in which, four discriminating functions are obtained by using stepwise technique. 96.2% of the original cases (observations) and 76.9% Chapter six

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of the cross- validated group cases are correctly classified according to this analysis. For the subsurface soils, sand percentages, oxides and salinity are the most important discriminating variables. 100% of the original cases and 95.8% of the cross- validated groups cases are correctly classified respectively. This statistical analysis and other relation results confirm that the no "clear" indication concerning trace element pollution can be detected in the study area. 12. The Main Drain water of high and low flow conditions show significant temporal and spatial variations of the selected hydrochemical variables along the Drain stations. TDS, EC, and total hardness have the same distribution patterns for the two studied periods. Climatic conditions, such as rainfall and evaporation have significant effects on the central and southern parts of the study area as indicated by the nature of some of the present variables. 13. Turbidity of the Main water is increasing in downstream direction because of increasing discharges. 14. The major cation concentrations are higher at low flow conditions than that of the high flow conditions. In addition, there is a significant increase in the cation concentrations at central and southern stations. This is due to the increasing of the saline soils at these parts, which in turn terminates to the Main Drain canal causing the above increasing. The anions show the same behaviour except for HCO3. There is not any systematic changes trend of the anions along the flow direction can be observed. 15. The Nitrate and Phosphate are of high concentrations in the northern and central parts of the Main Drain stations reflecting extensive drainage from agricultural lands at those areas and rise usage of the fertilizer applications. Local sewage effluent at some secondary drains plays a role in elevating the concentrations of the above elements at sometimes. 16. The biological indicators such as BOD and COD show significant increases in their values at the southern stations of the Main Drain. This is associated with decreasing of DO values at these stations, due to the effects of the sewage Chapter six

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and organic matter, which deplete the available oxygen rendering the Main Drain a polluted water body at these parts. 17. The trace elements concentrations show that Al, Fe, Cu, and Cr are within the acceptable limits according to IRQ, 2008 and WHO, 2009 standards, whereas the concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Ni are above the standards limits. The increasing patterns of the above element are in the downstream direction. Remarkable increase is likely at Delmaj Lake stations, which can be attributed to the effect of sewage and the other human activities. 18. The groundwater of the Main Drain surrounding area is salty to Brackish at the northern and central parts, whereas, it is of brine type at the southern parts (well 7 and 8). According to the used classification, they are regarded as excessively mineralized, slightly alkaline, and very hard water. 19. Concentrations of all major ions of the groundwater are above the permissible limits for the drinking purposes except for the location of well 1, which is below these limits. Results show that this water can be used for specific uses such as livestock, building, industries, and agriculture. 20. Nitrate and phosphate concentrations are highly variable among the selected well waters, where the highest values appear at locations of wells 3, 4, and 5 due to the extensive use of N-based fertilizers as well as sewage discharges at some locations. 21. COD results of the groundwater show high concentrations at locations of wells 7 and 8 due to the increasing of the agricultural activities at that area. 22. Trace elements of groundwater explain variable spatial variation changes. Fe, Cd, Ni, and Pb, and that Al, Cr, Zn, and Cu are above and within the permissible limits respectively. Increasing of human activities, waste discharges, and the use of fertilizers are the main reasons for increasing trace elements concentrations southward direction.

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23. According to the used standards, the Main Drain water and groundwater, except at well 1 location, are unsuitable for drinking purposes. But they are good for building purposes specifically at the southern parts. Whereas, at the central and northern parts, they are unsuitable for those purposes. The water of upper parts is also unsuitable for all kinds of industries. 24. The Main Drain water and groundwater are within the permissible to doubtful limits for irrigation purposes (except of R7 and R9) which have good values of Na% while that at well 8 is regarded unsuitable for irrigation according to the criteria used for irrigation suitability. 25. The Main Drain water compatibility with the Formation water of oil reservoirs in the southern oil fields shows that some of the criteria such as total suspended solid and dissolved oxygen are above the desirable limits. This urges the need for carful treatment of the drain water before conducting the injection process by using adequate filters for separating the suspended solids to avoid the possible reservoir damages. Significant presence of swelling clay minerals in the Main Drain water also confirms the need of important treatment before injection process. 26. Trend analysis of some hydrochemical parameters of the Main Drain stations show variable patterns, where TDS and pH exhibit slight increasing trends. The total hardness is characterized by decreasing trends. The trends of Ca, Mg, Cl, and SO4 are variable for all stations of the Main Drain. These differences are highly related to the amount of the washed and leached salts into the Main Drain canal in addition to the flow rate variation. 27. The trend of NO3- concentration in the Main Drain water is in the increasing pattern. This is due to the gradually increased use of the N-based fertilizers specifically at the northern and central parts. The decreased usage of phosphate fertilizers in the last years is recognised by the general decreasing of PO4 trends along the Main Drain stations. Sewage effluent plays minor role in influencing the NO3- and PO4 concentration changes at some stations. Chapter six

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28. There are significant changes of some environmental phenomena. These are detected by using multi-temporal satellite images of various bands assist quantifying some of well-known indices such as normalized differencing vegetation NDVI, normalized differenced water NDWI, and salinity indices SI for the surrounding area to the Main Drain. The re–flooding of marshes, expansion and contraction of Dalmaj Lake and drought conditions are inspected by the changes in the vegetation cover area, which is completely dependent on available water quantities. NDWI shows behaviour similar to that of NDVI which depends mainly on increasing water flow into the area as well the affective meteorological conditions. 29. The increase of the land salinization, water logging of the top soil, increasing of sand dunes as well as the deserted storms resulted in significant increase of the salinity index values through the study area. 30. The use of the brackish water of the Main Drain for farmlands irrigation in the surrounding area, especially near the Dalmaj Lake, makes these areas vulnerable to wind erosion and then to be transformed to barren lands. 31. The misuse and bad operation of the secondary drains leave bad impacts on the main canal; therefore, it is of prime importance to protect the secondary drains from the pollution. 32. Diffuse pollution to the Main Drain water resulted from the continuous anthropogenic activities, and sewage release. In fact, the intervention of the natural and anthropogenic factors often complicate the operation plan of the Main Drain. 33. In summary, the Main Drain water should be treated as fresh water, not as an effluent drainage canal. It is of crucial importance to apply the Iraqi Water Resources Protection regulations, legislations, and Acts on this important water body.

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6.2 Recommendations: 1- A well-prepared management plan of using and operating the Main Drain requires continuous land reclamation that had already been disrupted, due to different reasons, in the past years. Therefore, land drainage and reclamation needs to be interrelated together in order to obtain an effective operations scheme of the Main Drain for better quality and quantity of water. 2-Contineous changes in the Main Drain characteristics urges the needs for long term monitoring programme of the main canal and the surrounding area. This programme should include the measurements of main chemical, physical, and biological indicators; in addition to long-term measurement of the discharges at several specified stations. 3- The control of agricultural activities near the Main Drain is an important practice. The cultivation of salinity-resistant plants should be implemented to obtain successful agricultural rotation on the long-term level. In addition, there is a need to tackle agricultural diffuse pollution, which is a deteriorating factor to the Main Drain water quality. The focus is on secondary drains, which are at risk of deterioration. 4- There is an urgent need to adopt a government-funded project aimed to provide robust evidence regarding how diffuse pollution from agricultural lands can be cost-effectively controlled to improve and maintain water quality in the Main Drain catchment areas. 5- It is well known that the study area represents the most fertile land at the country level; therefore, it should be protected from the creeping of sand dunes that can be done by stabilization and plantation of the surrounding area, to minimize their destruction impacts on the Main Drain canal itself and the agricultural area around. 6- Current and future demands on water resources make the use of Main Drain water significantly important; therefore, it should be treated and managed as river water and "not" a drain of saline and wastewater. Special promulgation Chapter six

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and legislation should be issued as act to regulate its uses throughout the country. 7- The Dalmaj Lake and the Southern Marshes should be considered as National Nature Reserves. Accordingly, the Iraqi water resources act and regulations should include the requirements to control the use of these important water bodies.

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Page 229

Appendices Appendix (1): The surface soil heavy mineral of the study area.

Appendix (2): The subsurface soil heavy mineral of the study area

Appendix (3): X-ray diffractorgams of surface soil samples.

Appendix (4): The percentages of clay and non-clay minerals of the surface soil samples.

Appendix (5): X-ray diffractorgams of subsurface soil samples.

Appendix (6): The percentages of clay and non-clay minerals of the subsurface soil samples.

Appendix (7): The geochemical parameters of the surface soil samples.

Appendix (8): The geochemical of the subsurface soil samples.

Appendix (9): Trace elements of the surface soil samples.

Appendix (10): Trace elements of the subsurface soil samples.

Appendix (11): Major and minor elements of surface water samples for low flow condition. Sample no..

R1

R2

R3

Ca2+ (ppm) (epm) (epm%)

Mg2+ (ppm) (epm) (epm%)

Na+ (ppm) (epm) (epm%)

K+ (ppm) (epm) (epm%)

CL(ppm) (epm) (epm%)

SO42(ppm) (epm) (epm%)

HCO3(ppm) (epm) (epm%)

175 8.732 19.312 182 9.082 20.62 155 7.734 15.45

145 11.934 26.394 141 11.604 26.346 136 15.193 30.351

555 24.140 53.389 530 23.053 52.34 617.24 26 53.638

16 0.409 0.905 12 0.306 0.695 11 0.281 0.561

857 45.215 100 865 44.045 100 919 50.058 100

835.05 23.557 46.54 734 20.705 43.319 686 19.351 42.991

1056 22 43.473 1110 23.125 48.382 1050 21.875 48.598

308 5.049 10 242 3.967 8.3 231 3.786 8.411

2199.05 50.606 100 2086 47.797 100 1967 45.015 100

177.034 8.834 18.995 312 15.569 29.337 990 49.403 28.837 1520.70 75.883 26.328 1164 58.086 14.601

181.546 14.934 32.111 211 17.366 32.723 480 39.506 23.06 1644 135.220 46.916 1746 143.703 36.122

513.959 22.357 48.071 430 18.703 35.242 1830 79.599 46.462 1725.77 75.071 26.046 4440 193.127 48.545

15 0.383 0.824 56 1.432 2.698 110 2.813 1.642 80.01 2.046 0.71 114 2.915 0.733

887.5 46.568 100 1009 53.07 100 3410 171.321 100 4970.2 288.22 100 7464 397.831 100

749.450 21.142 46.327 852 24.055 43.973 4490 126.657 69.899 7134.02 201.279 63.86 9800 276.445 65.608

994 207 45.380 1313.83 27.354 50.004 2500 52.083 28.744 5315.08 110.66 35.109 6800 141.666 33.621

230 3.786 8.296 201 3.295 5.015 150 2.459 1.357 197.98 3.245 1.029 198 3.245 0.770

1975.06 45.636 100 2367.58 54.704 100 7140 181.199 100 12684 315.184 100 16798 421.356 100

414.44 20.682 21.04

376.08 30.937 31.47

1034.89 45.02 45.78

65.115 1.665 1.7

1890.52 98.301 100

2926.2 82.55 73.12

1276 26.558 23.53

231 3.786 3.36

4433.2 112.894 100

512.48 25.57 31.7

225.16 18.52 22.96

826.9 35.97 44.584

24 0.613 0.76

1588.53 80.678 100

2145 60.493 63.824

1469 30.583 32.26

226 3.704 3.91

3840 94.78 100

Sum

Sum

R.D %

5.6

4.0

5.3

Ionic ratio & Water type Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ CL-> SO42- >HCO3 NaCL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ SO42- > CL-> HCO3NaSO4 Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ 2SO4 > CL-> HCO3NaSO4

NO2(ppm) (epm) (epm%)


PO43(ppm) (epm) (epm%)

SiO22(ppm) (epm) (epm%)

0.1

6.2

0.3

7.5

0.06

5.3

0.3

7.0

0.1

4.8

0.3

7.4

0.1

4.4

1.1

8.0

0.02

4.9

0.23

7.0

0.03

9.5

0.78

7.0

0.13

6.0

0.06

7.0

0.13

6.0

0.06

7.0

0.1

4.4

0.2

8.4

0.1

4.4

0.03

6

R4 R5 R6

R7

R8

R9

R10

R11

0.4

1.5

2.8

4.4

2.8

6.9

Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ 2 SO4 > CL-- > HCO3NaSO4 Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Mg2+> Ca2+> Na+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Mg CL2 Na+> Mg2+> Mg2+> Ca2+>K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL

R12 R13

8.0

Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

R19

R20

R21

332 16.57 17.87 416.25 20.77 21.02 408.23 20.371 19.923 460 22.955 27.614 860 42.916 27.777 600 29.941 9.061 640 31.937 7.842 600 29.941 8.151

306.58 25.22 27.2 450.98 37.09 37.53 372.34 30.629 29.955 245 20.164 24.256 467 38.436 24.877 1313 108.065 32.703 1288 106.008 26.029 1250 102.880 28.006

1152.87 50.15 54.1 923.90 40.19 40.68 1159.86 50.454 49.344 874 38.016 45.731 1630 70.900 45.889 4330 188.342 56.997 6080 264.462 64.936 5280 229.665 62.52

30.5 0.78 0.84 30 0.76 0.76 31.28 0.80 0.782 78 1.994 2.399 88 2.250 1.456 160 4.092 1.238 190 4.859 1.193 190 4.859 1.323

1822 92.73 100 1821.1 98.81 100 1971.71 102.25 100 1657 83.129 100 3045 154.502 100 6403 330.44 100 8198 407.266 100 7320 367.345 100

2305 65.022 64.4 2664.65 75.17 67.79 2798.05 78.933 71.207 1800 50.775 62.752 4289 120.987 51.486 9506 268.152 73.4 9800 276.445 69.256 9929.45 280.11 69.352

1465 32.5 32.2 1566.76 32.62 29.48 1366.90 28.458 25.673 1250 26.041 32.184 2600 54.166 23.05 4500 93.75 25.662 5700 118.75 29.75 5763.68 120 29.711

206 3.377 3.4 188.52 3.09 2.78 211.04 3.459 3.14 250 4.098 5.065 3650 59.836 25.463 209 3.426 0.938 242 3.967 0.994 231 3.786 0.861

3976 100.899 100 4419.93 110.88 100 4375.99 110.85 100 3300 80.914 100 10539 234.989 100 14215 365.328 100 15742 399.162 100 17256 439.787 100

4.2

5.7

4.0

1.3

7.9

5.0

1.0

1.0

Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+>Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3NaCL

0.13

4.4

ND

8

0.13

5.3

1.1

11

0.13

5.3

ND

7

0.02

2.7

0.23

7.3

0.05

3.9

0.45

8.0

0.1

7.0

1.1

8.7

0.1

7.5

0.1

5.6

0.13

6.0

0.3

7.5

Appendix (12): Major and minor elements of surface water samples for high flow condition. Sample no..

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

R8

R9

R10

R11

R12



Na+ (ppm) (epm) (epm% )


319 15.918 20.925 260 12.974 23.769 220 10.978 21.214 277 13.823 26.404 281 14.022 16.906 236 11.777 16.138 216 10.778 19.028 532 26.548 16.503 532 26.548 16.045 551 27.496 15.954 212 10.579 12.868 228 11.377 12.547

285 23.399 30.759 165 13.580 24.88 175 14.403 27.832 181 14.891 28.444 313 25.761 31.059 317 26.090 35.75 209 17.201 30.368 771 63.456 39.446 656 53.991 32.631 644 53.004 30.755 317 26.090 31.735 262 21.563 23.782

835 36.320 47.745 636 27.664 50.682 598 26.011 50.263 537 23.357 44.615 984 42.801 51.604 799 34.754 47.622 649 28.229 49.838 1598 69.508 43.208 1920 83.514 50.474 2085 90.691 52.624 1030 44.802 54.496 1312 57.068 62.938

17 0.434 0.571 14.3 0.365 0.669 14 0.358 0.692 11 0.281 0.537 14 0.358 0.432 14 0.358 0.491 17 0.434 0.766 53 1.355 0.842 55 1.406 0.85 45 1.150 0.667 29 0.741 0.901 26 0.665 0.733

Sum

1456 76.071 100 1075.3 54.583 100 1007 51.75 100 1006 52.352 100 1592 82.942 100 1366 72.979 100 1091 56.642 100 2954 160.867 100 3163 165.459 100 3325 172.341 100 1588 82.212 100 1828 90.673 100



HCO3(ppm) (epm) (epm% )

Sum

992 28.00 41.59 819 23.102 42.779 842 23.751 23.858 1005 28.349 54.659 1348.2 38.035 50.064 1297 36.586 49.572 1351 38.110 56.647 3889 109.708 62.383 3712 104.710 64.594 4331 122.172 64.838 1980 52.853 58.682 1860 52.475 60.971

1681 35.00 51.99 1296 27 49.997 1070 22.291 22.392 1010 21.041 40.569 1646.0 34.25 45.082 1600 33.333 45.164 1245 25.937 38.553 3005 62.564 35.576 2600 54.166 33.414 3000 62.5 33.17 1607 33.458 37.149 1449 30 34.857

264 4.327 6.426 238 3.901 7.224 264 53.508 53.75 151 2.475 4.772 225 3.688 4.854 237 3.885 5.264 197 3.229 4.8 219 3.590 2.041 197 3.229 1.992 229 3.754 1.992 229 3.754 4.168 219 3.590 4.171

2937.5 67.332 100 2353 54.003 100 2176 99.55 100 2166 51.865 100 3218.28 75.973 100 3134 73.804 100 2793 67.276 100 7113 175.862 100 6509 162.105 100 7560 188.426 100 3443 90.065 100 3520 86.065 100

R.D%

6.0

0.5

1.3

0.3

4.3

0.5

8.5

4.4

1.0

4.4

4.5

2.6

Ionic ratio & Water type Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ SO42- > CL-> HCO3NaSO4 Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ SO42- > CL-> HCO3NaSO4 Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ HCO3-> CL-> SO42- NaHCO3Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL>SO4 > HCO3NaCL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL





0.3

6.6

0.3

17.1

0.3

6.6

0.17

6.3

0.3

7.0

0.2

13.5

0.3

5.4

0.26

10

0.3

8.0

0.1

10

0.3

8.0

0.1

16.5

0.5

6.8

0.15

17.2

0.3

5.7

0.03

5.8

0.3

5.3

0.02

1.9

0.3

5.7

0.05

4.5

0.7

7.0

0.05

4.0

0.13

5.7

0.09

5.4

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

R19

R20

R21

281 14.022 15.183 243 12.126 14.868 251 12.525 13.186 274 13.673 14.95 304 15.170 17.001 323 16.118 15.723 399 19.911 12.883 469 23.404 9.759 513 25.600 10.571

317 26.090 28.249 327 26.913 33 373 30.699 32.318 317 26.090 28.526 322 26.502 29.701 460 37.860 36.932 736 36.728 23.763 1011.66 83.264 20.727 1035 85.185 35.174

1187 51.631 55.904 965 41.974 51.467 1176 51.152 53.86 1175 51.109 55.881 1081 47.020 52.696 1097 47.716 46.547 2210 96.128 62.196 3303.3 143.685 67.677 2965 128.969 53.253

24 0.613 0.664 21.2 0.542 0.665 24 0.613 0.645 23 0.588 0.643 21 0.537 0.602 32 0.818 0.798 70 1.790 1.158 97 2.480 1.987 95 2.429 1.003

1809 92.356 100 1556 81.555 100 1824 94.989 100 1789 91.46 100 1728 89.229 100 1912 102.512 100 3415 154.557 100 4881 252.833 100 4608 242.183 100

1658 46.770 61.927 1464.1 41.304 55.15 1732 48.857 62.248 1969.15 55.35 63.903 1733.03 48.889 58.594 2425 68.406 64.008 3960 111.706 69.035 6131.66 172.966 56.532 6435 181.523 68.107

1200 25 33.102 1440 30 40.57 1250 26.041 33.178 1346.78 28.04 32.37 1487 30.958 37.103 1700 35.416 33.139 2250 46.875 28.969 4516.66 94.097 41.642 3900 81.25 30.485

229 3.754 4.971 219 3.590 5.532 219 3.590 4.574 197 3.229 3.72 219 3.590 4.303 186 3.049 2.853 197 3.229 1.996 198 3.245 1.826 229 3.754 1.408

3087 75.524 100 3124 74.894 100 3201 78.488 100 3512.93 86.624 100 3438.96 83.437 100 4311 106.871 100 6407 161.81 100 10846.3 270.308 100 10564 266.527 100

10

4.2

9.5

2.7

3.3

2.0

2.2

3.3

4.7

Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ -CL > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL

0.22

6.2

0.18

5.8

0.22

5.7

0.1

5.4

0.10

0.5

0.09

6.0

0.22

4.4

0.09

7.0

0.06

3.1

0.1

6.0

0.10

0.6

0.1

6.3

0.10

0.6

0.2

6.3

0.10

2.6

0.24

4.4

0.2

3.2

0.2

5.2

Appendix (13): General characteristics of ground water samples of the study area. Depth (m)

Well no.

w1

w2

w3

w4

w5 W6

w7

w8

17

20

20

20

20 19

19

20



Na+ (ppm) (epm) (epm%)


125 6.23 35.337 312 15.56 16.229 975 48.65 9.996 842 42.01 30.872 709 34.77 16.237 694 34.63 8.529 975 48.65 5.006 1095 54.64 5.245

49 4.03 22.859 294 24.19 25.229 1592 131.02 26.92 411 33.82 24.853 632 52.01 24.288 960 79.01 19.459 2940 241.97 24.896 3021 248.64 23.865

165 7.17 40.669 1280 55.67 58.062 7000 304.48 62.56 1370 59.59 43.79 2900 126.14 58.905 6640 288.82 71.131 15440 671.59 69.099 16680 725.53 69.639

8.1 0.20 1.134 18 0.46 0.48 100 2.55 0.524 26 0.66 0.485 48 1.22 0.57 140 3.882 0.882 380 9.72 1 510 13.04 1.252

Sum

3471 17.63 100 1904 95.88 100 9667 486.7 100 2649 136.08 100 4289 214.14 100 8434 406.04 100 19735 971.93 100 21306 1041.85 100



HCO3(ppm) (epm) (epm%)

196 5.52 34.87 2207 62.25 65.211 18562 523.61 88.9 3218 90.77 67.784 6089 171.76 73.313 9207 259.71 76.154 32670 921.57 87.318 30793 868.63 88.567

422 8.91 52.941 1453 30.25 31.689 3000 62.5 10.611 1950 40.62 30.334 2880 60 25.61 3800 79.16 23.212 6200 129.16 12.238 5167 107.64 10.975

147 2.40 14.26 181 2.96 3.10 176 2.88 0.489 154 2.52 1.882 154 2.524 1.077 132 2.163 0.634 286 4.688 0.444 274 4.491 0.458

Sum

723 15.83 100 3841 95.46 100 21786 588.99 100 5322 133.91 100 9123 234.28 100 13139 341.03 100 39156 1055.41 100 36234 980.76 100

R.D%

2.3

0.2

9.5

0.8

4.4

8.7

4.1

3.0

Ionic ratio & Water type Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ SO42- > CL-> HCO3NaSO4 Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL >SO42- > HCO3NaCL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+> Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL Na+> Mg2+>Ca2+> K+ CL-- > SO4> HCO3Na CL





0.3

1

0.2

14

0.3

7.9

0.7

15.3

1.3

93

0.4

11.6

13

221

1

11.6

1.3

110

0.5

18

0.3

11

0.3

25.5

0.3

6.6

0.8

26

0.3

7.2

0.53

13

Appendix (14): General characteristics of water samples for low flow condition. Sample no. R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

T(C°)

pH

TDS (ppm)

Ec (µs/cm)

T.H aCaCO3 (ppm)

Turbidity (NTU)

DO

BOD

COD

24.5 26.5 23.5

7.3 7.2 7.1

3488 3262 3080

4950 4660 4480

1019 1019 1019

39 25 27

7.5 8.2 8.0

2.7 3 2.5

36 46 28

26.0 26.1 27.2 27.0 27.0 27.0

7.1 7.3 7.8 7.1 7.0 7.0

4083 3467 11918 30154 29748 7466

4910 4790 30100 42215 41600 8840

970 1647 4447 8700 9894 1649

232 55 55 54 56 108

7.5 7.5 7.1 7.2 8.0 9.0

1.5 1.3 3.0 3.2 2.5 2.4

48 46 85 94 62 38

26.0 26.1 26.0 26.1 26.5 27.0 27.0 26.8 26.6

8.1 7.4 7.3 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.0 7.9 7.7

6882 7080 7350 7406 6090 11077 23558 25560 24542

8800 8890 8840 8800 8650 26700 27000 29900 29900

1240 1760 2300 2160 2157 4069 6750 6750 6500

32 28 70 52 66 77 51 55 20

8.0 8.2 8.0 8.5 7.0 4.1 3.2 3.0 3.5

1.9 1.2 2.7 1.6 2.3 95 108 108 66

28 22 32 20 54 230 396 472 578

Appendix (15): General characteristics of water samples for high flow condition. Sample no.

T(C°)


23.5 24.2 23.2 24.0 24.0 23.5 23.5 24.0 24.5 24.5 23.3 23.2 23.2 23.0 24.0 24.5 23.5 24.5 24.0 24.0 24.0

PH

TDS (ppm)

Ec (µs/cm)

T.H aCaCO3 (ppm)

Turbidity (NTU)

DO

BOD

COD

6.9 7.0 6.9 7.4 7.9 7.7 7.7 8.1 7.2 8.5 7.8 7.4 7.4 7.3 7.4 7.8 8.3 7.2 7.2 7.5 7.5

4270 3708 3612 3429 4844 4830 4289 10995 10450 11254 5798 4853 5538 4857 5824 5874 4860 7222 11732 16683 17952

6570 6178 6020 5715 7530 7430 6395 16170 15370 16550 9820 7260 8820 7710 8960 9080 8100 11110 18050 26770 26400

2018 1388 1299 1420 2037 1940 1436 4608 4123 4123 1882 1688 2056 1998 2212 2037 2134 2765 4123 5545 5675

21 22 27 22 48 73 38 7.0 7.0 23 54 18 61 19 9 7 17 5 20 74 148

6.0 7.6 7.5 7.9 9.0 8.5 10.5 10.6 11 11.5 11.0 12 12 11.2 10 12 11 11.5 10 10.5 10

1.0 3.4 1.5 2.0 3.2 1.7 3.75 3.2 5.0 4.0 4.5 2.5 3.6 2.2 1.6 2.8 3.6 4.0 5.4 5.6 5

34 35 36 24 48 24 37 36 20 56 36 36 80 42 65 56 40 26 84 105 100

Appendix (16): General characteristics of groundwater samples of the study area. Well Temprature no. (c°) w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 w7 w8

24.5 23.5 25.0 25.4 25.0 25.8 26.4 26.6

pH

TDS (ppm)

Ec (µ/cm)

7.3 7.1 7.6 7.2 7.7 7.5 7.2 7.3

1166 10077 32354 9766 15338 24788 59970 62701

1845 16250 32354 9766 21100 33850 78900 97666

T.H Turbidity asCaCO3 (NTU) (ppm) 515 12 1960 103 8820 170 3763 340 4312 300 5586 87 14210 350 14680 380

COD (ppm) 16 29 56 125 160 57 500 491

Appendix (17): Trace elements of surface water samples for low flow condition. Sample no. R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Fe (ppm) ND 0.031 ND

Pb (ppm) 0.092 0.116 0.094

Ni (ppm) ND 0.032 0.020

Cd (ppm) 0.002 ND ND

Zn (ppm) 0.009 0.006 0.010

Cu (ppm) ND ND ND

Cr (ppm) 0.016 0.002 0.008

Al (ppm) 0.01 ND 0.01

ND 0.098 0.045 0.070 0.065 0.600

0.093 0.004 0.002 0.315 0.450 0.052

0.025 0.023 0.025 0.142 0.140 0.046

ND 0.0003 0.0004 0.047 0.049 0.004

ND 0.021 0.098 0.011 ND 0.007

ND ND ND 0.020 0.014 ND

0.007 0.007 0.004 0.024 0.035 0.003

0.02 0.02 ND 0.4 0.03 ND

0.022 0.014 0.036 0.027 0.090 0.12 0.094 0.105 0.046

0.224 0.150 0.172 0.231 0.001 0.003 0.274 0.283 0.261

ND 0.021 ND ND ND ND 0.081 0.093 0.06

0.026 0.024 0.020 0.025 0.0002 0.0001 0.049 0.054 0.049

ND 0.018 0.020 0.031 0.012 0.030 0.023 0.022 0.032

ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.008 0.014 0.010

ND ND ND ND 0.001 0.012 ND 0.001 ND

0.04 0.04 0.02 0.05 ND 0.04 0.04 ND 0.01

Appendix (18): Trace elements of surface water samples for high flow condition. Sample no. R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19 R20 R21

Fe (ppm) 0.05 0.016 0.068 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.24 0.11 0.087 0.070 0.046 0.11 0.15 0.10 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.14 0.21 0.31

Pb (ppm) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Ni (ppm) 0.013 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.023 0.02 0.025 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.006 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.11 0.13

Cd (ppm) 0.001 ND ND 0.02 0.005 0.002 0.01 0.021 0.014 0.016 0.016 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

Zn (ppm) 0.01 0.012 0.02 ND 0.02 0.01 0.016 0.012 0.017 0.006 0.015 0.03 0.02 0.017 0.02 0.02 0.015 0.02 0.03 0.026 ND

Cu (ppm) ND ND ND 0.01 ND ND 0.017 0.016 0.02 0.016 0.019 0.005 0.003 0.001 0.002 ND 0.004 0.004 0.010 0.019 0.018

Cr (ppm) ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.03 0.034 0.011 0.023 0.016 ND ND 0.04 0.005 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND

Al (ppm) ND ND ND 0.8 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.1 ND 0.01

Appendix (19): Trace elements of groundwater samples of the study area. Well no. w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 w7 w8

Fe (ppm) 0.01 0.42 0.36 0.14 0.14 0.26 0.72 0.74

Ni (ppm) ND 0.065 0.3 0.12 0.19 0.34 0.9 1.02

Pb (ppm) ND ND 0.2 ND ND 0.04 0.5 0.45

Cd (ppm) 0.007 0.055 0.16 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.27 0.31

Zn (ppm) 0.015 0.103 1.21 0.1 0.094 0.027 0.034 0.055

Cu (ppm) ND 0.073 0.067 0.031 0.041 0.059 0.12 0.133

Cr (ppm) ND ND 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.05 ND 0.023

Al (ppm) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

‫وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي‬ ‫جامعة البصرة‬ ‫كلية العلوم‬ ‫قسم علوم االرض‬

‫تقيين التغييراد الجيئيخ‪ ,‬الِيدرّلْجيخ ّالِيدرّجيْلْجيخ‬ ‫للوصت العبم‪ -‬العراق‬ ‫اطرّحخ هقدهَ الى‬ ‫كليخ العلْم ‪ -‬جبهعخ الجصرح ُّي جسء هي هتطلجبد ًيل درجخ دكتْراٍ فلسفخ في‬ ‫علْم االرض (ُيدرّلْجيب ثيئيخ)‬ ‫هي قجل‬

‫ايٌبش عجد الرزاق عجد القبدر الوالح‬ ‫هبجستيرُيدرّجيْلْجي ‪1002‬‬

‫ثأشراف‬ ‫األستبذ الوسبعد الدكتْر عبدل عجد السُرح الجدراى‬

‫‪ 5341‬هـ‬

‫األستبذ الدكتْر قصي عجد الُْبة السِيل‬

‫‪ 4153‬م‬